A Critical and Exegetical Commentary On Micah, Zephaniah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Obadian and Joel - John Merlin Powis Smith, William Hayes Ward and Julius A. Bewer

m
'M,
The iNTERNATroNAL Critical Commenta
A CRITICAL AND
EXEGETICAL COMMENTARY
ON
MICAH, ZEPHANIAH,
NAHUM, HABAKKUK,
OBADIAH AND JOEL
BY
JOHN MERLIN POWIS SMITH,

WILLIAM HAYES WARD, D.D.,
JULIUS
A.
BEWER,
Ph.D.
LL.D.
Ph.D.
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1911
Copyright, iqii, by
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

Published November, ipii
PREFACE.
the late Pres. William R. Harper agreed to write a
1890
INcommentary
on the Minor Prophets in two
series of
commentaries.
impracticable,
the work.
and
The
it
But
was agreed
later
on
to allow
volume, containing
first
this
him
volumes for
was found
this
to
be
three volumes for
Amos and
Hosea, was
published in 1905. Dr. Harper was at work upon the second volume
when he was taken from us by death. His pupil and associate,

Prof. J. M. Powis Smith, who had assisted him in his preliminary
studies, was asked to complete the commentary on Micah and
now assumes the entire responsibility for that work. He wishes

to make grateful acknowledgment of his indebtedness to the late
Pres. William R. Harper for invaluable inspiration and much
help in the work on Micah, and to Mrs. William R. Harper for
the free use of Dr. Harper's papers
sion to incorporate
some
These appear chiefly

and 2 and 6'"^
The
it
and books and
of his results in the present
in the general
for permis-
commentary.
comments on Micah,
chs. i
delay in the preparation of the volumes was so great that
seemed best
to distribute the
several scholars.
work remaining
Accordingly, Zephaniah and
to
be done among
Nahum
were un-
dertaken by Prof. Charles P. Fagnani, who, however, was obliged

after
some years
to give
them up on account of
ill
M. Powis Smith kindly assumed the task.

was assigned to Dr. W. Hayes Ward, Obadiah and
when
Habakkuk
health,
Prof. J.
Julius A. Bewer.
ume.
These
The remaining
Henry G.
six
prophets, Haggai
Mitchell, Malachi
Joel to Prof.
prophets are published in this vol-
by
and Zechariah by
Prof. J.
M. Powis
Prof.
Smith, and
Jonah by Prof. Julius A. Bewer, will be published soon in a third

volume completing the commentaries on the Minor Prophets.
PREFACE
IV
The
umes
order of arrangement of the Minor Prophets in these vol-
differs,
not only from the traditional arrangement found in
our Bibles, but also from that proposed by Dr. Harper in his origDr. Harper departed from the traditional arrangement
volume by placing Amos before Hosea, and also in his plan
for the remaining volumes stated in the preface of his commentary.
inal plan.
in his
The
traditional
arrangement was not a chronological one, even
from the point of view of
traditional theories of authorship,
from the point of view of modern
would be exceedingly
criticism
it
has
little if
and
any pro-
difficult
and, so far as the edi-
tors are concerned, impracticable to insist
upon any chronological
priety.
It
scheme, especially in view of the great number of different writings of different dates
combined under the names of these Minor

is ample room for differences of
Prophets, where indeed there

opinion.
We
were compelled therefore to consider the views of
the several authors,
and
at the
same time
in this
commentary
is
respect the traditional
The order finally agreed upon
arrangement wherever practicable.
not therefore an ideal one, but the best that
we could make under all the circumstances.

The several authors have their own special
preferences in doing
and there are therefore differences in these commentasuch

ries
as would have been avoided if any one author had composed them all. All the commentaries, however, conform to the
their work,
general plan of the series.

It
was thought
der separate
best to publish the
sub-titles,
each with
its
work of the several authors un-
own
volume is thus really composed of three
separate pagination. This
little
each author being responsible only for his
volumes bound in one,
own work.
The
editors
are not responsible for the opinions of the authors or for the details
of their work, but only for the choice of the authors and such general supervision of their
plan of the
series.
work as
to insure its conformity to the
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE
iii-iv
ABBREVIATIONS
v-xvii
INTRODUCTION TO MICAH
I.
3.
4.
5.
2.
5-29
5-16
The Book of Micah

1.
The Text
The Style
2.
5-6
8-16
.
The Prophet Micah

1.
His Name
2.
His Home
3.
17
17-18
His Character
18-19
4.
5.
Recent Literature on the Book of Micah
19-23
,
23-26
.
1.
The Man
The Times
166-167
167-171
The Book of Zephaniah

1.
The Contents
Later Additions
Poetic Form
3.
The Message of Zephaniah
Literature on the Book of Zephaniah
2.
4.
5.
159-181
From the Fall of Thebes to the Fall of Nineveh 159-165

Zephaniah and His Times
166-171
2.
3.
26-29
30-156
INTRODUCTION TO ZEPHANIAH
2.
19-21
21-23
COMMENTARY ON MICAH
I.
16
17-19
The Times of Micah

1.
The Date of His Prophecies
The Background of Chs. 1-3
2.
The Message of Micah
3.
6
6-8
Poetic Form
Component Parts
The Formation of the Book of Micah
171-176
172-174
171-172
174-176
177-180
180-181
CONTENTS
VI
COMMENTARY ON ZEPHANIAH
182-263
INTRODUCTION TO NAHUM
I.
The Book
of
'
.
267-283
...
267-274
267-268
268-270
Nahum
Contents
Its Unity
Its
Its Poetic
2.
3.
4.
Form
270-274
The Times of Nahum

The Man and the Message
The Man
The Message
Literature on the Book of
274-279
279-282
279-280
280-282
Nahum
282-283
COMMENTARY ON NAHUM
INDEXES TO MICAH, ZEPHANIAH AND NAHUM
I.
II.
Index of Hebrew Words

Index of Subjects
INTRODUCTION TO HABAKKUK
Authorship and Date
Topical Analysis
284-360
.
361-363
361
362-363
3-7
3-7
7
COMMENTARY ON HABAKKUK
8-28
INTRODUCTION TO OBADIAH
3-18
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The Composition of the Book

The Date of the Book
The Interpretation of the Book
The Prophet and His Book
The Text
The Metre
Modern Literature
3-5
6-9
10-13
13-14
15
15-17
17-18
COMMENTARY ON OBADIAH
19-46
INTRODUCTION TO JOEL
49-72^
1
2
3
4
5
6
The Composition of the Book

The Date of the Book
The Interpretation of the Book
The Prophet
The Text and Metre
Modern Literature
COMMENTARY ON JOEL
INDEXES TO OBADIAH AND JOEL
49-56
56-62
62-67
67-68
68-71
71-72
73-144
145-146
ABBREVIATIONS
TEXTS AND VERSIONS
I.
A
Aq.
Arm.
AV.
=
=
=
=
Bab. Cod.
cited
Aquila's translation, cited
edition
from Field's Hexapla.

Armenian Version.
of Theological Studies,
Authorized Version(i6ii).
Prophetarum
poster i-
orum codex Bahylonicus Petropolitanus.

Ed. H. L.
Strack (1876).
Eth.
=
=
C5
= The
E'
Origen's Quinta.
Ethiopic Version.
Septuagint,
in
Greek
received
the
Ver-
sion.
Codex Alexandrinus.
(S*
Âid
<8^
=
=
=
=
=
Codex Sinaiticus.
Codex Vaticanus.
Codex Marchalianus.
Codex Taurinensis.
HP.
Texts of Holmes and Par-
Jerome's Version.
Kenn.
R. Kennicott, Vettis Tes-
(gx
(8^
(gQ
Aldine Text.
sons.
tatnentum
cum
variis
Hebraicum
lectionibus
(1776-80).
Kt.
from Oesterley's
Arabic Version.
= Knhibh.
= The Old
the
Latin Text of
Minor
Prophets,
vol.
Lu.
in
the Journal
(1903).
Luther's Version.
ABBREVIATIONS
Vlll
II.
Am.
BOOKS OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS
ABBREVIATIONS
AJSL.
AJTh.
AOF.
American Journal of
Semitic Languages
and Literatures.
American Journal of
Theology.
Altorientalische
schungen,
For-
von H.
Winckler.
Am.
Bach.
W. R. Arnold, The
Composition of
Na. I'-2^ ZAW.,
XXI, 225-65.
J.
Bachmann, Zur
Text-Kritik des
Propheten Zephanja, in SK., 1894,
pp. 641-55.
Bae.
Earth,
NB.
F. Baethgen.
J.
Barth, Die
Nom-
inalbildung in den
Spra-
Semitischen
chen (1889-91).
Bart.
BAS.
G. A. Barton.
Beitrage zur Assyriologie
und Semiti-
schen
Sprachwis-
senschaft.
Bauer
G. L. Bauer, Die kleinen Propheten

setzt
BDB.
A Hebrew
and Eng-
Lexicon of
lish
the
iiber-
u.s.w. (1786).
Old Testament,
an Appendix
with
containing the Bib-
lical
A ramaic,
based on the Lexi-
con of William Gesenius

as
translated
by Edward
Robinson, edited by
Francis
Brown,
with the co-operation of S. R. Driver

and Charles A.
Briggs(i89i-i9o6).
Beer
IX
ABBREVIATIONS
Cor.
ABBREVIATIONS
Enc. Brit.
XI
ABBREVIATIONS
Xll
Hal.
Continued.
Sophonie,
ibid., vol.
XIII.
Hap.
O. Happel, Das Buck
Nahum
Proph.
d.
(1902).
Hartmann
Micha neu ilbersetzt

und erldutert{i8oo).
HC.
Kurzer
Handcom-
mentar
Hd.
zum AT.
Henderson,
E.
Book of
the
Minor
The
Twelve
Prophets
translated,
etc.
(1868).
Hdt.
Hesselberg
=
=
Herodotus.
Die
zwolf
Propheten
kleinen
ausge-
legt (1838).
Hi.
F. Hitzig, Die zwolf

kleinen
Propheten
(1838; 4th ed. by

Steiner, 1881).
Holz.
Houb.
= H.
= C.
Holzinger.
F.
Houbigant,
Hebraica
Biblia
cum
etc.,
Hpt.
(i)
notis
criticis,
vols. (1753).
Paul Haupt,
Notes on Micah, in
American Journal of
Semitic Languages
and Literatures,
July and Oct., 1910.
(2) The Book of Na-
hum, in JBL.,
XXVI (1907), 1-53.
HWB}^
Gesenius's Hebr. und
aram. Handworter-
buch
iiber
das AT.,
ed. F. Buhl.
ICC.
International
Criti-
Commentary,
edited by C. A.
cal
ABBREVIATIONS
Ke.
Xlll
Kue.
= Abraham
Keil
Lag.
und Delitzsch,
Lohr
= P. de Lagarde.
= Max Lohr, Zwei
Commen-
C. F. Keil,
tary
Prophets
in
Bibl.
Kommentar,
Beispiele
vol.
IV
vers in den Proph-
(1866;
transl. 1880).
Kent
Alten
in
(1907), pp. 3-6.
Prophets,
Rabbi
etc.
Old
Max
Marg.
19 10].
Kim-
David
Kirk.
Commentary,
Kl.
1908].
A. F. Kirkpatrick.
R.
MargoHs,
L.
Micah [The Holy

Scriptures with
chi (ti23o).
Kit.
ZDMC, LXI
mons, Epistles and
Testament,
=
=
=
Marti
K.
Dodeka-
Marti,
Kittel.
propheton
Com-
Paul Kleinert,
ziim
Nahum, and
Zephaniah
in
Lan-
Bibelwerk
ge's
[Kurzer
H andcommentar
mentaries on Micah,
Alten
Testa-
ment, 1903].
Mau.
Maurer,
Commentagrammaticus
rius
(1868; Eng. transl.
historicus
1874).
Knabenbauer
in
Com. in pro ph.

minores (1886).
K5
des
Testaments,
Apocalypses of Is-
[Student's
von Kehr-
etenschriften
C. F. Kent, The Ser-
rael's
Ki.
Kuenen.
on the Minor
Ed.
His-
Konig,
mi-
nores (1840).
Me.
A. Merx.
Mich.
J.
torisch-kritisches
D. Michaelis,
Deutsche
Lehrgebdudeder He-
Ueberset-
zung des Alten Tes-
brdischen Sprache,
vols. I-III
criticus
prophetas
taments u.s.w.
(1881(1782).
97)
reference
made
to the
is
Mich., C.
B.=
C. B. Michaelis, on
Syn-
Obadiah and Mi-
tax (vol. Ill, 1897)

unless otherwise in-
cah, in J. H. Michaelis's Biblia He-
dicated.
Kol.
*=
braica
A. Kolmodin, Profeten
Nahum,
ning
Ofversdtt-
och
Utldgg-
Mich.,
J.
B.
J.
Mich.,
J.
H.
J.
ning (1898).
Kre.
E. Kreenen,
lolog. et crit.
tum
(1808).
Annott.
B. Michaelis.
H.
Michaelis,
Bibl i a Hebraica,
Nahumi
Vaticinium
cum
(1720).
phi-
Exposi-
etc.
MVAG.
Mittheilungen
der
Vorderasiat isc hen
Ceselhcha/t.
XIV
NCB.
ABBREVIATIONS
XV
ABBREVIATIONS
Roth.
Continued.
Siev.
Zephaniah
Ed. Sievers, Metrische

Studien;
with
Rub.
"= P.
cellen: 6.
Ruben,
Remarks
7.
the
Critical
upon
Zu Zephanja. 10.
Zu Micha [Berichte
of
Old Testament
lungen der Konig-
V. Ryssel, Untersuch-
un gen
und
Wissenschaften
die
Echtheit des Buches
Leipzig.
Micha.
gisch
Ein
krit-
Kommentar
zu Micha (1887).
ischer
Schegg
=
=
R. Smend, Lehrbuch
der
Com. in proph. mi-
klart
Schleus.
schichte (1893;
Propheten
und
F.
J.
er
SS.
Stade, Hebrdisches
Worterbuch zum
A It en
Schleusner,
critica
versiones
Veteris
C. Siegfried und B.
(1854/.)-
Opuscula
GrcBcas
Testamenti
Sta.
*=
B. Stade (ti9o6).
Sta.*^^
Idem, Geschichte des
Volkes
= A nimadversiones
philologies
criticcB
Sta.^
F,
B uch
eine historischkritische
U nter-
X
Seb.
M.
Stei.
Stek.
ZAW.,
kleinen
Propheten u.
(1887).
s.
w.
s.
v.
k-
De
Alex-
andrijnsche
V er-
van
het
Do-
dekapro pheton
Uebersetzung
zwolf
(see
Schuurmans
taling
Sebok, Die Syr-
ische
H. Steiner
hoven,
(1890), 165-240.
der
der
Grammatik
Hi.).
Ssefanyd,
suchung, in
Lehrbuch
(1879).
Das
Schvvally,
Idem,
Hebr.
chae (1798).
Israel
(1887).
ad vaticinium MiSchw.
Testamente
(1893).
ad
pertinentia (18 12).
Schnurrer
2d
ed., 1899).
P. Schegg, Die klei-
ilbersetzt
Alttestament-
lichen Religionsge-
A. H. Sayce.
nen
historische
Band LIX,
1907].
nores (1621).
Say.
zu
Philolo-
Klasse,
Sm.
Sdchsischen
lichen
Gesellschaft der
er die
ilb
Textgestalt
Sanctius
Verhand-
die
ilber
(1896).
Zu Joel;
Zu Obadia; 8.
Heilige Schrift.^
Some Passages
Ry.
Alttesta-
mentliche Mis-
notes, in Kautzsch's
(1887).
Stk.
W. Staerk, Das
A ssyrische WcU-
(i)
reich
im
Urteil der
ABBREVIATIONS
XVI
Stk.
van H.
Continued
(2)
Les
For
Micah.
prophetes (1908).
reff. in
Idem, Ausgewdhlte poetische

Texle des Alien
trischer
und
phischer Gliederung
M. Vemes,
Vol.
K.
Heft
2:
Amos, Na hum,
Habakkuk (1908).
de Nino
Strauss
= Nahumi
Struensee
= Neue
Vaticinium (1853).
der
Uebersetzung
Weissagungen
Jesaias, Joel, A mos,
Obadja und Micha

nach
Ebrd-
dent
ischen Text mit Zu-
ziehung der griech-
Version
ischen
(1773)-
John
The
Taylor,
Text
Massoretic
and the Ancient Versions of the Book

Theiner
of Micah
Die zwolf
(1891).
kleinen
Propheten (1828).
ThLZ.
Theologische Littera-
ThSlk.
Theologische Studien
ThT.
Theologisch
tur-Zeitung.
und
Kritiken.
Tijd-
schrift.
Um.
Umbreit, Praktischer
Commentar
kleinen
(1844).
iiber die
Propheten
Das Do-
A lexandriner,
ZAW., IV
Volz
der
i
(1884).
Die vorexilische Jahweprophetie
Vorlesungen und in
dium.
Vollers,
petits
dekaprophelon
in
Seminariibungen
und zum Selbststu-
douze
Vern.
stro-
zum Gebrauch
Hoonacker,
(1908).
Testaments in me-
Taylor
van
A.
Propheten
und
der Messias (1897).
We.
ABBREVIATIONS
IV.
abs.
GENERAL, ESPECIALLY GRAMMATICAL
xvu
XVlll
inf.
ABBREVIATIONS
XIX
ABBREVIATIONS
V.
t
II
indicates all passages cited.

parallel,
chiefly
=
+
OTHER SIGNS
'
'^ji
't
indicates that Massoretic text
has not been followed, but

either Vrss. or conjectural
equivalent, equals.
emendations.
plus, denotes that other pas-
sages might be cited.

1/
words or clauses
synonymous.
of
=
=
=
=
Biblical passages are cited accord-
the root, or stem.

sign of abbreviation in
brew words.
1D1J1, and so
Yahweh.
ing to the
He-
Hebrew enumeration
of
chapters and verses: where this differs in the English, the reference to the
forth.
latter
has usually (except in textual
notes) been
added
in parentheses.
CRITICAL AND EXEGETICAL
COMMENTARY
ON THE BOOKS OF
MICAH, ZEPHANIAH
AND NAHUM
BY
JOHN MERLIN POWIS SMITH,
Ph.D.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES

IN
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
A CRITICAL AND EXEGETICAL

COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK OF MICAH
INTRODUCTION TO MICAH.
THE BOOK OF MICAH.
I.
The
I.
The book
Text.
Micah stands sixth in the list of the Minor Prophets

Hebrew Bible, but third as found in (g. The text
has come down to us in a bad state of corruption. Of the Minor
Prophets, Hosea alone has a worse text.
In the following commentary, it has been found necessary to make more than eighty
of
as given in the
corrections of the text as found in fH, in order to secure satis-
Almost half of the errors are
factory sense.
and
chs. 4
and
in chs. i
while
2,
5 are remarkably free from them.
In the correction of fH, (&

larger
number
sions
combined.
is
of the
most value.
It offers
of textual variants than all of the remaining ver-
many
In
cases the text presupposed by (g's
More than
one-third of the emendaupon C5- ^ affords relatively little

help, being chiefly dependent upon (&.
Only seven corrections are
made on the basis of ^, apart from (&. H and Aq. furnish one
rendering
superior to iK.
is
tions here adopted are based
The
each.
characteristics of the various versions of
general the
same as
in the case of
Amos and
Certainly Cl's rendering of the
clxxiii-clxxvi.
Micah
Hosea.
are in
Cf. H.^^',
Minor Prophets as
a whole seems to be the work of one translator throughout.
The
M are those which commonly appear
errors of
mission of texts,
tography,
pointing,
jU.
12
e.
g.,
e. g.,
î î.
i'-
g.,
i^.
2'
^
wrong
5^
3^ 5*;
division of words,
haplography,
6^;
e.
in the trans2^ 6^;
e. g.,
g.,
S^-
words or phrases,
e. g.,
dit-
f; wrong
confusion of similar consonants,
transposition of
2* 4*;
e. g.,
con-
and deliberate theological change,

But the source of some corruptions is inexpUcable,
fusion of suffixes,
e.
viz.,
e. g.,
2 7^^;
MICAH
6
e. g.,
The preponderance of errors in chs. 1-3 is due partly

number of proper names in this material, partly to
f.
to the large
the greater age of this portion of the prophecy

also in part to the denunciatory character of the
later editors
sought to soften.
The
2.
The
ful.
and probably
message which
style of
Style.
Micah, as revealed
in chs. 1-3, is direct
and
force-
by rapidity of movement, picturesque
It is characterised
phraseology, vivid description and boldness of utterance.

flects clearness of vision, keen insight
first sight, this
masia found
in
and profound
seems inconsistent with the indulgence

i'''
^-
It re-
in parono-
but the Hebrew prophets were able to couch
^.
their most biting denunciations in this form.
Cf. Is. 3^
The logical development within each prophecy in chs. 1-3
admirable.
in the
Not only
At
feeling.
so,
but there
is
an evident
is
also
logical progress
succession of the various prophecies constituting these
chapters.
Upon
leaving this section of the book, the atmosphere changes.
With few
exceptions, the style
It loses in vividness
becomes
The
and passion.
that existing between Isaiah, chs. 40^.,

of Isaiah.
The movement
tive rather
than denunciatory.
imevenness of
style in chs.
3.
That the book
of
Micah
relatively little attention
is
less forceful
contrast
is
and
direct.
something hke
and the genuine utterances
calm and placid and the tone
But
reflec-
there is greater variety
and
4-6 than in chs. 1-3.
Poetic
is
Form.
in poetic
form
is
indisputable.
Yet
has been bestowed upon this phase of
its
study.
Ewald (1840) contributed a strophical analysis of the book.

Brown (JBL., 1890, pp. 71-82) used Micah, chs. 1-3 and
illustrate the
Francis
711-20^
to
value of poetic form as a consideration in the determi-
nation of the composite character of a writing.
In 189 1, Elhorst pre-
sented a strophic reorganisation of the prophecy involving revolution-
POETIC FORM
ary transpositions and intended as a defence of the unity of the book.
D. H.
Miiller, in
treated chs. 3,
Die Propheten in ihrer urspriinglichen Form (1896),

and 7 to an application of his complicated theory of
5'-'^
Sievers
strophe, antistrophe, responsion, inclusion, concatenation, etc..
Studien zur hebraischen Metrik (1901), where he

showed too great respect toward M. Franfois Ladame reconstructed
chs. 4 and 5, according to the theory of Miiller and Zenner, in the Revue
included ch.
de theologie
i in his
et
same school
de philosophic for 1902.
of metricists,
would place
Condamin, belonging
2 '2-
''
after 4*; see
to the
RB., XI
Duhm, in EB., Ill (1902), 3800, arranged 3-i2 poetiMarti makes the poetic and strophic form the basis of his com-
(1902), 383-6.
cally.
mentary (1904).
ZDMG., LXI
Lohr presents
(1907), 3-6.
published in Berichte
'-'^
2,^-*-
as a literary
and
poetic unit in
Sievers, in his Altlestamentliche Miscellen,
ilber die
Gesellschaft zu Wissenschaften,
Verhandlungen der Konigl. Sachsischen
LIX
(1907), 76-109, applies his metrical
Here he
system to the whole book of Micah.
casts veneration for
M to
the winds and, on the basis of Marti's critical conclusions, reconstructs

the text in accordance with the requirements of his system.
The
con-
form of Micah which are incorporated

in the following commentary have already appeared in J. M. P.
Smith's Strophic Structure of the Book 0/ Micah, published in Old Testament and Semitic Studies in Memory of William Rainey Harper, II
clusions concerning the poetic
Since
(1908), 415-438, and also in AJSL., XXIV (1908), 187-208.
that publication there has appeared P. Haupt's Critical Notes on Micah,
AJSL., July and October, 1910, containing a strophical reconstruction

But Haupt's rearrangement is so subjective and arbitrary
of the text.
as almost to warrant the suspicion that he regards the book of Micah
as a quarry from which stones may be hewed for any kind of a building.
B. Duhm has also published a poetical version of Micah in Die
zwolf Propheten in den Versmassen der Urschrift Ubersetzt (1910); in this
too
No
much
insistence
attempt
is
is
made
laid
upon the
necessity of four-lined
here to stretch the text of
Procrustaean bed of a metrical system.
strs..
Micah upon
the
Neither Bickell, Grimme,
Sievers nor Rothstein seems as yet to have evolved a system that
does not do violence to the
no
and form
study, certainly
to the nature
here presented aims

the logic.
On
In the present stage of metrical
text.
existing system can be accepted as a safe guide

of
Hebrew
to follow the
poetry.
The
reconstruction
guidance of the parallelism and
the basis of the former, lines are discovered
which
are of approximately equal length, measured by the number of

tones, or accents, in the line.
The same
length of line persists
MICAH
in general throughout a given piece.
The
constantly recurring
measures are trimeter, tetrameter and pentameter, with frequent

dimeters.
There is less evenness and regularity in the length of

Amos, but close afiEinity with Hosea in this respect.
no marked difference in metre between the three main
lines than in
There
is
sections of the book.
The
development of the thought within a given piece

number of thought-groups, i.e., strophes, each
logical
resolves itself into a
number
with a given
The
of lines.
four-line strophe prevails in
the greater part of the book, in chs. 1-3 there being only three
strophes of different length, and in chs. 6 and 7 only one.

chs.
4 and
There are
5 the six-line strophe prevails.
In
in all nine
strophes of six lines each, three of eight lines each and one of
ten lines.
The
poetic form will be foimd frequently to have
added another argument
in favour of critical conclusions already
upon the basis of other considerations. Only rarely

been used in this commentary as an argument sufficient in
arrived at
has
it
itself to
determine the source of a passage or phrase.
4.
The book
of
Micah
Component
falls
naturally into three parts, the existence
of
which has long been recognised.
and
chs. 6
and
7.
Parts.
They
They
are chs. 1-3, chs. 4
and
are differentiated from each other by
and
some extent by
their contents, tone
and point
poetic form (v.
Chs. 1-3 contain almost exclusively denuncia-
s.).
of view
to
their
and proclamations of approaching punishment; chs.

devoted almost as exclusively to words of hope and
cheer; while chs. 5 and 6 combine these two elements. But within
these three main divisions the point of view and background change
tions of sin
4 and
5 are
frequently; consequently
the book.
many
scholars have denied the unity of
Chs. 1-3, with the exception of
constitute the nucleus of the
i^-
" and
2^-
"
(q. v.),
book and furnish a touchstone by
which the genuineness of the remaining chapters may be
tested.
Stade and others have sought to athetize i"^, but, as
seems,
it
without sufficient reason; see in loc.
The
situation with reference to chs. 4-7
is
quite different.
The
HISTORY OF CRITICISM
general condition here
may
be suggested by the following words
from Hal^vy, an ardent supporter of the unity of the book;

statement
is
particularly applicable to chs. 4-6:
his
"The book
of
Micah has reached us in a critical state even worse than that of

the books of Hosea and Amos. To say nothing of internal corruptions of words, many verses, and even groups of verses, have
been torn from their context and inserted haphazard in passages
which have no sort of suitable connection with their subject-matter."
This hypothesis of Halevy's, however, does not solve
the problem.
bird's-eye view of the history of the criticism of
these chapters will place the difficulty squarely before us.
the sake of clearness
and
and convenience, the two groups,
chs.
For
3-4
*
5-6, will be treated separately.
The criticism of chs. 4-5. Chs. 4 and 5 were first brought into promEw. who, on the basis of differences of style between them and
chs. 1-3, for a time regarded them as belonging to some prophet contemporary with Micah. Later, however, Ew. returned to the defence
inence by
of Micah's authorship, urging similarities of form, thought
and
and
diction,
4 and 5 to Micah (as well

the Messianic element from Micah's
especially the fact that the denial of chs.
as chs. 6
and
utterance.
7)
would remove
all
Casp. followed with a detailed defence of the unity.
1871, Gort (ThT., V, 501-512) characterised
4'-'-
In
"-" as an insertion
by some pious reader who considered Micah a false prophet and tried
The ground for this was the fact that with the reto correct his errors.
moval of these verses the connection becomes smooth and the improbability that Micah would have inserted a message of hope in the midst of
an unfinished call to repentance and a threat of punishment. To this
Kue. replied {ThT., VI, 45-66), defending the connection of 4'-', on the
ground that the prophet here transports himself in imagination to the
last days, and acknowledging that 4"" describes existing conditions and
cannot therefore stand where it does, notwithstanding that it belongs
De Goeje (ThT., VI, 279-284) then proffered a weak deto Micah.
fence of the connection of 4"". Kue., in a second article {ThT., VI,
285-302), suggested that some of the differences between chs. 1-3 and
chs. 4-5
were due to the fact that the former deal with the godless lead-
ers while the latter are addressed to the people as a
some claim
Micah's
He also emphasised the

which De Goeje had referred,
to pardon.
style, to
submission to
strict logical
requirements.
a.
and
as exempting
We.,
* Revue similique, XIII (1905),
whole who have
mobility
vivacity of
him from
also, called attention
MICAH
'
lO
(Bleek's
and
4th ed.,
Einl.,
425) to the contradiction between 4'
p.
4".
'<
^'-'^
In 1881 appeared
epoch-malabg
Sta.'s
article
{ZAW.,
I,
161-172),
which he denied Micah's authorshijiof chs. 4-5 in toto. The following considerations are urged in support of this view. It is improbable
that Micah would have weakened the effect of his utterances in chs. 1-3
in
by introducing a message
The
of directly opposite import in chs. 4-5.
content of this section departs widely from the ideas of Isaiah, while
chs. 1-3
show
close affinity to them; chs. 4-5 are, indeed, in full accord
The
with Joel, Deutero-Isaiah and Zechariah, chs. 12-14.

full of postexilic
occurred;
5'-3
conditions;
an
gives
e. g., 4^- '"
section
is
presupposes the Exile as having
Messianic age,
indefinite, apocalyptic vision of the
while pre-exilic ideas of the Messiah spring immediately out of the ex-
The
isting historical situation.
inconsistency
within the chapters point to composite origin;

consistent with
but
connects well with
4'-^
and
is
is
wholly in-
continued in
desired to brighten the dark picture
a later writer, thinking

5^'
it
of connection
4"-5'
These three passages constitute the contribution of a later writer

left by Micah; into this addition
5'-'^
who
4*-'",
and lack
e. g.,
in order to
it
to
harmonise
be a part of Micah's prophecy, inserted 45-"

it
with the actual course of events and with
the development of prophecy.

Sta.'s discussion
has greatly influenced
all later
Giese-
scholarship.
brecht {ThLZ., 1881, p. 443) followed him in rejecting ch. 4, but held to
the genuineness of ch. 5 on the ground that without it Micah's prophecy
W.
would be too one-sided.
R. Smith, in 1882 {Proph., 2d
ed.,
pp.
430/.), followed Oort in rejecting 4"'^ but refused to go further.
In
1883, Sta.
{ZAW.,
Ill, 1-16)
gave further arguments in support of his
and Ephratha (5') are never identified except

{ZAW., IV., 89), was the first
to place himself unreservedly on Sta.'s side.
Now., in the same year
{ZAW., IV, 277-290), yielded 4^-^- "-" to the interpolator, but rejected
view,
e. g.,
that Bethlehem
in postexilic literature.
Sta.'s
Cor., in 1884
claim that chs. 4-5 as a whole were inconsistent with pre-exilic
prophecy, citing
coming
of
Is. 18' ig'^ ii'o ^-
"many
as parallels to the description of the

peoples " to Jerusalem, and Is. 11* " 9'- as parallels
to the picture of idyllic peace in
4'-<.
As
parallel to the fact that these
chapters oppose masseboth and asherim, to which Isaiah
Now.
made no
objec-
and the well-known attitude of Isaiah toward Jerusalem. Wildeboer, in 1884 {De Project Micha; so also in Letterkunde des
Ouden Verbonds, 3d ed., 1903, 145/.), grants that Sta.'s objections
might apply to the spoken word, but declares them inapplicable to the
written word.
Che., in his commentary (1885), rejects 4'-' 5'- on
grounds of logic. Ry. discussed these chapters fully in his commentary
(1887), gathering up and reinforcing the arguments of his predecessors
in favour of unity.
He explained the difficulties of the section as due
tion,
cites 3 '2
II
who arranged scattered utterances of Micah in an order of

own which is to us no order at all. He also urged the general considerations that our knowledge of Hebrew history is too defective to
to a redactor
his
enable us to determine whether a given thought was or was not possible

at a certain time,
some
sised in
and that
the
mere
fact that a
thought
is
much empha-
particular period does not preclude the possibility of
its
In 1889, Pont {Theol. Sludien, VII,

439-453) reaffirmed the unity, reiterating the old arguments. In the
same year, Kue. again {Einl., II, 360-3) expressed himself upon these
having been uttered previously.
chapters, declaring
it
was Micah's last word. Hence

was probable. But inconsissequence and the presence of undoubtedly
improbable that
3'^
the authenticity of the following promises
lack of logical
tencies, the
presupposing Judah's captivity

5'" had under-
pre-exilic utterances alongside of others
made
probable that
it
4^-^-
"
'
were
postexilic, while
gone a thorough working over at a late day.

In 1891, Elh. put forth an ingenious but fanciful theory in defence of
In accordance with this, chs. 4-5 should
the unity of the entire book.
and should be rearranged thus: 4'-' 5'-' 4'-'* 5'". How4* is treated as a gloss and 4'-" 5' as postexilic additions.
We., in his commentary (1892; 3d ed., 1898), finds possible remnants of
genuine utterances of Micah in 4'- '" '* 5'". He emphasises the use of
follow chs. 6-7

ever,
even thus,
rrnxs' (4') as a technical eschatological term, the mutually exclusive con'" and 4"-", and the allusion in 5^, to Is. 7'* which has apbecome a classic. In 1893, Kosters {ThT., XXVII, 249-274)
aligned himself with Sta., making the two chapters postexilic. He re-
ceptions of 4'-
parently
garded
5'-8
as the continuation of
ent book of
Micah was a
The one
original.
chs. 1-3
-f-
4-8.
result of
He
consisted of chs. 1-3
rejected only $^^-
1897, Volz
46
f.
chs. 4-5; the other contained
'-'
all
but
In the same year. We.

i"- " 5'-'^
In 1896,
4^-
as inconsistent with Micah's times.
In
{Die vorexilische Jahweprophetie, 63-67), following We.,
granted to Micah
212
-f-
6-7; later these two were combined.
{Kleine Propheten, 2d ed.) surrendered
GASm.
suggested also that the pres-
two independent recensions of the
lob- 13 56-8
49-nia- 5^-14^
and
5^-*
as a badly distorted fragment.
are assigned to a later editor, while 48
51-
3.
4a
belong
which may be from the

time of Deutero-Isaiah. Now.'s commentary (1897 2d ed., 1903) agrees
with We. and Volz and adds little. Dr., in his well-known Introduction,
with characteristic caution declines to commit himself to an opinion on
to
another hand and are probably later than
4'-^,
art. Micah; of. in Introd. to WRS., Proph.,

and Kosters in assigning these chapters to a
postexilic date.
Marti's commentary (1904) arrives at the same result,
but assigns the chapters to a larger number of sources than any of its
Bu. {Gesch., 1906, p. 89) and Du. {Zwolf
predecessors had employed.
this question.
2d
Che. {EB.,
ed.) follows Sta., Cor.
Propheten, 1910) also agree with Sta.
MICAH
12
may
made
tailed statements of the position
commentary for deassumed here with reference to
It suffices to say in this
connection that the arguments of
Reference
chs. 4-5.
be
to the following
Stade against Micah's authorship seem irrefutable, except possibly
4"
in the case of
5^"^^.
Nothing short of a complete reversal of
current views concerning
Hebrew
eschatology, such as that pro-
posed by Gressmann,* could make these chapters

the age of Micah.
icism shows,
themselves; the attitude toward the heathen world,

^^
5^- ^
age in
crit-
impossible to regard the chapters as a unit in
it is
different in 4^^-
intelligible for
Furthermore, as the foregoing history of
from that
in
4^"^,
consistent with that in
nor
But
^^'^.
e. g., is
wholly
the view of the Messianic
is
Stade's division of the
material between two sources cannot stand.
sented by
4*- ^ 5^-
*^-
";
4^"'
Glosses are represtands alone; 4"-^^ and 5^* reflect the
same background and breathe the same spirit; the remaining

sections have no close affinity with any of the preceding or with
one another. The chapters thus seem to contain a miscellaneous
collection of fragments gathered up from various sources,, and
having
little
in
common
other than a hopeful outlook for the
future.
Criticism of chs. 6-7.
begins with
Ew.
^The story of the
critical
study of chs. 6-7 also
His argument
in brief
was:
(1867).
so complete in themselves that nothing additional

style
is
quite different; there
in chs. 1-5; the tone
is
more
is
is
nothing of the elevated force
is
cution;
still
met with
(3)
The
quite different; this section has a purely dramatic plan

it is
not the utterance of a speaker but that of an
entire piece proceeds
amid changing
The
(2)
Jeremiah; and the peculiarities
like that of
of language characteristic of chs. 1-5 are lacking here.
form
1-5 are
(i) chs.
needed.
artistic
and
exe-
"The
artist.
and there are not fewer than

But since the prophet still
voices;
ten voices that are heard one after the other.

retains the ancient artistic
which are also

it
form
(4)
of the
str.,
thus completing
a perfectly rounded form."
^7-13 7i4-2o)_
is
five acts,
(Ew.'s
all
the whole falls into five

that has to be said
strs.
Tiie historical background
no trace of the
stirring
or "acts" are
is
tendencies encouraged by
Der Ursprung
is
greater (6'"
'
'
7"
7*-');
Manasseh had long prevailed

d. israel.-jud.
6^-"
Eschalologie (1905).
');
7i-
There
Isaiah's activity.
nation seems to be very small and faint-hearted (6^

ness and. faithlessness of individuals
6'-8
wholly different.
and elevated times of
strs.,
and giving
The
the selfish-
the idolatrous
(6');
and
the
more religious hardly ventured to name the king openly. The reign of
Manasseh best complies with these conditions.
The next important contribution to the discussion was made by We.
(Bleek's Einl., 4th ed., 1878, pp. 425/.).
He follows Ew. in assigning
6'-7 to the reign of Manasseh, but concludes that y'-^" was added during the Exile.
He summarises his argument as follows: "Thus the situation in 7 '-2" is quite different from that in 7'-^
What was present there,
viz., moral disorder and confusion in the existing Jewish state, is here
past; what is there future, viz., the retribution of v. *>, has here come to
pass and has been continuing for some time. What in vv. ' was still
unthought
of, viz.,
the consolation of the people, tempted in their trouble
Yahweh, is
there yawns a century.
to mistrust
in
w.
On
'-*"
the
main theme.
Between
and
similarity
between vv.
p. 333.)
Ew.'s view, as modified by We., has been accepted
'-ô
v.
'
and
v.
'
the other hand, there prevails a remarkable

Isaiah, chs. 40-66."
but slight variations, by Sta. (ZAW.,
Micah), Che., Kue.
I,
(Quoted from
1881, 161/.),
fully,
Dr.'""'-,
or with
WRS.
{Etic.
363 /.), Cor. (Einl., 1891,

183-6), Pont {Theol. Studi'en, 1892, p. 340.), Ko. {Einl., 1893, PP- 329/-)>
Dr. {Intr., pp. 333/.) and Du. {Zwolf Propheten, 1910). Cor., however,
for a time maintained the authenticity of these chapters (ZAW., IV,
Brit.,
art.
{Einl.,
II,
1884, 89 /.; so also Kirk., Doctrine of the Prophets, 1892, pp. 229/.;
and van H.,

forward
in
1908), urging (i) that everything which
may be brought
support of their origin in Manasseh's day applies equally
well to the time of Ahaz (2 K. 16'; cf. Mi. 6'). (2) That the origin of the
book would be inexplicable if Micah's work ceased with ch. 3, for chs.
4-5 are enough to offset the gloomy tone of chs. 1-3 why then should
there be added a section from the time of Manasseh having no inner con-
nection with chs. 4-5
On
the hypothesis of the late origin of chs. 6-7,
they should immediately follow chs. 1-3, since they give reasons for the
That 6'-7^ shows traces of

them (e. g., i'- '^ = gie)
as well as in the addresses of Isaiah from the reign of Ahaz.
(4) That
a late working over of 7^-20 must be granted.
Now. at once replied {ZAW., IV, 288/.) to Cor. (i) that chs. 6-7
contain no thought not expressed in chs. 1-3 which could serve as a
drastic
punishment there threatened.
(3)
the author of chs. 1-3, having perfect parallels in
reason for the threat in 3 '2; reasons enough are stated in chs. 1-3; anything further would be superfluous; (2) that ch. 6 cannot be regarded as
a continuation of 3'^ since the representation in 6' s- is wholly different
from that in i' ^- and scarcely consistent with it; (3) that the judgment
in 3'2
comes because
whereas
in
classes; (4) that
if
and prophets,
and against no special
of the sins of the leaders, priests
6-7 the charge

chs. 6-7
is
quite general (7^)
come from
the time of Ahaz, as Cor. declares,
*hey can hardly state the grounds for the judgment in chs. 1-3, uttered
in the time of
Hezekiah
(Je. 26"); (5) that the
prophet
who
so sharply
MICAH
14
antagonises the wicked leaders in the time of the comparatively good

king, Hezekiah,
in the reign of
is
would not be
likely to let
them pass almost unnoticed
Ahaz, an exceedingly wicked king;
(6) that
"my people "
the object of the prophet's compassion in chs. 1-3, but in chs. 6-7
it is
the object of his wrath.
Wildeboer, in 1884 {De Profeet Micha, p. 57), adheres to Micah's

authorship, stating (i) that differences in artistic structure
and manner
of presentation do not necessarily involve different authorship; (2) that
as there
was human
under Ahaz and also under Manasseh,
sacrifice
quite probable that there were

in the time of
Hezekiah;
some who
practised
it,
it is
at least in secret,
the words "prince," "judge,"
(3) that in 7'
"great one" are used collectively and thus disprove the charge that
the leaders are not denounced in these chapters.
In 1887, Ry. defended
The chapters
the authenticity of this material on the following grounds.
were written
in the
essentially the
to in 6-
The
same as under Ahaz.
' '"-'2 is
when
beginning of Hezekiah's reign
religious
conditions were
formalism alluded
wholly out of keeping with the reign of Manasseh.
7>-
an independent section and the immorality there described was possible in Hezekiah's day; but if it must be interpreted literally, it is intelligible neither as coming from Hezekiah's reign nor from that of Manasseh.
The hope of return from Assyria and Egypt is indicative of pre-exilic
is
origin; in Deutero-Isaiah the place of exile

dsea.
still
But
Lf
reasonable to assign them to Micah,
In 1887
is
always Babylon and Chal-
the chapters must be assigned to Manasseh's reign,
who may have been
also, Sta. {Geschichte d. Volkes Israel, I, 634),
still
it is
living.
expressed his
conviction of the postexilic origin of ch. 6.
In 1890, Gie. (Beitrdge zur

Jesaiakritik, 216/.) declared himself with Ew. as to 61-7*, but assigned
y7.2o
Elh. (1891), on the other hand, endorses the
to postexilic times.
arguments of Cor. and Ry.

all difficulties
and attempts
in behalf of authenticity
of connection
by placing
chs. 6-7
1-3 and by rearranging the text in this order:
to ease
immediately after chs.
6'-^ ^^-^ 66-18 713 77-12 ^14-20,
In 1892, We. again puts himself on record {Kleine Proph., 2d
ed.), stiU
maintaining the possibility of Micah's authorship, even in the age of
Manasseh, for
6'-8,
declaring
6'-i
independent of
indications of definite date, assigning
71-6
its
context and without
to the period of Malachi,
and
following Gie. with reference to y-^".
In 1893, Kosters, in connection

with a searching review of Elh.'s commentary (ThT., XXVII, 249-274),
suggested the postexilic origin of these chapters, citing
many words and
phrases as characteristic of postexilic language and thought.

chapters were written to explain the
fall
of Jerusalem as
due
ruption of the generation contemporary with that disaster,
These
to the corit
being no
longer believed that the children are punished for the sins of the father.
The
position of
GASm.
Micah's authorship of
(1896)
6^-^, is
is
near to that of We., for he holds to
undecided as to
6^-'
and
7'-^
and regards
1$
as a psalm composed of fragments from various dates, of which

ju-n points to the eighth century B.C. by its geographical references, and
yT-o
7" to the period between the
Now.,
in his
Manasseh a
fall
of Jerusalem
commentary (1897; 2d
its
rebuilding.
possible date for 6^-7', but denies Micah's authorship even
were he then
alive.
He would
locate
decree of Cyrus and the journey of
Ew. and
inclined to agree with
is
and
ed., 1905), considers the reign of
to
7'-2<'
in the period
Nehemiah
between the
to Jerusalem.
Dr.'"''-
deny the necessity of separating
77-20 and assigning it to a later age.

