T h e fo rc e s o f a ttra c tio n a re th e fo rc e s th a t e x is t w ith in m o le c u le s

o r b e tw e e n m o le c u le s. T h e s e are d e s c rib e d a s in tra m o le c u la r

a n d in te rm o le c u la r fo rc e s o f a ttra c tio n . I n tr a m o le c u la r fo rc e s are
fo rc e s o f a ttra c tio n w ith in m o le c u le s . T h e s e fo rc e s a re s tro n g an d
a re as a re su lt o f c h e m ic a l b o n d s. I n te rm o le c u la r fo r c e s a re fo rc e s
o f a ttra c tio n b e tw e e n m o le c u le s a n d a re w e a k fo rc e s . F ig . 2.1
b e lo w su m m a riz e s th e fo rc e s o f a ttra c tio n .
Forces of attraction
Intramolecular
ovalent

F ig. 2.1
Forces o f attraction

Intermolecular

Ionic
Metallic
e.g. NaCl e.g. Cu, Na

Giant molecular
F.g. SiO,

Hydrogen
bonding
e.g. ice

Simple molecular
e.g. I,

Van der W a a ls
forces e.g. Br.

Permanent dipole
e.g. CH,CI

T h e p h y sic a l state o f m atte r d e p e n d s on th e s tre n g th o f th e fo rc e s

o f a ttra c tio n in and b etw ee n the p a rtic le s. S o lid s h a v e s tr o n g fo rc e s
o f a ttra c tio n w h ile liq u id s h av e m o d e ra te fo rc e s o f a ttra c tio n a n d
g a se s h a v e w e a k fo rces o f a ttrac tio n . P h y sic a l p ro p e rtie s su c h as
b o ilin g p o in t, m eltin g p o in t and so lu b ility d e p e n d o n th e ty p e o f
fo rc e s o f attrac tio n p re se n t in c o m p o u n d s.

Table 2.1
Physical properties o f different types o f com pounds.
B o n d in g

Physical
state

m.p./b.p.

Electrical
conductivity

Solubility

Inn
fc*
Iv l IIV

Solid

high

Conductor in molten
or aqueous state

Soluble in polar
solvent

Solid

high

Non-conductor
(except graphite) .

Insoluble

low

Non-conductor

Usually soluble in
polar or non-polar
solvent

(iood

Dissolve in other
metals to form alloys

G ia n t c o \ 3 len t
(stro n g )
(c .u . d ia m o n d )

Simple molecular Solid,

i vs e a k v an der
liquid or
W a a l s forces)
gas
M e ta llic

Solid
high
(except 1lg)

Melting involves breaking the lattice and overcoming the forces

of attraction. The energy required to melt an ionic compound is
high as it must overcome strong electrostatic forces o f attraction in
the lattice. For example, sodium chloride melts at approximately
800C.
In simple covalent compounds, the molecules are held together
by weak van der Waals forces and therefore the melting point
is lower than ionic compounds. Metallic structures are held
together by strong metallic bonds. The energy required to break
the metallic lattice is relatively high when compared to ionic and
covalently bonded compounds.
CHEMICAL BONDING
A bond is defined as a force o f attraction that holds two or more
atoms, ions or molecules together. This attraction is established
between particles carrying positive and negative charges or
between the positively charged nucleus and electrons.
In 1916, Kossel and Lewis observed that like the noble gases
(except He), many elements were most stable when they contained
eight electrons in their valence shell. They proposed that elements
with less than eight valence electrons either gain, lose or share
electrons to achieve a stable electronic configuration similar to
that o f the next higher or lower noble gas in the periodic table.
As a result, chemical bonds were formed from the interaction
of the electrons o f one atom with the other. While some o f their
predictions have since been proven incorrect, for example many
o f the transition metal ions do not have an electronic structure
like a noble gas, their work has established the basis o f the theory
of chemical bonding.