Che. {EB., art. Micah), makes
both chapters postexilic and finds them concerned with the ubiquitous
Sta. gives
Jerahmeelites.
of postexilic parallels to
age
exilic
list {ZAW., XXIII, 1903, 164-171),

and assigns the whole of 6-7 to the post-
a long
7'-2<>
(in Bihl. Theol. d. Alt. Test., 1905, p. 230).
6-7 "a conglomerate, held together by the conmust finally come, though the sins of the present
demand the continuance of God's wrath." Of this conglomerate 6'-' is
Marti (1904)
calls chs.
viction that deliverance
editorial expansion; 6^-' belongs
to the sixth;
and
probably to the
fifth
century, possibly
Bu. also resolves the

in the postexilic age
ch. 7 to the second century B.C.
two chapters into fragments and places them all

The last commentator, van H. (1908), insists upon the
(Gesch., 1906).
unity of the chapters and upon Micah's authorship, basing it all upon
the hypothesis that the two chapters are concerned with Samaria, not
Jerusalem, and finding
ad
it
necessary to transpose 7"b-i3 to follow 7* (see
loc).
Hpt. (1910) allows Micah only 33J
Chs. 4-7
lines of text in chs. 1-3.
Maccabaean period (170-100
i'-^ is a
Samaria by John Hyrcanus in 107 B.C. This represents a step beyond the conclusions of the
foregoing critics, in that Hpt. leaves Micah less than any previous scholar
are assigned to the
poem
B.C.),
while
vrritten in celebration of the destruction of
and is confident in his assignment of the non-Micah material to the

Maccabaean period and even to the specific years to which the several
poems belong. Unfortunately, this confidence cannot be shared by_
scholars at large until more definite and convincing considerations are
forthcoming.
The
be
conclusions arrived at in the following commentary
briefly
and
summarised.
There
7^",
no
may
logical unity within chs. 6
they resolve themselves into seven sections, no one of which
connects closely with either
The
is
possibility of
but
is
its
preceding or
wholly excluded for the remainder.
together with
6'"^,
its
following sections.
Micah's authorship remains open
might be placed
in
for 6^"'^
These two
and
sections,
any period of Hebrew history

6^^ seems
subsequent to the appearance of the great prophets.
mcAH
i6
wisdom
to reflect the
of the sages
7^'^
of the postexilic age.
same conditions;
the
and
and to belong in the earlier half

come apparently both out of
7"'^"
Israel is suffering
but hoping, looking back
with longing upon the good old days and praying for vengeance;
they are best located in the later postexilic period, after the work
Nehemiah and Ezra. 7""^^, however, is wholly detached from

its context and is to be explained as coming from the period after
of
the
fall
of Jerusalem, but before the rebuilding of the city walls.
The two
chapters thus seem to be a collection of miscellaneous
fragments, coming from widely scattered periods and from at least

four different authors.
The Formation of
5.
Various attempts have been
made
siders 4*"*
1-3
B.C.
to trace the
growth of the book
The views
and Elhorst have been already mentioned.
Marti con-
and
6^'^,
its
joined together by
since they reveal the closest
Somewhere between
by various unknown
4^,
the
first
addition to chs.
sympathy with the
This constituted the book as
Micah.
Book of Micah.
original nucleus.
of Micah, starting from chs. 1-3,

of Kosters
the
it
ethical tone of
existed in the fifth century
and the second century B.C.,

4^-5" and 6^-7^ were incorporated.
this period
stages,
prophecy might not end with denuncia-
Finally, in order that the
Maccabaean psalms in 7^'^ were added. Cornill {Einl.)

follows Kosters in part, making 6^-7^ the first addition to chs. 1-3.
This combined product imderwent two revisions, first receiving
tion, the
as insertions
tion of
2'='-
"
4^"^-
"""
5^"^-
4^-^" 5^- ^
^", and being completed by the addi-
f-^\ from the* hand of the final redactor.

growth of the book connected with the
Sievers, however, finds the
length of the various
poems which
rearranged by Sievers,
first
in
it
constitute
it.
In chs. 4-7, as
happens that the longest poem comes
each chapter, and the succeeding ones are added in the
order of their length.

sort are futile,
It is quite
and that
in the
evident that
all
absence of any
attempts of this
definite data
it is
impossible to secure general acceptance of any scheme, however

ingenious.
recovery.
This portion of the history of the book
is lost
beyond
THE PROPHET MICAH
2.
THE PROPHET MICAH.

His Name.
1.
known
Little is
l^
of the
man Micah.
Our
sources of information
regarding him are very limited, being confined to chs. 1-3 and Je.
The name Micah was
26^^.
common among
doubtless
brews; more than a dozen individuals bear

other, in the
ing ^^Who
The
Old Testament.
Yahweh?'\
is like
is
no
it,
possession of this
indication of
He-
the
one form or an-
in
name, mean-
any unusual degree
of religious fervour on the part of the prophet's parents or family;
names containing
the
name
of a deity are very
common
in
all
Semitic literature, and in the Old Testament are not infrequently
borne by individuals whose parents were not noted for religious

zeal;
e.
Ahab and Ahaz,
children of
the
g.,
No allusion to his family is made in

a
fact
like
which may argue
Amos;
or
is
particularly
he
is
from
confused in
fies
his
the
(i^ Je. 26^^) is
many
his predecessor,
K.
22^*, wfiere
to the earlier Micaiah.
a phrase from his book
to
(i").
upon
Micah
name and
;
Micaiah ben Imlah, with
home with Moresheth-Gath
of towns in i^"^- over
seems
applied to
other bearers of his
is
whom
ascribed
This descriptive term apparently
location in the low hills bordering

list
than
less
recorded.
appellation "Morashtite"
him from
man of the people,
His Home.
2.
The
origin as a
Concerning the lineage of no
prophets nothing
to distinguish
Hezekiah.
be another indication of the self-effacing
character of the prophets.

six of the
humble
for his
may merely
to- wit,
the superscription or elsewhere,
identi-
This name implies a
Philistine territory.
which the prophet pours out his
The
grief
have been selected from the same region and so
confirm this location of Moresheth.
to
Furthermore, in the Ono-
masticon and in Jerome's preface to Micah, Moresheth
is
declared
to be a small village to the east of Eleutheropolis, the
modem
Beit-Jibrin.
MICAH
l8
This region and
its
beautifully described
significance in the training of our prophet are thus
by GASm.: "It
is the.
opposite exposure from the
some seventeen miles away across the watershed.

Amos is bare and desert, so the home of Micah is fair and
wilderness of Tekoa,
As
the
fertile.
home of
The irregular
the soil
is
alluvial
chalk
and
are separated by broad glens, in which
hills
red, with
room
for cornfields
The
perennial or almost perennial streams.
on
either side of the
olive groves
on the braes
are finer than either those of the plain below or of the Judean table-land
are singing, and although to-day you
Bees murmur everywhere, larks

may wander in the maze of the
man
or seeing a house, you are never
There
above.
hills for
herbage for
is
cattle.
hours without meeting a
out of sight of the traces of ancient habitation, and seldom beyond sound
of the
and
human
shepherds and ploughmen
voice
each other across the glens.
to
or the occasions of a large town.
calling to their flocks
There are none
of the conditions
But, like the south of England, the
one of villages and homesteads breeding good yeomen men

and in love with their soil, yet borderers with a far outlook and a
keen vigilance and sensibility. The Shephelah is sufficiently detached
from the capital and body of the land to beget in her sons an independence of mind and feeling, but so much upon the edge of the open world
as to endue them at the same time with that sense of the responsibilities
of warfare, which the national statesmen, aloof and at ease in Zion, could
country
is
satisfied
not possibly have shared."
3.
A man
Character.
of the countryside, like
clearness of vision
and time
clusion of his rustic
thinking."
His
life
He was not
Amos, Micah was
for thought.
were conducive
The
gifted with
and seand high
simplicity
to "plain living
misled by false standards of value to place
upon those things which perish with the using.

He had Amos's passion for justice and Hosea's heart of love.
Knowing his fellow-countrymen intimately, and sympathising profoundly with their sufferings and wrongs, his spirit burned with indignation as he beheld the injustice and tyranny of their rich oppressors.
He was pre-eminently the prophet of the poor. He was
absolutely fearless as their champion.
He would denounce wickedness in high places even though it cost him his life. The fearlessness and force of his character and message deeply impressed
his contemporaries, so that even a century later his example was
too high an estimate
cited as establishing a precedent for Jeremiah's
freedom of speech
THE TIMES OF MICAH

(Je. 26**).
A man
of this type
must necessarily go
his
own way; he
Breaking away from
cannot slavishly follow where others lead.
day who promise only blessings from Yahweh,
the prophets of the
he dares to "declare to Jacob his transgression and to Israel his

sin,"
and
to point out the inevitable connection
punishment.
To
between
sin
and
the citizens of Jerusalem, proud of their capital
and blindly confident of Yahweh's protection, he unflinchingly

announces the overthrow of their city. Completely dominated by
a vivid consciousness of God and a fervid devotion to the highest
interests of his country, he goes forth to his task unshrinking and
To
man of keen perception and sensitive soul,

was the voice of God. As with Amos and
Hosea, neither angel nor vision was necessary to arouse in him
invincible.
the voice
this
of duty
the prophetic spirit; he found his divine call in the cry of
human
need.
THE TIMES OF MICAH.
3.
The Date
I.
of
His
Prophecies.
book places Micah "in the days of

This would make him a younger
Hezekiah."
Ahaz
and
Jotham,
contemporary of both Hosea and Isaiah. But there is good reason
The
superscription of the
to believe that the superscriptions of all three of these books, in their
present form at least, are due to the

scription of
"Micah
Micah
is
hand
the Morashtite
The
of an editor.
supported in part by Je.
was prophesying
26*^,
super-
which declares,
in the days of Hezekiah,
king of Judah."
This agrees admirably with the content of some
of his utterances,
e. g.,
i^'^^
which seems
to sketch the course of
But the question arises whether or not Micah

prophesied in the reigns of Jotham and Ahaz. His total silence
concerning the Syro-Ephraimitish war, the appeal of Ahaz to
Sennacherib's army.
Assyria and the subsequent deportation of the inhabitants of "all

the land of Naphtali" to Assyria (2
K.
15^^),
makes
it
improbable
that he prophesied contemporaneously with these events of such
momentous interest
to
both kingdoms.
activity to the period following
734
This confines
B.C.,
i. e.,
his prophetic
the reigns of
Ahaz
MICAH
20
and Hezekiah.
His
prophecy (i^^) concerns
first
approaching destruction of Samaria, with which
There
nent danger to Jerusalem.
is
no evidence
is
itself
with the
coupled immi-
in either
Assyrian
or biblical records that Jerusalem and
Judah were jeopardised in

721 B.C., when Sargon overthrew Samaria. Nor does Isaiah seem
to have anticipated any immediate danger to Judah in connection
with that event. Indeed, Judah was at that time paying its regular tribute* to Assyria and hence safe from harm.
But the mention of
Samaria as
still
doomed
standing and
to destruction
not confine us to the period prior to 721 for the date of this
prophecy.
As a matter of
the prophet in i^
fact the
distinctly says,
it
to
was not experienced
"the
in 721
by Samaria.
Neither
A nnals,
11.
iiff.).
and more than before I caused

But Sargon's kindness was but poorly repaid,
720 B.C. Samaria joined a coalition of Syrian
Hamath, Arpad, Simirra and Damascus in one more

off the
any de-
Indeed, the latter
city I restored
be inhabited."
for in
first
kind of destruction threatened by
the biblical (2 K. 17^) nor the Assyrian records speak of

struction of the city (Sargon's
does
yoke of Assyria.f
states, viz.,
effort to
shake
In 715, Sargon settled Arabian tribes in
Samaria; J the process of repopulating and thereby thoroughly sub-
duing Samaria was continued by Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal,

according to Ezra
lious attitude of
An
4^- * ^.
Samaria as late as 645

prophecy was spoken
b.c.
after 721 B.C.
Samaria up
occasion of the discourse
Sargon to Ashdod in
Assyrian governor was resident in
It is, therefore,
to
and
and
probable that Micah's
in the light of the rebel-
after that date.
may have been
7 13-7 11 B.C., or
The
specific
the conspiracy that called
perhaps better, that which
* This is practically certain in view of the fact that Ahaz paid tribute in 734
11. 29 ff.) enumerates Judah with Philistia, Edom and
B.C.,
(Prism-Fragment,
while Sargon
Moab
as peoples
under obligation to pay tribute who united with Ashdod in revolt in 713. The reference in Sargon's Nimrud-Inscr., I. 8, to his subjection of Ja-u-du is best explained of the northern Ja'udi,
rather than of Judah, since the statement is made in immediate connection with an account of
the overthrow of Hamath and other regions in northern Syria.
Were the reference to Judah,
it must have been in connection with the revolt of Hanno of Gaza in 720, for the Nimrud-Inscr.
belongs to the year 717 B.C. and Sargon
But
it is
difficult to see
why Judah
also involved in the revolt
was engaged
in other parts of his
empire from 719-717.
when Gaza was

KAT.^, pp. 67 /.,
only should have been selected for mention,
and evidently played a more prominent
part.
Cf.
271.
t Sargon's Annals, I. 25, and K. 1349, 11. 17 if.; see AOF., I, 403, and KAT.*, 66.
t Annals, 11. 95 #
i C. H. W. Johns, Assyrian Deeds and Documents, II, 137; III, 108.
THE TIMES OF MICAH

resulted in the
21
campaign of Sennacherib, 704-701
B.C.
It is
more
than probable, in view of the previous history of Samaria, that she
was involved
both attempts to throw
in
off the
yoke of Assyria.
either case, the prophet is talking of a destruction of
which he sees
in the future,
is
This
Jerusalem.
more
is
in
to
In
Samaria that
be a prelude to the overthrow of
consonance with the language of
i^
than the view that the prophet looks back upon the events of 721
B.C.
and makes passing
allusion to
his denunciation of Jerusalem.*

rial in chs.
it
may
in order to give
weight to
of the genuine mate-
1-3 belongs to one period and that of short duration;
have been the product of a few weeks or months at a time
of great
crisis,
such as that of Sennacherib's invasion.
The Background of Chs.
2.
The
them
The whole
1-3.
B.C. was
and counterplots.
Syria was the bone of contention between Assyria and
Egypt, the rivals for world-dominion. Assyria was in possession;
Syria was restless under her heavy yoke; Egypt was alert to foment
dissatisfaction and aid in freeing Syria from her burden, hoping
thereby to supplant Assyria. Jerusalem was naturally a hotbed of
Judah
situation in
one of absorbing
intrigue.
in the period
The
interest.
air
was
Political feeling ran high.
from 715 to 701

full of plots
pro-Assyrian and a pro-
Egyptian party fought for pre-eminence in the coimcils of the weak

king, Hezekiah.
Success attended the adherents of Egypt, and
was organised in 713 and again in 705 b.c.

But the result on both occasions was but to weld the bonds of Assyria more tightly upon Judah.
Isaiah, resident in Jerusalem and
revolt against Assyria
probably related to the leading families, was deeply concerned in

all
this political turmoil
was going on
at court.
Micah, however
eschews
and an
Cf.
active participant in
e. g., Is.
much he may have been
politics in his public utterance,
distinctively religious
Micah portrays a
and
social
e. g.,
that
stirred by these events,

and confines himself to
ethical considerations.
and economic
situation in
similar to that of Samaria as described by

* So
much
20' ^- 18' ^- 30^ ^- 3 1' ^- 10^ ^.
Amos
We., and Smcnd, Rd.', 237
/.
Judah very
in the years im-
T^nCAH
22
mediately preceding the overthrow of the northern kingdom,
CJ.
H.'"^", p. ciii.
same luxury and indulgence engendered by the possession

The plunder carried away by Sennacherib after the
siege of Jerusalem in 701 B.C. is tabulated by him as follows (TaylorCylinder, col. 3, 11. 34-40): "Thirty talents of gold, eight hundred
There
is
the
of great riches.
talents of silver, precious stones,

ivory, thrones of elephant skin
and
of every kind,
singers, to
his daughters, his
Nineveh,
my
large lapis lazuli, couches of
ushu and urkarinu woods
ivory, ivory,
palace-women, male and female
royal city, I caused to be brought after me."
degenerate aristocracy, mastered by greed and fattening upon
makes
tyranny,
life
The
wage-earner.
summum honum;
The
and
unbearable for the
tiller
possession of wealth
nothing
may
is
stand in the
of the soil
and the
looked upon as the
way
of its attainment.
ordinary demands of justice and righteousness are trampled
swallowed up in avarice.
The
custodians and administrators of law abuse their powers.
Jus-
The
underfoot.
quality of
mercy
is
Under due process
the highest bidder (3").
tice is for sale to
law widows and orphans are expelled from
may
that a few acres
landlord
their ancestral
of
homes,
be added to the estate of the neighbouring
In the lust for wealth, the substance and sus-
(2^- ).
tenance of the poor are devoured, so that they are reduced to the
lowest depths of misery
and degradation
ments and consolations of
religion are
(3^'^).
Even the
on the market;
prophets cater to the rich and browbeat the poor (3^^" ").
1''
f-
Making
it still
28^
all
f-
and
Simi-
exposed in contemporary utterances of Isaiah
lar conditions are

{e. g.,
sacra-
priests
29== f-)-
necessary allowances for the prophetic point of view,
remains true that
Judah were on the down grade.
affairs in
Intimate contact with Assyrian and Egyptian civilisations in com-
new
standards of living and

was making rapid progress.
Commercial ideals were supplanting those of ethical and spiritual
origin.
Appearances were becoming more important than realCharacter was of less repute than power. The fatal vacities.
illation which led Judah into a practical distrust of Yahweh and
made her fate the shuttlecock of conflicting political parties was
merce and
changed
politics
ideals.
had brought
in
Secularisation of
life
THE MESSAGE OF MICAH

also sapping the
moral strength of the nation.
23
Loyalty to the old
Hebrew ideals which had obtained in dealings between man and

man was crumbling rapidly away before the desire to ape the
splendour of foreign courts and live the life of sensuous ease. At
such a time there was dire need of the prophetic cry calling men
back
to
God and
duty.
THE MESSAGE OF MICAH.
4.
The prophet Micah marks no great epoch in the history of prophHe is not the apostle of any new teaching; he does but reit-
ecy.
by
erate the great truths proclaimed
Working amid conditions

his
message
is
similar to those
message quivers with
feeling.
is
in the passion of his

his
own
personality.
which confronted Amos,
But
necessarily also similar.
lacks the personal touch so distinctly
But he
his predecessors.
no mere imitator; he has forged his message

own soul, and stamped upon it the impress of
felt in
the preaching of
Amos
that of Micah,
whose
Micah knows by experience whereof
he speaks; he has been a victim of the circumstances against which
Himself a peasant, he becomes the spokesman of
he protests.
peasants.
Micah's task was
to
open the eyes of the blind and
But none are
ears of the deaf.
In spite of the preaching of
to
imstop the
so blind as those that will not see.
Amos and
The key
Hosea, Israel persisted in
by
wrong conception of God held sway over the minds
'^Yahweh is in the midst of us; therefore disaster
of the people.
cannot befall us." This was to look upon the relation of Yahweh
It was
to his people as necessary, and not voluntary on his part.
to conceive of that relation, moreover, as unconditioned by any
cherishing an illusion.
Mi. 3".
high demands.
conception of
Israel.
to the situation is furnished
There was no
God and
The language
ally exact.
Israel
hands of Yahweh
of 3"
essential difference
common
is,
to the
between
of course, not to be taken as
suppose that
it
this
nations surrounding
had experienced too many chastisements
to
further afflictions.
that
liter-
at the
possessed any guarantee against
Yahweh might become angry
at his land
vent his wrath upon his people for some real or fancied
slight,
and
even
MICAH
24
upon Moab (Mesha Inscription,

abandon his people to destruction he could not remain obdurate and insensible to holocausts of
oxen and rivers of oil. On his great day, the day of Yahweh, he
would repent himself of his anger and manifest himself on behalf
of his people in destructive might against their foes and his.
Cf.
Am. 5^^. For people so minded, sacrifice and offering were the
substance of religion. Let the ritual be exact and gorgeous and
the sacrificial gifts numerous and costly and Yahweh could
as
1.
Chemosh executed
his anger
But he would not
5).
definitely
desire little more.
Cf.
i"
Is.
*.
Against this whole attitude toward God, the prophets of the

eighth century set themselves resolutely.
Hosea and Isaiah
in
an
Micah joined with Amosby elevating the
effort to purify religion
This he does by emphasising the

Yahweh's demands upon his people. He seeks
and mercy, not oxen and sheep. He desires right character
popular conception of God.

true nature of
justice
rather than right ritual.
plays the changes
upon
Herein
lies
Micah's whole
this single string.
himself to be annoimcing anything
new
He
interest;
he
does not suppose
to the people,
nor indeed
was he so doing. Israel had long credited Yahweh with ethical

But they wex'e given only secondary significance, whereinterests.
as Micah would make them the supremely important element
Divine favour
in the divine character in so far as it concerns men.
consequently at once ceases to be an affair of purchase at any price,
and becomes a matter of striving after the attainment of divine
ideals of righteousness and justice.
Micah's message naturally assumes the form of denunciation
Yahweh being just and
of sin and threatening of pimishment.
righteous requires the
same
qualities
from his people.
have not yielded them; hence punishment must be
The
them.
But they
upon
inflicted
sins are charged primarily against the ruling classes
in Jerusalem.
They have been
guilty of injustice
and
cruelty
toward the poor; they have bought and sold the rights of men; they
have violated the moral law as laid down by Yahweh himself.
Even
the religious leaders have not escaped the general corrup-
tion.
They have dared to prostitute their high calling for the sake
They make a mockery of religion by allying themselves
of gain.
THE MESSAGE OF MICAH
2$
with the rich and powerful in the oppression of the poor. They
whose duty it is to expose sin cast over it the cloak of religion,
and wax rich. This attitude on Micah's part toward the prophets
of his day reveals the same cleavage in prophecy that had become
evident in the days of his predecessor, Micaiah ben Imlah (i K. 22),
is
alluded to by
(26'"^-)
Amos
denounce
part of those
Micah
and that
being the
13^"^).
an impopular cause, dared
no hope of repentance on the

of them
entertained
whom he upbraided. He sees nothing ahead
Samaria and Jerusalem alike are to be de-
but punishment.
stroyed,
in
the vested interests of his day.
all
Apparently,
in peril of his life
days of prophecy (Zc.
to the last
Micah, standing almost alone and

to
Jeremiah
(7^^"), placed
and continued
home
The
utterly.
cities are the
scene of destruction,
Micah
of the ruling classes.
is
the
nunciamento of
this
kind
is
of the
first
prophets to threaten Jerusalem with total destruction.
pro-
indisputable evidence of the prophet's
and courage. That Yahweh's splendid temple, which

had stood as the visible reminder of his presence since the days
of Solomon, should pass into the hands of a pagan nation to be
desecrated and destroyed was a statement altogether incredible
to the citizens of Jerusalem, and one which only absolute and
initiative
unswerving loyalty to
Yahweh and
his will could possibly have
enabled Micah to make.
Not a word
of Micah's
psychologically
is
preserved for us concerning hopes for
Yet that he should have had no such hopes
Israel's future.
and
religiously unintelligible.
Yahweh, even though as Lord of heaven and

move the nations at his will (i^- * ^0-^^), never
Yahweh
cluded the possibility of

nation.
Were
Israel as
while
among
earth and able to

for
a moment
in-
transferring his love to another
a whole to perish,
without a representative
is
His conception of
Yahweh would
be
the nations of the earth.
left
But
Micah saw the scourge of an invading army prostrate the

and destroy the capital, there is no evidence that he
countryside
looked for the annihilation of the nation as such.*
from the glamour and power of the

fate of the nation
capital,
with that of Jerusalem.

CI. Sm.,
iJe/.',
2o7
/.
Living apart
he did not identify the
He may have given
over
MICAH
26
the corrupt capital to destruction without a

to Israel's future, believing
it
lay in the
moment's
hesitation as
hands of the simple-minded
country folk rather than with the degenerate leaders of church,

state
and
enough
ital.
Furthermore,
society in Jerusalem.
to
win glory
for himself apart
Yahweh was
great
from the temple and the cap-
He was not shut up to one way of manifesting himself among

He in whose presence the mountains quake and dis-
his people.
solve
surely able to vindicate himself in the sight of the world
is
even though Jerusalem
What the immediate

means
of knowing.
fall.
Micah's preaching was we have no
effect of
True,
Je. 26^^-
^^
preserves a tradition that
Hezekiah's reformation was due to the influence of Micah.
however true that may
be, neither the record of Je. 26^*'
^^
But
nor the
account of Hezekiah's reform accords closely with the contents of
Micah's message as known to us. For Micah seems to have denoimced the nobles and councillors of the king rather than the king
himself as the face of the narrative in Jeremiah would imply; and
his preaching
was concerned primarily with
than with idolatry and cultus as
in 2
K.
social
18^ ^.
wrongs rather
In any case his
words were cherished among the people of the land
for
whom
he
laboured and his example of sturdy independence and freedom of

speech in the
of
good
name
of
Yahweh
established a precedent that
was
service to Jeremiah, the bearer of a similar message.
5.
RECENT LITERATURE ON THE BOOK

OF MICAH.
For discussions of the poetical form of Micah, see 1.

more important literature can be mentioned here.
Only
the
I.
On
the Text.
K. VoUers, Das Dodekapropheton der Alexandriner, ZAW.,

IV (1884), 1-12. V. Ryssel, Die arabische Uebersetzung des
Micha in der Pariser und Londoner Polyglotte, ZAW., V (1885),
102-38.
Idem.,
Untersuchungen
Echtheit des Buches Micha.
Ein
iiber
die
kritischer
Textgestalt und die

Kommenlar zu Micha
LITERATURE ON MICAH
(1887).
M.
27
Sebok, Die Syrische Uebersetzung der zwolf kleinen
Propheten iind ihr Verhdltniss zu dent Massoretischen Text und zu
LXX und dem Targum

Schuurmans Stekhoven, De Alex. Vertaling van het Dodekapropheton (1887). H. P. Smith, The Text of Micah, in Hebraica, IV (1888), 75-81.
J. Taylor, The Massoretic Text and
H. Graetz,
the Ancient Versions of the Book of Micah (1891).
den alteren Uebersetzungen namentlich den
(1887).
Emendationes in plerosque Sacrae Scripturae Veteris Testamenti

libros, etc. (1893).
sages of the
P. Ruben, Critical Remarks upon
Old Testament (1896).
Some Pas-
H. Oort, Textus Hebraici
Emendationes quibus in Vetere Testamento Neerlandicc usi sunt
A Kuenen, J. Hooykaas, W. H. Rasters, H. Oort; edidit H. Oort

W. O. E. Oesterley, The Old Latin Texts of the Minor
(1900).
.
Prophets, in Journal of Theological Studies,
(1903),
247-53.
Agnes Smith Lewis, Codex

Climaci Rescriptus (Horae Semiticae, No. VIII, 1909), pp. 2 and
Idem., Codex Taurinensis (1908).
B.
Duhm,
ZAW., XXXI
(191 1),
22 (giving a Palestinian-Syriac Version of Mi.
Anmerkungen zu den zwolf Propheten,
in
4^"^).
81-93.
2.
All the standard
ment have
On
Introduction.
handbooks of Introduction
sections on Micah.
to the
Old Testa-
may
be called to
Special attention
Driver (new ed., 1910), Konig (1893), Kuenen (2d
Wildeboer (3d
1907)
ed.,
ed., 1885/.),
1903), Comill (6th ed., 1908; Engl, transl.,
and Budde, Geschichte der Althebrdischen
Litteratur (1906).
Good summaries are furnished also by the encyclopedia articles, \'iz.,

those of Cheyne, in Encyclopedia Biblica;
Nowack,
in Hastings's
Dictionary of the Bible; and Volck, in Protestantische Realencyklopddie (3d ed.).
To
these
must be added, by the
careful student,
Schrift
Uber Micha den Morasthiten und seine prophetische

Stade, Bemerkungen Uber das Buch Micha,
(1852).
ZAW.,
Caspari,
(188 1),
Micha, IV-V,
fiber
161-72.
ibid..
Ill
das Buch Micha,
kungen, on Nowack's
(1887).
Idem.,
ibid.,
IV
article,
Bemerkungen zu
Nowack, Bemerkungen
Weitere
(1883), 1-16.
(1884), 277-91.
ibid.,
IV, 291-97.
Stade, BemerRyssel, op.
Pont, Micha-Studien, in Theologische Studien, 1888,
cit.
pp
MICAH
28
235-46; 1889, pp. 431-53; 1892, pp. 329-60.

stelling
Die
K.
van
het boek
vorexilische Jahweprophetie
J.
Kosters,
De Samen-
Micha, in ThT., 1893, pp. 249-74.
und
Volz,
der Messias (1897), 63-67.
Grimm, Euphemistic Liturgical Appendixes in the Old TestaStade, in ZAW., XXIII (1903), 163-
ment (1901), 78-81, 94/..

71, on Mi. i^* and f''^.
See also the literature cited in
of
Introduction.
On
3.
The modem movemeut
Interpretation.
in the interpretation of
with Ewald's commentary (1840; 2d ed., 1867).
commentators
may
(1881).
Orelli,
transl.,
later
Reinke, Der Prophet
critic.
Die
Hitzig-Steiner,
(1874).
Among
be mentioned Roorda, Commentarius in Vati-
cinium Michae (1869), a keen textual
Micha
Micah began
zwolf
kleinen
Propheten
Cheyne, Micah, with Notes and Introduction (1882).
The Twelve Minor Prophets

1893).
Elhorst,
De
(1888; 3d ed., 1908; Engl,
Profetie
hausen. Die kleinen Propheten
van Micha
ilhersetzt
und
(1891).
erkldrt (1892;
Well-
3d
ed.,
G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets (1896).

Nowack, Die kleinen Propheten Uhersetzt und erkldrt (1897; 2d ed.
1898).
1904).
Marti, Dodekapropheton erkldrt (1904).
semitique,
petits
XII and XIII (1904/.).
prophHes (1908).
Special phases
Margolis,
and passages
Halevy, in Revue
A. van Hoonacker, Les douze
Micah
(1908).
receive consideration in the follow-
H. Oort, Het Beth-Efraat van Micha V i, in ThT., V

Kuenen, De Koning uit Beth-Ephrat, ibid., VI
(1871), 501-11.
Oort,
Ter verklaring van Micha III-V. Nog
(1872), 45-66.
ing:
iets
over Beth-Efraat en Migdal-Eder, ibid., VI, 273-79.
de Goeje, Ter verklaring van Micha III-V.

laring
van Micha IV
verklaring
i-V 2,
van Micha III-IV.
:
ibid.,
VI, 279-84.
Nalezing,
^-
J-
Proeve van verk-
ibid.,
Kuenen, Ter
VI, 285-302.
Duhm, Die Theologie der Propheten (1875), pp. 178-93. Wildeboer, De profeet Micha en zijne beteekenis voor het verstand der
profetie onder Israel (1884).
W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel
and Their Place in History (2d ed., 1895). Guthe's Translation
and Notes in Kautzsch's Heilige Schrift des Alien Testaments (3d
ed., 1909).
Kent's Translation and Notes in Sermons, Epistles
LITERATURE ON MICAH
and Apocalypses of
Israel's
Prophets (1910).
29
M. Rahmer, Die
hebrdischen Traditionen in den Werken des Hieronymus.
Commentarn zu den zwolf

Jona, Micha.
(1902).
kleinen Propheten.
Heft
2,
Die
Obadja,
A COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK
OF MICAH.
CHAPTERS
A.
1-3.
The Superscription
I.
(i^).
This states the authority of the utterance and the author's name
and clan, together with the period of his activity and the subjectmatter of his writings.
I.
the
The word of Yahweh] This term is usually employed for

work of the prophet. V. H.^", 201 /.. Which came unto]
This use of the verb
is
common
in prophetic utterance:
superscriptions of Ho., Jo., Jon., Zp., Hg., Zc, Je.,

2^-
^''-
2"
Zc. i^ 4^
6*^*
f-
the books of Jeremiah
8^ Is. 28*^ 38*;
and
Ezekiel.
and
Hg.
and exceedingly common in
It is
part of a larger usage
representing the meaning come into existence, become.
and Mi.
7*,
where
it is
in the
parallel to ^'\'2-Micah]
of the Ufe of this prophet, except that he
also
was
Cf.
Little is
Gn.
i^
known
of rustic origin,
preached in the days of Hezekiah and made so profound an impres-
remembered in the days of Jeremiah, nearly a cenThe Morashtite] Of the eight men named
Micah, or Micaiah, in the Old Testament, the two leading ones are
the Micah of our book and Micaiah ben Imlah (i K. 22^ ^), a contemporary of Ahab.* The appellation of Morashtite, distinguishing
the former and occurring only here and in Je. 26**, is a gentilic
sion as to be
still
tury later (Je. 26^^).
adjective derived from the
name Moresheth
abiUty was the prophet's home.
In
(i"),
which
in all prob-
the days of Jotham,
Ahaz,
Hezekiah, kings of Jtidah] A later addition,f for the substantial

truth of which evidence is furnished by Je. 26^^; but no sufficient
grounds
exist for believing
of Jotham.
V. H.'^H,
Which he
Micah
perceived]
Iv, Ivi.
have prophesied in the days

This emphasises the character
to
t V.
30
.;
and Introduction,
3.
31
of the prophet's
message as a divine revelation.
An
maria and Jerusalem]
summary
accurate
Concerning Sa-
of the contents of
Micah's prophecies, whether the destruction of Samaria spoken of

in
be already past or yet to come.
i'^
The superscription seems to be of Judean origin, since no mention is

made of the contemporary kings of Israel. But it cannot in its present
form be credited to Micah himself, for none of the contents of the book
can be assigned to 30 early a date as the reign of Jotham; the use of nrn
in the sense of "utter" or "announce" is a sign of late origin {cf.
Hoffman, ZA W., Ill, 95) and the latter part of the superscripsimilar to the editorial additions in Ho. i'. Is. i'.
The original
!!.*", 4;
tion
is
legend, therefore, was. The word of Yahweh which came

Morashtite (so We., Now., Marti, Du.; cf. Che., in CB.).
nin iB'X
niH''
ô^]
(B,
and the word of the Lord came
rendering, rather than a different text; Jonah
beginning
troduced,
produce
Micah, the
(so 2,9,
A), a free
the only prophetic
is
book
njT ^hm, though isolated oracles are not infrequently so in-
'
e. g.,
Who
ing,
to
is
Some codd. of (S (87, 91, 228 and &") reThe interpretation of this name as mean-
Je. I* Ez. 3'5.
literally.
hdid]
(Gray, Hebr. Prop. Names, 157; cf.

such a name leaves too much to be
(this child)?
like
Nr??, 2 S. 9'2), is hardly probable, for
supplied by the imagination.
n;rp
(so Kt., Je. 26'8);
cf.
It
is
in>3>p
better taken as a shorter
(2
Ch.
17?)
and
inôin
(i
form of
K. 22')^
meaning. Who is like Yahu ? Cf. in\ the form of the divine name in the
Assouan Papyri and the form v found both as prefix and as aflSx on the
ostraca recently discovered at Samaria. Analogous forms are Sxa^n,
and the Assyrian mannu-ki-ilu-rabu =-who is like the great God? and
mannu-ki-Adad = who is like Adad (Gray, Hebr. Prop. Names, 157;
The longer and the shorter forms are
Fried. Delitzsch, Prol., 210).
used interchangeably in the later
literature.
Cf. (&, Meixaâv; Kt. and
Qr. in Je. 26'^ 2 K. 22'2and2 Ch. 34M;and Ju. 17'- S wherein a long form
appears, while the short form prevails in the rest of chs. 17 and 18; in i7>- *
06''
M, has the long form in v. ', but the

have the short form in both verses. There is
reproduces the long form of
short in
v.
*,
and
no good reason
tradition.
to
05^
B&
suppose that
^ntt'io]
Cf. i'^
this
equivalence does not rest upon sound
rhv rod MupaaOel, treating
it as a patronymic; in Je. 26'8 (g has 6 MupadlTijs, several mss. omit the cr from before 6 here; this is due to the similar pronunciation of the two letters.
(8,
W, nriDD; similarly &, mistakenly connecting

I".
onr]
2 mss. of
de R. prefix
hence, and because asyndeton
emends
to
'rni;
that the form
but
'tn^
cf. Is. i'
is
Ho.
(unnj?.
uncommon
i',
where
it
n>|-)ini]
05
with the Mareshah of

<g
B9
prefix conj.;
in historical prose, Ro.
again inserts
Kal; the fact
occurs in Chronicles 35 times, while the shorter form
MICAH
32
is
found only
scription.
5 times, likewise argues for the full
\!î<]
(&,
vvip uv, a rendering
made
which renders
translation of nrn as saw. Cf.
SI,
Assy., Sa-me-ri-na.
i.
on w.
';
on form,
cj.
The Doom of
This oracle resolves
form
in this late super-
necessary by the
ntn,
he prophesied.
aSc'n']
literal
pna'iTJ
V. H.^", 47.
Israel (i^).
into six strophes of four lines each,
itself
The announcement of Yahweh's appearance in judgment (v. ^)

^
(2) The convulsions of nature attendant upon his coming (w.
*^' ^)'
The
occasion
of
this
punitive
manifestation
is
the
sin
(3)
(i)
of Israel, especially as represented in the capital cities (v.
Yahweh
states that
her sins
(v. ^).
Samaria
(5)
is
to
(4)
Therefore does the prophet break forth into
inconsolable lamentation
(v. *).
For the destruction
(6)
mediable and will extend even to Jerusalem
TJEAR
^)
be razed to the ground because of
is irre-
(v. ).
ye, peoples all;
Hearken,
earth,
and her
fulness.
Yahweh will become a witness against you,

The Lord from his holy temple.
VEA, see! Yahweh is coming forth from his place;
He will descend upon the heights of the earth;

And the mountains will melt under him.
And the valleys be cloven asunder.
"pOR the transgression of Jacob is all this,
And for the sin of the house of Judah.
What is Jacob's transgression? Is it not Samaria?
And what is Judah's sin? Is it not Jerusalem?
'pHEREFORE
will I turn
Samaria into a
field,
Into a planted vineyard;
And I will pour 'down her stones into the valley.

And lay bare her foundations.
"pOR this, let me lament and wail;
Let me go barefoot and stripped;
Let me make lamentation like the jackals,
And mourning like the daughters of the desert.
pOR
her stroke
is
incurable.
Yea, it comes even to Judah;

It reaches unto the gate of my people,
Even unto Jerusalem.
The measure
of this
poem
is
an occasional rise to a tewhere the elegiac movement
trimeter, with
trameter or a descent to dimeter
(in v.
appears in perfect harmony with the contents of the
str.).
The
first
three
I"'
strs.
Yahweh and
describe the coming of
forth the nature of the
punishment and
volves the retention of vv.
Now., Marti,
tions of Sta.,
33
*-'
its
cause; the last three set
This arrangement
its effect.
in-
as genuine, notwithstanding the objec-
ei al.,
and the
excision of vv.
4 <
as later
and attempted
But * and
to remedy it by interchanging the positions of w. * and * .
b belong together; the expansion of a thought by the addition of a comparison is no uncommon thing (cf. 7'"); and the lines *' ^ burden the
The argument against v. ' lies in the fact that it breaks the close
str..
connection between v. and v. ' (the lamentation of v. ' is certainly not
on account of the destruction of the idols in v. but because of the fall
Now. has
accretions.
already
the difficulty of v.
felt
f"-
<
'
'',
of the city related in v.
")
its
indulgence in detail
hkewise quite out of
is
the swift, powerful strokes employed to sketch the scene
harmony with
Moreover, Micah's emphasis was not upon the iniquity

but upon that of crimes against the social order. It is not
likely, therefore, that he would make idolatry the sole cause of the threatened disaster, as is done if v. ' be retained. The two great cities are here
of destruction.
of idolatry,
was no more rampant

with the marked
singled out for denunciation; but idolatry
These
facts, together
city
than in the country.
tion
from the strophic norm of the context,
strophe,
Siev.,
make
Gu.).
the case against v.
'
163.
They
against the heathen, with
it
varia-
constitutes a five-line
conclusive (so also Marti, Now.*^,
Objections against vv.
ZAW., XXIII,
in that
in the
'-5
were
first
formulated by
are (i) that here the judgment
whom Micah
has no concern;
is
Sta.,
directed
(2) that the
con-
nection of this world- judgment with the impending calamity of Israel
a thought characteristic of later times;

as abiding in the heavens
movement
is
is
(3) that the
conception of
is
Yahweh
and (4) that in \v.^-* the

Qma-rhythm prevails. But
of late origin;
trimeter, while in
w.
^ ''
the
by no means so certain that the prophetic eschatology took on its

The first two chapters of
Amos seem to indicate an early connection between Yahweh's judgment
of Israel and a more or less widely rftended world-catastrophe.
Cf.
also Gressmann, Der Ursprung d. isr.-jiid. Eschatologie (1905), 144/..
There was certainly nothing in the eighth-century idea of God that preit is
universalistic colouring only in later times.
vented attributing to him activities of world-wide scope.
and Gn. i-ii.
The
belief that
ens cannot legitimately be
made
Yahweh
of late origin (contra Kau.,
646) in view of the theophany at Sinai (Ex. 19"-
rence of the
title
God
Cf.
Am.
9'
enthrones himself in the heav-
"
DB., V,
J); of the occur-
of the heavens' in the indubitably early passage
24' (J); of the parallel title jvSy in Nu. 24", an equally early passage; and of the mention of a Phoenician deity, Baal-Samen, in a contract
Gn.
between Esarhaddon (681-668) and the king of Tyre
(v.
KAT.^, 357).
The change of rhythm in vv. t- does not necessarily involve a change of

authorship (cf. Siev., who constructs a separate oracle in Qina-rhythm of
^
incAH
34
w. '
'); similar changes occur elsewhere within

a poem, e. g., 2' 4'".
Furthermore, the omission of vv. ^-sa leaves the opening of the oracle
abrupt and brusque

2. dSo]
and D were
(where
X670US
<g,
a degree not paralleled elsewhere
Aram.,
a familiar term
a>^p,
easily confused in the old script.
'?2n >d
(where iU
I'o
to
'cm), Zc.
??
C6
a'"
The
"'3).
i'^ 511
Cf.
(where il, yjixj
in
Mi. 1-3.
to the translators; 3
is
720 (g, Jb. 8
and Mai.
(S, 'nsc)
conjecture of Ry. that (^ originally
is without any support and is unnecessary.

& all of
yoM(soDu.); but in Jb. ijio^ makes the same change. JSI is substantio^'^'pn] In codd.
ated by I K. 22*8b^ a verbatim quotation of this phrase.
Kenn. 30, 96, 224, -la
in the same codd. and in 4, loi, 145, 150 {cf.
read \6yovs irdvras
&1I)
<5
dnSci]
Om. 'n
but both of these variations are due to scribal correction.
'pni;
and
C5 freely,
with
who
all
d^ and A;
are in
on nin> or a
dittog.
from the following
Stk., Du..
^yS] (&,
eh
it;
& with her fulness. nini
superfluous to the metre, and
it is
is
'jin]
either a gloss
line (so also Marti, Now."^, Siev.,
ixaprdpLov, abstract for
concrete.3
Tni]
Om. with
as a dittog. of ii'i; this also improves the rhythm; Siev., Hpt. om. n"'i
05,
Du. om.
instead.
either.
4, 'ui iddji] (&,
be shattered the mountains under
transposing the vbs., and shall

the valleys melted. oînyn]
6. nixanai] Rd. nNonai, with
him and
Codd. 229 (Kenn.) and 224 (de R.),
nipajn.
and codd. 211, 1257 (de R.). 26 codd.

Kenn. have defective writing. The sg. is required by the parallel
JIB'S, and by ^'s rendering of mna in 1. 4 (so Ro., Taylor, We., Pont, Gu.,
Snib'''] Rd. r^-V[r^\ because of the use
Oort^""-, Now., Marti, Stk., Du.).
(& QI (but cod. Reuchl. has pi.)
of
1. 4 (so Seb., Now., We., Pont, Gu.).

A similar interchange of names occurs in Ho. 5'2- m; according to the Massora such con-
of the latter in
names was not infrequent {v. the citation in Seb. 46, note 3).
and We., no. mna] Rd. nmn, with & and codd. (Kenn.)
228, on margin (so Houb., Dathe, Bauer, Ro., Oort^""-, Marti,
fusion of
Seb.
>d]
201,
Hal.,
Siev.,
Du.).
Gu.,
Stk.,
Cf.
For a similar insertion of no by

it
in V.
s<'
before 3pyv
the original text;
not
fit;
it
is
niD3
is
(,
(&,
see
v anaprla oHkov; so QI, E.

codd. HP., which insert
many
a gloss which succeeded in displacing
impossible because the answer Jerusalem does
nor was Jerusalem noted for high-places, the temple takthe parallelism
ing their place;
Micah saw
it
is
against
the sin of
it;
Judah as
consisted in oppression, murder, etc., rather than in
worshipping on the high-places; and the Vrss.
all
testify against
M.
Kue., n'3 HNisn (so H. P. Smith, Seb., Taylor, Elh., Pont, Gr., Gu.,
GASm., Now., We.),

Siev.,
Gu.) as a
6.
gloss.
men 'jiS] Rd. n-ir'^, omitting ''j? (so Marti,

^, eU owupocpvKdKiov dypov; ^, for a house of the
country, the field, connecting
ceding context.
I S. 275).
nijj
Hi.,
would be
We., 'vn
'sr n^j?*?,
air.,
ijS]
men
nyi'?
(cf
connecting
Rd.
with the following instead of the pre-
3" Ez.
ri-^Z'
n>jS with
21^; so
Now.), or
with following words
6 codd. (Kenn.); n
'n niyS {cf.
{cf.
&); but
lost
through
1'-"
haplo..
7.
(&, eti x<ôJ-
v-13'] 05,
quasi acervum lapidum in agro.
Gr.
'n '?jS
an active form with indefinite subject, equivalent

Cj. French on, German man (so Ry., contra Bauer, Jus.,
KaTaK6\pov(Tt,
to the passive.
Hi., Vol.,
1^,
35
who posit a dififerent pointing for M)
"f'jjnN] 1C, locationes.
We.
nnK'x (so Oort^- Marti, Gu.), but this would require a fem. form of the
,
Hal. n\Jon.
vb. (Hal.).
iPD'
and requirements
Pont, Gr.,
8.
pi.
ns3p]
of
GASm., Now.,
Rd., with
grammar
(so
& B,
3i7 to
conform with
Dathe, Ew., Taylor, Elh., We.,

Cf. 05, (rw-qyayev.
Hal., Marti, Siev., Gu., Du.).
3d pers. sg., & in 2d pers. sg. fem., in 3d pers.

Qr. and some codd. of Kenn. hsSn. SSif] Qr. and 31
<S places all vbs. in
masc.
hd'^'^n]
codd. (Kenn.)
(Kenn.) pjDD.
KareKpdTTjaev;
rwya]
SSiir.
so V.
dpaK6vT(i)v;
Aq.,
nua]
r\:yi
(&'^, ironâ-erai
dvyaripwv
05,
Kal
iroi-fjaaire.
&, a
0, Xe6vTw'.
ffeip-^vwv.
a''jn3] 05,
n>ni3D]
ws
Cod. 96
9. nruN] (5,
so 0.
Rd. nnrD, with
ffeipT^vwv;
0, jSta/a; H, desperata.
jackal.
C5,
i}
and in agreement with the sg. of the vbs. so & H 01 and 7

codd. of de R. and i cod. of Kenn. (so We., Gr., GASm., Now., Marti,
Hal., Siev., Stk., van H., Marg., Gu.). Du. n; nan.
pj] Rd. nyjj, with g*
21, in conformity with demands of grammar (so Taylor, We., Now., Marti,
vXriyr} aiiTTJs,
Hal., Siev., Stk.,
Now.,
Stk.,
van H., Marg., Gu., Du.).
om. as
gloss.
Marti,
Str. I contains the call for attention.
The prophet
Dt. 32^ 33^ Zc.
49^**
expression,
Hear
2.
earth
1**'
sometimes used of the
The
^28 ^q19 jg
tribes; cf.
Ho. 10"), as appears from the
parallel
and her fulness] which always designates the
world as a whole and never any special portion.

24^
ye, peoples all]
addresses the nations of the earth,* rather than the
tribes of Israel f (although D"'Dy is
Gn.
Elh. yii.uhm-\-'-T;] We.,
't' Ti-ip.
nations are
summoned not
j2^^ i^^j. g^g vitally
to consider diligently
interested auditors
what they
Cf. Dt. 23^^ Ps.
as witnesses
(cf.
whom
hear, for Israel's case
Am.
3 Dt.
it
behooves
is
part and
The logical object of the verbs hear and

the succeeding oracle, beginning, Yahweh
parcel of the world's case.
hearken
is
the whole of
will become
certainly
a witness against you] Not among you,X for Micah
would not conceive
of
Yahweh
as a fellow-witness with
the heathen of Israel's calamities; but rather of these calamities as
home to their consciences a condemning sense of their ov^ti

and a warning to flee from the coming wrath; i. e., Yahweh
through his pimishment of Israel will testify against the nations,
bringing
guilt
* So Rosenm., Ew., Ke., Casp., Hd., Pu., Or., Che., We., GASm., Now., Marti.
t So Ki., Hi.,
Stei.,
Hal..
So GASm..
MICAH
36
who
are even
more
guilty.
His holy temple]
i. e.,
his dwelling in the
heavens,* not the temple at Jerusalem,!. as the language of

shows.
Hb.
Cf.
Zc. 2" Is. 63*^ Ps, 11^.
2^
early times regarding

jQiib.
Yahweh's
w.
' *
For similar views
habitation,
Ex.
cf.
13^^
^-
in
14^"-
^*
18. 20^
Yahweh himself upon the scene of action.

Yahweh is coming forth from his place} The pic-
Str. II introduces
3.
Yea, see!
ture
becomes more
The
tion!
place
is
judgment
vivid; the
He will descend upon the heights of

of the phrase,
and
late passage).
gery here
is
eruptions
tread, v.
4.
is
the heavenly temple.
And
Ho.
5^^
Ps. 14^
mountains will
Is. 18*.
For the omission
the earth]
For a similar thought,
s.
the
on the verge of execu-
Cf.
Am. 4^^ (a
The ima-
cf.
melt, etc.]
based upon the phenomena of earthquakes or volcanic
{cf. Is.
24* Zc. 14*
Na.
and
i^),
is
not descriptive of a
thimderstorm; the description of the rending of the valleys forbids

the latter interpretation.
down a
of lava
declivity]
is
Like wax before the fire, like waters poured
The
later addition (v. s.).
Str. Ill states the cause of
Yahweh's
transgression of Jacob is all this]
fearful wrath.
Jacob
northern kingdom, as appears from
3.
1.
iniquity.
The name
centious
it
the
All this refers to the
And for
".
the sin of
is
Jacob's transgression?
Is
it
not Samaria?]
of the capital, the centre of the nation's corrupt
life,
Is
sin ?
What
- ^.
For
5.
The prophet couples Israel and Judah in the

The coming punishment will include both.
the house of Judah]
bonds of
here applied to the
is
foregoing cataclysm, not to the threats of v.
Cf. vv.
volcanic stream
the basis of this comparison.
sums up
the offence of Israel.
not Jerusalem ?]
The two
And what
capitals are
the prophet of the countryside not only for their
is
and
li-
Judah'
denounced by
own
inherent sin,
but also because they serve as sources of corruption infecting the
whole land.
Str.
IV
terrible tones.
ruin
is
marked
announced in
presents the climax of the oracle in the clearly
dirge-rhythm.
The
total destruction of
Samaria
6. Therefore will I turn
not suited to the following word,
* Theiner, Rosenm.,
t Os., Geb., Hal., et
Hi.,
al..
Mau. Hd.,
Samaria
field,
Ke., Che., Or., Now.,
is
into afield]
nor
IH
to the parallel
GASm., We.,
Marti,
I'-'
37
phrase, a planted vineyard.
Now.'s reading, the forest of the field, is

removed from the received text and does not quite meet the
too far
demands
of the parallelism; the ierm forest
ployed to denote desolation.

a ploughed
Samaria
not elsewhere em-
is
become an
is to
utter waste,
A vineyard
a vineyard in cultivation.
field {cf. 3'^,
is
the type of arable land less easily utilised for building purposes than
any other, because of the great labour and

transplanting of the vines (so Hal.)
and well adapted
fertile
stones, etc.]
foretold, v.
i..
was
On
loss involved in the
hill
her
the destruction of Samaria here
total destruction of the city
such as
here de-
is
by John Hyrcanus {v. Jos., Ant., XIII, 10,

This, however, constitutes no vaUd argument for transfer-
scribed
3).
effected
Micah
ring this section of
This verse forms a
7.
of idolatry which
to
is
Maccabaean period
to the
{contra Hpt.).
five-line strophe, detailing the destruction
accompany the downfall
of Samaria.
an expansion of Micah's message from the hand of a
who
was very
of Samaria
And I will pour down
to vine-culture.
K. i6^^
Cf.
The
interpreted the
{v. s.).
And
of Samaria as a
fall
judgment upon idolatry
These were
her idols will he shattered]
all
It is
later scribe
idols
carved from stone or wood; shattering demonstrates their powerlessness.
Samaria was notorious among
later
idolatry.
Cf. Is. 2^ io*
And
he burnt
with
demands of the
is
third
^-
30^^ 31'.
word
they were gathered],
means
sible
images will
i..
text, v.
for idol
The
s..
i. e.,
And
all
usual
hiirnt
and
to escape
her idols I will lay
appears here; Hebrew has no
For from
less
the hire of a har-
not that the images were obtained by
of the gains of prostitutes,* but that they were
made
pos-
through the material prosperity which the people attributed to
the favour of the

will return]
Baalim
If it
a poet too
of the use
* So Hal.,
Ho.
how
2^).f
And
to
harlot's hire they
these idols already shattered
hire, the
answer
strictly to prosaic fact.
made by
et al..
(cf.
be asked
burned can again become

fine
v.
For various attempts
parallelism.
than twelve words for this conception.

lot
prophets for her

all Jier
wholly unsuited here to the vb.
by changing the
the difficulty
desolate]
27^
For the rendering images,
fire]
rendering, harlot-hires,
to the
^-
He
is
that
we must
evidently here
is
and
not conthinking
the heathen conqueror of the trophies of war;

t So We., Or., Now..
MICAH
38
acknowledgment of
these are presented to their deities in
their
favour in bestowal of victory, and thus are designated by the
prophet as harlot's
Str.
hire.
reveals the prophet's anguish as he contemplates the fate
of the city.*
For
8.
Not
this]
for the immediately preceding de-
struction of idols certainly, but for the destruction pictured in v.
and because
this destruction carries
with
it
injury of the most
^,
seri-
ous character to the southern kingdom in which, of course, the
Calamity to Samaria means
prophet was especially interested.

panic in Jerusalem.
terance, with
its
Let
repetitions secure
This
bound
is
and concrete expression of emotion; the
makes
The form
the lament even
(Is. 20^"^)
Cf. Je. 9^^-.
the reference
is to
(2 S. 15')
The
as
is
Not
here and else-
a symbolic act in which the per-
The garment discarded

Am. 2^.Like the
Cf. Jb. 22 Ex. 22^^
the outer cloak or tunic.
jackals]
man
Barefoot and stripped]
son thus garbed represents a captive.f
was
which the
in
more tender and
one of several instances in which the
naked, but in the dress of one in sorrow
where
ut-
most grievously the event which as prophet he
annoimce.
to
This dirge-like
for lamentation, is characteristically
emphasis and variety.
vbs. are used (with H-r-)
patriot bewails
lament and wail]
many terms
oriental in its vigorous
plaintive.
me
wail of these animals
is
a long, piteous cry (cf
and may be heard almost any night in

jackal is now the most common beast of prey.
13^^,
The comparison
the daughters of the desert]
Palestine,
A nd mourning
is to
Is.
where the
like
the noisy, hid-
eous screech of the ostrich.

Str.
VI
gives the justification for the prophet's grief which lies
in the hopelessness of Samaria's outlook
calamity will include his

incurable]
B.C.,
The
own
reference
is
city,
probably to the
in the fact that the
9.
fall
event.
Yea,
it
time
comes even
to
The change of speaker (from Yahweh

V. 8 is
{v. i.),
and not
This
Judah]
to the prophet)
foreign to this context (contra Gu.).
The
is
is
For her
stroke is
of Samaria in 721
together with the subsequent calamities which
city prior to the prophet's
that
and
Jerusalem.
to
had
befallen the
any one
specific
the burden of the
not sufficient reason for suspecting
vivid style of the prophets frequently
leaps from one speaker to another without warning.
t Yet on Assyrian
ing.
See,
e. g.,
reliefs
male captives are trequently represented as
totally
the scenes on the bronze ornaments of the gates of Balawat.
devoid of cloth-
39
l'-'
patriot's soul, his all-consuming grief.
my
Jerusalem
people]
is
// reaches
unto the gate of
so designated as the seat of the central
market-place of Judah and of the highest judicial tribunal, the
Even unto Jerusalem] The
natural gathering-point of Judah.
mind
situation in the
the
is
evidently that arising out of
{v. i.),
not that in connection with
of the prophet
campaign of Sennacherib*
Sargon's expedition against Egypt ending in the battle of Raphia

(7i9B.c.).t
The historical conditions amid which this oracle

dispute;
Most interpreters have assigned
ceding the fall of Samaria in 722-721 B.C.;
GASm.
(725-718
B.C.), Hal.,
Now. (who
(i*-')
was spoken are in
to the
days immediately pre-
so, e.g.,
Ew., Hi., Or., Dr.'""-,
it
thinks that the denunciation of
Samaria was originally uttered prior to 722 B.C., but was later in its present
form incorporated for greater effect in an oracle against Judah spoken
in connection with Sennacherib's
Others place
campaign).
period of Sennacherib's invasion, 705-701 B.C.;
so, e. g.,
it
in
We., Sm.
the
(Rel.,
The narrative certainly looks upon the chastisement

and Judah as something yet to come; there is no hint that Samaria has already been destroyed; the vbs. in v. are indisputably future
The two lands are indissolubly linked together in the
(contra GASm.).
coming destruction; their fate constitutes two acts of the same drama
(Now.). The prophet may be standing on the verge of Samaria's fall in
721 B.C., and with keen insight into the meaning of the situation pointing
out its ultimate significance for Judah, the fate of which he deems imminent. But the vividness of the description in i ' ^ is more easily accounted
for on the basis of calamities actually in progress in Judah than of events
only anticipated in imagination. It seems better, therefore, to locate the
prophecy in connection with the campaign of 705-701 B.C., and to suppose that the final destruction of Samaria occurred in connection with
237/.), Cor., Marti.
of Israel
that event (so Cor., Marti).

result of a siege
The
desolation here described
and deportation such as occurred
in 721 B.C.,
is
not the
but stops
short of nothing less than total destruction such as did not take place
some
till
For further discussion, v. Introd., pp. 18-19.

2. 'iJi lycK'] These words have been borrowed by the editor of i K.
22" as appears from (i) their omission in (S's rendering of i K. 22'', (2)
oSa] For other cases of dSo with
their utter lack of connection there.
2d pers., V. i K. 22" Jb. 17'" 2 Ch. 18"; for very common lack of congruence of persons after a vocative, v. K6. ^ ^* ^ f cf. No., Syr. Cram.\
later time.
'
"
<=.
Ges.
force in the
sf.;
'**
'
cites ^JiN >
'a-^,
and nn* as
parallel cases of the loss of
but Brockelmann, ZA., XIV, 344/. explains
ence to the old adverbial ending

* So We., Now., Marti
contra Hal., Stk..
i2;
while 'Ji and
''J^N
nn''
by refer-
did not wholly lose

t GASm..
MICAH
40
the force of the
was
verbial usage
ending in DJON
facilitated
The
Heb..
in classical
sf.
process was hastened in the case of
by the
stead of impf. for rhythmical reasons (Ges.
pleasant assonance with the immediately

parall. with So-in (v.
Gn. 28"
e. g.,
" "b
Ko.
Cf.
""
remains that the
transition to almost ad-
its
common
similarity to the
ODiMD^n.
,D|-in.,o';''iN
possibility
and
o'?^
"f);
f..
Juss. in-
3. inipcc]
In early Semitic and Heb. literature
*).
adverbial
here also to avoid unniri\
foil.
^hm]
'd
Here
shrine,
K. 5"- ; it came to be identified with the

Mishna, Tosefta, Gemara, and Midrashic literature.
Je. y'^ Is. 18' 2
deity himself in the
Yahweh's heavenly temple is common in OT., e. g., Ho.

A. Montgomery, JBL., XXIV, 17-26). 4.
Jjn?] Use of generic art. in comparison in '1^, but omitted
Its application to
Is. 262'
5'5
D"iD3
Hb.
220 (so
J.
in'Ds; note recurrence of d in *^
nj =
gests
Hoph. of
O'îJc] a^..
njj;
We.
Assy, gardru, run, flow (so Hal.), while Hpt. connects
Pu. prtc. with
ijs, to fall, as
initial
n cm..
The omission of
^"^^
it
sug-
with
^ (v. s.)
obviates the difficulty which leads Siev. to posit the omission of two lines
from the
original text of v.
'.
5.
Used
^t]
7's.
6. ^nam]
Of
future action, Ges.
when
for nn only
derlying thought refers to persons as here, Ges.

*''.
did
"
>yt3c]
the un-
18"
2 S.
Cf.
i S.
Cf
the Assyrian
u karmi utir = into a mound and a ruin I turned it.

Aram. Hoph. (Ges. ^"&); rather than impf. Qal.
h^jjon] A S^DO (Dt. 7^), or an ms-x (Dt.
(Bottcher, Ges. "u)_
phrase ana
tilt
7. m?.;] So-called
pass.
12 3), or even a nn3
K.
(2
may be
23'=)
hence the suspicions against the text

difficulty is to assign
it
new
to a
burned, but not a harlot's hire;
The
(v. s.).
pn having
best solution of the
meaning resemble, be
image, and hire (so Halper,
root,
the
whence come for j:nN the signif.

AJSL., XXIV, 366 jf.). Satisfactory evidence for such a root is furnished by Arabic tdnna (III. conj. of tanna), he measured, made comparison,
and the noun tinnun, an equal, a like. Support for the ascription to
IJPN of these two conceptions, resemblance and compensation, is found
in the usage of the parallel roots nnT and ma'; Heb. mni = image, likeness; Syr., dmayd = value, price; in Syr., Aram., and Arab., niir = was
equal,
equal, like, worth.

to
]T\i.
From
i:n is
thus closely related to r^v
view the use of
this point of
nomasia, very characteristic of Micah.

Cf.
Ew.
""<>
(=
Pii.
the Pu'al plural.
and
with
>"is3p]
On
repeat, rather
is
ss b. note,
for -^, v. Ges.
is dTr.;
Cf
no certain analogies
Barth,
NB,
p. 54.
Ko.
fem.
"*
pi.
*>.
nimjD]
subject as in
The
cf.
__ here
mjaa
On pi.
M,
SS^B?
aaiE'; the
Kt.
Heb., though they are numerous in Arab.
in
of the two preceding forms.
"'.
Ez. 35'
elsewhere
with Qr. (Jb. 12"- "); cf analogous formations, ^^>y and

finds
and the syntax require
Kt. hh^v
SS^tr]
than
seen to be paro-
n3S>N] Fully written vowel only here,
8.
Ps. 72"; V. Ges.
for u); but the Vrss.
here
\ir\n
here,
Ko.
cf.
^ ^*^
^.
is
.
K6.
probably due to the influence

D'ljna]
^
1'
On
pi. in
va] On
comparisons,
sg.
masc. with
41
Lamentation Over IsraeVs
3-
In four
as
it
strs.
Doom
(i*""^").
of four lines each, the prophet pictures desolation
sweeps across the countryside with the march of an invading
Wherever the blow falls, the piercing note of the dirge

(i) A call to some of the more northern towns to give themselves to mourning.
(2) Disaster sent by Yahweh will smite the
cities of Judah.
(3) Let the inhabitants of Lachish and its en-
army.
arises,
virons
flee in
hot haste before the impending judgment.
rael's territory will
will
be carried into
ÊLL
it
be in the hands of the
foe,
(4) Is-
and her inhabitants
exile.
not in Gath;
-*-**5 Av-tv"^
In Baca, weep bitterly;

In Beth-ophrah, roll yourselves in the dust;
Pass ye over from Shaphir in nakedness.
'T'HE inhabitant of Zaanan comes not forth from her fortress;
is taken from its site.
has the inhabitant of Maroth hoped for good!
Beth-ezel
How
For calamity has come down from Yahweh
"DIND
the chariot to the steed,
to the gates of
Jerusalem.
inhabitant of Lachish;
in thee are found the transgressions of Israel.

Therefore thou givest a parting gift to Moresheth-Gath.
For
Beth Achzib has become a snare to the kings of Israel.

WILL yet bring the conqueror to thee, O inhabitant of Mareshah.
Forever is Israel's glory to perish.
Make
thyself bald
and shave thee
Enlarge thy baldness
This piece
is
for thy darlings;
like the vulture's, for they will
go into exile from
the most remarkable, as well as most difficult
of Micah's oracles.
It
is
thee.
and obscure
a dirge, the characteristic measure of which
does not appear until Str. II, nor is it then perfectly sustained. On account of the uncertain state of the text, any attempt at reconstruction is
extremely hazardous; hence this arrangement
hesitation.
The
only material excluded
rupts the connection between

is
employed.
''"
and
The arrangement by
is
presented with
is v. '",
"=, in both of
much
a gloss which inter-
which direct address

two lines each,
Siev. in seven strs. of
in perfect Qina measure, is attractive, but it omits material arbitrarily

and handles the text too roughly. The poem as a whole is denied to
Micah by Marti (whom Siev. follows) on three grounds: (i) that it shows
reflection upon the events it describes such as is inconsistent with stirring
and painful times like the days of Micah; (2) that the use of the name
But the
Israel as including Judah is late; (3) that v. " contradicts v. '
".
MICAH
42
puns of the passage furnish no occasion for questioning the deep feeling
was not inconsistent with great grief and
was the furthest possible remove from any suggestion of humor. Its aim
of the author, since such usage
was rather
Am.
in
5'
Similar usage
to strike forcibly the attention of the listener.
and
bears witness to
Is. lo^'-"
these two passages as late rests solely
this, for
upon
Marti's rejection of
the fact that they contain
Cf. Is. 5' 6" 7'
Gn. 49' ' ' ".

Westphal well says {Jahve's Wohnstdtten, 1908, p. 174): "For the
ancients the word, the name, had a wholly different significance than for
Puns were not for them mere plays upon words; but just as the name
us.
had a connection with the thing named so intimate as to transcend our
paronomasia, an insufficient basis.
manner there was in the similarity of sound between

two words a mystical connection of the things themselves nomen ei omen
perception, in like
is
a conception that developed upon the
Judah
Israel as applied to
is
soil
characteristic of
supposed contradiction between
" and
v.
v.
'
The name
The
').
of antiquity."
is
Micah
'
{v. 3'-
only such as
is
due
to the
impetuous utterance of the poet-prophet, which is not to be reIn any case the exact sigstrained within geometrically defined limits.
nificance of V. " eludes us.
free
(g, ixT] /j.eya\ive<x0e = iSnj.^.

#, tPt-^-^ = '^'^"^^ (unbe corrected with Seb. to ôa-.^). Elh., iSun Sn SjSja
Che. {JQR., X, 573) and Hal., iS'jn Sk riSja.
(so Wkl.unt., 185 /.).
seems established by the duplicate in 2 S. i*". laan Sn 133]
But
Rd., 1330 133 N333, dropping hi< as dittog. from prec. line. <J6, ol
10. iT'jn Sn djd]
less g* is to
iv
'AKelfji
(&", codd.
Some
dvoiKodofietre.
fj.i]
marg., 87, 91, 310, Aldine ed., iv
codd. iv
Comp.
'AK/capet/*.
iv
/3a/ce//u)
/Sa/cetv.
But
supported by H, in Acim, and A. <S's

evaKeifi recalls its rendering of a^pjy in Dt. 2><>- 21 Jos. 14"- " usi- si
as Che., EB., 1646, suggests. In support of the emendation N333 may be
iv
'AKeifi.,
urged
as (B's reading,
(a) the
reading iv
is
âKelfj.,
the last letter of which
is
a dittograph;
pun thereby recovered; (c) the location of Baca in the region

with which Micah is dealing; (d) the ease with which it might have disappeared from the Hebrew text. Reland, Pal., 'ui iô (so Zunz, Ew.,
In support of this
Hi., Kl., Ro., Che., Taylor, Gu., GASm., van H.).
(b)
the
are urged the analogies,

Jos. 19' 15''; idS
of
05, ^J" ' A/ce//*, is
(i)
r)p\:;3
id;?'?,
Am.
Hyps':,
Ps. 28';
and
8; >3
a dittog. from following
a"J.
lost as here,
nSpa,
Against this Ry. well argues
that in the analogies cited the essential portion of the
been
nS3
j?3;
the probability that the last letter
word has not
except in u, a much-used particle whose position at the
its clause assures its proper recognition; (2) the remaining

puns involve not merely the sounds of the words played upon, but also
their sense; (3) the location of Acco, north of Carmel, is outside of the
beginning of
region with which

slope
of Judah.
Micah
is
immediately concerned,
Mich., o^pbs:
(c/.
Ju.
2'-
viz.,
the western
so Vol., Elh., Wkl.unt.,
JQR., X, 573; We., Now., Oort.^-, Du.); Elh. and We. also
We. changes the impf. to an imv. ir3. Gr., n-^j; o^'NOâ
usn Sx 03 N333. For 12a, 18 mss. of Kenn. hd^.
i86; Che.,
om.
while
'tn,
Hal.,
'n.
mDyS
>Djj
/caT07AwTo
Pont,
mcyi.
AOF.,
Wkl.,
Rd.
^HB'Sonn]
to reflect
I,
1l!'S^.?^l,
with
Gr.).
11
<J5,
The
Now., Marti,
KaraylKura
03*?
m3y
&.
rh n'^SN; so Gu..
Siev.
from
dittog.
Hal., 'c P3a'VD.

Qes_5i3ic_
C/".
and Gu. om.
'fi'J'
p--î
lyoK'
d=
Zoaw.
or 130.
13^;.
n'3] Qs,
koXwj.
rv2, with
ayrijs.
0,
and
Ro.,
foil.
thus:
l^,con-
7r6\ts ai/T?; atVxw'''?-
van H..
Hal., rx'3i
rd. nx-\^ for
Marti,
r\'<-\y.
Oort^
K6\j/aa6ai.
C5,
ix^lêvov avTrjs.
ofKoi'
ul
om.
21,
&
art. n.
Van
H.,
domum
juxta earn.
np^] Gr., n;?%
being due to confusion with d
for irn in v.
'.
One
12. n^n
Rd.
on
TrXrjv dSijvr]^.
&
renders
on
{cf.
JI,
'0;?
cod. of de R.,
^^ vfj-wv as a doublet in (6. Gr.,
nnicjJ.a
'<mpp.
1'.
H.,
"iD^^
treats 'nh '3 'dd as sub-
Zc. 14=.
c/.
S.
Van
c/".
U, planclum.
i')
ex vobis
= its
blow,
imcn; so
nnp^';,
for the last three
QT,
ajnirn D32, using
words of M.
C/. Hal.,
Che. {JQR., X, 573) restores lines i and 2 of

vS'SN UDD in;?'? 'nh o'lsa isdd jjkx nas'^ igsn oS^yS.
>3]
nâ;;
lS,inexitu. H,inaelam.
03137.(5^
D, V.
Siev.
rr'i;'.
Bauer, Tirn a3C, correcting <& to ir\riyT)v avrris (so Taylor).
conjectures:
and
H, habitatio pulchra.
upon nn;; so
of de R., I^nb';
We., nnn psd, regarding

ig
D2-<y as
occurrence in
its
as gloss
<S,
i)^7;voCcra.
Elh., Pont, Sxxn n>3;
&
om.
"Cfl-fc,
0, Saxttij'. S,
Rd. t^cv??,
the rendering of
nnn
03':',
super derisum
SI,
M was due to
and dittog.. (&, e^ v/j-uv ir\T)yT]v 6dijvi]i; 2 codd.

plagam doloris. B, ex vobis quae stetit sibimet.
li*.
'"
Kenn. and 4
B, domus vicina.
i.-nsp D3?;]
o of v.
and by
'"
H ul, Aq., S, Hal..
Che. {JQR., X, 573) conjectures for the line:

JJNs] (S, Sej-vadp; some codd. Zevviv; others
Rd. nnoDn,
ject of the clause.
Stei..
v.
Rd.
iioa' n3-i'']
as dittog. of n3:r>
Sai'atii'.
SxNH
S, e^^s.
Om.
ras TroXetj
2 codd. of
iddd]
jnx.
05,
''3a'3
âivvdv. Aq.,
Elh., ru'3n ^ly; so Pont,
veiled in shame.
'a"
Qr., 12
Schnurrer, Bauer, Tay-
the parallel vbs. of v.
(5, /caToi/coOo-a
na'3 nîy]
Siev.
fusa ignominia.
van H., Gu..
Siev.,
<v^Brr} (so
the loss of d from
foil, line;
immediately preceding aoS.
08*3
Gr., Sx-niaa
om. rnsy as dittog..

so & B, Hartmann, Ro.,
rendering of moyS,
vfiQv; cf. the
no3; so van
n>33.
with some Heb. codd.,
"r -n3>:,
Cf. Kara-yeX-
nnfl^*?
&, Serve for thyself = T? nay. Elh., a^-'hy 133; nS. Pont,
nS.
Che. {JQR., X, 573) 13;;, om. aaS. Marti, ^S >-]r;',
vestrum.
cf.
Rd.
(S, ^$ of/cow
of "ôn.
'];
may
KarairdcraiTde;
<&,
demanded by
pi. is
03S n3>-]
Elh.,
id>; 'r'X-n>33,
codd. of Kenn. and several of de R.,

lor,
some form
Oort^"'-, loya
103,
Elh., We., Pont, Wkl., Gu.,
v. ".
Q^. 0, 'O^pd.
2, drinking-bowls.
nop; so van H..
'iJi
mo-; nâa.
-id;
which seems
7^1*,
= nom in 3'.
ao-^Tjeroyrat
H..
Rd., with &,
n''33]
Sxnj->3
'nh
nns leoD
I'^n's; cf. (6, rls i^pâro
S,
Sn
iydfuffev.
'nx
'a''>
nNXj
n'?
Str. II
Siev.
nyî;.
nSnri in; for confusion of 3
0, dvan^vovaa. Aq., ^pp<iffT7}ffev.
"B,
quia
MICAH
44
infirmata est; similarly ^.
Taylor, nS^nn.
Cf. Pont, nSinn.
Oort^"-,
We., Now., and Marti, nSn|>. 13. Siev. and Gu., nSn;. nnn.
Che. {JQR., X, 573) nnSn o. 3ibS] Gr., naiiaS. Houb., nmS; so Che.
nSn^ np.
c).
(/.
Hal.,
31D
N*?.
amaritudinibus.
i5.
id]
Ti"!
nnn]
, N;?nN
om.
Siev.
&
muUus
or
&=
, n3n-)
c/".
Hal., npnn.
wagon.
with V. " up to this point.

c), D>2-\\
(/.
treat as
jnv
subj.
Gu..
Marti,
stuporis
an3N]
so Now.''.
c),
(/.
|i>x
d B & =
15.
nj']
ijj;
Siev.,
Gu..
so
(S,
?wj=
B'T>n]
dydyu
Pont,
c^sS (by dittog. of
i*?
c),
(/.
and the
C6
(/.
c),
dSjt 137.
Marti, Du.,
B &
Tff-\m.
(S,
and
a'>'?i^; c/.
-\h
two
XVP^"-"
^jnn] (S It
^
=
Aq., S Q = gifts.
= possession or /-
so
^| dvdyKris
Che.
(/.
c).
it3X
Now.
but cod.
^2n] C5, dydyucriv;
Rd.
who
n3B) and
oSip,
makes
naf-\i2
with &, v^V'^V
so
also restores uS'^jm after nu'' (so

Elh., aSy.
Che. (CB.).
Van H.,
'>
Ry. restores
aS^j;.- ni3>]
oS^J7
S^3' (?). Hal., D13;.
'33 over to v.
"
t;
Rd. 13%
Elh.,
(so also Ro.).
widowhood, probably an error for Kovpiv
I'^j]
Gr., iSj\
10.
Tell
it
not in
from before the invading
land by making its ruin known

These words, freely quoted from the
to humiliate their native
to their hostile neighbours.
elegy
t^'pn'^.
naiJ'i] (g
Rd. no, with Che.
0,
letters of
aSnj;]
vivid appeal to those fleeing
army not
Ru.,
tt'ia'?
Hal., transposing (-'7N=)
Str. I issues a general call to lamentation.
ifPFB.",
connecting
Ten mss. of de R., N''2N. Elh.,

OortE'"-, Siev., Gu.. n3^^] (6 adds
Siev.,
(so Schnurrer, Schleus., Ry.).
Gath]
Rd.
IS, tu-
#.
after '3% inserts aViJ. n3tf % carrying
^^m|)]
QI
>n3]
with Che. {Exp., 1897, p. 368), Siev., Gu.. Gr.,
16.
14.
e'dh.
'jJ.E'fj.
ti|?dS;
Mss. 112, 126 of de R., oSny.
Gu.).
(Ry., Taylor).
etnissarios.
Gr.,
first
the subject of the following i<n\

Seb., Gr., Che.
iTTA-euii'TWj',
or vanity.
S, d^co; so
Che.
'n ohl]
apfjidruv.
so We., Che. (/>. 1897, p. 368), Now., Elh.,
Che. (Exp.),
<toi.
Jos.
Marti, unj^; so Now.'', Siev.,
H,
.ie'-jidS.
(feceiV
c/.
and codd.
Ru., 'nn pan. Gr., ph-]
oni
Hal.,
ipa'fl]
na
JoxS i^Sn^]
riS>3x;
tt'j?-iS
nciiD.
(Ry.).3tdnS] Ro.,
Q marg.,
Ro., Oort^"-, ij^n.
^;S];;
mmi;
B^,
13.
\f/6<f)os
/cai
CS,
na^-ioS
(6, ^âiroo-TeXXo/u^voi/j.
Che.
Sy PB'iiD.
c).
caiS]
S, ^
H, in
"i.
c), OortEni., Now.,
{I.
(5,
and
Che. Q. c), 'id nDS.
and Gu.,
clause.
foil,
c),
{I.
to v. ".
'^
v.
Gr., ncnxn, or dittog. from v. ".
heritance.
(/.
!ff,
Siev.
of
I'll?*^^.
o^niW]
Sy]
two words of
= mm.
Ci/'os
with (&
'no nDHT; so also Ro..
Dm.
OortEi'-,
(?);
Che.
''iJt;:'?,
so Ro., Gu., Che.
joins last
quadrigae.
pn-i.
im
Rd.
lya'S]
abs. with force of imv. (so Marti).
ob"), inf.
eis
Gr. and Che.
ibb'.
'D.
295, 380, 789 of de R.;
Marti, Siev..
0,
(55i/vaj.
<g,
Aq., Mapaci^. ^, Zjjieo, confusing
fl-apo7riK/)o(>'oi;(ra.
on Saul and Jonathan
(2 S.
i^''),
at once indicate the char-
I-"
45
and constitute an appropriate opening of this

no sufficient reason for omitting them as a marginal note, either by Micah himself * or by later readers,f intended
to call attention to the parallel between this and the earlier lament.
The resemblance between the two is hardly close enough to have
suggested such a parallel to any reader. It is more probable that
the phrase had taken on proverbial force and was used by Micah
as an opening line which at once would suggest the nature of his
poem. It seems almost certain that Gath had fallen prior to the
time of Amos (6^) and that it never recovered from this blow. It
is not mentioned with the other four cities of Philistia either by
Amos (i^'^), Zephaniah (2""''), Jeremiah (47), Zechariah (9^'^), or
the books of the Maccabees.
In Baca weep bitterly] iJ|, weep not
acter of the oracle

dirge.
There
at all, is
open
is
to the objections that
it is
inconsistent with the form
of phrase in the parallel lines where a verb
with a noun, that
might have been expected
and that
{v. s.).
it
makes
is
in each case coupled
exactly the opposite of
it is
to say
what the prophet
under such circumstances as
these,
account for the rendering of (g

applied to a village on the northern
difficult to
it
The name "Baca"
border of upper Galilee
{v.
is
Gu., Bibelatlas,
map
13), to a
wady
discovered by Burckhardt near Sinai and to a portion of the valley
south-west of Jerusalem extending toward Bethlehem and mentioned in Ps. 84.

suits the
This
last is the
only one of the three that at
requirements of this context.
selves in the dust]
unknown;
it
The
In Beth-ophrah
Beth-le-aphrah oi
is
name
roll
all
your-
otherwise
likewise constitutes the only case of a preposition fol-
The form Beth-ophrah here adopted

The correction involved is a slight one
lowing Beth in a proper name.

is
preserved in
^ and @.
and preserves the paronomasia so characteristic of this passage,

and therefore seems preferable to the reading "Bethel" (v. s.).
The
action called for symbolises a frenzy of despair.
ye over from Shaphir in nakedness] HJ in this line
is
Ua.
Pass
badly corrupt;
every word is more or less doubtful.

But the general sense is clear
and supports the translation here offered. The picture is that of
a band of exiles being led away by their conqueror. The location
of Shaphir
* So Ry..
is
uncertain.
The most probable
identification is with
t So We., Now., Marti.
f^**^
'"^'
}^
MICAH
46
Sawafir, SE. of Ashdod;
15^^ Ju. lo*-
^),
city in
it is
hss
likely
of a captive, deprived of the outer robe
The
lib, c.
inhabitant of
Zaanan comes
Here the punning continues as
fortress]
on
{v.
in Str.
Shamir
for
i.
e.,
(jos.
garb
in the
i^).
which enforce the
Str. II sets forth the conditions

ing.
an error
In nakedness],
Judah.
call to
mourn-
not forth from her

I.
Zaanan
is
per-
haps identical with jj^ (Jos. 15^^), which was in the Shephelah.
The suggestion is that
thinks of ijj^, i. e., Tanis or Zoan in Egypt.
of a people barricading itself in
Beth-ezel is taken
foe.
last
word
from
as
is
you the stay
that of a city razed to the ground.
the
mentioned
Greek
by RV., the wailing of
But
every other attempt to translate
lamentation of Beth-ezel takes from you
else
with the addition of the
thereof.
rendering rests upon an emended text
{cf 7^'t<, Zc. 14^),
translators (v.s.).
oncoming
afraid to face the
M,
in the previous line, is translated
Beth-ezel shall take from

ligible,
its city,
its site]
its
this is unintel-
M- Cf GASm.,
standing.
The
(v. s.).
The town
description
Beth-ezel
is
the inhabitant
is
nowhere
and was evidently unknown
12. How has
the
The above
to
ofMaroth
But the help longed for has failed to come.

Maroth (= bitterness) is a wholly unknown village or town; it
would seem to have been in the vicinity of Jerusalem in view of the
RV. renders M,
close connection of this line with the following.
For the inhabitant of Maroth waiteth anxiously for good; but it
should rather be is in agony for good, which yields no satisfactory
For calamity has come down from Yahweh to the gates of
sense.
hoped for good!]
Jerusalem]
ens
{cf.
people.
i^),
Yahweh
is
here represented as enthroned in the heav-
whence he sends down chastisement upon
It is
his
wicked
not necessary to suppose a siege of Jerusalem act-
ually in progress;
the prophet rather in this
way
pictures the im-
minence of the danger that threatens.

Str. Ill continues the elegiac
of Str. II.
loss of territory.
Lachish]
tween
measure begun
Here are described the
13.
Bind
The paronomasia
w'w"!, chariot,
flight of
in the last
the chariot to the steed,
here
and C^3^.
conjectural, but seems required
is
translation, bind, is
by the context.
cal with Tell-el-Hesy, sixteen miles
lines
O inhabitant of
in the similarity of
The
two
inhabitants and the
sound be-
somewhat
Lachish
is
identi-
NE. from Gaza and two
miles
i"-i3
S. of Eglon ;*
little
it
47
was formerly incorrectly identified with Umm Lakis,

Tell-el-Hesy
farther north.
lies
at the base of the foothills
of the Shephelah in a fertile valley opening off the road to Egypt.
Lachish thus constituted a frontier fortress between Judah and
Rehoboam
Egypt, and was always a place of strategic value.
for-
and Sennacherib captured it and established

temporary headquarters there during the campaign of 701 B.C. (Is.
tified it (2
Ch.
36^ 37^).
11^)
now
bas-relief
capture of the
city.
She
Museum
in the British
is the chief sin
portrays his
of the daughter of Zion]
This parenthetic statement seems foreign to the context, and

probably a marginal note by some reader or editor
grounds upon which so serious a charge
is
is
The
(v. s.).
based are unknown;
some have supposed that Lachish was the seat of some grossly licentious cult;f others base its guilt on the supposition that it was
one of the chariot cities estabHshed by Solomon (i K. io^ 2 Ch.
The
i" 8").$
best hypothesis
is
that "as the last
toward Egypt, and on a main road

the Egyptian subsidies of horses
ticians
and
For in
address
is to
"Israel"
is
Cf.
poli-
Ho.
14*.
La-
definitely the nature of the charge against
must remain open
sin, etc."
which the
chariots, in
chish or the circumstances under which

bility
Judean outpost
Lachish would receive
put their trust instead of in Jehovah."
we know more
Until
thither,
it
for the rendering,
thee are
found
was
"she
uttered, the possiis
the beginning of
the transgressions of Israel]
Lachish, not to the daughter of Zion.**
The
The
use of
not to be explained as meaning that the sins responsi-
ble for Samaria's downfall are
now
regnant in Judah.ff "Israel"
Yahweh's people and territory of

which Judah is now the more important part; on this use of "Israel," V. s..
The order of words would seem to show that the
rather indicates the whole of
is
characterised by such sins as are com-
to all the cities of Israel,
but that the responsibility for the gen-
thought
mon
is
not that Lachish
eral guilt rests largely
upon Lachish;
gloss in the previous line.
No
this is in
harmony with
the
hint is given as to the nature of the
* See F. J. Bliss, A Mound of Many Cities, or Tell-el-Hesy Excavated.

The excavations
were begun by J. F. Petrie and completed by Bliss.
t So, e. g.. We., van H..
t So, e. g., Xow..
** Contra van H..
GASm., 384 /..
tt Contra van H..
MICAH
48
sin laid to the
this oracle
account of Lachish.
was
nacherib at Lachish
his
(2
K.
18"'^''),
had sent tribute to Senand that Micah here expresses
judgment concerning that transaction.
givest a parting gift to Moresheth-Gath]

'
Gath as a vocative,* or
'
to consider
and render, "thou
The
Gath." {
gift to
now
is
Therefore, thou
better than to treat
is
Moresheth-Gath as the one
shalt give
address
14.
This
addressed,f which necessitates a change of

preposition
that
It is, of course, possible
uttered after Hezekiah
to the
to dismiss with the proper present
text,
or to transpose the
Moresheth as a parting
daughter of Zion
one of her
villages.
who is
The
word used here for gift is that employed in i K. 9^^ to designate

the dowry given by Pharaoh to his daughter.
There was probably an intentional play here on the words riB^'llD and nt^li^Jw
(betrothed).^
The
site
of the
of
Judah will lose the town and pay tribute besides.