IONIC BONDING
Ionic bonding involves the transfer o f electrons from a metal
atom to a non-metal atom until the outer shells o f the resulting
ions are similar to those o f a noble gas. The metals lose electrons
and form cations, while the non-metals accept the electrons
lost from the metals and form anions. The oppositely charged
cations and anions are attracted to each other by what is called the
electrostatic force o f attraction which is a strong force that holds
the ionic compound together. Ionic bonds are typically formed
between metals with one, two or three electrons in their outer
shells and non-metals with five, six or seven electrons in their

bonds are formed in sodium chloride, m agnesium fluoride am

lithium oxide.
Sodium chloride
In the form ation o f sodium chloride, each sodium atom donate;
its one outer shell electron to a chlorine atom form ing N ar anc
Cl ions.

2, 8,7
Chlorine atom

Sodium atom

Fig. 2.2 Formation o f

'sodium chloride

. ;

2,8
Sodium ion

Chloride ion

Na

Cl

M agnesium fluoride

(So

M agnesium atom loses its two outer shell electrons to form M g2+
ion while each fluorine atom gains one electron to form F ions.

2, 8,2
magnesium atom

F ig. 2 .3

Formation o f
m agnesium fluoride

2,8
magnesium ion

fluoride ion

Each lithium atom loses its one outer shell electron to form Li+
ions while oxygen gains two electrons to form O2' ion.

lithium atom

oxygen atom

lithium atom

Fig. 2.4 Formation o f

lithium oxide
lithium ion

lithium ion

Properties of ionic compounds

3

They are usually crystalline solids. Their regular

arrangement o f ions results in electrostatic attraction
throughout the lattice imparting rigidity and strength to
the structure.
They have high melting points, boiling points, heats
o f fusion and heats o f vaporization. A large amount o f
energy is required to break the solid structure that is
held together by strong electrostatic attraction.
They are hard and brittle. When a force is applied, the
like charges repel each other which results in the crystal
being shattered.
They conduct electricity when molten or dissolved
in water. The ions are free to move therefore mobile
charge carriers are present to conduct electricity. They
do not conduct electricity in the solid state because the
ions have restricted motion and are not free to move.
They are usually soluble in water. They have charges
and will have solute-solvent interactions with polar
water molecules.

Factors influencing formation of ionic compounds

Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions. Thus the ionization
energy and the electron affinity can be used as measurements of
the ease with which ions are formed. In addition, there is also an

energy change when the separated ions are brought together to

form the ionic compound. This is called the lattice energy which
is the energy change when one mole o f an ionic compound is
formed from its gaseous ions under standard conditions.
Ionization energy
Metals tend to give up electrons easily especially group 1 and
group 2 metals. In so doing the metals form ions once the
ionization energies can be supplied.
Consider the following examples:
Na

Na w + e

M, -- * MS(g + e

AIW

1st ionization energy = 494 kJ mol

1st ionization energy = 738 kJ mol 1

M g * + e-

2nd ionization energy = 1451 kJ mol

A iJ + 3e~

Is1+ 2nd + 3rd ionization energy

575 + 1817+ 2745 = 5137 kJ m o f

Sodium has the lowest ionization energy value and has a tendency
to form ions faster than Mg or Al. It requires about four times the
energy for Mg (g) to form Mg2+(g) than for Na (g) to form Na+(g).
Also it takes about ten times the energy for Al (g) to form Al3+(g) '
than for Na (g) to form Na+(g). Generally smaller ionization
energy values facilitate ion formation. Cations with single charges
are formed more readily than cations with double charges while
cations with triple charges are not formed as readily as cations
with single or double charges.
Ionization energy values are affected by atomic radii, size of the
nuclear charge and the screening effect o f the inner electrons. If
these factors influence the outer electrons such that the ionization
energy values are too large, it will not be energetically feasible
for ion formation to take place.
As the distance between the outer electron and the nucleus
increases, the nuclear attraction for the outer electron decreases
and the ionization energy decreases. Thus ions are formed more
readily.
As atoms get larger, the screening effect o f the inner electron
becomes more effective and the outer electrons are loosely held
to the nucleus. Thus the ionization energy decreases and ions are
formed more readily.
For elements with the same number o f shells, as the nuclear charge
increases, the attraction o f the nucleus for the outer electron