Moresheth-Gath can only be conjectured. The form
name would imply
Gath's location
is
proximity to Gath, but imfortunately
Moresheth-Gath was probably near
doubtful.
the Philistine border; Jerome declares that a small village near
Eleutheropolis (Beit-Jibrin) on the east bore the
This
name
Morashtite," was probably derived from this place.
upon
this interpretation, for otherwise
concerning the prophet's
a snare
to the
home
in his day.
Micah's appellation, " the
the region in which Lachish lay.
is
Much depends
no information
or origin.
is at
hand
Beth Achzih has become
kings of Israel] iE, the houses of Achzih
Achzib
not the old Phoenician town (Jos. 19^^ Ju. i^'),** as might appear
from the phrase kings of Israel. Israel here represents Judah as in
is
line 2,
and
the pliuâl kings
is for Israel's
up.
Cf. Je. 15^*,
achzah.
Jos.
king a
The
The
exact
is
generic.
false hope,
site
Achzib has been and
still
a brook whose waters have dried
play on words here
is
between achzih and
of Achzib has so far eluded discovery.
15** locates it in the
Shephelah of Judah, in the vicinity of
Libnah, Keilah and Mareshah.
How
so comparatively
portant a place as Achzib evidently was (for
it
plays
vmim-
no part
else-
where on the pages of Hebrew history) could have been a snare to

* We.i.
t So We.. Now., Marti.

So Hal..
So Hi., We., Now., Marti, van H..
** Cj. Ew. and Re, who find here an allusion to both towns, the northern and the southern.
t
I"the kings of Israel
that Achzib
that
covery which
is
The view
must remain a mystery.
had been
Ahaz and
of
49
of Hitzig,
in the possession of Philistia since the reign
Judah had always entertained
now doomed
hope of
the
to disappointment,
is
its re-
wholly without
foundation.
and reaches
Str. IV. continues in the elegiac strain,
with an announcement of the doom of
the conqueror to thee,

is
exile.
climax
The
inhabitant of Mareshah]
play here
on yoresh and Mareshah.
name, a
possession, shall
Even Mareshah, rejoicing in

noc escape the hand of the conqueror,
The modem Merdsh, two
dispossessor.
site
dicated here and in Jos. 15^* and by Eusebius,
its
of
Mareshah as inlocates it two
who
But the excavators have thrown doubt

Mareshah (v. i.). It is evidently
miles S. of Eleutheropolis.
upon
its
the
miles S. of Beit- Jibrin, an-
swers the geographical requirements for the
to
its
15. / will yet bring
identity with the ancient
be distinguished from Moresheth-Gath.
The
places with which
the prophet has been concerned in this oracle are thus seen to be
in all probability those in the
immediate
had been
places with which he
were scarcely of any significance
Forever
that they held dear.
own home,
They
from childhood.
but to him and
in the great world,
home, country and
his fellow-villagers they represented

all
vicinity of his
familiar
religion,
is Israel's glory to perish]
Ifl,
unto Adullam shall Israel's glory come, defies interpretation; that
most generally accepted

in a cave.
Cf.
mije, six miles
22^
1 S.
NE.
is,
^.
the nobility of Israel shall take refuge
Canaanitish prince (Jos.
tempts to improve the
The
Judah which
Make
16.
'Id-el-
was originally the seat of a

but was captured by Israel and in-
12^^),
corporated in the territory of Judah (Jos. 15^).
adopted.
modem
Adullam, perhaps the
of Beit- Jibrin,
glory of Israel
is
the various atis
here
probably the wealth and power of
constitute the seal of
thyself bald
Of
Cheyne seems the best and
text, that of
and shave
Yahweh's approval upon
her.
thee for thy darlings] Zion is here
addressed as a mother and bidden to go into mourning for the loss

of her beloved children.
and
villages she
has
ness like the vulture's]
by
its
Cf. Je. 3
lost,
1^".
Reference
with their inhabitants.
The
bare head and neck.
vulture
is
is
had
to the cities
Enlarge thy bald-
distinguished from the eagle
Shaving of the head was a
common
MICAH
so
moviming custom.
Cf.
Am.
8"^ Is. 3^.
Originally instituted, in
probability, as a sacrificial offering to the departed spirit,
came
to
it
all
later
be obnoxious to the sensitive religious conscience of the
who would permit no
prophets,
divided allegiance
among
the fol-
lowers of Yahweh.
Such practices were therefore prohibited by

the Deuteronomic Code (Dt. 14*; cj. Lv. 21^).
The fact that this
verse
summons Judah
This
text
verse, moreover,
and
to such
its
seems
to
grow right out of the preceding conargument for Micah's authorship
so adds strength to the
of this whole passage
Thus ends
Fortheywill go into
(i^""').
in familiar
of all
by Amos and Hosea
The warning
in northern Israel
echo in the southern kingdom.
army, giving the advance in

pared the similar passage,
10. nj3]
The
exile from thee]
but terrible fashion the lamentation over
Judah's approaching punishment.

first
even figuratively, attests
rite,
enactment of the Deuteronomic law.*
origin in days prior to the
With
note sounded
now
detail, village
by
finds its
an invading
this picture of
village, is to
be com-
Is. lo^^'^^.
location of
Gath
is
uncertain; the
OT.
data are too
fragmentary to make identification possible; nor are the Assyrian or
Egyptian records any more satisfactory.

are Beit-Jibrin
and
Tell-es-Safi.
The two
sites
most
attractive
In either case Gath was the nearest of
the five chief Philistine towns to the border of Judah.
The
excavations
by Mr. Bliss in 1899 unfortunately yielded little, the greater

part of the mound being occupied by the modern village and two graveyards, under which excavation is absolutely prohibited.
The town stood
"as a natural fortress between the plain and the rolling country." The
origin of the town goes back as far as the seventeenth century B.C. according to Bliss.
Cf. F. J. Bliss and R. A. Stewart Macalister, Excavations
in Palestine During the Years 1898-1900 (1902), pp. 28-43 ^.nd 62 jf..
Jerome says that Gath lay on the road between Eleutheropolis and Gaza;
hence Hpt. suggests 'Araq el-muniyah, less than two hours from Tellel-Hesy.
Sk
122] For the form, cf. ir^ (Je. 4>8 75) and iNn (Is. 6').
1D3P] This and i K. 3" are the only cases of Sn and an infin. abs. modifying a finite vb., and in both cases the neg. follows the regular rule for
nS and other negatives in standing immediately before the finite form.
moy'^] Ophrah, the home of Gideon, in Manasseh (Ju. 6"- ^ 8"- ")
is out of the question as too far removed from the scene of Micah's'
thought. Another Ophrah, mentioned in Jos. 18" and i S. 13", is usually identified with Tayyibeh, five miles N. of Bethel.
But this latter,
at Tell-es-Safi
* So even Marti,
who
assigns vv.
'"-i'
to
later
hand.
Judah on the north, seems too remote
lying outside of
The same
here.
objection holds for the reading
'
be satisfactory
to
Bethel,'
if
the north-
from Jerusalem and about

For those who
twenty-five miles from the region of Micah's home.
incline toward this reading, it is safer to regard the Bethel referred
to here as the one listed among the towns of the Negeb in i S.
ern town
30"
meant, which
is
((gB);
Jos. IS'"
'Ophrah
that our
Jos. i9<
cf.
is
ten miles
lies
Ch.
reflected in the
south of Beit-Jibrin,
most
is
attractive.
name
ably due to a desire to pun on the
the text
make
Siiio,
is
and number, K6.
the agreement regular.
vious line
and
Ds*?
This form
is
prob-
is
prob-
c).\.t.%
many
By
but there
Je. 13";
mss. and the Vrss.
Ges.
connecting
'c
^"''=;
K6.
with the pre-
necessary complement
its
relieved of a troublesome element,
is
For a similar lack
nifa T'ly] Apposition,
there furnished with
{v. 5.), n,sxi is
this line
here unintelligible.
is
el-Ghufr, lying
Qr., itySflnn,
^n3>]
sês
exceedingly doubtful, for the Qr.,
iDDc] m
Wady
TiB'Sijnn]
GASm.
suggestion of
of the
Philistia.
ably due to the singular forms of v. .

of agreement in gender
The
420.
name
iiflp
(t;.
s.) is
a noun
con jecturally restored on the basis of Assyrian supilru, enclosure

'
'
(of
Erech); v. Dl."^^^-, 509, Muss-Arnolt, 779. np<] For

miDj? doc] There is nothing
the sense take away, carry off, cf. Ez. 3'^.
walled
city, e.g.,
immediate context
which the pron. dd can
is
easy to
account for a o between two d's as a dittog. of D in the old
script.
in the
Furthermore,
nicj; is air., yields
present to the eye of (S
form ncyep
'icy.D,
to
is
station,
!C
&.
no sense
M, and was
evidently not
Prefixing the c's restored from odd the
recovered without
post,
in
It
refer.
difiiculty,
and may be derived from

12. nnc] The
or from "^c^d, standing-ground.
upper Galilee which Josephus mentions {Wars, III, 3, i) is

But no southern locality bearing that name
certainly not meant here.
^'^n-ij] According to M, 'a must be given the meaning
is available.
Meroth
in
no subordinate relation to the preceding or following

in pain and is wholly unsuitable before aita'^.
verily, for there is

'n
context,
means writhe
as
Taylor, Cyl. of Sennacherib,
For the
M,
break through."
caused
of the great gate of
22/., "the
orn] For other cases of the masc. form an address a fem.
in
sg.
lyt'S]
col. 3,
cf.
to
his city I
exit
11.
in
13.
sub]'., cf.
Ges.
""
'',
K6.
'"S".
The
the force of the imv..
It
is
to
better pointed as an inf. abs. having
translation bind
is
reinforced by the Assy.
Muss-Arnolt, 991) and the Arab, equivalent

which in the fourth form tie a thread upon the finger as a reminder.
PKan '1] Van H. renders, the begimiing of the expiation of, etc., but the
ratamu
wrap, bind
meaning expiation
(v.
for 'n
is
not attested earlier than Zc. 14", a postexilic
word in the
dowry given with the bride by
her father. Cf. document C of the Assuan Papyri, published by Sayce &
Cowley, where the custom is witnessed to as current among the Jews
passage, and
is
closely related to the late priestly use of the
sense sin-offering.
14.
o-'niSs'] i.e.,
the
MIC AH
52
of the Dispersion as early as the sixth century B.C.
rabi which evidences the
The
same
use of the term here
betrothed;
one of the
it is
in Israel.
CJ. Ju. i'^-"
is
Cf.
Code of Hammu-
practice in Babylonia as early as 1900 B.C..
suggested by the similarity of nt'nb to PK'nNp,
custom
earliest allusions to the existence of the
Gn.
29'^- ".
S3;]
After jnj more
common
preps,
and Sx; perhaps Sy is used here in the sense with, along with.
nj niyiiD] Analogous names cited by GASm. are Atroth-Shophan (Nu.
323- 36), Chisloth-Tabor (Jos. 1912- '8)> lye-Abarim (Nu. s^** '), and
The
Helkath (Jos. 19"). 15. "!>] Not again, but still, even yet.
change to ij; (with d) makes necessary corresponding changes in the
are S
remainder of the
line
which yields reasonable sense as
it
stands.
'3n]
For other cases of omission of n, v. Ges. ^ ^. na'nD] The modern

Merash seems to date no further back than Roman times, if we may
judge by the slight depth of debris upon the site. The actual site of this
ancient town may be represented by the modern Tell-Sandahannah, one
''*
mile SE. of Merash.
and
it is
The remains of an
no uncommon thing
along with the inhabitants,
for
ancient town are evident there,
a town name
as, e. g., in
to migrate to a
the case of
'Umm
new
Lakis.
oSij:]
F. J. Bliss and R. Stewart Macalister, op. cit., pp. 67/..
rection to aSiy {v. s.) removes one of the grounds for changing
The
\'i!
1.
I {v. s.),
and
for supposing tyrin to represent the
name
of a
to
site
Cf.
corij?
in
town (We.,
Now.).
The oppression of
4.
In six
strs. in
which the elegiac
the
Poor
(2*"").
strain is predominant,
Micah de-
nounces the tyranny of the rich and warns them of coming judgment.
day
Str. I, the
prophet speaks:
to despoil their
weh
Woe
speaks: For this reason
am
the wail of the
allotted to others;
we
mourner
are wholly undone!'
'
Str. IV, the rich op-
from calamity.
Is
to his
stroyers of
the
own people?
my
impotent, or can he
Str.
V,
people, robbing
Yahweh
Rise and begone!
hopelessly destroyed.
We are immime
mean anything but
retorts:
But ye are de-
and plimdering them and driving
women and children into slavery.
sentence:
Yah-
this people
Yahweh continues:
among you, Our land is
Cease prating of such things.
Yahweh
Str. II,
Str. Ill,
will arise
pressors speak:
good
who plot night and
about to bring upon
a humiliating and unbearable yoke.
Then
to those
neighbours of houses and lands.
Str. VI,
Yahweh pronounces
Because of your
sins,
ye shall be
2^-"
^/QE
to those
who
devise iniquity
upon
In the morning light they execute
53
their beds;
because
it,
it
is
in their
power.
and seize them, and houses and carry them

So they crush a yeoman and his house, a man and his heritage.
[Therefore thus saith Yahweh:]
Yea, they covet
"DEHOLD
am
fields
devising disaster,
Which ye cannot remove from your

Nor will ye be able to walk erect,
For
TN
it
will
off.
necks;
be a disastrous time.
that day a taunt-song will be raised concerning you;
And a lament will

The portion of my
be wailed, as follows:
people is measured with the measuring line, and there is

none to restore it.
To our captors our land is allotted; we are utterly devastated.
r)0 not keep harping on such things.
Shame cannot overtake the house of Jacob.
Is Yahweh impatient, or are such his deeds?
Do not his words mean good to Israel?
ye have become my people's foe; ye rise up against those that are at peace.
Ye strip off from those passing by in confidence booty of war.
The women of my people ye drive away from their pleasant homes;
From their babes ye take away my glory forever.
A RISE and go! For this is not your resting-place.
Because of uncleanness ye shall be destroyed with an irremediable destruction.
RUT
This section
forward,
is
dramatic
in
the prophet,
viz.,
form, three different speakers being brought
Yahweh, and the greedy oppressors. Its

The prevailing move-
unity and artistic form are both strongly marked.
ment in the six strophes is that of

announcement of coming disaster
the Qina, except in Str. II, where the

in short
is
and sharp phrases. The

two lines. The prosaic
closing str. pronouncing final sentence drops to
character of the
first
two
lines of Str III
the metre of the balance of the
str.
and
their lack of conformity to
raise the question
new
constitute the prose introduction to a
whether they do not
section; but the close connec-
tion of the thought of this str. with that of the preceding
and
the regular
interchange of speakers throughout the entire passage seem to prohibit
a division of the poem at this point. The more important textual

changes which affect the form are the following: the omission of ''^vs^
j?i
from
of v.
<;
V.
and of PNrn nnoifon Vy from
',
the omission of v.
v.
';
Sta.'s reconstruction
as a prosaic interpolation (so Ru., Now.,
Marti, Siev., Gu.); the omission of -\icNn from v. ' and of -nx from v. *;
the treatment of v. " as a prosaic gloss originally belonging to v. '; its
relation to v.
recently,
was already recognised by Dathe (1773
by Hal., who transposes
v.
a.d.) and,
more
The introductory
omits much material
to follow v. ".
words in v. ' lie outside of the poetic form. Siev.

from this section in his effort to restore anapaestic hexameters here, and
then finds his scheme break
down
in
w.
'"'.
MICAH
54
2. >in] (g, iy4vovTo='\>n.
Dltt'3?\
j?->
DT" Vn*?
tt'i
'o]
/cai iS/oa
5i6Tt
05,
Hal.,
">Sysi]
renders freely,
-iiian -\iNa] (S
oy/c
hands
their
lift
supposition that (5 read
and
that
was
oi/K
est
JJi ^?:?d >38'n.
Hal.,
nirj,"]
tAj
rbv debv
X^'P**
hand is against God,' viz., they
This seems simpler than the

under the influence of wi'i in the foil, verse
nb';
ft foil. <S,
manus eorum.
Du.,
Cf. ft.
in prayer.
make
inserted later in order to
right impression,
Deum
him
to
'^^s-i; c/'.
rrpbs
iipav
aiJTwy; probably a free rendering for 'their
do not
>"i
r^Tju^pq..
but om.
Aq.,
Sn
the passage convey the
H, quoniam contra
negative.
its
la-xvpbv x^^P
Q, di6ri exova-iy
o.'^toO.
Cod. 24 (de R.), S^nS. Siev. om. the phrase. 2.

iStji] ft om.; so also Siev..
(& adds dpâvois as obj., probably as a free
ixti'ji] (S B om. 1.
rendering.
(B seems to have transposed wv:^ and
Iffxiiv T-qv
xetpa airdv.
ipK'jJi;
for
nowhere
is
x'^yj
else
rendered by Karadwaffreveiv, nor
elsewhere represented by diapirdêLv; whereas KaTadwaa-Teêi-v
mon
rendering of
pirj?
and
diapTcdêtv,
is
P'.:')?
a com-
is
though not elsewhere used for
xirj,
must carry in this context. The

transposition may have been made deliberately by d, in order to avoid
the immediate repetition of Si-ffpiraôv, which had already occurred as
well conveys the idea of violence that
the equivalent of
and
ixnj
mss.
by
On
tysi.
Cf. the similar transposition of n^nj
so Vol., Ry..
iVtji;
ft in
Na.
i.
'j
a'^x] ft
om..
S and many Heb.
(&^, Aq.,
metrical grounds, Siev.
om.
inSnji
(so Gu.).
B'''N
Marti om. as gloss. am] Om. std as dittog. from i^^dh {cf.
Kenn. 30, which om. orn) and join final D with the foil, word as
prep., Da^n'iNHa,
This obviates two difficulties: first that of making
itrx]
CB',
which has only
T\y-\;
local significance, refer to the abstract antecedent
second, the more natural object of
i!i'>Dn is
yoke, not to the neck; v. Ho. ii Je. 28'^
a word referring to the
Is. 52*,
but
cf.
Je. 27'-
"
**
Ne. 3^ n-a-\-\\ <g adds iâlcpvrjs, possibly due to metathesis resulting in

nnn (for hdt written defectively) and allowed to stand alongside of the
^^,
correction 6p6ot; so Ry..

Sta.
{ZAW., VI, 122/.) as
Oort^- Marti,
Siev., Stk.,
have taken
as fem. of
to
read
nny
it
"nj in cstr. relation
Van
6pdpoi.
Gu..
nj
with
4. nnji] 31
dittog.; so Taylor,
OS, if fj.i\ei,
and treated
foil.
word.
H., mni, as subj. of the
it
'r\^r\i\
and B, cum
adverbially.
Gr.,
foil. vb..
om..
r\ny-,
ncx]
so
Ro., 15^ (so Hal.) or idnh (so Elh.).
uis'j iiTit] Tr.,
ft
ip.B'i
with
H.,
unless due to
ID]?,
'n.
T'c]
Ro. and Elh.
GASm.
Hal.,
(?).
cf.
GASm.,
<g^
Sta.,
X^^w*';
idni
(?).
end of the verse; so Ru., Now., Stk..

confusion of the Heb. preform, j with the Syr.
Sta., to the
preformative of the 3d pers..
Van
seem
suavitate,
Rd. nnxS, with
Taylor, We., Pont, Ru., Now., Oort^"-, Siev., Stk., Gu.;
B, dicentium.
Om., with
We., Pont, Ru., Now.,
id;?
pSn] Marti, Siev.
Rd., with Sta., Sana
id"', foil. (5,
and Gu.,
'iJp.'?n.
KaTe/jLerp-^dr}
iv
Now.. San is obtained here from v. *,

whither it probably dropped by error. This reading of the vb. is accepted
also by Ew., Stei., Taylor, We., Pont, GASm., Oort^""-, Marti, Siev.,
<rxot'/((j;
similarly ft; so Gu., Ru.,
2'--'
55
Du.. Gr., nD>. Hal., ifa;. yn] Rd., with Sta., j^si, foil. <&, xal oix
and &; so Pont, Ru., Now., Oort^- Stk.; also Dathe, We. and Du.,
Stk.,
^v,
dropping
Hal., ni.
].
ty-o'']
Rd., with Sta., aire,
&om..
Ru.,Now.,OortE'"-,Stk.,
We.,
so
foil. (S, 6 ko\v<tu)v;
Pont, e'^dd. Hal., nircn.
a^c'Dri.
"':]
foil. S^S.
C/". Siev. and Gu., ') hvTi\ Du., airio.
Dm. within as dittog.; soSta.,Ru.,Nfow.,Stk.. (g=i'?; so Taylor, OortEm-,
Du.. , ?inS. VanH., nS. Gr., uK aavi-S] Rd., with Sta., uiaic'S; so
Pont, Ru., Now., Oort^""-, Stk.. (S S
treat as an infin. depending upon
Marti, i^fi?), using
C'Di.
Aq., Tois
Gr.,
Sta., pSni; so
measuring
yeiroa-i.
Siev.,
nac'S-1.
-IT
Oort^""-,
uS.
5.
n.fc'.
Rd. ion
Elh., Difi'BD.
Elh., i6].
';'.
Rd.
Om.
nS]
a San.
S, Mi*
H, non
6.
SdK-
05,
Ru.,
iiriTifi-â-rjTe.
&=
ad
pers.
Ru.,
stillabit.
tDân;
nS\
'a^
so JTWTB.", Marti, Now.^, Siev., Gu.,
Jiu'r,
TtjAo
iDôn Sn]
with Taylor.
iiaj,
as dittog..
and 154 (Kenn.).
&, one
s.).
(t;.
Ru. om.
Aq., <rToXcfoj'TS.
ii3>3^
Two
iS] Pont, aa*?; so Ru., Marti.
lot.
pjjitai]
&, wzVA iAe

Heb. codd. p5?n-.
(S, di.efir)pl<T07]a-av.
San to v.*
Tr.
^Som.
Marti, uâir.
= odê'. pSni] Rd., with
as a gloss.
and divide by
H, loquentes.
Rd., with Gr.,
Hpt.
so Ru., van H., Du..
B, comprehendet. , overtake
Codd. 224 (Kenn.) and 554 (de R.), jd>; codd. 150,
201 (second hand) of Kenn., and 2, 380, 993, 1257, 411, 211 of de
(g, dTrdxTerai.
j^d^;
Aq., KaTa\-^\pri.
you.
226
n"? laS]
'n tiSsd]
S-I1J3
so codd. 295 (de R.)

jDi]
(B^^ iC
'n^ 'na*
Sk, with Ru., Siev..
so &.
D^fliaj.
om.
Siev.
7f/W measure by line
pvffiv;
cumrevertatur.
ins-]
Pont, Gr., Ru., Marti, Stk..
line.
Hal., pVn
"B,
"'^^1K*.
(?),
Elh., r<y\
R., yjf\
Ru., oSiai.
p-idSi.
Hal.,
iru\
mcSa] 14 codd. (Kenn.), did

Rd.
7. iiDNn]
-iDsn,
with
Dathe, Bauer, Jus.), and om. as a gloss, with Marti, Siev..

as pass. prtc. agreeing with mnSa.
treats
Casp., KL,
ipxn.
et al..
Qmnn
Gr.,
^^'r?*'?'
'^''^l
Ki.,
Ro., -HDNn; so Dr., Exp.,
or o^nDDn.
Ru., I^nxni.
nspn]
Now., man.
nan]
(5,
iS?.
Elh.,
oX^ywv and
(8,
QI
(so
"M, dicit.
imNn; so Ew.,
Taylor,
(1887), 263.
Van
Hal., nrrsn.
so &.
irapJjpyiaev;
Stei.,
qn] i^
H.,
Rd., with (S and cod. 305 (de R.), vnan; so Gr., Gu.,
Ru., Now., OortE""-, Marti, Siev.. nSn icm] Rd. hn^^\ with Now.,
Djj.
Gort^'"-.
Marti,
icy]
(&,
Kal 6p6ol ireirSpevvrai.
Now."^ and Gu.,
Rd.
(Kenn.),
iDyS orisi, with
Cod.
Sdhki.
Taylor, laSn '\
''B2 Snt;:'i..
WRS.,
159
(Kenn.),
ariNi,
v.'.
'.
We.,
'y Sj; qpini;
SiDPNn.
innr^ ncp\
8. Sicpni
Cod. 89
Cod. 300
(Kenn.),
Hi., Sid-Sni,
so Now., Siev.,
iS
'^n.
GASm..
Proph., 429, and
SiD-DNv, so Ro., Taylor, Elh., Pont, Hal..
taking a from v.
Ru.,
Hpt., innt< ^Sn^
Oort^"-, Sinnxa,
Van H., Du..
Marti,
omitting S as dittog. from aiNS, and transferring icy as log to end of
Gu., DPN], and om.
Marti, Siev., Gu..
and van H.,
Dipi^,
WRS.,
giving
Ty
Si.
Dipi;
to aiN as
ODipi] Rd.,
with We., -impn; Now.,
HWB.^^
so Taylor, Elh., Pont, Gr..

sf.
\ Cf. GASm., Du.,
Di'ji.
Sine] Rd.,
MICAH
56
with Marti,
We.,
Si.
hyj:;
GASm., Now.,
so
D^pSi:';
, WRS..
OortE"-,
so Gr., Now., Siev..
Marti, Gu..
nbW
Ps,
(c/.
nb'W; so
oW.
Elh., Pont,
Ro., npSir.
j^).
Rd., with We.,
no'ja'I
dp^vq$ avrov
<S, rijs
word and reads -ixnjdVb' = Shalntatin] Om., with Marti, as gloss on nvhv; so Now.'', Siev.. (5,
nezer.
Trjv dopav airou, giving 'n its Aramaic force (so Biichler, ZAW., XXX,
64/.) as in Gn. 2525; so &. WRS., ni7.!<; so Taylor, Gr.. Elh., nn^Nn;
Van H.
Hal., dSu*.
so
Pont
Ru.,
Hal.,
onayo]
rod
<S,
"'}i3E'
(so Elh.) or
Oort^""-, na-iT.
"ni^B*.
9.
""ifj]
(S,
(c/. lie);
We., \J3p
so &.
Dii.ojra;
so Now., Marti,
'ap';
''5K'
(so Ges., ^"P),
Matthes, with
i)yo6fivoi
'nib'j.
Gr.,
& (S Tl,
jn^SSi? ;
SI, nB'''j?,
so Now., Marti, Siev., Gu..
<Ae assembly.
nujyn]
niac]
Rd., with
B (&,
niSS;] Rd.,
so Gr., Ru., Marti, Now.", Siev., Gu., Hpt., Du..
irovtjpd iirirTfbeifiara avrCiv iîbixOrjffaVj
the last word,
haps a second rendering of the following inpn.

6p<nv
Ru.,
'Njir.
word, DcnS onac-; so Elh.,
foil,
so Gr., Ru., Marti, Now.'', Siev., Gu., Hpt., Du..
?'?''J^)?.D;
CH,
d<f>\ia6at.
with We.,
uiif] Rd.,
Cod. 17 (Kenn.), ''2V. 05, (TvvTptfifi6v = -12B'. Iff,

&, and ye turn. S, dneplfivus. Hoffmann {ZAW., Ill, 103),
Taylor,
niir.
rd
foil,
van H., Gu., Hpt..
Siev.,
convertistis.
with
">7.Nn.
Siev., "lajjc.
"i''3>:p';'.
Pont,
joins with
= mn. &om.
sf.;
so Oort^-.
i^',
mn]
10. hndo] Rd.,
inpn] (S, eyylffare.
Hal., nn-jn.
with Ro., HNpa; so Elh., Pont, Gr., Oort^'"-, Marti, Now.*^, Stk..
Vrss.
except
treat
21
it
as a noun.
(&,
being per-
Sani Sann]
Rd., with
(S,
All
iSann
San; so Ro., Taylor, Gr., Perles, Now., OortEm-, Marti, Siev., Stk.,
Gu..
Iff
&
= 'n
reproduces
with addition of a cognate ace. San after Sann.
Sann; so Bauer, Jus., Elh., 'n Sann.
y-\Di]
, KaredKixOtjre. H,
0, violent. Gr., V'jnr. so Marti, Now.'', Siev., Stk., Gu..

11.iS]0J=nS. &om.. "BfUtinamnonessem. iSn] We., TjSn; soNow.,
pessima.
Marti, Siev., Gu..
^'av] (S, iK rijs a-Tay6vos.
H, super quent
stillatur.
their
a woe upon men zealous toward evil, who abuse

power by robbing the poor of their houses and lands. 1,
Woe
to those
Str. I utters
who
devise iniquity]
The
address
is
made
to the
wealthy in Judah, whose riches had greatly increased during the

long and prosperous reign of Uzziah.
Their greed not
satisfied,
more enrich themselves, and that at the expense of

greater poverty and misery for the poor.
Micah's spirit flames
they would
still
forth in indignant remonstrance, for these sufifering farmers include
many
and friends. And work evil] This is a

shown by the fact that it comes in prematurely
not done 'upon the bed' but 'in the morning' and
of his neighbours
prosaic gloss* as
the evil
is
is
* So We., Now., OortE"-, Marti, Siev., Gu., Du., Hpt.,
el
al.
2^-^
57
that
GASm.
superfluous in the metre.
it is
seeks to retain the
phrase by giving to ^ys the meaning, "prepare ways and means";

but this
to
at
In
a usage not found elsewhere and one that adds nothing
is
DBTl of the previous phrase. Upon their beds] They he awake

night revolving schemes to circumvent the poor. Cf. Ps. 36^
the light of the
morning] Brought into contrast by chiasm with
They can
the night-work of arranging plans.
dayUght before putting

Because
can.
it is
in their power]
This interpretation
is
They oppress and rob because

supported by
usage of the same phrase in Gn. 31^^ Dt.

14".
The
common
"because
interpretation,
28^^
their
commentaries*
in the older
scarcely wait for
schemes into operation.
their nefarious
they
and Aq. and by the

Pr. 3" Ne. 5^ BS. 5*
power
is their
God,"
rendered impossible by
is
some of the parallel cases cited in which the phrase is negatived.

2. They covet fields and seize them, etc.] Their only title to them
is their
greed.
To
the prophet's vivid imagination
He
sooner said than done.'
it
seems *no
leaps over the intermediate steps be-
tween the birth of the desire and
its
fulfilment, such as extortionate
and perjury
was in the days of Ahab
For the peasant prophet,
rates of interest, foreclosure of mortgages, subornation
So
of witnesses, bribery of judges.

(i
K. 21), of Hosea
bom and
(5^)
and Isaiah
it
(5*).
bred upon the vine-clad hill-slopes of western Judah, the
ousting of peasant-farmers from their small holdings, inherited

toilers whose very life had gone
was a wholly unpardonable crime. No amount of
procedure could make it appear right. Custom and law,
through successive generations of

into the soil,
legal
from the
earliest to the latest times, all
family's tenure of its ancestral lands.
crush a yeoman and his home,

heartless policy,
succumb.
etc.]
sought to perpetuate the
Nu.
Cf.
The
27^'" 36*'*^.
the property gone, the man and
1^2 and
So they
inevitable result of their
must
no es-
his family
"^^^ are used for variety, there being
sential difference in their ordinary usage.
Str. II introduces a
new
movement and pointed

punish.
with Str.
3. Behold, I
I,
represents
So,
e. g.,
am
devising disaster] This, in
Yahweh
Mich.,
Yahweh himself. In trimeter

Yahweh declares his purpose to
speaker,
phrase,
Stei.,
contrast
as the deviser, not, however, of
Mau., Ke., Ro., Reinke, Kue., Du..
MICAH
58
iniquity,
In
but of calamity.
this line is
broken up by the
sertion after the vb. of the words, against this family],
The phrase
ple of Judah.
mal
a gloss,* as appears from
is
and from
Which
3^ Je. 8^.
ye cannot remove
from your necks] iK

For text, v. s..
a yoke, heavy and galling
figure is that of
aphor in the prophetic books,

30^^
Nor walk
28*^.
34" Dt.
e. g., Is.
erect]
the crushing weight of the yoke.
There
is
no
abnor-
its
metrical superfluity.
withdraw your necks therefrom.
that ye shall not
The
in-
the peo-
its
position in the sentence
Am.
Cf.
i. e.,
ground
sufScient
recent scholars. f
it
common
it is
met-
47 Je. 27^ 28^* Ez.
because bowed
will be
down by
a disastrous time]
for considering this a gloss with
some
accomplishment of Yahweh's pur-
It states the
pose as indicated in the
i. e.,
For
9* 10^^
first line
of the
str.,
and thus brings the
str.
to a well-roimded close.
Str. Ill represents
Yahweh
as putting upon the lips of Israel's
coming
foes a dirge describing the smitten state of the nation in the
day of wrath.
4.
taunt-song will he raised concerning you, and a
lament will he wailed]

of the verbal forms
It is
evident from the indefinite character
employed that the dirge
the sufiFerers themselves but
ordinary fimeral customs.
by
Cf.
others.
Am.
This
the foe,
is
is
in
keeping with
This makes
5^ Je. 9^^.
that the precise character of the IVifQ

dirge.
pronounced not by
is
This
it
clear
defined by Tli as a satirical
better than to treat mdshal as describing the gibes of
is
and n^hi as applying
to Israel's
own
lamentation ;{ or to
eliminate both these introductory phrases as inconsistent with the
contents of the dirge.

the
measuring
line,
and
The
portion of my people is measured with
there is
none
to restore
it]
In this taunt-
song the triumphant foe mockingly re-echoes the thought of Judah

in the
day of her calamity.
our land in the next
line.
Cf.
Portion of my people is equivalent to

Gn. 3 1" 2 K. 9^^ Ez. 48^^ Am. 7^ The
process of allotting Israel's territory to her conquerors for perpetual

possession
is allotted;
is
To our captors our land

The foe is unnamed, but
here graphically portrayed.
we
are
titterly
devastated]
Micah and his hearers understood equally well that reference was
made to Assyria. The foregoing rendering of v. *^- involves some
*=
* So Marti, Now.k, Siev., Gu.. Stk. substitutes DZ^h'J.

t Viz., Marti, Now.k, Siev., Stk., Gu..
J Ccmtra Hi., Mau., Or., Reinke.
Marti.
2*-"
59
rearrangement and modification of
slight
utterly devastated
remove for me/

with this
is its
the portion of
my
M, which
rebel he apportions
our land.
lack of inner coherence,
its failure
to
We are
reads:
people he changes
how doth he
The
diflSculty
to indicate the
subject of the verbs in the last three clauses, the interchange of
numbers
in the
pronouns of the
person and the failure to con-
first
form
to the qtna
5.
Therefore, thou shall have none that shall cast the line by
measure which the introduction leads us
in the assembly of Yahweh] This verse
form, and
is
to
cannot be joined to
the address
is
v.
its
the margin into the text.
easily taken as a
dress to the wicked, J
is it satisfactorily
Micah from those he has been

therefore without any support in
to
ingjf for this leaves the
more
Nor
wholly lacking.
is
counted for as a retort
It is
way from
It
as a part of the reproach by the enemy,* for
here evidently to only a part of the nation, and the
parallelism of v.
text.
lot
outside of the poetical
lies
be considered as an annotation by some reader or
which has found
editor
to expect.
ac-
castigat-
the con-
resumption of the prophet's ad-
being treated as a distributive singular or
"^7
as an error for D^7; but the verse adds nothing essential and varies
widely in form from

to the effect that the
huge
its
context and
is
wicked oppressors
a later interpretation of
will
v.
no longer increase their

and poor alike vdll
estates at the expense of the poor, for rich
The use of v^n, line, with

common in such a connection
be denied foothold in Yahweh's land.

']''^tt'D is
unique, while
711^1, lot, is
perhaps ^^n here belonged originally to

supplied above on the basis of (^.
Str.
IV
*,
where
it
expresses the indignant protest of the rich
such preaching as disloyal and

continued.
v.
6.
Do
irreligious.
The
has been
who
regard
rhythm is
Treatment
elegiac
not keep harping on such things]
was no new experience for prophecy; it antedated

Amos (2"), and Amos himself was bidden to keep silence (5^ 7^"'^),
as also Isaiah (28- ^'').
By the time of Manasseh it had developed
of this kind
into actual persecution (2 K. 21^^;
employed here
word
is
practically
Van
Je. n^^-^^ 26^" ^).
for prophesy, yet lends itself readily to
notation by reason of
*
cf.
H..
its
The verb
synonymous with N^J, the ordinary

an unfavourable con-
original meaning, viz., drip, drop,

t
Hi.,
Now.
(?).
X Ew.. Ke.,
i. e.,
of
GASm..
MICAH
6o
the
foam from
mouth
the
Hne has been variously
of ecstatic, epileptic nehVim.
treated,
e. g.,
iJJ
of this
using the last two words of
v.
^,
"In the assembly of Yahweh do not prophesy" (an address to

Micah and his associates by his opponents, to which Micah replies)
"Whether they {i. e., the prophets) preach or do not preach to such
Or
as you, shame, etc." *
"You must
again, as the utterance of two or three
up by Micah
of the audience taken
not speak," a second
while a third adds,
"They must
into his address,
"O,
replies,
let
i. e.,
one says,
them speak,"
not speak such things as these."
Yet again, as a protest of the rich cited by Micah, "prate not,"

they prate, "let none prate of such things." J This latter is the
best interpretation and the most widely accepted one, but it does
not accoimt for the interchange of ^K and
from 2d
to
3d
This includes the
take the house of Jacob]
The
text, V. s..
which
nor render the change
J^"?,
Shame cannot
pers. anything but abrupt.
first
rich continue speaking here.
this confidence springs is that of
Am.
words of
v.
The thought
3^: Israel is
over'';
for
out of
Yahweh's
chosen people and therefore safe from harm. Cf. 3". It is the creed
of the established regime, which is ever too ready to identify God's
interests with its
is
From
own.
guilty of both treason
the point of view of the rich,
and blasphemy.
Micah
single word, *lttSn,
attached as a marginal note to call attention to the fact that the
"house of Jacob"
is
and the following lines, has

and caused much difficulty. The first part
the speaker in this
crept into the text here
iH may perhaps be rendered, reproaches do not dethough the verb ilD elsewhere always conveys an element of
of the line as in
part,
disgrace as attending the

'backslide,' or 'be driven
movement expressed by
back
the verb,
e. g.,
in defeat,' or 'prove recreant'; the
second part eludes explanation as may be seen from the various

make sense, e. g., " O thou who art called the house of
attempts to
Jacob";
"O
words of the house of Jacob"**; "What a word!
house of Jacob" ft;

Jacob " tX " Should
;
* Ro..
t
Cf.
GASm.,
van H.
et at..
** Rosenm., Mau..
ttGASm..
"O
it
thou that speakest thus to the house of
not be said, O, etc." "Shall one say to the

;
f M. Jastrow, in Frankel's Monatschrijt, 1872.

Cal., Ke..
ft Ew., Casp.,
Hi..
Stei.,
Um..
2'-
house of Jacob?"*
7.
Yahweh
Is
"slow
anger"
to
"Is
6i
this the talk of the
impatient or are such his deeds

(cf.
Ex. 34), and
This was the
to Israel?]
prophets
?]
not
Is
Yahweh
has not our entire history
Do
strated his beneficent purpose toward us?
good
house of Jacob?" f-
encountered by
difficulty
demon-
not his words mean

all
the
the failure on the part of the people to realise that Yah-
weh's favour was conditioned upon the character of his people, and
no amount of ritual or protestations of loyalty could supply the

lack of truth and justice. The great task of prophecy, therefore,
was to inform the national conception of God with moral content.
reads here, do not my words mean good to him that walketh uprightly?
But this necessitates joining the line as an utterance from
Yahweh with v. * and constitutes very bad Hebrew for the last
that
Of
clause.
the various emendations
best suits the
demands
Str. V, in the
(v. s.) offered,
words of Yahweh himself, makes crushing reply
"How
to the protest of the rich oppressors,
when your deeds are evil?"

But ye have become
verse
it is
can you expect good
elegiac strain continues.
people's foe]
The Hebrew
HI, Formerly
no proper object
up against those that
are at peace]
my
people as
an enemy
Ye
of the transitive 'raise.'
The
rich
make
hostile plans
against the unsuspecting poor to compass their spoliation
The most common
struction.
line to
treatment of
is to
and de-
connect the
draw jID^Sn from the following

this one, and translate, /row upon the garment ye pull off the
The outer and more expensive garment is seized as security
'rise
robe.
8.
to those
worst enemies.'
raised up, etc., offers
verb
text of this
As
v. s..
who have been so loud in their
Micah's message of woe. 'You yourselves are
an address
resentment of
rise
my
The
badly corrupt; for the emendations adopted,
is
emended
Israel's
the foregoing
of the context.
up' with the
first line,
to
for debt, in violation of Ex. 22^- ".

larly
means
'in front of,'
But the preposition b^D reguand the word IIW not occurring elsewhere
,
an error for the ordinary word

which was added on the margin by some reader as a more
in this sense, is better considered as

ri"l^t<,
specific designation of the
D''D^ty
had become
* Dr., Exp., 1878.
garment
il'obik^.
Ye
in question after the original
strip offfrom those passing by in

t Or..
MICAH
62
The words
confidence booty of war]
of this line are not to be taken
prophet is not necessarily speaking of actual highway
literally; the
robbery; his thought is rather exactly parallel to that of the preceding line " You take advantage of innocent, trusting neighboiirs
:
and
them as though they were enemies."
plvmlder
cult; the best
mantle ye
line, the
war; but
it
many and
various.
9.
i. e.
in their
lay field to field," they
or even to
sell
diffi-
so heinous a crime
do not
{v. s.),
and
But
it is
abnormal transaction.
mean
does not
little
reflect glory
ones of ever
make not
Old Testament
Furthermore, the phrase
'the glory of dwelling in
nated "their glory."
ah,
on slavery seem not
possibility, for they
the only case in the
is
the
the
an altogether
"my glory"
Yahweh's
can-
land,' for this
upon Yahweh, while the thought of

Yahweh would be more naturally
Then too, the vb. 'expel' suits 'home'
granted to the people by
et
very questionable whether
Joseph to the Midianites by his brethren
not well
away my
Wellhausen,
referred to here; the laws
it;
people ye
interpret the verse of
which deprives the
have contemplated such a dire
slightest allusion to
my
hesitate to render families homeless
"homes"
Yahweh.
is
of
greedy haste to "join house to house and
selling into foreign servitude
living in the land of
sale of
very
their babes ye take
the fathers into slavery for debt.
substitute "children" for
to
The women
From
expel from their pleasant homes;

glory for ever]
is
it is, if
foimd elsewhere, and the meanings given to
'^^1^ is not
have been
iK
fTnX may be connected with this

strip from those who pass by in security, averse to
rendering of
'
'glory
desig-
better
than 'children,' and the preposition 'from upon' suits better the
removal of fathers from their children than the taking away of the
privilege of residence
from the
'glory' as applied to
men,
cf.
For the use of the term
latter.
Is.
5^^-
".
The yeomen
of Israel
might well be designated as Yahweh's glory.

Str.
VI
is
Yahweh's
place]
curt,
summary dismissal
of the guilty to their
doom. ^10. Arise and go! for this is not your restingThose who have driven out others are now themselves to
irrevocable
be driven out.
an irremediable
Because of uncleanness, ye shall be destroyed with

destruction] Men strict in their observance of
ceremonial law, no doubt, are here brought face to face with their
own
inner depravity and Yahweh's insistent and terrible
demand
2-"
63
hands and a pure heart."
for "clean
spirit offalsehood lies, saying,
"I
11.
man
If a
walking in a
will prophecy to thee of wine
a later addition as shown by

nection with
by the contents of
partly
prosaic form
its
immediate context.
its
**
v.
It
In contrast to the denimciatory
^Sl quite
An
dys.
ity (or
common
(v. i.)
lies is to
Micah with
is
This rendering of
and
of v.
To "walk
To them Micah
" adopts a use of
v.
a case of hendia-
treats îptt'l riTH as
in
"walking in vanIs. 41^^
The
falsehood" and preach
spirit of
deceive people deliberately, and
^.
his relentless message,
presented.
alternative rendering for the phrase is
ceive unwittingly.
is far
worse than to de-
substance of the false teaching
is
the
prom-
material prosperity and blessings of the most sensuous char-
This
acter.
will
lack of con-
emptiness) and falsehood"; for this use of UT\, cf
Jb. 7^ 15^ Ec. i".
ise of
its
is
seems to have been suggested
and partly by the severe terms
a picture of the popular prophets
pays his respects in 3^^-.
and by
and
This verse
strong drink," he becomes the prophet of this people]
not
the only thing that will content the populace; they
is
listen to the
ever impalatable,
words of the true prophet whose message, how-
bom
is
of
supreme devotion
to their highest
To
change ]în to the perfect tense as some do {v. s.) involves either an awkward asyndeton for the verb ^TJD or else the
good.
separation of the phrase
man walk in
is
v^dnd
and
"iptt^l
falsely
mi
lie,
redundant as a modifier of
;3T3
taken as a unit and modifying

1.
P"\
erence
had
certainly present in Ps. 58',
'planning'
is
and the phrase
Iptl'
is
however
much
better
"]în.
if
the text
not in the vb. Syo
phrase in the heart which

'
may have
The
For the meaning 'prepare,' 'work out in advance,' refto such passages as Ps. 7'* 58' Is. 41^.
This thought is
'S;'Di]
is
between the two verbs thus, "if a

saying, etc."
'
is
is
sound; but even there the idea of
itself,
attached.
but
plainly expressed
is
by the
The question at issue is whether
without such modifying phrase. It is

41^ where the twovbs. 'd and ncj? are more
naturally treated as exact equivalents, being rendered who hath wrought
and done it.' Nor is there any reason in Ps. 7'^ for departing from the
'd
that sense in
itself,
clearly not required in Is.
'
usual sense;
when
the psalmist says that
surely does not imply that
*7n]
iom.
Yahweh
'
Yahweh 'makes
devises ' or plans
In the sense of 'strength,' 'power,' Sn
Nor can
this
'
is
'
his arrows,'
he
them beforehand.
found only
meaning be definitely connected with the \/
in this idSin.
the context of the various occurrences of the phrase seems to
But
demand
MICAH
64
this sense; (B in all cases save this
one gives
this force; likewise
it
& and
The alternative rendering, "their hand is as a god," is quite unnatural when the phrase is negatived and, as No. has indicated, would
require the Hebrew SxS dt dhS r\:^-n, while the h after e*" and fx must be
(3.
Recently, however, this latter view has been revived
a genuine dative.
Brockelmann, ZAW. XXVI ('06), 29^.,

found among many peoples that the various
members of the body are tenanted by spirits which control their activities.
But such beliefs among American Indians, West Africans and anin
somewhat
different form.
calls attention to the belief
Hebrews; nor is the Arabs' belief

stomach any more convincing,
cient Persians prove nothing for the
that hunger
due
is
to a serpent in the
even though serpents and
Whitehouse,
spirits are frequently identical.
Isaiah {Cent. Bible), II, 344, explains on this same basis the use
throughout the Mediterranean littoral of the facsimile of a hand as a
'
'
'prophylactic to the depredator or the evil eye'; but surely
not neces-
it is
sary to limit ourselves to this theory for an explanation of the magic hand.
The
objections urged above hold good in part against this newer view,
while the conception
"god
of
my hand"
In any case,
real Semitic parallel.
if
remains at present without any
such a concept ever did
exist in
had long passed out of the consciousness of the people in

Old Testament times. 2. inb'ji] A bold figure; nowhere else does
pia 'j occur.
4. Nr^]
3. ncn] On adv. use of the subst., cf. Ges. "^ 1.
The indefinite is often, as here, equiv. to a passive, like German man,
early Israel,
it
French on.
Ry.,
and used alongside
in
et al.)
According
r\^'ni\
to
Ko.
fem. of
", the
the Vrss.,
>nj (so
of the masc. to express indefiniteness; but
Ko. ^""'', cited as expressing the superlative idea; cf. Is.

Ew., Hi., Che., have taken it as Niph. pf of n>n, meaning
7,'^.
e. g.
'
either as the
one
say,
'b*:]
The
title
"we
of the dirge, or as
are, etc.";
dirge
On
'vf
32itt''?]
uib'j, cf.
propriate; in Je. 49S of
Abraham and
quite abnormal.
is
3:2; M, however, exactly
Ges.
" ".
'S]
Ace. to
M,
apostate, rebel; here of Assyria,
Ammon, which
^na'
by a
reverses
dat. ethicus,
and
so inap-
was, like Israel, a descendant of
thus could properly be charged with having deserted the

(& connects
faith of the fathers; in Je. 31^2, of Israel itself.
preceding as an
infin..
5.
San TiSar]
'n as
an obj. of
it
with the
"iSc forces
the latter a meaning, such as 'stretch' or 'adjust' (van H.), which
not elsewhere have, nor can

late origin of the verse,
22*), Ju. 20^ 2i5-
it
easily
assume.
but does not demand
I s. 17^7
all early.
Nor
Snp]
it,
any
;
does
consistent with
specific
it is
upon
it
(Nu.
Messianic
a designation ap-
by foreigners (Nu. 22^) or to foreigners by Israelites

'P here is synonymous with "the people of Yahweh," or
plicable to Israel
'^^
is
for 'p occurs in
is
idea implied in the use of the term {contra Marti)
(i S. 17")-
done,'
done," will
viz. "it is
consists of a longer line followed
shorter, usually in the proportion
Ges. ^"".
word,
but such a use of idn
rhythm always
that order here.
its first
Others,
it is
2*-"
"the inheritance of Yahweh."

force of T'an,
N*?
z;.
ZAW.
6.
id'E)'
n>
'"
to reply with
'>
vh
is
On
orig.
nS in the form of a question,
"shall one not preach to such as these?".
treatment of
po^tO' iD>t3n "?s]
Or. accounts for change from Sk to
Ill, 119.
by making Micah begin
65
M be retained, the only
If
as a positive prohibition by the rich, "they shall not
For inf. abs. Qal with Hiph. impf. as in emended

Yot other cases of vb. in sg. masc. before a
fem. pi. subj., Ges. ^'"o; Ko. ^^^î. On the intensive pi. pidS;] Ko.
^261 h
the change to sg. (Now.) is unnecessary, nor need '1 r\^'2 be made
7. iiDNn] As it stands, this can be only a Qal pass,
the subj. (Marti).
prtc, either with the article, or with n interrog, (Ges. ^ loo"; Ko. "3 w)
preach such things."
text, V.
Ges.
'" w.
_jd>]
Ko. ^ ^- ^. But
dn] This indirect question does not propound two alternatives,
V. s..
but rather two phases of the same thought; Ges. ^'ô '; Ko. ^'" . ay
^S1^ -iti'in] An adv. use of t*:'' "one walking as the righteous," i. e.
righteously.
But the order of words is difficult. Jb. 31''^, "I'^n ip^ m>,
with gerundive sense, "is
it
be said?"
to
Cf.
is
the
n-\i is
not a parallel case, for there
main word
which
to
'n
i|-)_i
attached as an attendant circumstance, while here the main word
and comes
Not only
last.
so,
Indeed
ditional difficulty.
but the use of the
in Jb. 3126 there
is
article
with "vy
no reason
is
is
is I'^n
an ad-
for treating
ip''
an ordinary adjective and rendering a glorious moon as it

Ko. ^ "'^ ', cites the analogy of the Hal clause in Arabic,
passed along
which permits this order when the governing word is a participle as here.
On the use of article with nty and its absence from l'?in, cf. Wright, Arab.
Gram. " fp- ^- "' ^. 8. Sidhni] This word is without force in this
context; Micah is concerned not with the dead past, but the living pres-
as other than
'
'
ent.
of v.
not unlikely that this
^ca] It is
^,
or has been dislodged from
is
not indispensable.
transitive
form
is
a dittog. of cy in the
place after Snib'i
it
ODip'']
requires also
requires
Ty
location of four d's
is
of, to
the
noun
an object which is not forthcoming.

Sice] The colall in 2d pers. pi..
ncStt']
miN
applies to the mantle, or cloak,
and petty
cf.
'2V is
(n being lost before 'dp; so
worn as an overcoat.
On
oic']
BDB.),
this
seems
the gen. rela-
Ko. ^ "^ "; on the pass. prtc. denoting a state

But the harshness of this &w. idiom seems to call
the text; v. s.. The most serious objection to the emencf.
that in
its
ordinary sense of 'captives' or 'captivity'
not constitute a suitable object for pasycp.

furnishes a use of
Some Heb.
But
Ko. ^ ^^ ^.
for correction of
dation
This designates the ordinary outer
in the present context.
tion instead of a prep.,
or quality,
here,
suspicious, as also the unsuitability of this prep.,=
garment, while tin], to be read

too detailed
text)
as subject, but as a
Furthermore, the succeeding vbs. are

frotn in front
last clause
emended
{v.
Such an arrangement yields a smoother sentence
so Marti, Now.^.
but
its
'ac
But Am.
4'<',
very close to that called for here.
mss. followed by Baer read "Nipa,
i. e.
pi.
3d
it
does
ao^DiD '2^ oy,
sg.
10.
nsr-^-]
Qal; but this
MICAH
66
whereas the
difficult after -na>o,
is
tion
uncleanness {HWB.^^), which
noun
(BDB.).
^NCif
11.
it is
nn
sphere of the action, Ko. ^"os^
na
Pr.
nvff^yy,
inf. cstr.
But smoother sense
prep..
foil.
There
6'2.
is
results
iS3 is a normal construcfrom the noun-form ^^'oa,
of
better to follow than to posit the
^S^]
An
'n,
cf. r\V}n
no need
to
Jb. 29'; ipB-a 'n, Je. 23'*; 'n
change the
matic use of walk' as designating a manner of

'
justify
text {v. s.)
life is
the idio-
common enough
to
M.
The Return of
5.
dir.
ace. designating the goal or
the Exiles
(2^2. i3)_
later editor, in a single eight-line str., prevailingly trimeter in
movement,
announcement
offsets the
of exile
made
in
4 by a
promise of Israel's return from exile under the protection and
Yahweh.
leadership of
WILL
surely assemble Jacob,
I will surely
all
of him;
gather the remnant of Israel.
put them together like a flock in the fold,

Like a herd in the midst of the pasture.
The breaker will go forth before them;
They will break through the gate and go forth thereat;
And their king will pass on before them;
I will
Yea,
Yahweh
at their head.
This arrangement involves two modifications of M; (i) the omission

words of v. as a gloss, (2) the omission of nî'ii from v. "
as a dittograph of nayi in the following line. The str. shows a gradual
diminution in the length of its lines, from tetrameter through trimeter to
of the last two
dimeter
all
(in
of M.
''
the last line only).
and beginning
Marti obtains a ten-line
his eighth line with
"^'^'C?
str.
by retaining
notwithstanding
pensable 'sevens' by omitting n>->Nr and the last two words of
supposing a
The
2'-"
loss of
one foot
treatments.
felt.
Among
The
others,
it
the threatening language of v.

etc."; so
e. g.
Ki.,
Ephraem
close
v.
"and
after nya'.
difficulty of establishing
has long been
its
Siev. secures four of his indis-
relation to the preceding vbs. as object.
any connection between these verses and

history of interpretation records various
has been interpreted as a continuation of

'", i. e.
"I
will
gather them to destruction,
Syrus, Theodoret, Grotius, Tarnovius, Cal.,
and in recent times van H.. Again, as the teaching of false prophets, either
spoken by Micah himself, viz. 'if I prophesy to this people of wine, etc.,
and say to them, "I will gather, etc." (so e. g. AE., Mich., Struensee);
or as a marginal note by Micah or an early reader representing the
contents of false prophecy (so e. g. Ew.) or as an interruption of Micah's utterance by the false prophets themselves (so e. g. Kl., Ro., Or.).
But against all three alternatives lies the fatal objection that these verses
'
212-13
67
presuppose the exile as a matter of fact

never admitted the possibility of exile
tent of the verses
is
whereas the popular prophets

Furthermore, the con-
3").
{cf.
thoroughly in keeping with the teachings of the true
prophets of certain periods
Another supposition
(t^. z.).
that,
is
though
belonging to Micah, the verses are out of their original connection; so
who
Ry., Ko. Einl. 327, Dr.; Stei.
e. g.
The
origin of 2"- ".
the exile
on
uisites
total lack of
for the exilic or postexilic
and the dispersion; the lack of any moral or religious prereqIsrael's part to the restoration of Yahweh's favour; the use of
(cf.
Gie., Beitrdge
z.
Jesaia-Kritik,
and conception to such late pasall combine to mark the passage as
îid the parall. in phraseology
ff-)'i
sages as Ho. 2"

late (so Sta.
WRS.
Condamin,
after 4';
connection and the presupposition of
'remnant' to designate returning exiles
37
them
places
RB. 1902, who makes them foil. 4'.

The evidence, however, seems convincing
II"
Is.
ZAW.
^- 52'' Je. 31',
162 /.; Kue.
I,
Eitil. II,
359
Proph.\ XXIII; We.; Now.; Grimm,
/.;
Lit.
Cor. 340; Che. in
A pp.;
Marti; Siev.).
more severe ending for the chapter,

made good connection (so Kue., Now.,
Possibly these verses have displaced a
with which the ncxi of 3' originally
Grimm).
12. iDNs] (S shall be gathered, perhaps a free rendering (Ry.).
Vntj'\ <gA ihis people.
21
1^3] Rd., with We., iVs; so Now.,
3p>'^]
Oort^"'-, Marti, Hal., Siev., Gu.;
cf.
(B
ffiiv iraffiv.
ucipn]
obj., TTjx dTro(XTpo<pr]y aiiTov {cf. (T's similar addition
Taylor would insert
2,
iv
cf.
ni'ta
iv
-i";??!.
mp
(so
over to
foil,
Against the reading
dia TTJi SiaKonijs
verse.
vi-\fl
nayi]
and
iNX''i,
12. Jacob,
all
(8
nji inDnv
T^sn
Om.
and
of
B in ovili.
and
Vj;.
na-in]
naj.
their lair.
Van H.
i?in.
"B
when
anxc]
ix"is]
the
S 9
& is
<g they shall escape.
Van H.
d^jnc.
tî
Rd. nrrnpi; so
13.
yiijn nS>]
<g
& sg.. A omits with remainder of the
as dittog. from
the
Ch.
Rd., with Ro.,
caularum.
njD^nn]
foil, line;
it is
tautologous between
likewise superfluous in the metre.
him
Hpt.
^-l^sa,
expect n-cs here,
We., Gr., Now., OortE""-, Marti, Hal., Gu..
Van H.
cf.
&); so Dathe, Taylor,
word; so Ry., SS., Elh., Pont, Gu., Now.,
hence Gr., Hal. naip.
concealed.
HWB.^^;
occurs in Gn. 25" Nu. 31"' Ez. 25^ Ps. 69"
Marti, Siev., Hpt..
Oort^""-,
6\l\l/ei
the equivalent forms ixj
carrying
adds as
Rd., with Wetzstein (in De. Jesaia^,
we should hardly
that
equivalent form
ip-^fxov;
mxi]
Hpt.
Hal. mija.
makes the point
i3-in,
(g
6xvp<i!fJiaTi.
van H..
6"; but
in''2r.
so Now., Oort'^-, Marti, Siev., Gu.,
n-;>]!5;
705)
(S
with V^Pn); hence
remnant of
terms the whole of the Hebrew people
is
i>U']
Israel]
om..
By
these
embraced, the
two
latter
phrase probably referring to the survivors of the northern kingdom.
The
exile
and
dispersion are here treated not as possibilities, but
MICAH
68
Passages like this and
as actually existing facts.
4*"*,
written in
when everything visible to the human eye was fraught with

discouragement and gloom, reveal the extraordinary capacity of the
Hebrew soul for faith faith in its God and in its destiny. The
periods
in iH, must give place to that of the

3d person (v. s.), in view of the parallel pronouns of the remainder
of the poem.
It is impossible to find anything but words of encouragement and comfort here.* Together will I put them like a
Put together is here synonymous with the preflock in the fold]
pronoun of the 2d person, as
'
'
ceding 'assemble' and 'gather.'
It refers
not only to the two
halves of the nation heretofore separated but also to the

less
widely scattered groups of exiles in various lands.
pora' began early, as
is
more or
The
'
dias-
demonstrated by the existence of a Jewish
colony at Assuan on the Nile at least as early as 550 B.c.f

sheep of Bozrah yields no satisfactory sense; nor
'flock of the fold,' for botsrah does not
is it
RV.'s
safe to render
have the meaning 'fold
'
else-
where, cannot be assigned to any root which yields such a sense,
and lacks the preposition

quire.
It is therefore
ing from M', V.
s..
'
in
'
which the parallelism seems
to re-
necessary to adopt a shghtly different read-
Like a herd in
the midst of the pasture]
The
employed imply not merely the bringing together of Israel

from its different places of exile, but also the thought of Yahweh's
similes
protecting care after the return;
cf.
Ps. 23^
And
they will he
tumultuous with people] These two words are a later expansion
shown by the looseness of their connection, by the difficulty of

grammar, and by their redundance in the metre.J The subject apparently is the 'fold' and the 'pasture.'
For the figure in
the Hebrew, literally 'they will roar on account of men,' as desas
the
13.
The breaker will

and herd is still retained, but the scene now shifts from Palestine as the fold and pasture to the land of exile as a prison.
Thence will Yahweh lead
them forth, going before them like the ram of the flock to break
down every barrier and remove every obstacle. That Yahweh is
ignating great masses of people,
go forth before them]
The
7*^.
cf. Is. 1
figure of the flock
lines i, 2
(v. s.), who finds it necessary to eliminate

who misunderstood the tenor of the passage,
V. JMPS. in Biblical World, XXXI (1908). 448 fj..
So also
basis.
* Contra van H.
one
Siev.,
though working upon a different metrical
and 8 as glosses made by
212-13
6^
shown by the parallel terms in lines 7 and 8, which

any attempt to identify the 'breaker' with
some particular part of the Israelitish army after the analogy of
^- ^^.*
The same verb is used to describe
I S. 13" Ju. 20^
Jos. 6^Yahweh's activity in Ex. ig"^- ^' 2 S. 5=" i Ch. 14" Ps. Zo'\They
will break through the gate and go forth thereat] The words and
the
'
breaker
seem
'
is
fatal objections to
^-
'
pass on' which H| presents immediately after 'break through'

are redundant and render the following 'go forth' belated and
Furthermore, the rendering 'pass on to the gate'
superfluous.
(so
RV.) leaves the preceding verb without an
sense 'pass through'

these difficulties
is
is
object, while the
When
difficult without a preposition.
added the metrical redundance,
it
to
seems nec-
And their king will

head] The 'king' and
essary to relegate the phrase to the margin.
pass on before them, Yea
Yahweh
Yahweh
at their
are here identical, as in Je. 22^ Zp. 3'^
To
Ps. 89'.
Is. 33^^ 41^^ 43^^
44^
interpret 'king' as designating the Messianic ruler
monarch would involve a double headship and leaderreturning procession such as finds no parallel elsewhere
or the exiled
ship of the
in the
31^*-
Old Testament.
Is.
For other pictures of similar tone,
cf.
Je.
40^^- 52^1
n-i-ixti'] Found prior to Isaiah

12. n'^3] For this use of So, cf. on i".
and Micah only in Gn. 45^ (E), 2 S. 14^ Am. i^ 5'^, i. e. twice in the sense
of posterity, once of the few surviving Philistines, and once of decimated
Israel.
Isaiah is the first to introduce the thought of a holy remnant and
to apply it to returning exiles; cf. Meinhold, Der heilige Rest (1903).
mi-^] Ordinarily taken as from "1X3, be inaccessible (common to Heb.
and Ar.) and given the meaning fold; v. s.. The reading nn^3 is
supported in part by ^ ^ and furnishes a good parallel to nina. The
noun r\yi is a by-form of nnia, corresponding to the Ar. sira, and
applied in Heb., Ar. and Syr. to the low stone wall surrounding an
encampment, or to the encampment itself, or to a sheepfold similarly
protected.
5
303 e_
n^Ti]
of this vb.
fem.
Proph.
Na.
cf.
Ko.
is
pf.;
2'.
^
derives this
because the subjects
pi.
cf.
For other cases of art. with sf., cf. Ges. ^'2"; Ko.
from ain, but the existence of the Hiph.
doubtful; the derivation from ncn {v. s.) is better. The
njD-'nn]
n-j^x
often used of return

iNxî]
"^ Dr.
On
proph.
pf.
and
from
"lai
represent things.
exile, e. g.
continued by
waw
8t.
* Contra Dr. Exp. 1887, pp. 259
/..
Ho. i"
13.
r\^-;]
2'^ Is. iji^;
consec. with impf.,
MICAH
70
Denunciation of the Leaders and Prophets
6.
Of
the seven four-line
strs.
constituting this
(3^"').
poem, three are
devoted to the secular leaders, three to the religious, and the

to
Micah
last
himself.
Str. I charges the leaders of Israel with having perverted their

calling
they who should love and honour

and
pictures their oppression of the poor
helpless.
nounces a day of disaster when these leaders
ward
and
of their deeds
who
leading Israel astray.

clares the time to
Str. Ill an-
reap the due re-
Yahweh turns a deaf ear to their

Str. IV turns the charge against the
being actuated by mercenary motives are
Str.
V, vmder the figure of an
hand when
be at
will
find that
cry for help in their distress.
prophets of the day
devoted to
justice are
Str. II in highly figurative language
the pursuit of wickedness.
eclipse, de-
the impotence of these prophets
become manifest prophets without vision. Str. VI describes

the shame and confusion that will overwhelm them when they
discover that God heeds not their cry. Str. VII sets forth, in sharp
will
contrast to the powerlessness just described, Micah's conscious-
ness of his
own
authority
TJEAR
and power
to
denounce the
now, ye heads of Jacob,
And
rulers of the house of Israel:
Is
not yours to
it
Ye who
pjUT
know
justice,
hate good and love evil?
they eat the flesh of
And
And
sins of Israel.
my
people,
from upon them they strip off;

their bones they lay bare and break them up,
Like meat in the pot, and flesh within the caldron.
their skin
'T'HEN will they cry unto Yahweh,

And he will not answer them;
But will hide his face from them.
Inasmuch as they have made their deeds
[Thus has Yahweh
rÔNCERNING
Who when
But as
for
evil.
said:]
the prophets
who
lead
my
people astray,
they bite with their teeth preach peace;
him who puts not
into their
mouths
Against him they declare war.
"yHEREFORE,
And
it
will
be night for you without vision.
darkness for you without divination.
upon those prophets.

become dark over them.
Yea, the sun
will set
And
will
the
day
3'"'
A ND
71
the seers will be ashamed,
And
And
the diviners will blush,
they will cover the upper
Because there
is
lip, all of
them,
no answer from God.
gUT
I, indeed, am full of power,

And justice and strength.
To declare to Jacob his transgression,
And to Israel his sin.
The symmetry of
each, the opening
poem
the
In both groups of three
apparent.
is
2d str. presents a series of bold figures,

same climax Yahweh's refusal to hear
more, Strs. Ill and VI alike are made
nouncements of doom which fall like
and the
(so
We., Now., Marti, Gu.;
of
n^r^T^
v. ^^
nya in
up
the blows of a sledge-hammer.
Gu., Du.)
and
ZDMG.
Lohr,
from
ns
v.
Further-
of short trenchant lines, an-
as a repetition of tx in
nn
r^^nt
cf.
closing str. declares the
the cry of the wicked.
This arrangement presupposes the omission of
excision of
strs.
contains the address and the general charge, the
str.
v. ^^-
as a variant of
LXI, 3-6);
(so Marti, Siev.); the
'
v.
v.
the treatment
as a gloss (so We., Now., Marti, Siev.,
the exclusion of the introductory formulas in
w. '-^
as
extraneous to the poetic form.
Lohr and
Siev. agree in excluding vv.
from
^-^
and including
this piece
w. '-", but this fails to do justice to the symmetrical relations between

w. *' and 5-8 on the one hand, and the logical and formal independence
on the other. Furthermore, their metrical arrangement (Lohr,
of w.
-'''
44-3 + 3; Siev. 7 + 3) takes too great liberties with the text, removing no
of vv. '-s, i. e. nearly one-fourth
less than twenty-five words from the
and adding two words
of the material,
1. -\DNi]
less
(JS
at the opening of v.
HNi, as in v.
';
with Qr..
3.
pudSn.
(jgAQ
throw
iirh
apj;'']
so Hal..
into.
(&9^ and
Gr.
flf
dffrioiv
ntyso]
Rd.
12 codd. of
it.
'2
niy.
Dn^Spn]
rpbirov.
airQv.
~i!<"f?,
&H
iirnoi]
with
(St
Hal.
om.
^.
soE, unfi> add
gloss;
N'j"ijrc!r]
<S
Kenn. and de R.,
'
Hal.
&
(hey
ny-i]
'.
did'h^ Sjjd.
"inc'i.
1.
n''3,
2.
oniDxy]
Taylor,
(& ol KaToXonroi; so also in v.
''J''sp]
(&
-la'xi]
a-ny]
rdv
om. as
iDNi; We., Marti, Gu., Hpt.
in tempore at the close of a" represents
as in V.
J?-;,
&=
(5 Kal ifx.^\i(rav;
so
"&.
Rd.
on^'Syn]
us (rdpKas; so Doderlein, Dathe,
Bauer, Jus., Ro., Stek., Taylor, Elh., We., Pont, Gr., Gu., Now.,
Oort^-, Marti, Lohr, Siev., van H., Du., Hpt.. Now., slavishly foil,
by Marti,
ally.
cites
Hal.
here, partly
(!g
avd''
S)v;
&
"iNK'D.
in
from v.
so &.
support of this reading, but
4.
tN]
<S oBtws.
on'-sp =ity>p>; cf. Siev..
'ui
ij7"(n]
causa, as in
M after
by
(g freely, they
practices against themselves; similarly
rendering, corrected
B.
but
inserts
irdii] Marti, inDM.
-wxj]
have
where (S adds
it.
gloss,
dealt wickedly in their
5. la'ipi] (S ifyeipav, a free
several codd. to rjylaffap.
iN-ip,
& reproduces M liter-
Lohr om. as
v*^;;]
rih^h jj*?]
Siev.
om. metri
We. and Now.
MICAH
72
insert ri>n\;
(5.
cf.
nDtrm]
Rd., with Hartmann, nsB'ni;
so Ry., Or.,
Taylor, SS., Elh., We., Pont, Gr., Now., Marti, Hal., van H., Hpt., Du..
Gu.,
DCiS' hjj]
lor),
^ treats as a verbal form. aopc] HWB.^\ Marti, Hpt., Du.,
TiU'ni.
Dp,7P for
sake of parallelism with prn; but the rhyme supports
itjyi
Taywhere
but a mere guess. Cf. Schnurrer, Vol., Ry.. In Ez. 24"- 22

'>' by Trapa/caX^w; in Lv. 13^*, by irepi^dKiff-
this
phrase occurs, 05 renders
Oco.
Stek. therefore suggests that (S derived
appear
in
25", by
&pfir)cras
iSJ,
tov
if
diffOai. in i S.
from
a^^S^] 05 oiJtwi'
"iSix.
from a^y; but where o^j? does

it by kXIvu} in i S. 14'*
15", and by Biaimffacdai in BS. 34'^.
nj;;D] Some Heb codd. ^)St^; so(6&.
CS failed to recognise
# renders V as
M.
<S Kal KaTaka.\j]<Tovaiv Kar avrCbv, not a free rendering {contra
nat".
dhi^n;
Up.
it
rendering
it,
&=
ur\-hn dihSn.
8.
Several codd. of (B read dXXd
iKCx}\(>dri.
dSixi] 05 âj*
/ti};'
= M.
m^
TinSc] 05
some codd. iveir\i^(Tdr]v. nin'' nn nx n;] Om. as gloss, '"( hn,

with We., Now., Marti, Siev., Du., Hpt.. Gie. Berufsbegabung, 123,
om.; so cod. Reuch.
om. PN nj. Oort^""-,'' nn3 no. rniaji tajjirm]
VniciVi] Two
of Sf; so Taylor, Pont, Siev.. Chrysostom om. oejb'di.
ifnrXi^ffu;
'>
mss. of (5
''5'''
piaSi,
Str. I charges the rulers of Israel with having grossly betrayed
the trust reposed in them,

abettors of
the guardians of
crime.
But I
in
factory connection of this phrase
found.
it
1.
viîth
has no point of contact, and of 2"
No
said]
satis-
anything preceding can be
After the removal of the interpolation
made with
have become
justice
and participants
(v. s.),
2^^- ^^,
with which
connection might be
2^"
by rendering, 'Furthermore, I said'; but a particle

would be expected to express such an idea, and it presupposes a
close integration of thought between 2^ and 3^ ^- which does not
Rather does a new theme present itself in ch. 3. It may be
some connecting link between 2^ and 3^ has been lost otherwise, this phrase must be regarded as an obscure marginal note.
exist.
that
Heads of Jacob and

terminology in v.
rulers of the house of Israel]
with the specifications in
that the address both here
and there
and Jerusalem in
The knowledge required
particular.
general
is
is to
not mere
the
The
^,
Know justice]
Cf.
tions
administration of law.
duct
is,
for
2.
its
aims which
Ye who
Am.
3^".
intellectual appreciation of
the principles of justice, but a practical understanding of
and a sympathy with
identical
makes it clear
officials of Judah in
v.
will lead to
hate good,
etc.]
its
obliga-
a righteous
Their con-
Micah, susceptible of no other explanation.
Ye who
3'"*
pluck their skin
bones]
73
from upon them and their flesh from upon their

is shown by the lack of any antecedents for the
gloss as
pronouns, and by
Str. II is
its
substantial identity of contents with v.
marked by
^.
the transfer to the 3d person from the 2d
person of direct address in Str.
and by the contrast the picture
I,
of
the actual conduct of the rulers affords to the ideal suggested for
them
in Str. I,
3.
But they
eat the flesh of
my
people]
The
people
mercy of wild
are in Micah's eyes like a defenceless flock at the
who shovild protect the flock have pounced

upon them like ravening wolves. Micah's passionate sympathy
with his countrymen is reflected in the pronoun "my." And their
beasts; the watch-dogs
from upon them they strip off and lay bare their bones] The
employed suggest the violence and lawlessness of the
processes whereby the very life was crushed out of the small landowners. And break them up like meat in the pot and flesh within
the caldron] These words are omitted by some scholars as an edi-
skin
figures here
torial
Similes or compar-
expansion of the preceding figure.*
isons are not
common
wholly lacking
in
(i** ^* 3^)
Mi. 1-3,
nor
is
it is
though they are not
true,
the adjustment to the metre here
the most easy; while the verbs lay bare'

'
and 'break' have
objects, the latter referring to the fellow-citizens of

all this is
different
Micah.
But
Micah, quite as well
not conclusive of secondary origin.
as a later reader, could carry his figure through to the very end.
The
devastation of the poor
Str. Ill
is total
nore the cry of these oppressors
have ignored his

they cry]
cf.
34*^.
moved
irreparable.
call to
now brought
righteousness and justice.
'then' in
Am.
answer them] For the converse of
But
will hide his face
to pity
by the
vidll ig-
low, because they
4.
Then
reference to the coming judgment spoken of in
the similar use of 'now' as
will not
and
announces the coming of a day when Yahweh
6^
Ho.
2*^.
this attitude,
will
2^- ^-
^'';
And
he
cf.
Ps.
from them] That he may not be
sight of their distress.
A common figure
for
* So We., Now., Marti, Lohr, Siev., Gu..

t If the language of Micah be thought stronger than the facts warranted, attention need
only be called to the atrocities perpetrated upon the peasants of
Germany
in a
supposedly more
outbreak of the Peasants' War and that too with the support of the laws.
See SchafF, History oj the Christian Church, VI, 440 if.; Newman, Manual oj
Church History, II, 69 i}.; Zimmermann, Allgemeine Geschichte des grossen Bauernkriegs
civilised age,
CiS54)-
which resulted
in the
MICAH
74
the divine displeasure;
At that time}
more
8^^
cf. Is. i^^
gloss, as
Dt. 31"-
shown by
'^ 32=^"
closely the application of 'then' in line i;
as they have
made
their deeds evil]
plying a comparison;
Jb. 13^^ Ps. 13^
the metre,* intended to define
cf.
2^.
pregnant use of
Inasmuch
'ntt'SS,
the wicked conduct of the rich
evidence that they have turned a deaf ear to the call of
through his prophets;
IV
Str.
Yahweh now
them
treats
in like
charges with base subservience to
Thus has Yahweh
said]
poem;
who lead my
members of
of
whom
God.
Yahweh
manner.f
selfish ends.
cf.
Am.
5.
This phrase, stating the divine authority
of the message about to be uttered, lies outside of the
of
im-
clear
turns to another class of offenders, the popular prophets,
whom Micah
of the
is
i*^ 2^^ 3^^^ 4^ 8^.
people astray]
The
movement
Concerning the prophets
prophets here denovmced are the
the prophetic guilds (see H.^^, xlix-lviii), the best
were victims of a too narrow patriotism and a low idea

Micah, with the undiscriminating passion of mdigna-
them all alike as swayed by unworthy motives. The

between the lower and the higher types of prophecy began at
least as early as the days of Micaiah ben Imlah (i K. 22) and grew
tion, treats
cleft
wider with each succeeding generation;
cf.
3" Am. f^
Is. 9*^ Je. 28.
But the true prophet, in the face of opposition and isolation, remained certain that he only was the interpreter of the will of God.
Who
when
they bite with their teeth preach peace]
Not
in the
sense that they hypocritically proclaim prosperity though conscious that they are all the time injuring the people; J but, as
is
shown by the foUovmig lines, that their good vidll is conditioned

upon their being well fed. For a later estimate of the value and
But if one
authenticity of prophecies of prosperity, see Je. 28*- ^.
war against him] It seems
war is meant by this,** than
puts not into their mouths they declare

less likely that prediction of national
that these mercenary prophets levy a tyrannical species of black-
mail upon their constituents.
The man who
will
not contribute
* So Marti, Now.^, Lahr, Siev., Gu., Du.; so also in Am. s"

t Gu. suspects this clause to be a later addition; but the only ground urged is its prosaic
May not a prophet descend to prose occasionally? Homer sometimes nods.
character.
t
V.
So Casp..
For a similar indignant charge made by the Greek
Sophocles, Antigone, 1036, /Eschylus,
Agamemnon,
tragic poets against venal soothsayers,
1168.
** We., Van H..
3'"'
75
and abuse of various
to their support is subjected to slander
kinds.
They
treated
as his enemies.
means
represent
be Yahweh's will that such
to
it
The verb rendered
'sanctify,' 'consecrate,'
men be
'declare' literally
and has reference
to the religious
ceremonies always associated with the actual commencement of

hostilities; cf. i S.
who
jg
is'-'^
54 j^
^^ j^
^9 j)^
3^2
:^,
Prophets
thus brought their high calling into disgrace for the further-
own
ance of their
from the
ends seem never to have been lacking,
selfish
earliest times
(c/.
Am.
even
7^^)
down
days of the
to the
early Christian church.
V, under the
Str.
an
figure of
darkness into which the prophets
doom which
ing day of
6.
Therefore,
eclipse, represents the spiritual
they have been preparing for themselves.
will be night for
it
be plunged on the approach-
will
way
you without vision] This
is
power of prophetic
insight and foresight will soon be withdrawn from those who have
abused such gifts, but rather a description of the great day of Yah-
not merely a figurative
weh
(cf
Am.
of saying that the
which awaits the whole nation. The
5^^),
The
leaders involve the entire people in suffering.
day
that
will stagger the shallow
would heal
for
And
such times.
verb
wounds
Israel's
to divine
'
is
sins of the
calamities of
optimism of the prophets who
They
lightly.
will
have no message
darkness for you ivithout divination]
The
never used of legitimate prophetic activity, but
always of the arts of magic, soothsaying, necromancy, and the

like.
Yea, the sun will
The second
set, etc.]
peats and so emphasises the thought
half of the
str. re-
of the first half.
shame and confusion that will enshroud

the pseudo-prophets when in the light of the events of the day of
Yahweh their prophecies are seen to be lies and they find themselves
Str.
utterly
VI
describes the
imable to read the
ashamed, and
7. And the seers will be

The terms 'seer' and 'diopening lines of Str. V. And they will
will of
God.
the diviners will blush]
viner' are suggested
by the
* V. Schwally, F., Semilische Kriegsalterlumer, I.

Der heilige Krieg im alien Israel (1901).
"Now concerning apostles and prophets and the teaching of the
t C/. Didache, XI, 3-6:
gospel, so
do
ye: every apostle that
main only one day;

a false prophet.
may
if
And when
find a lodging;
comes
to you, receive
him as
there be need, however, a second also.
if
a prophet sets forth,
he ask for money, he
is
let
But
the Lord.
if
But he
him take nothing except bread
a false prophet."
shall re-
he remain three days, he

until
is
he
MICAH
76
cover the upper lip, all of them]
Ez. 24"-
mouth
^^
The
13^^.
mourning
in
tute for
Lv.
A common
sign of
mourning;
cf.
and
origin of this veiling of the lip
variously explained; by some, as a substi-
is
an older custom of shaving
off the
beard as a hair-offering
method of disguise adopted to

protect the survivors from recognition and injury at the hands of
the departed by others, as a method cf blocking the mouth against
the entrance of malicious spirits; by still others, as a device to discourage conversation so that the mourner might be imdisturbed in
Its original significance, however, had probably long
his grief.
to the departed spirit
by
others, as a
been forgotten by Micah's day.

God] Not that
been of their
own
Because there
no answer from
is
has come about because their oracles had
all this
concoction,
that in the approaching day,
and not
of divine origin ;* but rather
Yahweh
will refuse to reveal his will
to them.
In Str. VII
Micah
imhesitatingly declares his consciousness of
possessing the indispensable equipment for the prophetic office
which his opponents lack; hence his message is of a totally differ8. Btit I, indeed, amjull of power] In
ent character from theirs.
who
contrast vidth the vacillating pseudo-prophets
are swayed to
by every wave of public opinion, the true prophet forges

straight ahead in the line of Yahweh's will which often compels him
Micah knows he has strength sufficient
to defy the popular will.
and
fro
The
for all his needs.
who deemed
editor
power.
Its
it
spirit of
extraneous character
of the four attributes is
And
filled
and
justice
is
and
and by
its
strength]
prosaic gloss
by some
come from
his
riK,
the fact that
by
its
it
alone
unnatural posi-
violation of the metrical
The
move-
time-serving prophets are
with and inspired by the people's

satisfaction
shown by
accompanied by
tion in the series of four,
ment.
Yahweh]
necessary to indicate the source of Micah's
Micah's inspiration
gifts;
God-given sense of right and his
energy in the enforcement of righteousness upon his contemporaries.
To
declare to Jacob his transgression
which Micah and
all
denovmce and expose
sin
This was the task

selves called, to
trast with
it
to
higher conceptions of
and
God and
* So Ro., Ry..
and
to Israel his sin]
true prophets felt themto hold
duty.
up
This
in constr.
fur-
3*"'
77
The
nishes a hint as to the psychology of prophecy.
out, but the choicest possessions of his
of his
own
2.
practical
Obligatory idea
1.
Dr. ^ 2w
1;
nj?-i]
own
inner
Qr.
On
n.
V"} is
problems of
and medi-
in
lies
life.
odS NiSn] KoJ'"<';
not in
force of the rhetorical question,
supported by the balance
BDB. and HWB^^),
break (so
just as regularly
3.
to
'ô
furnishes for the monosyl.
it
as naiB
from ,^-OJ,
Ges.
njjnS]
Ges.
cf.
and the fact that 3it3 and j)"\ accompany each other
and ny-i; v. Ps. 52^ 38" 3512 Pr. 1630 Nu. 2413.
2V2,
the product
spirit,
divinely illuminated experience, observation,
upon the
tation
truths enun-
by the prophet were not things imposed upon him from with-
ciated
inxo] air; not
but from
Bevan, cited by Marti), ordinarily used in Ar. to denote

mhoi] = and spread
the exposure of vices or faults; v. Lane, Lex. 2410.
out, which does not suit the following similes; it is better taken as a byto lay Bare (so
form of
Qal
DnD, used in
of the breaking of bread
dividing of the hoofs of animals;
demands 'fl'i.
nrhp] Only here and i S.
tenses here
eral sense quite clear;
121.
4. inDM]
force here;
of the
it is
cf.
1::'33]
2 ",
No. ZA.
cf.
On
absence of
but context
in
and
The
jussive, as in iK, is
easily
Hiph. of the
article, cf.
without any of
of
^*''.
Ko.
both cases renders
Lagarde, Ubersicht, 88; Erman,
most
in
The sequence
417/..
I,
its
gen-
ZDMG. XLVI,
its
characteristic
accounted for as a case of defective writing
normal indicative form, Dr.
but
'^<;
cf.
Ko.
^^^,
which
attrib-
utes e to "the vowel-oppressing influence of the consonantal environment"; Ges. ^ "" ^, which expUins forms of this kind as often caused by
necessities of
similar usage,
rhythm; and Hpt. who calls it an Aramaicism. -ifNj] For

S88. 5. a-'DB'jn]
cf. Ju. 6" i S. 28'8Nu. 27" 2 K. 172*; v. Ko.
^^
Serving as the protasis of a condition, Ges. ^ "
M,
sg. fem., as in
But
S.
the parallelism
19"
{(& ti.<i<TTa^);
ZA. VII,
The
218.
8.
".
6. npcni] On 3d
pers.
Ko.
'""''.
used for natural phenomena,
demands a noun.
on
root,
nin>
'thing with which'
nn
is
cf.
nx]
7.
Barth,
On
c/.
Ges.
Ecr] Lit.
ZDMG.
function of
5'""=;
mustache;
XLI, 633
ns"
here,
cf.
arid Jensen,
cf.
Ko.
usually found in the ace. after nSd,
"so^
when
used in the Qal, and without the sign of the ace. even when the noun is
defined; e. g. Dt. 34' Jb. 20"; but cases with tn, as here, are not wanting,
e. g.
Ex.
8'^
Ez.
10*.
'by,' 'through,' as
Less
likely
does pn have prepositional force 'with,'
perhaps in Gn.
4'.
MICAH
78
The Doom of
7.
This
Israel
(3-^2).
He
the climax of Micah's utterances.
is
here groups to-
gether the three leading classes in Judah, the princes, priests and
and
prophets,
upon them the
lays
Str. I repeats the address
ap-
full responsibility for the
proaching downfall of the capital city which he
foretells.
and the charge with which the preced-
ing oracle opened, but adds to them a further specific accusation

to the effect that Judah's rulers
ity of
have
tried to establish the prosper-
Jerusalem upon the basis of oppression and murder.
II declares that princes, priests

their offices for their
and prophets
alike
own enrichment through
have
Str.
used
all
the encouragement
reliance
and fraud, and exposes the fallacy and fatuity of their

upon the favour of Yahweh for protection from all harm.
Str. Ill
pronoimces sentence because of their
of bribery
will
be
XJEAR
And
this,
deeds Jerusalem
desolation.
now, ye heads of the house of Jacob,
rulers of the house of Israel;
Who
abhor
And
pervert
justice,
all
that
is
right;
Who
build Zion with blood,
And
Jerusalem with iniquity.
UER
evil
and become a waste and
totally destroyed
chiefs judge for a bribe,
And
And
her priests give oracles for hire,

her prophets divine for money;
Yet upon Yahweh they lean, saying,

"Is not Yahweh in the midst of us?
No evil can befall us."
T^HEREFORE, on account of you,
Zion will be ploughed as a field,
And Jerusalem will become ruins.
And the mountain of the house a high-place
This
norm
is
the
here; but to do so
is
str..
Du. {EB. 3800) and Marti organise such
to violate the logical connection.
continuation of the direct address employed in v.
in
one
3d
pers..
str.,
being
a forest.
departure in the genuine material of Micah from the
first
of the four-line
into the
in
The
all
',
while
v.
strs.
is a
" passes over
'J3
of v.
'"
three classes mentioned in v. " belong together
charged with the same crime; princes, priests and
prophets form the great triumvirate of transgressors from which the

prophets
may
not be segregated.
Lohr and
Slav, in their attempts to
3""'
carry through a
4+3 + 3
or 7
+3
79
movement do great violence
to the text.
Both omit lines 1-3 of Str. II, simply because of the 3 + 3 + 3 movement
there found (so also Gu., who urges the change of person as interrupting
connection between v. '" and v. "'); likewise joS from the opening of
Not only so but Lohr finds it necessary to invent an additional
Str. III.
word
in
each of three
lines in vv.
'
'"
for the sake of the metre, while Siev.
accomplishes the same end by repeating
AH
"">,
to follow
this
Om. by Marti, Lohr, Siev., Hpt, Du.; cf. v.
Marti, Lohr., Siev., Du.,Hpt.;
<S\ ^rxpi]
(&
and transposing
c/.
v.'.'tt-^
>.
n>3]
apy--]
in
"^
a text that
Om. by We.,
Interchanged by
i.mt:'^n] (5 & H 21 pi.. 10. njj] Rd, 'p, with

& B and We., Gr., Oort^-, Now., Du., Marti,
van H., Gu.. 11. nnr] <g H pi.. nv] Aq. 9 i<pwTi.
(6 as in v.
oiKodofwOvTes; so
ol
Hal., Lohr, Siev.,

foi/,
after "^
M does here.
reads as smoothly as
9 DNi]
><=
seems arbitrary and superfluous
probably connecting
it
with "MN.
(& aireKplvovro.
12.
mc'] Oort^""-
Rd. a^j?, as in Je. 26'8; so 8 codd. of Kenn. and 4 of de

R., We., Now., Marti, Hal., Siev., Gu., Hpt., Du.. nâ] H tempH; cf. .
nmaS] Rd. npa*?, with 2 etj Hfos and 9 els ôwbv; so We., Now., Oort^"*-,
ma'3.
!">']
Du., Marti, Hal., Gu..

elsewhere
it
(& has
represents nnsw);
6tj &\(tos,
cf.
&
a grove (so also in Je. 26'8;

^ - ^'^j a wooded region,
j-rali
which does not necessarily presuppose a reading no, but

plained as due to the influence of
conclusive in
itself,
(B.
The
since ($'s renderings of
is
better ex-
use of the sg. in (&
is
not
are so varied in charac-
rtT:2
ones in the OT.) and relatively heedless

number; cf e. g. i Ch. 21" Dt. 32'3 Nu. 22^' Is. i4'< 15" i6'2 Je.
731.
S on the other hand, so far as it can be tested, is faithful to the
form of its original in its treatment of this word (e. g. 2 S, i" i K.
1232 13J8 iû 2 K. I7- 236- ").
ter (at least thirteen different
of
Str. I charges the leaders of
Judah with betraying the
posed in them as the guardians of truth and

2 are
justice.
trust re-
Lines
and
a verbal repetition of the corresponding Hnes in Str. I of the
previous section 3 and 4 are a paraphrase of the latter half of the

;
same
str.;
is right]
while 5 and 6 add a
new
figure.
Lit. 'twist all that is straight';
9. And pervert
all that
apparently by insolent
defiance of law rather than by Jesuitical interpretation thereof.