b e n o te d th a t th e a to m ic rad ii a n d e le c tro n s c re e n in g c a n o u tw e ig h
th e e ffe c t o f th e n u c le a r c h a rg e . F o r e x a m p le , in g ro u p 1 a lth o u g h
C s h a s a la rg e r n u c le a r c h a rg e th a n N a , it lo se s a n e le c tro n m o re
re a d ily th a n N a .

Electron affinity
In o r d e r fo r a n a n io n to b e fo rm e d , th e n o n m e ta l h a s to b e
a b le to a c c e p t e le c tro n s a n d b e c o m e sta b le . W h e n a n o n m e ta l
a to m a c c e p ts a n e le c tro n th is is c a lle d its e le c tro n affin ity . T h e

1st electron affinity is th e e n th a lp y c h a n g e w h e n o n e m o le o f

g a s e o u s a to m s is c o n v e rte d to g a s e o u s io n s w ith a sin g le n e g a tiv e
c h a rg e . S o m e e le c tro n a ffin ity v a lu e s a re g iv e n b elow .
F,

(g)

+ e - F - .
(g)

C l , + e-

A H = - 3 33 k J m o l 1

c i -(g),

AH = - 364 kJ m o l 1

Br, . + e~ B r .
(g)
(g)

AH = - 342 kJ m o l 1

I,(g) + e "

I" .

A H = - 295 k J m o l 1

S.(g). + e"

- s -(g),

AH = - 200 kJ m o l 1

(g)

S-

(g)

(g)

+ e- - s 2- (g),

AH = + 649 kJ m o l 1
(2 nd e le c tro n afl

It s h o u ld b e n o te d th a t 1st e le c tro n a ffin ity is th e re v e rse o f th e 1st

io n iz a tio n e n erg y . G e n e ra lly th e m o re e x o th e rm ic th e e le c tro n
a ffin ity , th e m o re re a d ily an a n io n is fo rm e d a n d th e m o re sta b le
it is. C h lo rin e h a s a m o re n e g a tiv e e le c tro n a ffin ity v a lu e th a n
io d in e w h ic h im p lie s th a t c h lo rin e h as a te n d e n c y to fo rm th e
c h lo r id e a n io n fa s te r th a n io d in e fo rm th e io d id e a n io n .
E le c tro n a ffin itie s d e p e n d o n th e siz e o f n u c le a r c h a rg e a n d th e
a to m ic ra d iu s . T h e s m a lle r th e a to m ic ra d iu s , th e m o re e ffe c tiv e ly
th e n u c le u s a ttra c ts th e in c o m in g e le c tro n th u s fo rm in g an a n io n
m o re re a d ily . T h e g re a te r th e n u c le a r c h a rg e fo r a to m s o f sim ila r
s iz e s , th e m o re e ffe c tiv e ly th e n u c le u s a ttra c ts th e in c o m in g
e le c tro n th u s fo rm in g an a n io n w ith g re a te r ease.
O n m o v in g a c ro ss a p e rio d fro m left to rig h t, th e a to m ic ra d iu s
b e c o m e s s m a lle r a n d th e n u c le a r c h a rg e in c re a s e s. It is o b s e rv e d
th a t th e e le c tro n a ffin ity v a lu e s b e c o m e m o re n e g a tiv e in d ic a tin g
th a t th e in c o m in g e le c tro n is h e ld m o re firm ly b y th e n u c le u s
g e n e ra tin g a p ro g re s s iv e ly m o re sta b le a n io n .