Cf. Is.
5^.
iniquity]
^10.
Who
build Zion with blood
The prophet denounces a
and Jerusalem with
material prosperity which
is
based upon the spohation of the poor and the confiscation of the
property of the innocent condemned to death; cf. i K. 21 Am. 5"
Ho.
42 Is. I's Je. 22*3 J72. 22".
8o
Str. II
ing
MICAH
first
officials of
brings an accusation of bribery against
government,
depraved moral
their
tecting presence
and
civil
Yahweh's pro-
state their false security in
and power.
Her
11.
the lead-
all
religious; then contrasts with
chiefs judge for
by the highest officials;

Bribery has always been one of the most prevalent
bribe]
Judicial functions were exercised
cf.
15^".
vices of
government; every
oriental
In such a system the poor

give oracles for hire]
Micah
cf.
Ho.
6^ 10^ Is.
to the priests that they
them;
cf.
among
Ex.
The
has his price;*
official
man
has no chance.
cf.
2 S.
7^ Is. i^^ 5^'.
And
her priests
only allusion to priests in the book of
The most difficult
28''.
cases were brought
might obtain the judgment of Yahweh upon
18^ ^- Is. 28''
the Bedouin.
Dt.
17^-
21^.
The prophet
Similar usage
still
exists
thus makes the terrible ac-
cusation that the priests manipulate the oracle in such cases in the
interest of the rich
And
and powerful and
her prophets divine for money]
to their
own
Cf. note on
enrichment.
v.
not
It is
^.
merely that pay, even when offered and received with the purest of
motives,
is
a constant menace to the absolute independence and
freedom of thought and speech without which true prophecy cannot
live
but these soothsaying diviners have deliberately sold them-
selves to the highest bidders.
All three of the influential classes
upon Yahweh they lean, saying] These

men are not Godless miscreants; on the contrary, they wear the
livery of religion and they congratulate themselves upon having
the support of Yahweh.
7^ not Yahweh in the midst of us ? No
disaster can befall us] Cf. Am. 3^.
This was the crux of the conflict between the prophetic and the popular conceptions of God.
This conviction on the part of the people in general made the
preaching of Amos, Hosea and Micah sound like treason and disare
money-mad.
Yet,
trust of
Yahweh.
It is
not improbable that the presence of the
Yahweh gave added

The common concep-
temple in Jerusalem as the headquarters of

strength to this popular belief;
tion of
Yahweh was not
cf.
Je.
f'''.
yet informed with the ethical ideal.
Per-
formance of the ceremonial was thought to be the essence of

religion;
Yahweh
cared for
little
* No. Sketches from Eastern History, 133
GASm.
398.
/.;
more.
Against this error, the
Doughty, Arabia Deserta,
I,
607, II,
20;
^11-12
gj
prophets with one consent insisted that Yahweh's supreme inter-
was ethical, not ritualistic. His demand for righteousness

was more insistent than his love for Israel. CJ. 6^"^ Is. i*'^^ Am.
52*-" Ho. 6.
Str. Ill turns once more directly to the offenders, as in Str. I,
and hurls upon them the responsibility for the impending ruin of
est
Jerusalem.
12.
The
Therefore, on account of yoii\
sense of indi-
vidual responsibility for sin had not yet developed sufficiently to

raise
any question
in the prophet's
mind
as to the justice of de-
But even
stroying a whole city for the sins of the leading citizens.

so, the sins of the
populace at large cried out for judgment with no
uncertain sound.
Micah does but fix the responsibiUty for leadand thereby bring home guilt to the consciences
ing the
way
in sin
of those in power.
Zion will be ploughed as
total destruction;
Ps. 129^.
cf.
Zion was the
stronghold captured by David (2

cated on the southern slope of the
Valley.
in
S. 5^"^).
hill to
afield]
name
figure for
of the Jebusite
This was probably
lo-
the east of the Tyropoean
But the name soon came to be applied to the entire city,

it is employed here in parallelism with 'Jerusalem'
in v. *.
And Jerusalem will become ruins] Micah was the
which sense
and
also
first
prophet to threaten Judah with the annihilation of
but he does so without a tremor.
its capital;
Jerusalem as the centre of cor-
(i^) must be cut out of the body politic, lest

become corrupt and perish. His heart goes out
ruption and pollution

the entire nation
to the peasant farmers of the hillsides of
Judah
in passionate
sym-
pathy with them in their misery and wrong, but he can condemn
their oppressors to
And the mountain

The temple moimt now thronged
death with imshaken voice.
of the house a wooded height]
with worshippers will become a deserted hill-top like the summit
Mt. Carmel. This is the climax of the threat. That Yahweh

would permit the destruction and desecration of his own chief
But
shrine must have sounded like blasphemy to Micah's hearers.
of
was the most stunning blow that could be dealt to the old conIt shows also how thoroughly Micah was freed
from slavery to rites and institutions. He had certainly learned
it
ception of God.
that
'God dwelleth not
On
in temples
made with hands.'*
the significance of the citation of v.
'^
in Je. 26'^, see Introduction.
MICAH
82
On
9. icpi"]
sition to
3d
force of impf. continuing a prtc,
pers. after the vocative,
Ko.
cf.
cf.
Ges.
m_
i-
'^344
"*;
on tran-
jq^ nja] Is
diffi-
cult of explanation either as a collective (van H.) or as applied to a

typical individual of the class denounced.
The
by the
by the
have the
fact that the Vrss. all
pi.,
form, by the parallel prtc. aoi'ncn, and by the

continues.
11
inuo]
and F. C.
7,
effect or product,
cf.
3 pretii,
Porter,
Ges.
Ko.
JBL. XIV
d 121
d;
Ko.
"2
was more
\J3 is
supported
close likeness to
^'^ v_
in
19-36. 12. nic'] Ace. of

Aram. pi. due to a copyist;
error was facilitated by the fact
j,,^.]
easily articulated before the following n (Ges.
mcaS] Usual form of
nj'a
form of icpy which it

uaipa r\\r\<\ Cf. '?nijd>:, Is.
pi.
(1895),
Je 26'*; note the suggestion that the
that
o_
reading
Nu.
''"'').
21's Ez. 36^
Ho. 10'.
The pi. is hardly appropriate as applied to the temple mount, and (S has
The meaning 'hill-top' gives a stronger
sg. both here and in Je. 26'8.
contrast here than is afforded by 'high-place.'
B.
cstr. pi. is "iniD3,
CHAPTERS
Chs. 4 and 5 have given

ety of opinion existing as to
to
Micah and
much
what
as to the origin
but
cf.
AND
5.
trouble to interpreters, great variportions,
and date
if
any,
may be attributed
of the portions not thus as-
All agree, however, that the chapters as they
signed.
now stand are
wholly lacking in logical continuity within themselves and must be
regarded as composed of a series of more or
By
ments.
some, this lack of logical unity
less
is
imrelated frag-
urged, with other
considerations, as warrant for denying these chapters to Micah, in
whole or
By others, it is held to be consistent with Micah's
in part.
authorship, either on the ground of the vivacity

his style,
which
is
and mobility of
not to be confined within logical limits;* or be-
cause the spoken word permits of greater freedom from logical restraint
than does the written word;f or on the hypothesis that the
present order
is
due
to the
work of a redactor who arranged fragin an order which is for us no order.
ments of Micah's addresses
ThT. VI, 279-84; Kue. ThT. VI, 285-302.

t Kue., Wildeboer, GASm..
For more detailed treatment of these questions, see the discussions
X Ry.. Elh., Pont.
* So de Goeje,
of the individual sections,
and the general Introduction,
2.
4"'
An
8.
Three
(vv.
Ideal of Yahweh^s World-Dominion (4").
six-line strs. in trimeter
^),
weh and
S3
movement, with a
later
expansion
announcing the coming world-wide supremacy of Yahthe beneficent results involved therein.
the fact that the temple of
Yahweh
in
Jerusalem
religious rallying-point of the nations.
become the
indicates their
II
Str.
Str. I states
to
is
motive in coming as the desire to learn of Yahweh's ways at the

only source of instruction.
the world's arbiter,
ish.
Str. Ill declares that
and that the weapons and
The appendices add

TT
will
That
come
the
Yahweh
art of
war
will
be
will per-
details to the picture of idyllic peace.
to pass in the issue of the days,
mountain of Yahweh's house
will
be
Established at the top of the mountains,
And
And
it
will
be
lifted
up from the
peoples will flow unto
hills,
it.
Yea, many nations will come, and say:

let us go up to the mount of Yahweh,
And to the house of the God of Jacob;
That he may teach us of his ways.
(ÔME,
So that we may walk in his paths.

For from Zion goeth forth instruction.
And the word of Yahweh from Jerusalem.
A ND he will judge between many peoples,
And
And
And
will arbitrate for strong nations,
they will
hammer
their
They will not lift up the

Nor will they any longer
The progress of thought is

to six-line (so
new
str.
and so
sword, nation against nation,

learn war.
clear in this
poem, and points unmistakably
Du.) rather than four-line (Marti)
course beginning in
fails to
swords into ploughshares,
their spears into pruning-hooks.
v. ^^ distinctly
marks
strs..
The
direct dis-
the point of departure for a
The arrangement
establishes the six-line norm.
of Siev.
and does violence to the parall.,

^ solely on metrical
three lines from w.
discover any strophic formation
in addition to its omission of
'
grounds.
The
original material ceases with v.
concede the separation of

Gu., Du..
It sustains
v.
no
';
so
e.
'.
g. Cor.,
close relation to
Interpreters in general
GASm., Now.,
w.
'-^
now
Marti, Siev.,
Marti and Gu. also

from the
athetize v.*'; but in view of the absence of the whole verse

parallel passage in Is. 2^*,
and
of the further fact that
it is
composed of
stock phrases which add nothing essential to the description in
w.
'-',
MICAH
84
it
seems safe to assign
Is.,
on
Skipwith,
22-<;
all
of v.
JQR.
to editorial expansion; so
VI, 23, 583
ff.;,
446 j/".; Du..
w. '-^
the omission of
is
to
de theolo-
The only change

pmi -\y from v.
gie et de philosophie, 1902, pp.
required by the metre
Che. Intr.
Ladame, Revue
F.
in
JJl
of
as a
">,
gloss not present in Is. 2*.
The
repetition of these verses in Is.
2"^-^
has occasioned
much
discus-
Four views have found currency at various

(i) that the passage was original with Isaiah and borrowed from
times:
him by Micah (so e. g. De. on Is. 22-"; Ro., Kl., Cor. ZAW. IV, 88);
(2) that it was original with Micah and borrowed by Isaiah or an editor
of Isaiah (so e. g. Hartmann, Ke., WRS. in Enc. Brit. art. Micah;
Ry-); (3) t^^'t it was an older oracle borrowed alike by Isaiah and
Micah (so e. g. Ros., Mau., Ew., Hi., Reuss, Or.); (4) that it was a later
interpolation both in Isaiah and Micah (so e. g. Sta. ZAW. I, 165^.;
Kosters, ThT. 1893; Kue. Einl.; Che. Intr. to Book of Isa., g-16; Cor.,
We., Now., Marti, Gu., Du.). That it neither originated with Micah nor
was incorporated by him from an earlier source seems certain. The transion as to their origin.
sition
from 3'2 to
4'-^ is
too abrupt; there Jerusalem lies waste, here
centre of pilgrimages from
all
parts of the world
not a
word
the restoration of the city involved in the latter description.

of
4'-< is
incompatible with that of
3'-'^;
here Jerusalem
is
is
it is
the
spoken of
The
spirit
the nation's
pride and glory, there the prophet's love centres in the country people
while the city represents to
him
all
early origin of this passage, for
that
is
bad.
Je. 26'8 tells against the
unlikely that such an impression
it is
would have existed in Hezekiah's time, if Micah had

^ by the comforting words of 4'
It is apparent
also that 3'^ was spoken in Hezekiah's reign and that 4' ^- therefore are
still later, which fact shows that the passage has no rightful place in Is.
Furthermore,
ch. 2, which is in any case earlier than Hezekiah's reign.
of Micah's message
cancelled the effect of 3
'
the ideas of the passage are those characteristic of the postexilic age.
The thought
the
book
of
of the conversion of the nations appears
Micah, but
is first
found
in
nowhere
else in
monotheistic writings of the exilic
and Jonah. The pil^-y and its necessity could hardly have been felt until late in the postexilic age when
the teachings of Deuteronomy and the Priestly Code had found such wide
and
postexilic periods,
grimage
to
Mt. Zion
e. g. Is.
is
566-
'
60
66^3 11'"
a postexilic idea,
cf.
Zc. 14'^
acceptance as to render the existence of local shrines like that of Ele-
phantine impossible for the zealous follower of the law.

sion
D''0''n
nnnxa as denoting
The
the opening of the Messianic era
expresis first
met with in Ez. 38'. The conditions reflected in 4^ ^- are best satisfied by assigning the passage to the Greek period.
Marti tr. to precede tfxna. ]^^:] In
1. nâ] 05 om. here and Is. 2^.
Is. 2' preceding ry^n>; so Marti; the metre shows the position in Micah
to
be preferable.
<S's
double rendering here,
ifi<f>avh
preceding
n''r\''
as in
4"^
85
Isaiah and iroiixov standing as in Micah, together with the position of poj
and ^'s rendering
in Isaiah
Kvplov Kal 6 oIko^ tov Oeov
of the Isaiah passage, viz.
dKpov twv
iir''
6piu3v^
Is. 2^),
Box
{Bk. of
followed by Marti, Stk. {Die Dichtungen Jesaias [1907]),
and Gu.
Is. [1909])
to reconstruct these
two
nirn -in
n\T
onnn
But
lowing
Micah
of
ifNna ij^nS
rb bpos
ifi<t>avii
has led Du. (on
lines thus:
paj
noi
The
and connection.
furnishes a smoother metre
fol-
the nin> nn and thus ignores any inter-
N'JU certainly refers to
n''3.
(g's text of Isaiah may easily be accounted for as due
some prosaic glossator who felt the diflSculty of a physical elevation of
Mt. Zion and so substituted the house of Yahweh. ifN-ij] <&. pi.; so
vening 'n
to
GASm..
Om.
Elh. b-n-iS. Nin]
Syr. fragment published

be gathered
by Mrs. Lewis
offers the rendering
and
Pal.will
ffwaxOT^croyrai, not elsewhere found; but this is only free
translation.
The
in Is. 2^; so Siev.. nnji]
vSj;] Is. 2'
vSn; so
cun
many codd. of Kenn. and
de R.; so Siev.,
and some mss. of Micah insert S^. 2. oiu] Is. 2' D'^p. Don] Siev. om.. ncNi] Du. (on
n"'2 Sni] 1 is om. in
n'^jjji] <g & H om. 1.
Isaiah), Marti and Hpt. om..
wvi]
Isaiah and in some mss. of Micah. Siev. om. all this line.
(& here = imii''; but in Isaiah sg. and also in the Pal.-Syr. version
published by Mrs. Lewis. vo-no] (^ sg. and ignores t:. "B de viis.
Siev. om. the last two lines of this str. because they do not yield a seventone line. 3. osa'i]
and d" take "the law" as subj. of this vb..
COT D''n>'] Isaiah D''un; Siev. om. Dian; so . n^Dim] ^ etcorripiet.
DTsp d^jS] Isaiah o-'aT 0''dj.'S. Siev. om. o^'cxy. pim ir] Om. as a
Gu., Hpt..
Is. 2^
D-iDj?]
Sj (so Gu.).
S"
gloss with Isaiah;
Hpt..
H.
DH^na-in] Isaiah onann; so Siev..
IN!:*']
Sg. in Isaiah; so
(g avairai(7Tai,.
Reuch.
cod.
change;
cf.
text of
]-ianM.
Am.
Between the
The
so Briggs {Mess. Proph.), Du., Marti, Siev., Gu.,
w.
'),
DTP
'),
text has
Str. I
i. e.
'-'
and
editions
C6
tt;*'
Is. 2'-*
&
4. la'^rM]
(= urj), but
]i2^:^^
there are in
and
the pi.
iNif^ (v. )
all
is
in
twelve variations.
evident from the
(v. '),
more concise
But the Micah
the
for the sg..
v. s..
announces the acceptance of the

at the
codd. nSi; so <S

iroXeixetv.
bZbv avrov (a theological
the stronger vSy for vVx
undergone expansion;
the nations at large.

days]
common
nearer the primitive form, as
is
position of prj (v.

for a^'un-Sa (v.
in
vhSn dso]
5.
Some
hdhSc]
Dt. 29^6), but the Pal.-Syr. version agrees vsdth iH.
8'<
text of
Micah
sg..
nS]
& B .
1. It will
come
to
religion of
Yahweh by
pass in the issue of the
end of the present age and coincident with the dawn
of the Messianic era.*
The
phrase
*CI.S.ZAW.
"'in
the issue of the
XI, 247;?..
days" oc-
MICAH
86
and postGn. 49^ Nu. 24",

books; and these four
curs thirteen times in the OT., but belongs to the exilic

4**
occurring only in
exilic circle of ideas,
and
aside from Jeremiah, Ezekiel
passages are due to interpolation.
Ho.
later
Despairing of the present, the
prophets built their hopes upon the future, and out of the
later
blackest days
came
the brightest visions of Israel's future glory
That the mountain of

This
indisputable evidence of imperishable faith.
Yahweh's house
line,
will be established at the top of the mountains]
with the parallel
literal,
line, lifted
up from the
does not mean a
hills,]
physical elevation of Mt. Zion above the surroimding hills.*
a figure representing the exaltation of Zion as superior
It is rather
to all other shrines
and the focus
And peoples will flow unto

and say :] This
of universal desire;
(2)
it,
Yea,
many
Judaism and
cf. Is.
dependent
its
faiths.
Yahweh
common
Deutero-Isaiah and the later literature of Israel

find expression until
in
unparalleled outside
is
It is
2" 4o\
nations will come,
vision of the world-wide influence of
the conversion of the nations unto himself

of
3^
but
thought in
it
monotheism had become firmly
could not
fixed in the
religious consciousness of Israel through the discipline of the exile.
The
prophecies of the eighth century contain no suggestions of this
thought.
Is.
ii^ 18^ 19^^-^ in
which
more or
it is
less fully ex-
pressed are quite generally conceded to be of late origin.
why
Str. II explains
the nations gather at Jerusalem, viz. be-
cause there they can learn Yahweh's vdll which

guide for
to the
life.
2.
Come,
let
us go up
house of the God of Jacob]
The
to the
that the temple at Jerusalem
Yahweh.
This seems
is
the only safe
nations mutually incite one
The
another to undertake the religious pilgrimage.

is
is
mount of Yahweh, and
to force the dating of the passage in the
post-Deuteronomic period.
The
point of view of
Is.
of the adherents of the Jewish temple at Elephantine

this writer.
3'- -
^,
implication
the only authorised sanctuary of
19^îs
^^
and
foreign to
'Jacob' here designates the nation as a whole as in
not the northern kingdom as in
of his ways, so that
we may walk in
That he may teach us
i^.
his paths]
The phraseology
know the
suggests that these would-be disciples do not expect to
whole of the divine
will,
but only such of

* Contra Marti.
it
as
is
essential to their
4-^
87
For from Zion goes forth instruction and the word of

Jerusalem] These words seem to close the utter-
welfare.
Yahweh from
ance of the nations, rather than

prophet.
It is
resume the speech of the
to
a recognition by the world at large that Jerusalem
The
the seat and source of all authoritative religious teaching.
word torah is here defined by the parallel phrase 'word of Yahweh,' and this, together with the absence of the article, makes the
general meaning 'instruction' more probable than the specific
is
Furthermore, on the
'law.'
lips of non-Israelites the latter
term
would be an anachronism.
Str. Ill declares the result of the nations' acceptance of
be that
to
all
disputes will be referred to
fore be abolished.
and
arbitrate for
3.
And
and
to
he will judge between
numerous nations] As
Israelitish litigation are
resort
Yahweh
him and war
now
Yahweh
will there-
many
all difficult
peoples,
cases in
brought to the priests as the court of
last
as the supreme judge, so in the Messianic
age the nations of the world will submit their differences to Yah-
weh, accepting without question his righteous decision.
To em-
phasise the extent of Yahweh's dominion an editor here added the
phrase unlo afar.
And they
will
hammer their swords into ploughThe rendering 'plough-
shares and their spears into pruning-hooks]
(v. i.), but some agricultural implement is

weapons of war will be converted into tools of
For the reverse process, cf. Jo. 4*". They will *>'*
peaceful industry.
not lift up the sword, nation against nation ; nor will they learn war
any more] Cf. Ps. 46 Is. 9- 11"' Zc. 9^". While disarmament
shares'
is
doubtful
certainly meant;
"^
is
here positively predicated only of the non-Israelitish nations, yet
by implication Israel too
is
The prophet
included.
certainly does
not conceive of Israel as dominating the rest of the world by force.
This ideal of world-wide peace springs from the heart-longings of

a people
To
by
left
broken and shattered by the
this vision of glory are
later hands.
4.
And
they will
his fig tree, with none to
sit
^.
v.
'
The
make them
subject, however,
is
details
each under his vine and under

afraid]
This verse presents
was expressed negatively

individual and not national as
the positive aspect of the thought that

v.
stress of disastrous wars.
appended some supplementary
in
in
the language portrays the peaceful Palestinian countryside
MICAH
o8
with the rural inhabitants in the enjoyment of peace and plenty.
The
verse
is
made up
w.
of stock phrases, displaying
*-^ cf. i
none
of the cre-
if Je. 30*"
46" Ez. 34^8 Zp. 3^3 Na. 2" Lv. 26^.For the mouth of Yahweh of
hosts hath spoken it] A concluding phrase commonly employed
ative capacity of
K.
K.
Is.
cf.
name
peoples walk each in the
all the
18'^ Zc. 3^ Is.
a prophecy;
to attest the divine origin of
Though
4=^ 2
i^
40^ 58'^
we
of his God, yet
5.
will
walk in the name of Yahweh, our God, for ever and ever] This is
the utterance of a practical man who reahses the visionary character of the foregoing ideal
But even
gentes quot dei.
remain
Israel will
The
time.
but
it
and seeks
faithful
and
Yahweh through endless

the name of is not elsewhere used;
it
always be
so,
true to
that yielding of a hearty allegiance
obedience to the divine will spoken of in

It is fanciful to find here
is tot
and even should
'
means here
it
so,
expression walk in
clearly
to establish connection with
Instead of one universal rehgion,
things as they are.
v.
and
as walking in his laws.'

'
a contrast between the loyal obedience of
the nations to their gods and the defective honouring of
Yahweh by
the majority of his people;* or between the eternal 'walking' of
and the 'walking' of the heathen which is not etemal.f

*"'
is certainly not from the writer of vv.
or of v. ^; for the
Israel
This verse
general point of view of v.

that of V.
is
the future; v.
is
identical with that of
The
wholly different.
is
w.
writer of
^"^
w.
^'^
while
lived wholly in
vividly conscious of the discordant present,
and
can only express Israel's determination to be true to her highest

ideals at
any
found in
Is. 2^
cost.
What
is
here- expressed as a firm decision is
The two
as an exhortation.
closely related, but
on which
side the
verses are evidently
dependence
wholly
lies is
uncertain.
1. n^n>
cle.
jiDj
n\ni]
stronger than vSk,

apy^ >nSN]
also 'ax
The
nirr"
The
subj.
Late usage;
n>n>]
Is. 2'.
2.
13S]
Ges. 5"'.
*.
nxp]
If fut.
it
former the
* Contra Ry..
'
Jo. 4"';
list
T'Vy] Literally,
M/)on
title in
the
book
of
iV
^344g.
Micah; so
belongs in mouth of the prophet;
but better taken as present of an existing

in I S. 13'"
Including the speaker, K6.
only occurrence of this
in v.
lacks an introductory parti-
clause
3. difivS^] Found only

upon the meaning; in the
fact.
the latter sheds no light
of agricultural implements begins with incinc, plought Contra Pont.
4"-^
share, hence
it is
K.
6' '-un-n,N should read 'n
<& renders
the indefinite <tkvos,
9.
same meaning; it is probans and be rendered "the

plough, except in i S. 13"", where
unlikely that ~n carries the
ble also that in 2
axe of iron."
89
by
tool,
iporpov,
appears.
The Doom of Exile and a Promise of
This section
a period when Jerusalem was
reflects
danger from an invader.
outcome of the
evitable
Restoration (4^'")
It foretells
imminent
but hastens to assuage the grief
situation,
by the declaration that Yahweh
in
capture and exile as the in-
will intervene, bringing deliver-
ance from captivity and restoration to the home-land.
by transposing
treated as a unit only

V.
i..
^'^
Str. I pictures Israel's bitter suffering
human
the futility of
calamity
from
vv.
is
leaders.
coming, but that

Str. Ill
its foes.
and gently
can be
w.
'*;
satirises
Str. II declares that even greater
Yahweh
will
thereupon deliver Israel
announces that Yahweh
will then gather
IV promises their re-establishment as a

imder Yahweh as their eternal king. Str. V reaches
together the exiles.
mighty nation
It
to precede
Str.
the climax with the assurance that Jerusalem will be restored as

the nation's capital.
WHEREFORE,
Is there
now, dost thou cry so loud?

no king in thee,
Or, has thy counsellor perished.
That agony has seized thee like one in childbirth?

'^7'RITHE and bring forth, O daughter of Zion, like one
in childbirth.
For now thou must go forth from the city and dwell in the field.
And go to Babylon; there shalt thou be rescued.
There Yahweh will redeem thee from the hand of thine enemies.
TN
that day,
it is
the oracle of
Yahweh,
I will gather the halt.
And
And
A
ND
the outcast
her
whom
I will
make
I will
assemble.
have afBicted.
the halt a remnant.
And her that was sick a strong nation.

And Yahweh will be king over them in Mount
From now on even forever.
A
Zion.
ND
thou, O tower of the flock,

Height of the daughter of Zion,
Unto thee will come the first dominion;
Yea, there
will
come
the
kingdom
of the house of Israel.
MICAH
90
The
prevailing measure in this section
rhythm
Str. II is in the
variations.
on the whole very broken, the
parall. is clear
ance, as
is
in three strs. of 3
and
line
+3+2
and even
strs.,
str.
as
^-^
are placed before vv.
is
and furnishes the only

of strs..
Siev.'s ar-
(v. ')
appears in the middle
new
of one of his lines, instead of starting a
In the present arrangement, vv.
clearly must.
it
the metre
seventone lines ignores this guid-
evident from the fact that noS nny
one of his
of
Though
and the formation
safe guide to the length of lines
rangement
many
trimeter, but there are
is
of the dirge.
in response to the
demands
"
They
of the logic.
furnish the presuppositions requisite to the understanding of the message
The
of vv. ^-^
movement
resulting
9- 10
to
Now., Marti, Hpt.,
is
clear
and
w.
here arranged, vv.
The
^-s.
downfall of Jerusalem,
natural
s- 'o
furnish the neces-
order of events becomes perfectly
exile, deliverance, restoration to
date of the prophecy cannot be definitely determined, but
seem
straight-
It
As
et al..
sary preparation for
The
of thought
seems unnecessary to assign w. -' and

different authors and periods as has been done by Kue., We., Volz,
forward throughout the piece.
to
have originated in the dark days just prior to the
fall
it
power.
would
of Jerusalem
Those who claim vv. ' "> for Micah (Kue., et al.)
"and thou shalt go to Babylon " (v. *"),
but this phrase is demanded by the poetic form of v. '", and is, furthermore, in harmony with the background of the whole section. In support of the period suggested by this phrase may be urged the advanced
in 597 or 586 B.C..
are under the necessity of excising
stage in the conception of the 'remnant'
phrase "tower of the flock "

passage.
The
and
{v. i.),
the significance of the
only serious alternative to this date
not altogether unlikely view that this
We., Marti; but

the return
{v. i.),
the general Messianic tone of the
v. i.), in
may be
is
is
suggested by the
a vaticinium post eventum (so
which case a period after Deutero-Isaiah and
sought.
^the distant ones; similarly 21.-ryin -itt-Ni]

Now. om.; so Siev.; c/". Zp. 3". Ro., Elh. "ii'n ic'ni
Ko. ^ <'"" om. irN and points ''ninni. Gr. adds 3^tO''N, Du. 'in 'k 311^x1,
'>
6.
DNj] Siev. om.. nySxn]
(& Kalotzairu(Tafi.T]v.
'n.
7. nNSnjni] Rd.,
quae laboraverat
diruffn^v-qv.
with We., nSnjni; soNow., Marti, Gu., Du.. Vieteant
Siev.
so
nN'7jni;
nShni.
and in Jerusalem.
with San; so Aq. aKOTiijSijs; (S
dition of
"iico;
^dark.
Stei.,
jps nna]
8.
(^^ Kal rrjv
Gr., Oort^""-, Hpt..
Perhaps a marg.
Sej,']
The
n.;
cf.
&'s ad-
Vrss. have confused this
o^xM'^^'?^; 13 nebulosa;
airbKpv(f>os; 21
npNn] Ry.om. as gloss upon nxa; so Taylor, Pont, Du..

Now., Oort^-, Marti.
Cod. Kenn. 4 om.. Marti, njSppn. <g
nK3i] Tr., with Ro., to precede pdScc; so Elh.,
Hpt. om. as gloss on
nPN.-i.
adds iK Ba^vXQvos.
Cod. Reuch. of
P2'-'.
n:)Snc]
a'û-n^
n^S] Rd.,
GT offers Snic-' for
9. nr\y] Siev.
and Gu. om..
doest thou evil, taking vb. as
foil.
aSa'n\
yi
We., Now., Du.
Snib''' n^';'.
Oort^-, Siev. and Gu. om.
^yi.n] 05
eypui KaKd=};-\
Hiph. of yy\ and reading yn as
i>-i.-i.
obj.,
^6.10
with
<S.
moerore contraheris, deriving vb. from np^ II.
thou thyself with peoples.
nectest
g^
ixyv]
C6
Of
con-
so also in Pr.
/SouXiJ <rou;
ij
ii'< Is. 9^
& SI pi.. 10. 'mi I'i'in] (16 65tve Kal dvdpiôv Kal tyyiê, of
which dvSpllôv is to be taken, with Ry., as a duplicate rendering of ''în,
which was wrongly connected with S;'n; while 77ife represents a confu-
sion of 'nj with
05^
by B, sa/aê;
'>:di;
c/"
87, 91, 97, 228, 310,
21
iSxjn] (5 pvceTci
Str. I, in
<T.
iSnj>
adds
nin'] (g
good
Pont,
db'] (S"^
koi 77tfe.
,jni;
c/.
so loud
Several codd. of Kenn. avy,
om..
now
finds
?]
is
itself.
(v. *).
The anguish of the cry is to be inThe person addressed is "the
Now
is
has thy counsellor perished ?]
the city are so great,
is
here a
it
The term
synonym
pre-eminently wise
I^D
9. Wherefore,
on the verge of a siege
not temporal, but logical;
lends a tone of expostulation to the question.
13^").
''n^Nn;.
last line of this str..
daughter of Zion"
Ho.
rendered
HWB.^^
48^'.
Gr. and Marti
"'n'jn.
Jerusalem
apparently, or already besieged.
thee, or
Je.
(K's dvdplôv.
'm is
trimeter, brings out through three questions the
now, dost thou cry
from the
corresponds to
6 ê6j croD.
desperate situation in which Israel
ferred
'^^^
&" om.
and Che.CB
Elh.
>3,'ir.
so Now., Gu..
Is. 42'<;
so (5^2 &.
&'s rendering of
'},\i.
and codd.
The
7^
ruler
'coimsellor,' used of the
(cf. Is. 36'^).
in Assy, is advise, counsel.
it
no king in
confusion and terror in
would seem that no
for 'king,' rather
there
was present
Messiah
(r/.
in Is. 9",
than a collective for citizens
The common meaning of the

For a similar question,
cf.
root
Je.
S'**.
This question does not imply the actual absence of a king, involving a postexiHc date for the passage, but is ironical and derisive.
Of what use is it to trust in those who cannot help ? Marti considers Yahweh to be the king here mentioned, but this is an
interpretation made necessary by his view that the passage is
postexilic*
That agony has
figure frequently
seized thee like one in childbirth
?]
employed as the most vivid description of phys-
ical pain; cf. Je. 6^^ 22^^.
Str. II, vdth a
change from trimeter
well adapted to the contents of the
str.,
to the dirge
movement
calamity, but only as a backgroimd for a message of hope.

* C/.
so
announces the climax of
10.
who, though accepting the postexilic origin of these verses,

67
still insists that a human monarch is meant, and so seeks to posit a short period of monarchy
under Zerubbabel; but in Sludien zur Enlstehungsgeschichte der iiidischen Cemeinde, II, 17^ fl.,
Sellin, Seruhbahel,
this view is in part
#.,
abandoned.
MICAH
92
Writhe and bring forth,
The
daughter of Zion, like one in childbirth]
figure in the previous line (v.
Having
upon.
dons herself
to grief, the
and dwell in
into the
and
the field]
Am.
i. e.
For
K.
36^^ 2
And
6^.
for
Micah
for
it is
Now,
24*^.
go
exit
seriousness says,
all
'
thou
to inclement weather, wild beasts,
from the
i. e.
in a
city as
little
denoting surrender,
^"
while, soon;
who would
Babylon] Those
to
up and enlarged
why Jerusalem aban-
For now thou must go forth from the

from the protection of the walled city
open country, exposed
hostile armies.
cf. Is.
here. taken
prophet here in
hast good reason to agonise.'

city
) is
ironically inquired in Str. I
cf.
f-
retain vv.
^- ^
are forced to regard this phrase as an interpolation,*
Micah had the Babylonian captivity before

enemy in Micah's age was Assyrian, and Baby-
unlikely that
his mind.
Israel's
was playing a subordinate part. It is clear also from chs. 1-3

Micah expected the doom of Judah to follow close upon that
of Samaria, and Je. 26** ^- shows that the time for the fulfilment
of Micah's prediction there cited was regarded as being long past
lon
that
The
in Jeremiah's day.
force of these objections to the phrase
not overcome by the suggestion that Babylon

the Assyrian empire as being one of
its
is
is
representative of
most powerful kingdoms,
nor by the fact that Sargon transported some of the population of

Babylonia to northern Israel
supposed
Micah a
to
have put
K.
But
B.C..
and may
17^*),
destination for Judah's exiles.
prophets were occupied

century
(2
all
vidth Assyria, the
that goes to
Micah and contemporary

world-power of the eighth
show
this
phrase to be of late
origin is evidence for the late date of the verse in

for the verse is incomplete without this clause
both to form and content.f

to the following there,
definite field.
deem
There
therefore be
Israelites in their places, thus suggesting to
It is the
which
which
is
it
stands,
essential
only satisfactory antecedent
which cannot go back

shall thou be rescued
and
in-
Yahweh
re-
to the elusive
there will
hand of thine enemies] The thought that deliverance from the foe would be accomplished in Babylonia and
that this was but the first step in the coming of the Messianic glory
thee
from
the
e. g. Oort, Kue., WRS. Proph., de Goeje, Now., No., Pont, GASm..

t So e. g. We., Marti, Du.; cj. van H., who retains the context as the utterance of Micah,
but relegates v. " as a whole to a later period. Du. likewise makes v. '" a still later addition
to vv. '' which are themselves late.
* So
4"
was common from the time
45"""
55^^'^-
It is
of Deutero-Isaiah;
impossible to say definitely
expression, but the basis for
When
remnant.
tivity
was
it
inevitable,
it
became
it is
was
cj.
43 ^''*
when
"'^'' 44^^*^'
it first
found
laid in Isaiah's doctrine of the
quite clear that a Babylonian cap-
reasonable to suppose that the deathless
hope of the prophets never
moment accepted this as final,

when Yahweh should glorify him-
for a
but looked forward to the time
nations through the rescue and exaltation of
self in the sight of the
Interpreting v.
his people.
93
from
this point of view,
it is
not nec-
essary to suppose with Marti that the prophet wrote, like DeuteroIsaiah, in the full light of the victorious career of Cyrus,
and thus
class his prediction as in large part a vaticinium post eventum.
that
is
said here
is
to
All
quite intelligible on the lips of a contemporary
of Jeremiah's later years.