Lattice energy
L a ttic e e n e rg y is a m e a su re o f th e s tre n g th o f th e in te r-io n ic

attraction in ionic co m p o u n d s. F o r a sta b le io n ic c o m p o u n d to

be form ed from sep arate ions the o v e ra ll e n e rg y c h a n g e m ust be
exotherm ic. T herefore all lattice e n erg ies are n e g a tiv e . T he more
exotherm ic the lattice energy, the m o re sta b le th e io n ic com pound
form ed. T he lattice energies for so m e io n ic c o m p o u n d s are given
below .
N a+,(g) + F~(g)

--- N a F(s)
,,

AH - - 9 1 5 k J m o F 1

N a+,(g). + Cl"(g)
N a+, . + B r , ,

--- N a C l,,
(s)

AH = - 776 kJ m o F 1

- --- N a B r (s)^

AH = - 742 k J m o F 1

(g)

(g)

N a +,(g) + 1 (g)

AH = - 6 9 9 kJ m o F 1

---

M g2+, , + O 2- , . --- M gO (S)

(g)
(g)

AH = - 3 9 3 3 kJ m o F

T he force o f attraction betw een o p p o site ly c h a rg e d ions is

directly proportional to the pro d u ct o f th e c h a rg e s on the two
ions. T herefore lattice energy increases as the c h a rg e o f the ions
increase.
C onsider the charges on N aC l and M gO
charge on Na" = 1

charge on M g 2+ = 2

charge on C F = 1

charge on 0 2~ = 2

ionic attraction = 1

ionic attractio n = 4

T hus the lattice energy value o f M gO (-3 9 3 3 ) is m u ch larg er than

that o f N aCl (-7 7 6 ).
T he force o f attraction betw een o p p o sitely ch arg ed io n s is also
inversely proportional to the square o f the d istan c e b e tw ee n the
ions. This m eans that lattice energy is also d e p en d a n t on th e size o f
the cation and the anion. The sm aller these are the m o re a b le they
are to pack very tightly together in the lattice stru ctu re. T h erefo re
the lattice energy increases as the size o f the ion d e crea se s.
Lattice energy
a r[ . j
tI a
*
'i i h i
n io n

(w here r is the radius)

C onsider the size o f the ions in N aC l, M g C f and N a B r

NaCl
Ionic radius
Ionic radius
Lattice energy

Na
Cl

0.095 nm
0.181 nm

67695+6. Fxf
3.62

MgCl,

NaBr

M g 0 .0 6 5 nm
Cl - 0 . 1 8 1 nm

N a = 0 .0 9 5 nm
Br = 0 . 1 9 5 nm

6 7 0 6 5 + 0 .18
- 5 .5 9

0 .0 9 5 + 0 .1 9 5
= 3 .4 5

This helps in explaining why the lattice en erg y o f m ag n e siu m

chloride (-2 4 8 9 kJ m o l 1) is m uch h ig h er than th at o f so d iu m

chloride (-776 KJ mol ') and sodium bromide (-742 KJ mol'1)-

COVALENT BONDING
Covalent bonds are formed when it is not energetically feasible
for atoms to gain or lose electrons to form ions under normal
conditions. These atoms share one or more pairs of electrons to
gain a full outer shell. Each shared pair of electrons is considered
a covalent bond. Each of the combining atoms contributes one
electron to the bond. The attraction between the shared electrons
and the nuclei of the combining atoms hold the atoms together.
Consider the formation of HC1.

Fig. 2.5 Hydrogen chloride

molecule
In this molecule, there is one bonding pair of electrons and three
non-bonding or lone pairs of electrons on the chlorine atom.
In some cases, each atom donates two electrons to form two
covalent bonds. This is called a double bond. Consider the oxygen
molecule.
Fig. 2.6 Oxygen molecule

Similarly, a triple bond can be formed when each atom donates

three electrons. For example, a triple bond is formed in the ethyne
molecule.
Fig. 2.7 Ethyne molecule

this is represented as
H C S 3S C

II

Another example is the triple bond in the N, molecule.

Molecular orbital
In covalent bonding, the atomic orbital of one atom overlaps and
combines with the atomic orbital of another atom to form a bond.
When atomic orbitals overlap and combine, molecular orbitals