Str. Ill,
dropping the qtna rhythm and taking up a dimeter
movement, represents Yahweh as reassembling the

^"*
While vv.
in
M,
have no connection with
the case
is
altogether different
the thought of the halt

of imiversal peace in
and
afl3icted,
4*"^, is
afflicted exiles.
their context as they stand
when they
follow v.
^"j
for
inappropriate after the picture
peculiarly in place after such a catas-
w.
'^.
6. In that day, it is the oracle 0/
Yahweh] The day of Yahweh is in the prophet's mind, which day
was commonly looked upon as closing the period of present dis-
trophe as
is
described in
and inaugurating the future age of bliss. "That day" here

marks the end of the exile. / will gather the halt, atid the outcast
I will assemble] The words 'halt' and 'outcast,' suggestive of a
flock of sheep, designate the exilic community as a whole, not individual members of that community. At the time when these words
were written the diaspora had already begun. The descendants of
the captives from Samaria were scattered throughout the Babylonian empire refugees from Judah had doubtless already founded
colonies in Egypt like that at Elephantine; Jehoahaz and his
courtiers had been carried to Egypt; and perhaps the blow of
597 B.C. had fallen. All of these are to be gathered home in the
tress
great day.
And
her
words are missing

cur
is
whom
I have
in Zp. 3^^
afflicted]
The
fact that these
where the two preceding hnes
re-
not sufficient evidence for treating them as an interpolation
MICAH
94
here;* they furnish a comprehensive statement summarising the
The
uation.
sit-
prophets never hesitated to ascribe any of Israel's ca-
Yahweh, but always as punishment for sin.

movement, declares the coming exaltation
of the remnant of the nation and its permanence as Yahweh's
people.
7. And I will make the halt a remnant, and her that was
lamities to the
hand
of
Str. IV, in trimeter
The
sick a strong nation]
nant'
is
nation.'
stage in
parallelism shows that the term 'rem-
term 'strong
practically equivalent to the corresponding
This implies, as We. has noted, a much more advanced

the development of the idea of the remnant than can be
imagined for the eighth century when Isaiah was

expression to the conception;
first
8'^^- lo^''^-
cf. Is.
giving clear
Am.
8^*.
It
presupposes a time when the idea had been long familiar and the
mere mention
of the term carried with
and splendour
glory
the suggestion of
it
all
the
had gradually gathFor 'her that was sick'
of the Messianic age that
ered around the thought of the remnant.
M reads 'her that was
far
removed';
v.
s..
And Yahweh will be
king over them] in a larger and truer sense than ever before and
any human being;
to the exclusion of
cf. Is.
24^^
In Mount
52''.
Zion] This reflects an attitude toward Jerusalem quite contrary
and common only after the adoption of the

The metrical form seems to point to this
to that of chs. 1-3,
Deuteronomic Code.
From now on
phrase as a gloss.
immediate future, deliverance

use of 'now' in v.
V,
Str.
even forever] 'Now,'
flock]
yy
6.
in trimeter
7a
this
8.
And
thou,
figure of Israel as a flock of sheep is
'pj^g
<
e.
in the
measure, promises the restoration of the old-
tower of the
resumed from
tower' was an elevated structure overlooking the
sheepfold in which the flock
From
cf.
i.
the similar
^^.
time glory and power to Jerusalem.
The
be wrought;
will
was gathered
for the night
(Nu.
32^^).
watch-tower the shepherd could keep a lookout for ma-
rauding beasts
(2
Ch.
26*; cf. 2
K.
17 18^).
The
phrase
is
not
therefore an allusion to Jerusalem as a scene of desolation, f but
rather as the headquarters of

Is. 14^^.
in the
The
Yahweh,
campaign of Sennacherib, 701
* Contra Gu..
the protector of Israel; cf
Jerusalem
which placed the stamp
figure, perhaps, reflects the experience of

B.C.,
t Contra We., Now., Marti.
4^-^
of
Yahweh's approval upon the
of the daughter of Zion]
general (2 K.
5^^;
(2
2f 33" Ne.
Ch.
used in
its
the
32-
1.
used of
is
22),
and
fortified hills in
also specifically of the
Moriah, between the temple and Siloam
"
Here, as in
ii^*').
32",
Is.
it is
either
general sense, or by synecdoche designates the whole
of Jerusalem
come the
hill
Height
city for later generations.
^sy, height,
Mesha-Inscr.,
southern end of the
95
first
by the
name
specific
dominion]
The
Unto thee will
of a portion.
reference
is
probably to the days of
kingdom under David and Solomon when Jerusalem was
capital of the
whole nation.
the
Allusion to the prosperous days of the
double kingdom under Jeroboam II and Uzziah
is less
natural;
while to say that the implied contrast must be between the postexilic
regime and the pre-exilic* as a whole

here
It is possible that 'first'
is
without any basis.
used in the sense of 'chief and thus
is
describes the dominion as the greatest in the world, the world-
empire.
Yea, there will come tJie kingdom of the house of Israel]
With the transposition of the verb 'come' {v. s.), there is preserved
here the regularity and symmetry so characteristic of the parallelism of these verses.
M, reads 'there will come the kingdom
of the daughter of Jerusalem';
but this
is
a prosaic repetition
and adds nothing. As corrected, the second

line points out that Jerusalem's great honour is to come to her as
the representative of the entire nation, the people of Yahweh. The
of the previous line
kingdom
will
be such an one as will be worthy of Israel's exalted
relation.
9.
10.
Ji"]]
>nji]
"iVin;
cf.
On
ace. cog. as substitute for inf. abs., Ges. ^n'^.
q.
Irregular vocalisation might be for euphonic variation after

Ê'n in v. "
and Ko.
circumstances such variation
'
^^
is
Sta.
s'"';
but in Gn. 43" under similar
not made, and there are other
imvs. and
from a impfs., where euphony plays no part, e. g. a^D (Ps. 381' 46'),
J?iJ (Is. 7').
The meaning of the vb. as used elsewhere (viz. in Aram.,
In view of this,
Ar., and Jb. 38^ 40") is 'gush forth,' 'break forth.'
we might render here, burst forth {i. e. into weeping, lamentation, etc.),
infs.
'
'
especially since the thought of a
new
birth for Israel
is
not at
in the speaker's thought, but only the attendant suffering;
meaning "bring
nu.
pis nj]
i.
present
since the
i. e. in childbirth, is very doubtful for the vb.

the people, not the town; Ko. ^^"'. 6. hdcjn] Qal
forth,"
e.
all
and
* So We., Now..
MICAH
96
impf. of
The
']Dn,
is
not with any specific meaning.

i22s_
7,
nxSnjni]
probably used for poetic assonance, and
The
ni'S^n]
fem. used as a
coll.;
Ges.
from a denom. vb. nSh not elsewhere

such a vb. is very doubtful; the Vrss. had diffi-
Niph.
used, but the existence of
of nD\
and often confused with Hiph.
treated as n'd vb.,
(4 times in 2 lines)
prtc.
culty with the word, (S^ (3 rendering
it
just like
nmjn
of v. ^ (8^ using
B rendering as
if from nxS,
and S* using same words here as for n>'^x and nmj in v. ^, but in transposed
order; ?I has expulsam in v. ^ and projectam here, but this is only for the
sake of variety as appears from the renderings adflictam and contribulatam for the one word 7\-;^^7\ in the two verses. The proposed reading
and H, and its position
nSnjn accounts well for the corruptions of
together with its similarity to nmjn might easily have misled (&. 8.
m;; Sijc] Gn. 35^1 (J), the only other place where this title occurs,
evidently refers to a locality between Ephrath and Hebron, and appaBut Ephrath was in the
rently nearer to the former than to the latter.
vicinity of Bethel, hence the application of the term is different from its
usage here. Similar names are nj Sijd (Jos. 15"), ]M2hT\ 'a (Ct. 7^), 'a
Snuo (Ju. 8"), 3DB> 'd (Ju. 9"), "^N 'n (Jos. ig's). Sb>*] If used here as
a proper name {v. s.), it designates a place on the southern slope of the
word
slightly different
{iûafi' for dwuxrix'),
eastern or temple
hill;
cf.
GASm.
Jerusalem,
I,
152
_^.;
Paton, Jerusa-
lem in Bible Times, 64. The basal idea of the word is 'swelling,' 'protuberance,' as appears from the Arabic root and from its use in i S.
56- 3-
12
The Assy, ublu, boil, ulcer (Dl."^^^) should perhaps be

ThLZ. 1895, p. 250). T\TynT'\ The use of this Aramaic
Dt. 28".
read uplu (Jensen,
word might perhaps be urged against Micah's authorship; but it is unnecessary to go further
down than
Jeremiah's time for Aramaisms, in the light
and widespread use of Aramaic revealed by the discovery

of the Assuan papyri and by the Aramaic dockets on Assyrian and Babyof the general
lonian contract tablets dating as early as the time of Sennacherib.
preformative -^, as regularly in Aram., instead of
On cstr. before
the
is
cstr.
and gen.
specifically;
not kingdom over but kingdom

'
may
'
^^*.
'
H.
for,'
On
nsVcc]
prep,
'-^b.
is
Thus
or ' belonging
have been written nj as in MeSa-Inscr.,

23, Phoenician, Palmyrene, Sabaean; and, through the influence of
to.'
1.
meaning here
o'^rn^ rj]
between
Ges.
The function of the
prep.,c/. Ges-^'soa^Ko.^"^'*'.
to define the relation
6,cf.
J11S r\2
in
1.
n-3
2, o'â'ni
10.
In two
strs.
easily
displaced '?NnB'\
The Triumph of
of six lines each
and
Israel (4"'^^).
in trimeter
measure, the prophet
describes the scene' of Israel's final vindication at
Yahweh's hands.
Str. I depicts the assembling of the nations of the earth for the
4""^
purpose of crushing
Israel,
them.
Israel to crush
97
whereas Yahweh's purpose
shows
Str. II
Israel turning
is to
use
upon her
foes
and, with Yahweh's aid, vanquishing them and dedicating their
booty to Yahweh.
ND
now
there are gathered against thee
Many nations, who say: Let

And let our eyes fasten upon
.1-.
her be desecrated,
Zion.
But they know not the purposes of Yahweh;

Nor do they understand his plan,
That he hath gathered them like grain to the
A RISE and
thresh,
For thy horn
And
And
And
And
-8
threshing-floor.
daughter of Zion;
make iron,
make bronze.
crush many peoples,
I will
thy hoofs I will
thou shalt
thou shalt devote their spoil to Yahweh,
wealth to the Lord of
their
all
the earth.
This passage reflects other conditions than those with which w.

In both descriptions Jerusalem is in a state of siege; but there
deal.
the result of the siege
is
the fall of the city
and the
exile of its inhabitants;
Here, Jerusalem
deliverance comes only after captivity has begun.
upon
turns
foes
its
There, the enemy
and conquers those who came confident
of victory.
evidently the Babylonian; here, the whole pagan
is
world gathers against Yahweh's people.
This
last feature
was
first in-
corporated in the prophetic descriptions of the 'latter days' by Ezekiel

(38'* 39<-5-
>8)
Hence
him.
The whole
and
way
in such a
this oracle
passage
spirit of the
as to indicate that
must belong
is
to
it
was
original with
late exilic or a postexilic date.
consonant vnth such a date.
In view
of 3 '2 alone, Micah's authorship of this section seems out of the question.
The
a
text of the passage
distinct
is
well preserved.
The two
strs.
present each
phase of the situation and together constitute a complete rep-
The metre is regular except in lines 2 and 4 of

where tetrameters appear. To separate Str. I from Str. II on this
account alone, with Siev., seems to be placing too much stress upon conThe two are bound together into one prophecy by
siderations of form.
resentation of the scene.
Str. I,
identity of situation
11
nnyi]
om.
and point
1.
']:r\r^]
to S>") will fall into wrath.
which
subj. of inn, for
mss.,
12.
^ H sg.,
nias'nc] (H
of grain.
13.
ijry.
1Ji|-']
it
of view.
05 i-rrLxapo^fjLeOa.
&
lapidetur.
treats jrs as subj. of IJnn,
supplies a pron. asobj..
d has pi.,
^ sg.. "i^cv]
but puts vb. in
We.
pi. to
&
pi.. rip-in]
combines both renderings,
(ace.
inpn.
ijt>] 4
agree with subj..
"B/oenum (hay) as always in B. & ears

Aq. ^ chaff. 9 a stalk of grain.
(^^-Qns.m Xeirrums. CgY
<SB ârarijêtj.
(B dpdy/xara (sheaves).
05
Aq.
and ^vyy as
KaTairari^ffeis iv airraid edvrj Kal
XewrvvfU
MICAH
98
\aoi)s TToXXors; cf. 1C el tabescere faciam in eis gentes et tninutatim fades
plebes
with
muUas.
# ]9
(Si
& om.
comminues.
and nearly
<r,
conj.
i;
all interpreters.
'np-^nn]
Rd. as 2d
pers.,
aS^n] (& Trjv lax^" avruv;
so H.
Str. I states
Yahweh's purpose
the nations toward Israel.

thee]
Jerusalem
is
11.
addressed.
to thwart the evil intentions of
Arid
now
The
prophet's 'now'
there are gathered against

is
at the
of the days, whither he has transported himself in spirit.
uation he depicts here cannot be identified 'wittrajry set

historical circumstances,
is
not even the
Many
the vision of a seer.
Mâbaean
nations, m)ho say:]
end
The sitof known
Opace Hpt.).
2ne
It
gathering of
the nations in array against Jerusalem-ia_a-eharac teristic idea o f
exUic,and po stexilic prophecYj.

\&. 29'- *
41^^'^^Zp. 3*.
pect of prophecy.
into
It
cf.
Ez. 38 and 39; Jo.
3^-
Zc. 12^'^
belongs to the later eschatological as-
Pre-exilic
prophecy sends
contemporaneous history;
its
its
roots deep
down
visions of the future are indis-
Yahweh's acBut in the

later eschatology, as here, the pictures of the future bear no necessary relation to the circumstances of the present, and Yahweh's
interventions are direct and immediate; not by human agencies,
but by divine forces.* Let her he desecrated] The choice of language is determined by the prophet's own point of view which is
that Israel's land is holy to Yahweh and the tread of the nations
is desecrating; cf. Jo. 3".
The same figure appears in Is. 24^ Ps.
106^^ Je. 3^- ^- ^ Nu. 35^.
And let our eyes fasten on Zion] i. e.
gloat in triumph upon the fallen city; cf La. 2^^ Ob. 12/..
12.
But they know not the purposes of Yahweh, nor do they understand
solubly linked with the conditions of the present;
tivities in Israel's
destiny are
all historically
mediated.
his plan]
Cf. Is. 55^^- Ps. 92^
Rom.
11^.
Just so Isaiah
(10^"*)
had pictured the Assyrian army as unconsciously working out the

purpose of
Yahweh
in reference to Israel, only to fall in turn a
"The
victim to Yahweh's righteous wrath.
with them that fear

like
grain
him"
(Ps. 25").
to the threshing-floor]
secret of the
Lord
is
That he hath gathered them
This
is
the content of the plan
* Gressmann's attempt (Eschalologie, 177 ff.) to retain these verses as Micah's involves too
of unproved hypothesis and does not carry conviction even to those in sympathy with
much
his general contention,
e.
g. Stk.
Das assyrische Wellrckh,
132.
4"-"
Threshing
in question.
Am.
f/.
K. 13^ Hb.
i^ 2
is
99
a favourite simile with the prophets;
3*2 Je.
Is. 21*
51^
41'^
Str. II promises Israel complete victory over the nations as-
sembled
to humiliate her.
The
Zion]
Arise and thresh,
^13.
daughter of
prophet's national pride finds expression in this repre-
sentation of Israel as the agent of
Yahweh
in crushing the arrogant
For thy horn I will make iron and thy hoofs bronze] Israel
addressed as "the ox which treadeth out the grain" (Dt. 25*
foes.
is
The
Ho. 10").
reference to horns here
is
foreign to the figure of
and introduces a new element into the picture

that of the angry ox goring the foe; cf. i K. 22" Dt. 33".
And
thou shalt crush many peoples] The verb here means 'to pulverthe threshing-floor,
reduce to fine dust'; hence practical annihilation of the
'to
ise,'
nations
And
here contemplated.
is
Not
their spoil]
the booty taken
prey taken from them by Israel.
tween the
ing
'
spoil
'
This
line.
combustible
of this line
and the
parallel
'
to
Yahweh
wealth of the follow'
be placed imder the ban,
is all to
everything
i. e.
be burned, and the non-combustibles,
to
is
thou shall devote
by them from others,* but the

There is no sharp distinction be-
silver,
gold, etc., are to be presented to the treasury of the temple; cf

6"'*^'^*.
Jos.
13"*
Dt.
Other instances of the ban are found
Ju.
I*'
whole earth] This
title
And
15.
S.
is
Yahweh
as applied to
in the late passages Zc. 4** 6^ Ps. gf,

it
and
is
in Jos. 3"-
generally conceded to be interpolated ;f
ill-gotten
gain of the nations
world, to
whom
it
is
to
Ko.
Ges.
in
specifically sheaves,
^"'
'*'",
'.
mm]
and Ko.
'C'ni]
On
On
fem.
^'), cf.
pointing,
cf.
v.
noun
sg. of vb.
(J),
God
where
The
of the
is
equiv. to an
with subj. in
Ges. i"5k__i2.
but the grain in the swath;
renderings of the Vrss. here.

13,
*^
cf Dt. 10".
be given to the
11. DncNn] Prtc. with art. after indeterminate
SLS
Ex. 22*
rightfully belongs.
attributive clause;
(not dual,
in
Lord of the
found only here,
their wealth to the
v.
n^cj;]
BDB. and
cf.
pi.
Not
the
^p}] Baer, incorrectly, nj-\ji; Ges.^'"'.

'.
\"?cinn] Old 2d pars. sg. fem. end.
^n_, which occurs in several cases,
e.
g. in
pron. <nN; always in form
of vb. before pronominal suflSxes; in corresponding pron. of Assy., aiti;

* Contra Now., Marti.
t So
nagel.
e.
g.
Carpenter and Battersby, Holzinger, Addis, Kent, Dillmann
(?); contra Steuer-
MICAH
lOO
and sporadically
in Aram.. Other in46" Jd. 32- Ez. i6"- "

n. 31. 36. 43. 47. 61^ where the Mas. recognised it as 2d pers. and so pointed
^D inx
\n; and Je. 2^" Ez. 16' where it was mistaken for ist pers..
jnxn] Cf. T1N1 a'Da* njp, Gn. 14"; and the Ranal Inscr., which men-
in the verbal end.
ti
in Ar., Syr.,
stances of >n with vb. in Heb. are Je.
3121
"the Lord (Baal) of heaven and earth."
tions
II.
z's 3<-
Call
to
Mourning
(4").
fragment of an oracle dealing with some siege of Jerusalem,
perhaps that of Sennacherib, or that of Nebuchadrezzar, or some

one unknown.
It
seems
an actual
to reflect
too scant to furnish a basis for assignment to

closest connection is with
^
inally after v.
w.
^- ^^
and
historical situation,
But the material
rather than a prophet's vision of the last days.
any
specific date.
may have
it
or as a marginal note on
v. '" (so
is
Its
belonged orig-
Marti).
has
It
been generally recognised that no connection exists with what precedes, as
is
shown by
totally different
no
the absence of
from before
nny and by
Halevy places
thought conveyed.
it
after 6*^,
the
but
real connection is thereby attained.
14.
^^-\i
mjnr]
na
Rd., with We., "'llJnn i-ijnn, or vice versa; so
Now., Marti, Siev., Gu., Du., Hpt.. (S iix<l>pa,x0'')<^^'rai. dvyuTrjp i/ji^payfi^,

S udivi^ffovffl o-e
mistaking the 2d t for i; cf. van H., ni^ rr-a niinn.
6vy'
ffvvexofji-^pv.
troop,
vastaheris filia latronis.
daughter of troops.
Pont, Now., Marti, Gu..

ID"]
Hal.
'rn.
548 (de R.)
14.
Now
-iDDZ']
'Opr;
(^
I, irÔ-n.
rds irvXas.
so Dathe, Gr..
14*.
It
was
is,
^?U'.
QI,
Ro.
& shepherd,
Van H.
ya2V,
a'f ;
perhaps
c/.
Ry. p.82.
'CTzK
Hpt.
foil. OJ.
is
Cod.
agu'i.
addressed,
and was long retained by the Israelan act of worship and en-
resorted to also as
treaty in cases of dire necessity;
ing of
Hal.
^ thou shall go forth in a

inr; so Taylor,
& B
Cutting of one's flesh was an element in
the old Semitic mourning-cult
Dt.
Rd., with
thou art cutting thyself severely] Zion
not Babylon nor Assyria.
ites;
att']
"Now, thou
cf. i
K.
18^*.*
The
shalt gather in troops,
usual render-
daughter of
* Hpt. denies the religious significance of the act of cutting oneself in mourning and declares
a symbolical perpetuation of the early custom in accordance with which mourners scratched
themselves till the blood ran in order to show their grief. But on this supposition the prohibi-
it
tion in Dt. 14' Lv. ip^s 2i5 is
practices as appear in
K.
hard to account
18'^'.
for.
Nor can
the custom be dissociated from such
troops," referring to the assembling of Zion's
But
sault about to be
made.
"mjnn must mean
"assemble," and there
Karekvov and read
ITli-iri"*,
army
to resist the as-
it is
make themselves
far better to follow

at
home.*
erence to a practice forbidden by the Deuteronomic law
an early date before the religious consciousness of
to
where
Je. 5^ offers the only case
branded the custom as heathenish, or
it
may be due
This
may
ref-
point
Israel
had
to the fact that
is merely describing what is actually taking place, and

commanding nor approving it. A siege they lay against
the prophet
neither
now
THfe prophet
tis]
The
plural ^"OU
is
identifies himself
with his suffering people.
required by the corresponding 13^.
situation is depicted in Is. i'-
*.
similar
With a rod they smite upon the

DStt^ and t23ty is clear, the
The pim upon
cheek the ruler of Israel]
former being used rather than "j^D or h^'O to make the paronomasia; cf. Am. 2^. Such treatment was grossly insulting; cf. 1 K.
22^^ Jb.
It may refer to the insults heaped upon Hezekiah

by Sennacherib's general, or to the fact that the arrothe foe was an insult to Israel's greater king, Yahweh.
16**'.
(Is. 36^"^'*)
gance of
The Messianic King
12.
This
eight- line
secured by omitting
str.,
(5*'^).
v.
as a gloss, an-
nounces the coming of the Messiah, sprung from an ancient
who
shall rule as
Yahweh's representative and
in his
line,
might over
the entire world.
^ND
thou, Beth Ephrathah,
The least among the clans of Judah,

From thee one will come forth for me,
Who
will
Whose
be ruler over Israel,
from of old, from ancient days.

he will stand and shepherd (his flock) in the strength of Yahweh,
In the majesty of the name of Yahweh, his God;
origins are
And
For now he
The
will
be great unto the ends of the earth.
movement
of this str. is somewhat uneven; 1. 3 forms a

and 8 are extremely heavy. The reconstruction
includes the omission of a word each from 11. i, 2, and 8 {v. i.), in addition to the excision of v. '.
The arrangement in pentameters by Siev.
trimeter
light trimeter while
includes
all
11.
of these omissions except that in

* So
e.
g. Gie.,
Du., Cor., Dr..
1.
8,
but likewise finds
it
MIC AH
I02
'.
V. * is om, by
G. H. Skipwith {JQR. VI, 584); Now., F. Ladame,
Gu., Hpt.. It interrupts the connection between w. ^^"^ ',
necessary to suppose the loss of three words from v.
Du. (on
Is. 7'^),
Marti, Siev.,
'
and changes from

where Yahweh
The
is
date of vv.
the
person of
first
v.
'
to the third in v.
('''r)
* (0J-"ii),
evidently intended.
'
'
cannot be decisively
settled.
The
attitude of re-
and the largeness of the Messianic

expectation make it reasonably certain that the oracle must be assigned
somewhere in the postexilic age. The period of Haggai and Zechariah
when Messianic hopes were gathering around the name of Zerubbabel
furnishes the kind of background necessary to such an utterance as this.
spect for the ancient Davidic dynasty
On
V.
1.
',
V. i..
nmDK
cnS r^3]
Om.
ToO Ev(ppdda.
so cod. 161 (Kenn.), Ro.,
OortE-"., Marti, Siev., Gu., Du., Hpt..

2* Be^Xe^û
Mt.
BedXien oIkos 'E^pdâ.

BedXê/j.
cnV as a gloss;
GASm., Now.,
Pont, We.,
IV^]
y^
Rd., with Hi.,
Comp.
'Ioi/5a.
'\^;_^^;
C8>
cf.
GASm., Now.,
so Ro., Taylor, Pont, We., Kosters,
oIkos
oXiyoffrbi
(&
roO
el;
OortE">-, Marti,
Twenty-one mss. cited by HP., together with

Martyr and Chrysostom, introduce a negative
nvnS] Om., as dittog. from 1. 4, with 3, Mt. 2; so Hi., Che.,
before 'x.
Taylor, Pont, We., Kosters, Gr., GASm., Now., Marti, Siev., Gu., Du.,
Hpt.. pvn^ 'i is poor Heb.; the correct form would be 'm;: 's.
and
Mt. 2^ om.; so Stk.. ^vn nvnS] -^ 17701^/^6^05 toO eivai els dpxovra.
Mt. 2 s renders the last part of verse loosely from thee shall come forth
a leader who shall shepherd my people Israel. 2. dj."''] QI has vb. in 3d
rns] (S 01 A, pi. sf.. S;*] We.,
in 2d pers. sg. fem..
pers. pi.;
Now., Marti, Stk., Hpt. '?t<. 3. n;;-i] (^ has a doublet, fii/'erot /coi ttojjuam t6 irolyivi.ov avrov. Gr., GASm., Siev., Gu., foil. C5, add an obj.,
vnSs] (S has pi. sf.. las-M] Om. as a
p!<J3] (& = jinjji.
e. g. nij;..
gloss, or as a dittog. from paia'^ in v. '. (S virdpôvcnv^ connecting with
v. ' and omit. 1; so Taylor, Pont, who read vb. as in M.
H converGu., Du., Hpt..
Siev.,
A,
Mt.
1C,
Justin
28,
tentur;
so
QI.
One
and Gu. suppose the

n'J3.
1.
"jiJi]
And
(& pi..
i2V^>i.
Ro. orv. Siev., Stk.,
some word or phrase modifying uy\ e. g.
supposes the loss of the subj., or of an adv..
ms. or;; 3 mss.
loss of
Siev.
thou, Beth Ephrathah]
thah"; but "Bethlehem"
and by the metre.

correct as appears
'''^]
The
is
identification
from the reference
from the evident allusion of
v.
"Bethlehem Ephrashown by C|'s rendering

with Bethlehem is, however,
a gloss as
to
reads,
is
Judah
to the Davidic
from Bethlehem, and from the way
in
rathah are associated in other passages.

Ephrathites of Bethlehem Judah
in the following line,
dynasty which sprang
which Bethlehem and EphThe family of David were
(i S. 17^^);
Mahlon and
Chilion
I03
5'
Ephrathah and Bethlehem are par15'^^, which is generally

conceded to represent the original text, identifies Ephrathah and
Bethlehem; while i Ch. 2^- ^ 4^ enumerates Bethlehem in a list of
are likewise classified (Ru.
terms in Ru. 4";
allel
i')
(g's version of Jos.
The
Judean towns associated with Caleb and Ephrathah.

evidence at variance with these facts
48^
I S. 10^;
in
Gn.
is
Ephrathah
35*^ 48'
as above, but from Gn. 35* and
i S.
is
10^
only
furnished by Gn. 35^^-
Bethlehem
identified with
it
appears that the Ephra-
thah in question, which was the burial-place of Rachel, was near

Bethel and was in the border of Benjamin.
to conclude that there
were at
least
Hence we
are forced
two places named Ephrathah,
in Benjamin and one in Judah, and that the phrase "that is

Bethlehem" in Gn. 35^^ 48^ is a gloss due to some reader who confused the two places.* The Ephrathah of our text seems to have
been the name of a larger district within which Bethlehem was situ-
one
which Bethlehem belonged. On the basis

Ephrathah in Benjamin, Oort endeavoured
prophecy had to do with that site and was in-
ated, or of the clan to
of the existence of an
to
show
that this
tended to announce the coming of the Messianic kingdom through

the restoration of the downfallen dynasty of Saul,f but
upon the
ex-
posure of the weakness of this proposition by Kue.,J Oort himself
abandoned
The
it.
least
only possible rendering of
among
is,
the thousands of
"little to
Judah] The
be among the thousands
would hardly have expected to

But grammar and metre combine to
recommend the corrected text. The word rendered clans is of
somewhat doubtful significance as applied to Beth Ephrathah.
It ordinarily designates, aside from its strictly numerical usage,
either a band of one thousand men imder a common leader, or a
family.
Here and in i S. 23^^ it has either the latter meaning, or
of Judah,"
so small that one
i. e.
find thee in the
else
number.
denotes the region or district occupied by an C]?^.
this
Ephrathah as the
was written seems
But
in contrast
fer to
So
g.
Dillmann,
to
have been reduced to
which
its
It
may
me who
Stk., Dr., Addis,
re-
at the time
lowest terms.
with the present low estate of the family, /row
one will come forth for
t ThT. V, soi-sis.
seat of the Davidic clan,
shall be ruler over Israel]
titee
This im-
Gunkel, Holzinger, Carpenter and Battersby.
ThT. VI, 45-66.
ThT.
VI, 273-279.
LaCAH
I04
plies that at the time of its utterance there
and thus
accordance with
speaker
days]
e.
Davidic;
days"
my
Yahweh.
is
i.
was no king over

For me,
indicates the late origin of this passage
he
cf.
will
my
^-
is
37^^
Ho.
^-
3''.
The
phrase "from ancient
of indefinite scope, but
is
undoubtedly
tended to convey the impression of great antiqmty;
Mai. 3^*
she
who
2.
is to
be thus:
up
cf.
in-
Am. 9"
when
The connection of this
loose.
The thought seems
Therefore will he give them
until the time
give birth shall have borne]
gloss with the preceding verse

to
in
plans; the
Whose origins are from of old, from ancient

belong to one of the oldest families, viz. the
Ez. 34^^
(DÎJ? "'CD)
purpose and as a result of
Israel
i. e.
since Yahweh
is
is
very
going to raise up a mighty king for
Israel in his own good time, it is clear that the present oppression
and suffering are only transitory and will come to an end when the
Messiah is bom. The change from the first person of v. ^ ("for
me") to the third person here is awkward; the failure to define the
subject is striking; and the lack of any mention of the antecedents
of the pronoun "them" is confusing.
The treatment of v. ^ as a
marginal note best accounts for these
facts.
The
statement con-
Is. 7^* and

comes from a time when that prophecy was being given Messianic
significance.
This would point to an age long after the days of
cerning the expected birth
is
evidently an allusion to
Isaiah. f
And the rest of his brethren will return unto the sons of
The only proper antecedent for "his" is the promised
Messiah, The exile is evidently presupposed, but the exact mean-
Israel]
ing of the phrase "the rest of his brethren" eludes us.
Probably
interesting analogy is furnished by the " Messianic" passage of Leiden Papyrus, No.
A. H. Gardiner, Admonitions oj an Egyptian Sage (1909)], where the " Messiah" is apparently represented as a reincarnation of the god Re and thus can be spoken of as a contempo-
344
An
[v.
rary of the
first
generation of mankind;
cf.
JMPS. on
Semitic Prophecy,
BW. XXXV
(1910),
223-233.
t Stk.'s attempt to maintain Micah's authorship of this passage involves a mythological inMessfahas the Urmensch, the "days of old" as the age of Paradise, and "the
one who is to bear " as the mother of the gods (both here and in Is. 7) all of which seems far-
terpretation of the
fetched
mann
and
fanciful.
{Eschatologie,
Much more plausible is the interpretation in the form offered by Gress270 ff.) and Bumey (.Journal oj Theol. Studies, X, 580-4), which is to the
prophecy as well as Isaiah's Immanuel oracle rested upon a popular expectation

whose birth should be signalised by some remarkable pxjrtent.
This passage refers to three phases of the expectation, %'iz. (i) that the Messiah will be of divine
origin having existed in reality or in the mind of God from time immemorial; (2) that whether
his fatherhood be human or divine he is to be bom of a woman; and (3) that his birth will usher
effect that this
of the advent of a Messianic ruler
in a
new age
of peace
and
prosperity.
5'-
We.
is
right in seeing in
it
I05
an allusion to the Shear Jashub of
Is. 7^.
mind the return of all the exiles and

their reunion with those who had not been carried away; or again,
he may look forward to the reunion of Israel and Judah in the
Perhaps the prophet has
Messianic age;
will stand
Ho.
cj.
in
3^ Is.
and shepherd
11"
^-
Ez.
i6'''
'
8'^3. And
Zc.
{his flock) in the strength of
he
Yahweh, in
name of Yahweh, his God] The thought of v. ^

here continued.
"Stand" is probably used in the sense of
the majesty of the

is
His power
"stand firm, steadfast, invincible."
from the nation over
whom
he
rules,
but from
words "his flock" are not expressed
And
plied in the verb used.
seems
in M,,
to
metre and, as
no
but
it is
The
in safety,"
it
redundant
in the
It is
com-
but the verb alone
rendering here adopted
doubtful, since in Ps. 125^ Jo.
sages cited in support of

is
it is
satisfactory sense.
monly explained as meaning "dwell

difficult;
The
are im-
they will endure] This verb, found
stands, yields
never has that meaning.
emanate, not
himself.
Hebrew but
in the
be due to a copyist's error, for

it
will
God
is
the least
the two pas-
4^**,
(BDB.), the meaning "abide," "endure,"
conveyed rather by the modifying phrase D^l^^
^^^'^
^J ^^^
"^^^^
The elimination of this word takes away all occasion for

Duhm's transposition of v. ^^ to follow v. ^ as a continuation of the
gloss.
For now he will he great unto the ends of the earth] Acitself.
cording to
iJJ this
clause furnishes the reason for the security of
the universal acknowledgment of the power of the
Israel, viz,
According to the text as here presented,
Messiah.
it
gives a con-
vincing illustration of the effect of Yahweh's strength as revealed
Messiah.
in the
! ^7?,?*] ^ loc. with old fern, ending, Ges. ^'"b;

etc..
Ch. 2"-
it is
due
cf.
nn-;>Tj?
nn];itt''.,
Ru. 4" Gn. 35"- ' 48' Ps. 1328

but without n _ in Gn. 48? i Ch. 2". Hence
'dn with this spelling occurs also in

60
44 Jos. 1559 (g;
better to retain n in Mi.

to haplo..
'aphartd,
related
Fr.
5'
and
Schulthess,
to regard loss of n
ZAW. XXX,
62
from before
/.,
following
'>s
as
& =
would preserve
intact here, and treat 'sn as epitheton ornans,
the Aram. '<"^3!< and Assy, apparu which mean 'pasture-
to
land,' 'marsh.'
But the character of the region around Bethlehem does
not warrant the application of such an epithet, nor can one clear case of
the use of this
Aram, or
word as an appellative be
Assy..
cited
from
It is equally true, of course, as
either Heb., Ar., Syr.,
Schulthess points out,
MICAH
io6
is known elsewhere of a Beth-Ephrathah,

names with 'Beth' is one of the most common.
that nothing
of
sentence
is
yet the formation

T'V'x]
Position in
against this being in predicate relation to nnx; better as an
On
appositive.
the adj. with art. as having superlative force, Ges.
'".
no indication that Bethlehem is used as representing

its people and not as designating a place, for town-names vidth piD not infrequently take the masc. instead of the fem. Ko. ^ s^s o 249 c. f. Nor is it
true that 'x applies only to persons (Hal.); cf. Dn. 8 (of a horn), Je.
^vya nrnS nx^] It
4920 (of sheep), and the place-name, n-T'jjx, 2 K. 8".
The masc. form
is
to
is difficult
make
'd 'rh the subj. of
ms''
(Now., Marti);
it is
better to
and treat 'n 'S as expressing purpose, i. e. "one

become ruler"; on indef. subj., Ges. ^ "'i; on S with
assign an indefinite subj.
come
will
Assy,
forth to
express purpose, Ges.
inf. to
milsil,
used
e. g.
"^ '.
vpinsid]
air. in this
of the sources of the Tigris.
sense; butc/".
nominal clause
Ko. ^'"p. 2. Djn'>] For meaning "deliver up,"

and BDB. 679b. n'hv ny] A noun in cstr. rel.
with a sentence, equivalent to a noun limited by a temporal clause;
^ '""'"
'.mS^J Fut. pf.; Dr. 5iv Ges. ^ ' Ko. ^ i.Vy] =
cf. Ges.
with relative force;
cf.
cf.
Ju. 20" I S. ii'2
S.s;
cf.
BDB.
757a;
it is
unnecessary to change the
text.
The meaning
"along with," "together with," which some prefer here (e. g. BDB.), is
usually found only where Sj? connects closely with a noun {e. g. 7^ DN
Gn.
D''J3,
(so
32'^),
Now.).
not where
ny-11]
it
governs a phrase modifying a vb. as here
Not uncommonly used
fig.
of the activity of a ruler;
but only here without an obj. expressed. Assy, reu commonly means
"to rule, reign," and 'i here seems to have that force. nny] Used of
fut.
time as in
13.
ten-line
cal with
its
4'.
Israel's Protection against
str.,
($* ^).
the three closing lines of which are almost identi-
three opening lines.
Israelitish soil there will
and
Invasion
to carry the
war
When
the invader sets foot
upon
be no lack of valiant leaders to repel him

into his
own
territory.
In contrast with
the present defenceless, helpless condition, the Israel of the
ing golden age will be adequately equipped to defend her
com-
own
interests.
ND
this will
be our protection from Assyria:
When he comes into our land,

And when he treads upon our
Then we
will raise
soil.
up against him seven shepherds
Yea, eight princes of men,

they will shepherd the land of Assyria with the sword,
And
I07
5'-
And the land of Nimrod with the drawn

And they will rescue from Assyria,
When he comes into our land,
And when he treads upon our border.
The metre
of this
str. is
though
rest in trimeter,
may have been originally

from the foil, line; cf. dS.
lines here involves the
sword.
irregular; 11. 1,4 and 6 are in tetrameter, the

and 9 might be classified as dimeters. L. 6
a trimeter, ln^<"'"l^< having come in by error
Siev.'s
attempt to secure four seven-tone
omission of the last three words of
insertion of the subj. after n2i in
1.
1.
and the
2.
These verses are assigned to Micah by some modern scholars, e. g,

GASm., and the specific mention of Assyria seems to settle the
question.
But the name Assyria is used by later writers, as the name
Volz,
great foreign oppressor, to designate typically later peo-
of Israel's
first
ples, e. g.
Babylon (La.
Ps. 839
The name
'").
of Nineveh;
5"),
Persia (Ezr. 6"), Syria (Zc. 10" Is.
the Talmud's
cf.
27'3('>
Assyria clung to the territory long after the
name
for the
Aram,
script
fall
employed
throughout the regions formerly controlled by Assyria, viz. niii'S a~o;

and Hdt. VII, 63, where the names Assyria and Syria are declared to be
synonymous; v. Buhl, Kanon u. Text, 201. In some such way Assyria is
used here. For it is hardly conceivable that Micah could have spoken
Nor is the conof the Assyria of his day in the terms employed in v. ^
fident, warlike spirit at all
future
when
and
compatible with Micah's attitude toward the
to Assyria in chs. 1-3.
The
verses
seem
to reflect later times
the Apocalyptists painted glowing pictures of the future with
reference to present conditions or to the possibility, from a

point, of their ever being realised.
Until
we know more
conditions in Judah during the postexilic period than
we need
human
is
little
stand-
of historical
now
accessible,
not follow Marti and Gu. in assigning this passage to the Macca-
baean age, with which it has no necessary connection, even though the
reference of the "seven or eight princes" to Mattathias with his five
sons and grandsons is alluring [so Hpt. Trarisactions of the Third InterIn any
national Congress for the History of Religions, I (1908), 268].
case
it is
siah
who
quite clear that vv.

is
*-^
do not belong with vv.
the dominant figure there
is
ignored here.
'-';
for the
Mes-
Instead of the
one great leader, there are here seven or eight, and these are not raised
up by the Messiah but by the populace. Moreover, whereas in v. ' the
rule of the Messiah is to extend unbroken to the ends of the earth, here
we find "Assyria" invading the territory of Israel. The point of view
is
w. i-'. Cf. van H., who treats

and Du. who considers vv. <>. 6 a gloss upon the word
"'>, while w. < st form a four-line str. belonging to 5'- '.
thus distinctly different from that in
vv.*- 5 as a gloss;
"Assyria" in
4. nr]
&
v.
om..
oiSb']
Schnurrer, aiSr; so Latifer, Gautier.
Siev.
DiW, Siev. and Gu. eliminate the phrase 'cs 'Sk' m, as a superscription
which has been mistakenly incorporated in the body of the poem.
MICAH
Io8
Rd.
-\wt<]
JD D'f^f
the loss of c from
"iirNC,
Taylor
to
tr.
foil. N31, re-
garding the position in M, as due to influence of the order in
same place mtr.
Siev.'s insertion of "iib>n in the
masc.
in v. ^
and
sf.
ij^mjcixa]
For
being due to haplo..
protection from, v. Zc. S'" Jb. 21'.
Rd. unn-iNJ,
cs..
uxixa]
v.
cf.
pi.
xwpov
iirl ttiv
foil. (S
^,
2d
(&
vMwv; so Ro., Ry., Pont, Elh., Gu., Now., OortE-"., Hal., Siev., Hpt,.
We.,
GASm.
uSnj::, as in v.
^ 5^7/xoTa, connecting
-\itrN ri^] ^
lyh).
it
ucpn]
\z-:,
D^N]
n^nnB^]
Pont, Now., van H., Du., Hpt.. (S iv ry rd^py
Aq.
Ro. ninvnsa,
i& in his wrath.
E'.
n^nnsa; so Elh., Gu., Oort^-, Marti.
Now.,
V. '
Ro.
Siev..
Marti), or
Svxni.
ij';''?ni.
^, 'iJi S'lsni,
J.
was a
in
Gr. nmN.
iDpn.
5.
'D'Dj]
Gr.
^;\^]
Rd. nn>ns3; so Taylor,
aiiTijs.
B in lanceis ejus; so
Gr. and Marti, ninin'>np3.
S^sm]
Oort"^"'- uSi-inS.
Herrmann,
(S iireyepdriffovTai
to bite.
Â.o'(ôi/p.
'''^''
v"!**
'.
with
Rd.
iS^xni;
Hal. Sxni.
OLZ. XIV
(191
1),
Hi.
so Elh., Gu.,
We.
ijiS-'xni
(so
203, suggests that
true correction of v. ^ , which should read oiSb' nr n-m
The
was placed on the margin alongside

wrong place. This
but the use of diSb* is difficult and the Messiah seems suis plausible;
perfluous alongside of the "princes of men."
'ui
litJ'N'D
S^xni.
and
of the error
And
4.
correction
finally
came
into the text in the
this will he the protection
from Assyria] M,
rendered, **and such shall be our peace.
connection thereby established
some, the
first
is
such an one shall be our peace." *

is
w.
adopted furnishes an admirable sense in
or Syria
upon our
bility,
to be
(1;.
s.).
soil]
and rendered, " and
The
of the
translation here
this connection
volves only the slightest textual change.
tive of the great
^"^
But the description
unusual.
lowing, not the preceding context.
By
very harsh and abrupt.
words are connected with
Messiah as abstract 'peace'
usually,
is
Assyria, etc"; but the
and
This refers to the
infol-
Assyria stands as representa-
world-tyrant of the time, whether Babylon, Persia,
When he comes
The
invasion
but rather as an event
reckoned with.
is
into our land,
and when he
treads
not conceived of as a remote possi-
likely to
occur and therefore needing
Seven shepherds, yea
eight princes of men]
This collocation of two numbers, the second being greater than the
first
by a
H.^^,
So
unit, is
2 1 .f
employed
to express the idea of indefiniteness;
cf.
The supply of leaders will be equal to all demands that
K]., Ro., Or..
The
application of nr to the Messiah began with Ki..
t The view of Gressmann, Eschal. 284, that seven and eight are to be added together yielding fifteen, which is the number of Ishtar (KA T.^, 454) the goddess-mother of the Messiah, can
only be counted
among
the curiosities of the history of interpretation.
'
i9
Shepherds and princes of men are equivalent terms,
may be made.
both designating military leaders;
cf.
Jos. 13^'.
5.
And
they will
The
in sensu malo, exercise punitive power over her.

land of A ssyria and the land of Nimrod] " Nimrod " is chosen
as a
synonym
shepherd]
e.
i.
for "Assyria," perhaps, because of its suggestion of
the root marad, "to rebel."
(Gn. 10^-"
pire
was
Ch.
i^^)
show
The
only other references to
classified as the territory of
And
Nimrod
that the whole Babylonian-Assyrian
em-
Nimrod, the founder of Baby-
"he will rescue,"

from Assyria]
Messiah of vv. ^'^; but this ignores all the intervening context. Van H.'s solution of the difficulty by dropping this
context as a later addition is too drastic treatment. The whole
lon.
they will rescue
referring to the
progress of thought here requires the plural.

4. nr] Eerdmans, ThT. XLI (1907), 502, would give ni here the
meaning of Ar. dzu, lord of; but this rendering is necessary nowhere else,
not even in Ju. 5^; nor does it belong to the Syr., Aram., and Eth. equivalents.
ij^niJCiK] is hardly appropriate here.
ing a condition
when
enemy
the
cross the border; entrance of the palaces
and (g>
man";
&.
a^N
c/.
Ges.
'd^dj]
^
'^si,
blockade; or "in
fastnesses.
5.
its
But the
read some form of
strs.
"in
i. e.
cf.
its
Emergence and
in its victorious career.
aid.
him nay.
is
it
Irresistible
V.
E'
better to
and
Might of
^ is
its
movement,
marvellous
3S.
the
set forth the

rise to
a marginal note on
v.
'
power
{v. i.).
emergence of the remnant, from among the nations
whither Israel has been scattered, to the silently falling
roaring lion,
cf. v.
foolish
(5"^).
dew and
to
grow independently of
Str. II presents the remnant under the figure of a
ravaging defenceless flocks of sheep with none to say
the showers which enable the grass to
human
"a
entrances," establishing a
drawn sword, as suggested by Aq.
of six lines each, in trimeter
Str. I likens the
Pr. 15=" 'n Sipp,
a weapon; hence
parall. calls for
glory of the remnant, as exhibited in
and
pictur-
passes," pursuing the fugitives to their mountain
Remnant
Two
is
out of the question;
is
"princely men";
n^npo]
rin^ns,
Tlie Divine
14.
/. e.
The prophet
never be permitted to do more than
will
no
MICAH
A
ND
remnant
the
In the midst of
of
Jacob
many
be
will
among
the nations,
peoples,
Like the dew from Yahweh,

Like the showers upon the herbage.
Which waits not for man,

Nor tarries for the children
VEA,
the
remnant
of
Jacob
of
men.
will
be
many peoples,
lion among the beasts
young lion among the
among
the nations.
In the midst of
Like the
Like the
Who,
of the forest,
flocks of sheep.
he pass over,
if
Tramples and
tears,
with none to deliver.
Thjsjyece is quite generally denied to Micah. In contrast to th e

prophecy of the eighth century, its interests are not in the present_but
The diaspora is a familiar idea and has atexclusively in the future.
The remnant is no longer the weak handful of
tained wide extent.
is endowed with invincible might, none can stand before it.
no connection between this passage and.yv. < '; there Israel
occupies its own territory whence it repels the invader; here Israel is
Isaiah, but
There
is
scattered
among
the nations of the world.
following context; for while Israel
w.
is
Nor
does
it
connect with..the
the victorious avenger over the
becomes the victim of Yahweh's punitive

< 6, is a fragment entirely independent of the surrounding context. Not only so, but v. ^ is very loosely
connected with vv. ^- ', and is best considered as a marg. n. on v, ' (so
Siev., Gu., Hpt.); v. i..
Cf. Du. who puts 5* between 4'3'' and 4"''.
Some also would separate v. ' from v. ^, on the basis that the two verses
present diametrically opposite aspects of Israel's activity; so Ladame,
Hal., Stk.; but this is dependent upon the interpretation given to v. ; v. i..
The symmetry of form between v. ^ and v. ' is noticeable; the first two
lines of each are identical, the third and fourth contain similes in both
It results from this that
cases, and the fifth and sixth a relative clause.
the series of consonants opening the successive lines is the same in both
strs., viz. 3 ,3 ,3 ,s' ,1 ,v
Such resemblance may, of course, be due-te
identity of authorship, or to imitation, though the latter is less likely than
nations here, in
wrath.
^-
Israel
This passage thus,
like vv.
the former.
It is difficult to fix the time of the origin of this section vvithinany nar-
row
limits.
The.only certain basis for a date
of the diaspora herein reflected
and
is
furnished by_the_.extent
the idea of the remnant that
dom-
The wide scattering of Israel "among the

many peoples " would seem to call for a date after
inates the whole passage.
nations, in the midst of
of Jerusalem in 586; while the conception of the irresistible might

remnant as the representative of God among the peoples points to
a time later than Deutero-Isaiah and the return from captivity. The
the
fall
of the
only terminus ad quern available
is
furnished by the close of the prophetic
^6-8
jjj
But there is nothing in the content of the passage that makes it

come down so far for the origin of this prophecy. It might
canon.
necessary to
well belong to the middle or lattej.Eart of the
Add
6. ap;^]
d^J?, with
om. here
V.
&
'.
05
nip'']
of the flock.
Marti, Siev. (?);
Oort'^'"-,
35 codd. (Kenn.) ann. Hal. a^nn.
cf.
Yahvêh himself
Str. I expresses the conviction that
Israel to her rightful place of power.
And
6.
is
will bring
remnant of
the
Jacob will he among the nations, in the midst of
"Jacob"
many
peoples]
used as representing theôple.of Jâhwehj^_ajwhole,
The
not those of northern Israel, nor those of Judah merely.

exile
and
Elh.,
3-ip3]
and in v, ' mtr. cs., as a gloss. 0^3O-i3] 05 wj

and many Heb. mss. prefix here and before -cdd^ in
aiN ijaS] Siev. om. mtr. cs.. 7. "i;-]
(TwaxOrj = nir;\
8. D-\n] Rd. a-r^, with (g; so We., Now.,
"i-'r^] S'sg..
(so Stk.)
All Vrss.
S.pves.
period.
Kenn. 154 and v. '; so Ro.,

Oort^'"- adds DMjn -[^^^2.'^ ';
Pont, Gu., Now., Siev., van H..

Siev.
P ersian
^&, cod.
scattering of the people are presupposed either j^_aii. ex-
isting fact, or as conceived of in the prophet's
The
mind; the former
is
use of the term "rem-
the more
nant" is parallel to that in 4^, another late passage. Like the dew
from Yahweh, like the showers upon the herbage] Opinions vary
natural interpretation; v.
s..
as to the exact point of the comparison here.
denness of the
upon
its
fges
fall of
the
dew?
and smite them.*
again,
to
which
is
parallel ? J
Israel's
v.
''.
Or
is it
in
fall
harmony
that Israel in the
be as innumerable as the drops of dew and
Messianic age will
Or
in the sud-
it
This furnishes a sense
with the immistakable meaning of
rain? f
Is
Just so suddenly shall Israel
is it
found
in the rcfresliing influence of the
dew
moral and religious influence among the nations
This, however, yields a sense for v.
variance with that of v.
'',
for Israel
clearly there an agent of destruction.
divine origin of the
dew
which
Or
is
entirely at
here a blessing
yet again,
is it
is
in the
and.rain, which are wholly independent
be Israel's rise to power over the nations.

human aid ?
we
confess
our inability to discover the meaning ? **
finally,
must
Or
The key to the meaning of the simile seems to be given by the fol-
So
of
lowing clause,
dren of men]
* So Hi..
So
e. g.
viz.
The
will
which waits not for man, nor tarries for the chilantecedent of the pronoun is not the dew nor
t So Now., Hpt..
Casp., Ke., Now., Marti, Hpt..
t So Stk..
** So We..
MICAH
112
The force of the coiriparison

dew and rain falling upon the
grass cause it to grow and render it independent of human irrigation, so through the favour and might of Yahweh the remnant of
Israel among the nations will rise to power, notwithstandingîhe
absence of all human help. Israel's futuredepends solely^jipon
the rain,* but the herbagef (vî.).
thus appears to be that just as the
Yahweh.
Str. II goes
overthrow
on
produced remnant
to say that this divinely
opposition.
all
7. Like the
among
lion
will
the beasts of the
young lion among the flocks of sheep] Wild beasts and

domestic animals alike are defenceless before the lion; so will Is-
forest, the
power be supreme among the nations. Who, whenever he

and rends, with none to deliver] A picture of wanton destruction on the one hand, and utter defencelessrael's
passes through, tramples
ness on the other.The two
There
it.
by
is
comment
all
Thy hand
thy foes will be cut
etc." is improbable, since

'
fit
together_exfirst
v.
'.
drops
Fired
triumph, some reader added the patriotic and
constituting v. 8.
and
thine enemies
in V.
thus interpreted
not the slightest necessity for segregating
this vision of
pious
strs.
second taking up the description where the
cellently, the
what
would hardly be prayed
wholly unrelated to the former.
is
will be high above
iJJ's
off]
"may thy hand,
declared to be an assured fact
for in v.
unless the latter were
*,
Interpreters have always differed:
as to the person addressed, some holding
to
it
be Yahweh, J others
The biblical usage of such phraseology as "thy

high" may be cited for either interpretation; cf. Is. 26"
the remnant.
hand is
Ps. 89" Nu.
V.
'
33^ Dt.
32" Ex.
But a
14*.
closer connection with
obtained by taking the words as addressed to the remnant.
is
For similar sentiments,
49^
cf. Is.
6. rmNty] Treated as masc.
^-
{cf. sf.
60^^ Zc.
in v.
of as practically identical with nation
tax
may be satisfied
cedent
as'y;
),
14"
with antecedent
subordinate or parenthetical;
S^^
(3) rel. clause
mpi
rel.
So
e. g.
Rosenm., Ew., Ke.,
Kl., Ro., Or.,
thought
nS ii^n] Syn-
clause with ante-
with antecedent
t So Bauer, Theiner, Rosenm., Ro., van H.,

X So e. g. Mau., Hd..
is
^.
soiai being regarded as
* So Ew., Hi., Hd., Ke., Casp., Kl., Or., Now., Marti,
Ps. 149"
since the term
and people.
here in either of four ways, (i)
(2) rel. clause
^-
et al..
et al..
Now., Marti.
0"'3''3i,
but
number
of vb.
is
determined by
acj; the nearest
noun;
(4)
an explanatory
clause stating the content of the resemblance, viz. "the remnant shall
...
be, etc.
in that
smoothest structure.
pointing to
Dr. ^".
it
shall not wait, etc."; cf. <5.
7.
"any time
13? dn]
'ni
(i) yields the
in the indefinite or
more or
less
remote future,"
8. Fine chiasm.
through Chastisement
Israel's Purification
15.
But
Regular form for a condition
(5""").
strs., with an introductory

and two additional verses from the hands of ediThe original piece probably dates from somedme
This piece consists of two four-line

(v. ^^)
prose line
^^-
tors (vv.
").
Deuteronomic period.
in the
Str. I foretells the destruction of
war in which Israel places confidence instead of

Str. II denounces idolatrous practices which
trusting in Yahweh.
likewise lead Israel away from Yahweh.
the mtmitions of
And
it
will
come
WILL
And
And
And
A
ND
And
And
And
The
to pass in that day,
cut
ofif
it is
the oracle of
Yahweh:
thy horses from the midst of thee.
I will destroy thy chariots.

I will cut off the cities of thy land,
I will lay
waste
all
thy fortresses.
I will cut off sorceries
from thy hand,
thou wilt have no soothsayers.

I will cut off thine images and thy pillars from the midst of thee,
thou wilt no more
assonance of the
bow down
poem
is
to the
work
of thine
own
hands.
noticeable, especially the repetition of
and the suffix t^. The movement is trimeter except in the last
two lines where a heavier metre appears. Siev. recognises this change
in V. '^ and therefore inserts So in v. 'â jn order to secure six beats.
But V. ""> cannot be made over thus, hence it is athetized from vv. '-'
and with v. " is constituted another fragment. But v. '"b jg the climax
Du. refuses any
of the poem and the only natural stopping-place.
poetic form to vv. '-" and prints the entire passage as plain prose.
That v. hasjao connection with w. 5" has long been recognised; so
niani
We., Now., Ladame, Siev.. It introduces a wholly new subject, viz.

Yahweh's vengeance upon the_heathen, whereas w. '-" are concerned
with Israel exclusively. The fact that the vengeance is to be executed
upon the nations at large points to a relatively late origin. Early prophecy did not contemplate the conversion of the world to Yahweh, hence
did not denounce the nations for disobedience to him. Its indignation
was expended upon the

any given time.
at
particular nation which
was oppressing
Israel
MICAH
14
" are no less cogent. V. '"', as it

""; and if the common correction
of iny to -]''yiy be accepted the case is no better, for '"' then becomes
superfluous after v. '2. V. " likewise is an editorial insertion, giving
an additional detail, which has no place after the summary in v. i^; anything additional weakens the efJect. Hpt., however, athetizes vv. '" i*- "
The grounds for setting aside

M, is a weak repetition
v.
stands in
w.
leaving
The
"
'
(^ZAW.
as the original material.
'^
'-'^
date of vv.
of v.
has been a subject of debate for SQCie_years.
Sta.
(ZAW.
IV, 88/.; Zw^r. 342), Kosters {ThT.

249-274), Marti, Bu.^^^'^''-, 86/., et al., deny the passage to
I,
161-72), Cor.
XXVII,
Micah and
somewhere in the exilic or postexilic periods. Kue.

and Che. (EB. art. Micah) suppjsse that it originated with Micah, but was thoroughly worked over in the ppstexilic
place
it
(Einl. II, 360-3)
age.
e. g.
Many
scholars, however,
maintain Micah's authorship; so
still
We., Ry., GASm., Volz, Now., Wildeboer, Ladame, van H., and
apparently Dr..
The argument
against an early date
is best presented, by Marti, viz.

and asherim were not denounced by Hose a an d
promulgation of Deuteronomy, which shows that
(i) that the mas.ieboth
Isaiah, nor until the
they were not eliminated by Hezekiah's reform; (2) that the joint con-
demnation of munitions of war and idolatrous practices is a late charcombination of pesilim and masseboth, and the
acteristic, as are also the
allusion to the existence of fortresses; (3) that parallel passages are of
later origin, vi^.
Ho.
2"^
8^* 14'';
and
(4) that
the lack of any allusion to
accounted for on the hypothesis of originâfter
"high-places"
is.as easily
these were
all
destroyed, as
movement
against
it is on the supposition of
them had developed. When to all
origin before the

this is
consideration that weighs as heavily here as in the case of
a polemic against idolatry
lies
added the
i'',
viz. that
outside of the range of Micah's thought,
the argument seems convincing.
on the other hand, though Amos, Hosea and Isaiah did not deand asherim specifically, the polemic against images
was taken up by Hosea (8<-8 lo* 132). Horses and chariots are coupled
with idolatrous images by Isaiah (2?; cf. ô'-^ 31'), as hostile to complete
Yet,
noiince masseboth
faith in
Yahweh
as Israel's only defence.
nomic prohibition
of masseboth
teachings of the preceding prophets.
Law
already existing sentiment or custom.
not necessarily carry with

is in
no close relation
even apart from
its
it
Furthermore, the Deutero-
must have been prepared

is
for
by the
but the codification of an
Finally, the excision of
i'
to its context
and
carries the
stamp of an addition
context.
On the whole, therefore, it seems probable that s'-'^ is of late origin

the possibility
and
does
the dropping of this section, for i' clearly
must remain open
that
it is
but
a genuine fragment' of Micah
represents to us a phase of his teaching not otherwise recorded.
5""'
9. ^masni] Siev. adds "ho, mtr.
and
fusing D
3;
cf.
p.
32.
thy high-places, or altars;

13.
plants.
T>-\3;]
51
{thy tamarisks).
11.
= onTN,
thine enemies,
i. e.
D'cro] <S
3*.
again confusing
con-
i-iijifo,
12. n^maxci]
Ho.
& =
y-^ô.
n-iyyc] (S pi..
and
&
n.
thy
Hi. y-^';^y
Tix; so also Che., Elh..
Krenkel {ZwTh. IX, 275), :inpf. Van H. i^sj? {thy

so Kosters, Gr., Gu., Now., Marti, Siev., Du.; cf. 2
Stei. ^\?X37;
trees).
Ch.
cs..
^^ =
(& 6vffia<rT7]plov in
cf.
(S the groves
ini-.i'N]
Ti^c]
115
24'8.
14.
'ui nS it^N]
wv ovk
'av^'
(Jg
k.t.X.
B jwac now, etc.;
so
&.
Str. I threatens Israel with the destruction of every source of
human confidence and help. 9. And it will come to pass in that

day, a is the oracle of Yahweh] An introductory statement in prose.
The last phrase occurs again only in 4, a late passage it is common
;
Amos.
in
in Zc. 9^;
That I
cf.
will cut off thy horses,
Dt. 17^^ 20^ Ho.
of thy land and lay waste

fied cities is
the
14^.
10. And I
25^^ 34^^ 2
...
Ch. 11"
means
self will
cf.
Ho. 10" Am.
to
my
cities
yoke, forty-six of his strong walled
round about them, without number,
of defence,
it is
be her strength and
Though Yahweh
Str. II declares that
futility.
But she must be brought
shield.
Yahweh will
11.
it is
rites.
Sorceries]
destroy
all
The
Soothsayers]
This
who
Both sorcerers and diviners
way
pillars]
Israel
to
to see their
exact content of this term
is
an equally
all sorts
obscure
is
uncer-
of magi-
word;
it
practise various arts of divination.
alike totally fail to realise the true
commimion with God.
12.
and
Thine images and thy
Graven images are meant, such as were common in early

Ju. 17^- * Ho. 11^ Is. 10^ 21^ Je. 10"), and continued
and postexilic times (Is. 30^^ 48^), but were prohibited by
(cf.
in exilic
all
to
supposed sources of
may come
apparently a general designation of
probably denotes those
only
will destroy all
not to leave her defenceless; he him-
divine help other than himself so that Israel
cal
testifies to
her absolute dependence upon him.
realise
tain;
of forti-
5 Is. 17^ 22^"
Sennacherib (Taylor Cylinder)
26^.
besieged and captured."
will cut off the cities
number of cities in Judah; "but as for Hezekiah of Judah,
and the smaller
Israel's
similar prophecy
hardly sufl&cient warrant for placing the prophecy in
had not submitted
tvho
cities,
The mention
thy fortresses]
all
Maccabaean age as Marti does;
the large
etc.]
three codes (Ex. 20* Dt. 12^ Lv, 26^).
The
"pillars" were con-
MIC AH
Il6
up beside
secrated stones set

stones,
cf.
Gn.
28*^ 31^^'
and
at graves or as boundary-
*^
^^
35"'
Ex.
They were a common
24*.
Semitic
having been found at Gezer, at Petra, in Cyprus, and
institution,
having existed also
among
Phoenicians and Arabs.
They were
prohibited by the Deuteronomic Code, Dt. \(P\ but remained
first
in
altars
originally supposed to serve as the residence of deity;
and
good standing as legitimate elements
after in the
minds of many;
thou wilt not bow
Is.
cj.
down any more
does away at one stroke with
in the
19^^-
to the
all
'^'^^
Yahweh-cultus long
And,
a late passage.
work of thy hands] This
idolatrous worship of images.
Notwithstanding the prohibition in the Decalogue, the prophets
found it necessary to wage im ceasing war upon image-cults;

Ho. 13=* 2 K. 23" Ez. 8^- 5- " Is. 44'-"'.
To
v.
^^
has been attached a
gloss, or
menting the statement there made.
13.
cf.
marginal note, supple-
And
I will uproot thine
asherim from the midst of thee] The asherah was a sacred wooden
post that constituted a part of the equipment of the place of
worship, both
Hebrews
(2
the former.
(Dt.
and the
from
They were forbidden by the Deuteronomic Code
among
K. 23^
12^ 16^^;
accompanying
time
(cf.
Je.
cf.
the Canaanites (Ex. 34*' Ju. 6^)
Is. 17^),
Ex.
perhaps taken over by the
34*^, in
latter
a late stratum of J); but, like the
"pillars," they survived the prohibition for
if
Is. 27^).
The
some
and
precise nature of their origin
function are not yet known.
And
adds nothing to v."*; hence
emended by many to " thine idols,"

".
In either case, it is more easily
but
I will destroy thy
this is vain repetition of v.
assigned to a glossator than to the author of

structs
and
w.
^^- ^^
I will
thus:
"I
cities]
This
it is
will cut off thine
w. ^'^^.
Taylor recon-
images and thy
pillars,
uproot thine asherim from the midst of thee, and thou
no more bow down to the work of thy hands," omitting the

word of "*, inserting "* after ^^*, and dropping ^^. This
furnishes good progress of thought and preserves the proper climax, but it destroys the symmetry of Str. II and makes no real
wilt
last
contribution to
14.
And
its
content.
I will execute vengeance, in anger and wrath, upon the
nations which have not hearkened]
was unwilling
An
addition by an editor
who
that a prophecy denouncing Israel's idolatry should
5".
word
close without a
117
of condemnation
upon the great
idolatrous,
The only way of escape for the nations is to subto Yahweh and his people, putting away their own
heathen world.
mit themselves
gods; the failure to do this arouses Yahweh's anger and involves
Yahweh
their total destruction.
be
will
satisfied
with nothing less
than a world-wide kingdom.

11.
K.
cf. I
magic;
in Ar. to cut
i828).
Zim. {KA
from Assy
Assy,
Only here and
D'ifla'3]
practice
and
but
K.
; cf.
9*' Is.
Syr. in
T.', 605,
in Assy.
']'y2
3*.
650) maintains that
to
(i.e. cut oneself;
it is
a loan-word
known
not likely that a word of this kind
it is
would not be current
Syr.
47' Na.
Ethpe.=<oây
in Heb., designating as
in Ar.,
it
does
a common Semitic custom. Furthermore, the vb. occurs in Ex. 22"

which antedates the Assy, period of Heb. history. a''jjij?D] Forbidden
Exact function, and the
in Dt. 18'"; but mentioned in Je. 27' Is. 57'.
orig. mean, of root are unknown; cf. (S d-iroîdeyySfjievor, Aq. kXtiSovi-
S,
j^Snevoi;
9".
13.
arjfjieioa-KoiroiJiJLevoi;
&
diviners, or necromancers.
Full writing of _; so also in Dt. 7^ 2
^n';:^s]
Jos. 9".
On
V. refs. in
BDB., HWB.^^ and EB.
K.
Cf. Ju.
i-j^*; cf. ^''rpT,
relation to the Canaanitish goddess ASirtu or ASratu,
been proposed
in
331.
in;']
order to avoid repetition of
Various meanings have
v. <'^, e. g.
enemies (, Ra.,
Ki., Cal., Ro.); sacred forests (of Ar. origin; Theiner, Mich.); witnesses,
used of
Dpi
so far
trees, pillars, etc.,

.
^n^rj,']
compound
tii'N]
is
so Hi.).
-1;
14.
unusual in that the noun as obj.
is
its vb.,
expression
is
treated like the simple vb. Dpr,
Better treated as
causal part., or as
rel.
C.
That
as signs of altars (reading t for
construction
and is unique in that 'j '>' is followed by pn

of the person upon whom vengeance is executed; i. e. the
removed from
with the ace.
19'*.
The
rel.
cf.
part, with antecedent
vnth antecedent
CHAPTERS
op:,
i. e.
AND
Jos.
a''ijn
vengeance such
10" Lv.
than as
as, etc.
7.
these two chapters as they stand could not belong to the
eighth century B.C. has been generally recognised since the days
of Ewal4i
Opinion has been divided however as
whictrthey do belong.
Ew., followed by
many
to the time to
interpreters, as-
signed them to the reign of Manasseh as a product of Micah's old

age.
Recent scholarship has been more inclined
the postexilic pgriod.

unit,
to place
them
in
In any case they do not constitute a logical
but must be interpreted as representing differ ent p oints of

reflecting^ varying backgrounds.
For detailed discussion
view and
MICAH
Il8
of these questions reference
is
made
to the Introduction, 2,
to the introductory statements at the
tions into
which the chapters are here analysed.
Yahweh's Controversy with
16.
Four
and
opening of the various sec-
(6*"^).
Israel
of four trimeter lines each, seek to bring
strs.
home
to the
conscience of Israel the obligation resting upon her to be loyal to
Yahweh
in return for his great
Israel in the presence of the
goodness to her.
mountains present her
Let
Str. I.
case.
Str. II.
Let these mountains "full of memories and associations with both

parties to the trial" be witnesses in the controversy between
weh and
his people.
Str.
III.
Yahweh has
Yah-
given Israel cause
not for complaint but for thanksgiving; witness, the deliverance
from Egypt.
Let
IV.
Str.
Israel only recall the period of the
wanderings in the desert, in order to be reminded of the mighty

interpositions of
Yahweh
in her behalf.
TJEAR,
now, the word

Which Yahweh has spoken:
Arise, plead unto the mountains,
And
let
the hills hear thy voice.
UEAR, O
mountains, the controversy of Yahweh;
Yea, give ear,
foundations of the earth;
For Yahweh has a controversy with
his people;
Yea, with Israel he will enter into argument.

TV/TY people, what have I done to thee?
And
For
wherein have I wearied thee? Answer me.

brought thee up from the land of Egypt,
And from
the house of bondage I rescued thee.
TV/TY people, what did Balak counsel?
And what
did Balaam answer him?

Remember, now, "from Shittim to Gilgal,"
That thou mayest know the righteous deeds
The
of
Yahweh.
form of this piece has been fairly well preserved by M.

add a word in , with (B; to eliminate " as a gloss;
to transpose >s'jidt from ^^ to <=; and to omit 'd hSd from 5 and iiyj p
from îb. The rhythm then becomes smooth and harmonious.
Marti, Siev., and Gu. om. v. as a historical expansion; but it constitutes an excellent close for this phase of the thought and it conforms to
the metric and strophic norm. The change from ist pers. (v.^") to3dpers.*
(v.^"') is too common in Heb. prophetic utterance to serve as valid reason
poetic
It is necessary only to
'
'
<
119
b'-"
which
for athetizing the verse in
w.
w.
(and Hpt. vv.*"-
'
'-*
hanging in the
The
')
it
Du., however, treats both
occurs.
But
as a later prose expansion.
this leaves
air.
'-'
contents of vv.
furnish slight evidence of any specific date for
their origin.
In themselves, the verses might belong to almost any period
of prophecy.
Du., indeed, assigns vv.
But the
of ch. 6.
'-'
to
Micah, together with the most

and political leaders
fact that in chs. 1-3 the religious
were the objects of denunciation as leading the people astray, while here
the people as a whole is reproved, points to different authorship.
More-
and in the collection of

making up chs. 6 and 7 is a sign of late origin.
'ui ipDtf] Siev. om. vv.'- b- ^âs superscriptions forming no part
hn] Add, with C5, i3"in; so one ms. of
nj] TB om..
of the poem.
Kenn., Marti, Now.^, Gu.. nini nti'N] (gs Kijpioi Ki/ptos. (S^- " '2
-idn] Rd. nDN, with (S elnev; so Marti, Now.'', Gu..
Kvplov & 6 Ktipioi.
pn] Rd. Vvs, with <8 n'pSs, and TS adversum; so Hi., Stei., We., Gr.,
over, the presence of this passage in this context
oracles
*>
Now., OortE-"-, Marti, Siev., Du., Gu..-t2 onn] QJ \aol; aq ôvvoi.

C'jnxni] Rd. irmni, with We.; so BDB., Or., Now., Oort"^-, Marti,
J
Hal., Siev., Gu., Du., Hpt..
and n were
suflBciently alike to
confused in the old script; while d arose through dittog. of

ence of
(S
oi
art.
with hn, though lacking from onn, makes
<pdpayyS
0"'jnNn >-nn
'1
iraptjvdx^vc'i'
Njor] Tr.
{mountain
an-nx
<ôi,
to
VDtr.
clefts)
similarly &.
a double rendering.
4. jnnN]
ceptible of sensible interpretation.
cs.,
yy
nr:]
(g
Cf. Elh.
Cf. Hi.
^ ri
o-e
'h\
also
makes
who would
repeat
adds Kara cov; so &.
with Now.'' and Siev.; so also
&B=
5.
in v. 5; this renders s* parallel in
structure to the corresponding line of Str. Ill,
before 'trn-jn.
H fortia.
<S
Pres-
M suspicious.
ttinSh hdi] <g ^ t/ iXxnr-qai
3.
precede aiiarn
be easily
foil. r.
"\U"3
p.
and
3N1D iSd]
aâtyn jc] (5
dLirb
^^
sus-
xj"13;
Om.
tQv
mtr.
ffxaivuv
(= rushes), perhaps an error for ffxlvuv (= mastich trees; so Vol., Ry.).

Mau. prefixes 'n"'B'y nni; so Taylor, Elh.. Stei. prefixes Tâyi. Ew.
om. the whole phrase as a gloss; so Du., GASm., Now., Gu., et al..
nipis] (S
& sg..
Str. I calls the world's attention to the
trusted to the prophet.
has spoken]
The prophet
1.
message of Yahweh
in-
Hear, now, the word which Yahweh
thus introduces
Yahweh
to the people.
Arise, plead unto the mountains, and
let
Yahweh now speaks
The mountains have
to the prophet.
the hills hear thy voice]
wit-
nessed the whole course of Israel's history, including the benefits
showered upon the nation and the base ingratitude returned.

These, therefore,
may
be regarded as just judges concerning the
MICAH
I20
righteousness or unrighteousness of Yahweh's case as presented
The mountains and
through the prophet.
here merely for rhetorical

trine that the
It is
effect.
hills
are not introduced
a part of the prophetic doc-
animate and inanimate world are alike concerned in
God's dealings.
Besides the conception of nature as a witness,
represented here,
we
find also that of nature
feeling of the intolerableness of the evil
upon
her, or
"as sharing God's
which men have heaped
by her droughts and floods and earthquakes as the

doom" (GASm., p. 420). CJ. Rom. 8^^
executioner of their
Str. II represents the prophet, in obedience to

hest, addressing himself to the hills
Yahweh's be-
with a request for their atten-
Yahweh's case. 2. Hear, O mountains,

Yahwek] The prophet now speaks, turning
The figure in the prophet's mind is
the mountains.
tion to the statement of
controversy of
the
himself to
that of a case in court;
Yahweh
is
dant, the mountains serve as judge
Yea, give ear,
plaintiff's counsel.
reads,
But
"and
the plaintiff, Israel the defen-
and
jury,
and the prophet is the
O foundations
of the earth]
ye, the everlasting ones, the foimdations of the earth!".
and is also subject to

and grammatical grounds (v. i.).
The "foimdations" are identical with the "mountains" in the
parallel line, which were thought of as the pillars upon which the
earth was supported; cf Dt. 32^^ Ps. 18^ Jb. 18^ (g. For Yahweh
this is a clumsily constructed phrase,
serious criticism
on
linguistic
has a controversy with his people; yea, with Israel he will enter
into argument]
The
phrase "his people" involves the acknowl-
edgment of a special relation between Yahweh and Israel, indicates the ground upon which Yahweh bases his right to enter into
argument, and suggests the many mercies already extended to
Israel by Yahweh.
The appeal here, as always in prophecy, is
made to the intelligence and reason of Israel; cf. Ho. 4*- 12^ Is.
i'*'
^-
Je. 25^^
The
prophet's recourse
is
not to authority, nor to
fanatical emotion, but to the self-evidencing
undeniable
power
of truth
and
fact.
In Str. Ill
Yahweh speaks and makes
his appeal to Israel's
history for vindication of his right to be grieved.
what have I done
to
thee?
Answer me] The tone
And
is full
3.
My
people,
wherein have I wearied thee?
of entrea,ty.
The
inquiry
is
that
121
O"-"
The impHcation
of a parent, not that of a judge or king.
toward Yahweh
Israel's attitude
is
that
such as would be justifiable
is
only on the basis of unkind or unjust treatment on the part of
But Yahweh declares that he is not conscious of any

and challenges her to cite any incident
in her history that will convict him of wrong.
He has made no
unreasonable, oppressive demands upon his people {cj. Is. 43''^).
He calls upon Israel to defend herself by justifying her implied
charges against him. No answer comes to the question, for none
can be made. 4a, b. For I brought thee up from the land of
Egypt and from the house of bondage I rescued thee] Not only
has Yahweh given Israel no occasion for complaint, but she
has every reason for gratitude. The first and most fundamental
fact in Yahweh's long record of gracious deeds is the deliverance
from Egypt. Israel's history, as understood by the prophets,
^^
begins with an act of redemption (Am. 2^" 3* 9' Ho. 2^^ 11^ 12^-
Yahweh.
intention to injure Israel
13* Je. 2
f-
11^-
'
Ez. 20^
f-
Is. ii^ 52^
so deep in the national consciousness
as the starting-point
and
and
is
63").
This event
lies
referred to so frequently
basis of the national development, that
it
was a
historical fact,
rather than a product of the religious imagination.
The prophet
is
impossible to escape the conviction that
it
indulges in paronomasia in the choice of the two words ITit^^H
(=
weary,
v. ^)
and "^Ti^yn
(bring up).
Moses, Aaron and Miriam] This

reader, as
of
Miriam
is
clear
have in the
this
IV
4c. And I
sent before thee
a supplementary note by some
This is the only mention

Aaron and Miriam are given
as co-leaders with Moses, which they do not
sources; cf. Ex. 15^" * 17^^ 24^- " ^^ Nu. 12^
from
its
prosaic form.
in the prophetic books.
a prominence here,
Str.
is
earliest
recites other
examples of Yahweh's kindness
to Israel,
time taken from the period of wanderings in the desert, in or-
der to convince Israel of her total failure to appreciate Yahweh.

5.
My
people,
answer him?]
what did Balak counsel?
An
And what
allusion to the events recorded in
Familiarity with this story
is
Balaam
Nu. 22-24.
did
presupposed by the prophet.
stroke of the pen the writer brings vividly to

striking episodes in Israel's history.
On
turned a would-be curse into a blessing.
mind one
By a
of the most
Yahweh
The prophet seems to
this occasion
MICAH
122
recognise at
curse.
its full
face value the supposed destructive effect of a
was only Yahweh's
It
interposition that saved Israel from
This magical, superstitious conception of
destruction.
harmony with
sadly out of
Remember, now, ^'from Shitiim to

v. ^* where it is super-
immediately following verses.
The
Gilgal"]
fluous.
It is
plied here,
ence
is
now"
if
verb
religion is
the magnificent ideal set forth in the
supplied here from
is
unanimously conceded that something must be supthe words are to be retained in the text.
required by the parallelism.
M, would
in its place in
knowest what happened
to
Their pres-
Others, retaining
"remember
supply such phrases as "thou
thee";* or "and what
did";f
or, re-
"remember what happened to thee";f or "remember

the favours I showed thee " or "and thy crossing over." ** A similar idea to that of our text is found in Dt. 8^.
Shittim was the last
peating ^DT,
camping
station before the crossing of the
while Gilgal was the
E)
first
The mention
encampment
of these
Jordan
(Jos. 3^
E),
after the crossing (Jos. 4^
two names, therefore, would
at once
bring to mind the wonderful exhibition of Yahweh's goodness and
power
in connection with Israel's entrance into the
"promised
That thou mayest know the righteous deeds of Yahweh]

These words are dependent upon the preceding admonition to "reland."
member," and they summarise what

were intended
to teach.
If Israel
the extent of her obligation to

his will.
his just
I S.
The
They
righteous people.
"righteousness" in
The
surely gladly
Yahweh which
to the world at large;
cf.
do
reveal
Ju. 5"
are practically Israel's God-given victories over
her foes, which vindicate
own
Yahweh, she would
"righteous deeds" are acts of
and righteous character
12'^-.
the incidents from history
could but realise and appreciate
Is.
case rests here.
Yahweh
This
is
as the strength
and
stay of his
the prevailing sense of the
word
40-66.
The prophet has
pointed out the obliga-
upon Israel, which grows out of Yahweh's goodness to

Only by implication is it conveyed that this obligation is im-
tion resting
her.
fulfilled.
The
positive, direct
charge against Israel, together with
the pronouncement of sentence, remains imuttered.

thus,
*
seems
Cal..
to
The
passage,
be only a fragment of a longer address.
t Mau., Taylor.
J Mich., Baur, Kl., Ro..
Ros..
** SteL.
123
O"'"
1. PN an] Cf. Ho. 12', where Sn in iK is an error for tn, as appears

from i2< and (8. To suppose such an error here is better than to render
PN in fellowship with (Ke.) which is impossible, or to treat it as = S
(Mau., Hd., Ro.), or as = ^JD~n!<, in presence of, apud (BDB., 86a;
Elh.).
2. cjONHi]
presents difficulties: (1) the parallel word ann
lacks the article; (2) if an adj., 'jn.v should/o//ow its noun; (3) as a substantive, it is usually used of perennial streams; (4) the awkwardness of
iinsSn] On
3. nc]Ges. ^"d.
noi] Adverbial, Ko. ^ ^32 c_
the phrase.
4a, b.
"^^
vocalisation, Ges. ^"P-
The
exact
Kefrein
location
may be
is
JeljUl,
SjVjh]
between the Jordan and Jericho,
discussion of the nature of
el-
Probably represented
The Character of True Religion
17.
5. dôu'h]
unknown; the acacia grove near Khirbet
a survival of the place.
by the northern Tell

SE. of the latter.
Clauses are in chiasm.
to the
(6^^).
Yahweh's requirements which
summary of the content of practical religion

OT. The material readily resolves itself into
be
yields the finest
to
found in the
three
four-line
movement; the opening
trimeter
in
strs.
marked by
the introduction of a
of Str. Ill
is
Str.
an individual inquiring what type of

Will gifts satisfy
desires.
inquiry in such a
costly gifts
of Str. II
is
subject, while the beginning
indicated by the change from question to answer.
I represents
Yahweh
new
way
as to
show
him?
service
Str. II continues the
that even the most elaborate and
cannot secure Yahweh's favour.
Str. Ill answers the
inquiry with a positive definition of "pure religion and undefiled."
yÊREWITH shall
And bow
Shall I
With
-
before
God
Yahweh,
of
heaven?
burnt-offerings,
calves a year old?
With
be pleased with thousands of rams,
tens of thousands of rivers of oil?
Shall I give
TT
come
come before him with
TU'ILL Yahweh
The
myself before the
fruit of
my first-born
my body for
for
my
transgression.
the sin of
my
soul?
man, what is good.

Yea, what does Yahweh seek from thee,
But to do justice and to love kindness.
And to walk humbly with thy God?
This piece
is
has been told thee,
well preserved;
no textual changes, transpositions or

The metre is smooth and
and in each of which an extra tone
omissions are required by the poetic form.

regular
all
through, except in
'
MICAH
124
Siev. omits
appears.
a word in each of these two long
lines,
but
this is
arbitrary.
Since Ew.'s time this section has generally been assigned to the days
of
Manasseh, either as a product of Micah's old age, or as the work of a

The great reason for this has been
writer of the Deuteronomic School.
the allusion to
human
sacrifice
which
is
supposed to
reflect the evil
days
when the king set the example by offering up his own son (2 K. 21*).
But We. rightly calls attention to the fact that human sacrifice in our
common
practice, but rather as a sample of

Such sporadic cases of religion grown desperate occur long before the reign of Manasseh. Hence we must rely
upon other evidence for the date of these verses. The tone and spirit
The calm,
of the passage are wholly different from those of chs. 1-3.
passage
is
not cited as a
extraordinary sacrificial zeal.
dispassionate speech of the teacher displaces the forceful utterance of
The same
the prophet.
conception of religion appears as in
6 Is. 1"-" Ps. 40^-8 508-" 5i>6
Ho.
and
Je. 722
'
out
representatives in Israel from the age of
its
poem
wholly unwarrantable to bring the
on the ground of
its
this
Amos
Am.
^^^
was never with-
to the end.
It is
dov?n to 100 B.C. as Hpt. does,
supposed reflection of the teachings of the Essenes.
The fact that the answer is addressed to an individual, and to any individual of the great human race, seems to point to the age when national
lines
were broken over and the scope and appeal of the true religion was
In this respect the passage is in harmony with
recognised as universal.
such writings as Jonah, Ruth, and large sections of the Wisdom literature.
On
the whole, therefore, a date early in the postexilic period seems the
most probable.
6. 13n] (6 ivTiKriy/ofuti, treating
t]>:t<.
Elh. 'h -i23X.-r7^
''Snj]
rected to x^'Mppwi/, as in (5^2-
hircorum.
&
<8
"'
it
as a denominative from 1?.
x'M<^pw (so
^'^
S>);
perhaps
to
Gr.
be cor-
and Aq.; but cf. Ry.. d^ apvCov. U

'y^n.
pc] & heifers, probably
strength, connecting with
a free rendering "strength of fat ones," i. e. "heifers"; the latter word is

a formation from the root nirn "to anoint with oil, etc.." 'ui jriNr] &
I will not offer my first-horn (a sin is he to me) nor thefruits of my body (a
sin of
my
soul are they to me).
niD3]
<S
ini33.
8.
nijn] (^ el dvriy-
hence We. ijn; so Now., Oort^""-, Marti^ Siev., Gu., Du.. 3 Indidin] Che.c^ o^hSn. yjsm] (g koI ^roifiou
caho; so &. Aq., 6 ippidri.
etvai; so &.
Gr. j;j3m. Che.CB, 't< >X2;d rh?].
ffKij;
Str. I introduces
tions, evidently
an inquirer asking a
series of rhetorical ques-
presupposing a negative answer.
-The prophet by
the very form of these questions desires to suggest the absurdity

of
the popular conception of
Wherewith
shall
Yahweh and
of his desires.
I come before Yahweh, and how myself
6.
before the
125
God of heaven] A question growing out of the conception of Yahweh as a great and mighty king to whom his subjects must bring
presents when they would approach his presence; cf. i S. 6^ ^- lo^ ^
25^^ 2 S. 16^
an
^.
inculcated by the law; Ex. 23^* 34^".
It is
and
his worshippers,
its
prevalence was consonant with an almost
sphere of morals and social justice;

'"" Ho. 6'^'"
5* 9^-'.
It oper-
total lack of conscience in the
cf. Is. i''-
It is
commercial view of the relation between Yahweh and
essentially
28'-
Am.
4*
Je.
s'-
ated exactly like the sale of indulgences under the popes of the
The whole
Middle Ages.
and
fices
offerings
prophetic teaching concerning sacri-
was an endeavour
to
show
that such gifts
and
ceremonies were of themselves without value in the sight of God.
The term "God
of the height,"
to the verb ''bow " to
worshipper.
God
i. e.
the heavens,
is
used in contrast
emphasise the humility and dependence of the
harmony
It is in
also
-vvath
the priestly thought of
as ineffably holy and transcendent, far removed from the sins
men; cf. Ho. 5^^ Is. 18^ Mi. i^ ^- Je. 25^. The title may have
grown up in response to the effort to exalt Yahweh above the host
of
of foreign gods clamouring for admission into Israel.*
come
before
him with
burnt-offerings,
is
no
satisfactory proof of the pre-exilic origin of^his passage;
because
first,
it is
improbabl^-tliat the sin-offering
and prominence
existence
first
The
mentioned rather than the în-offer-
fact that the burnt-offering is
ing
Shall I
with calves a year old ?]
recognises
it
in the exilic period, even
at that time.
Ezekiel and the Priestly
The
Code was not
ritual of the
fiirst
if
came
into
the literature
Holiness Code,
the creation of those writings
but was an inheritance in large part, which
and
postexilic
in so far as
it
law-makers
to codify
it was the task of exilic

and inform with new meaning,
failed to express the best religious
thought of the age.
Second, because the thought of the prophet here
is
not concerned
with any particular offering as such, but rather with the whole
sacrificial
deny.
on (Lv.
system, the efficacy of which in and of
itself
he wishes to
Calves were eligible for sacrifice from the age of seven days
22^^); cf.
valuable;
cf.
Lv.
Ex.
9'
22'".
Gn.
yearling was, of course, relatively
15'.
Str. II continues the rhetorical question, the possible gifts to

* Cj. Westphal, Jahwts Wohnslallen (1908), 265.
MICAH
126
Yahweh becoming more costly with each succeeding question.

7. Will Yahweh be pleased with thousands of rams, with tens
of
thousands of streams of oil?] In neither this nor the preceding

interrogation does the negative answer involved imply that the
prophet thought of
H/^,
136/..
fice is all
K.
and
that
on was
8^.
3^
Yahweh
as displeased with sacrifice per se ; cf
He would merely repudiate the thought that sacriYahweh desires. For sacrifices on a large scale, cf
an acceptable
2^-
Lv.
There
7^^ 14^ ^.
is
my
sacrifice existed in Israel
from the
the sons of
Ahaz (2K.
to
The
its
my
Human
first-born for
my
earliest times
vow
soul]
down
(Ju. 11^^ ^)
and Manasseh
7^^
(Je.
to a rela-
its
greatest
the sacrifice of
21^ ^)
the denun-
19^ Ez. 16^" 20^ Is. 57^);
law (Lv. 18^^ 20^)

apparent
(2
K.
effect
cf.
also the act o^
upon the
and the
Mesha, king
Israeliti?h
practice was not equally prevalent at
have attained
Our
16^)
by the prophets
Moab, and
3^^).
29^- ^^
witness, the law of the redemption of the first-bom
prohibition in the
of
my
body for the sin of
the fulfilment of Jephthah's
ciations
35" Ex.
the story of the contemplated sacrifice of Isaac (Gn.
(Ex. 13^^);
22")
28^^
of oil in connection with
Shall I give
transgression, the fruit of
tively late date
Gn.
cf.
no mention
the sin-offering (Lv. 5*^0-*
among Egyptians
gift to deity
Hebrews;
Babylonians as well as
army
all times,
(2
K.
but seems
prominence in the days of Manasseh.

it as a possible method of pleassame plane as burnt-offerings and
passage evidently conceives of
Yahweh,
upon
mere formal, external, mechanical conception
of rehgion does not give rise to nor sustain the custom of human
It is the expression of
sacrifice.
It is the acme of religious zeal.
ing
libations of
putting
oil.
the
it
the religious emotions of
divine blessing,
and are
ures in order to secure
and
men who
agonis*. with longing for the
willing to yield their hearts' dearest treas-
it.
The prophet
his words, therefore, reflect
thy and tenderness toward his people.

of a wholly
wrong idea
here recognises this fact,
an unmistakable depth of sympa-
But the
of the character of
practice grows out
God, and therefore can
The phrase sin of my soul has been

many as sin-offering of my soul ; but this cannot well be,
never be pleasing to him.

taken by
for the parallel

*
On
the place of
oil
word
transgression never has the
in early ritual
and
its
primitive significance,
cj.
meaning
Now. Arch.
II,
guilt208
/..
6'-'
and the technical
offering,
127
sin-offering of the later
never contemplated the possibility of
The term
constituent elements.
self,
the seat of the desires
human
law certainly
sacrifice as
one of
its
soul here designates the psychic
and the
will,
and
is
used in deliberate
contrast to the term fruit of my body.
In Str. Ill the oracle rises to
its
climax, with the beautifully
simple statement of the essence of religion.
8.
//
has been told
man, what is good] The preceding questions have been

raised only to be answered in the negative; the positive statement
is now to be made.
The address is to mankind, in general, not
to any particular individual.
The "good" referred to is accessible
thee,
whole race, without
to the
"He
rendered,
restriction.
Yahweh) has
{i. e.
The
verb might also be
told thee"; but in view of the
absen ce of any near antecedent for the pronoun and of the fact that
new
str.
plete in
begins with this phrase, which should therefore be com-
itself,
And what
the indefinite form of expression seems preferable.
does
Yahweh
seek
from
thee]
The "good"
with the performance of the will of Yahweh.

the
The
OT.
throughout.
saints of Israel
This
identified
is
is
the view of
Religion furnished the dynamic of ethics.
knew nothing
of doing good for good's sake;
was not an end in itself, but only a way of approach to God,

the embodiment of the highest good.
But to do justice and to love
kindness and to walk humbly with thy God ?] Nothing new is said
here. Amos had emphasised Yahweh's insistence upon justice
(e. g. 5^; cf. Dt. i6*^^*'); Hosea had exhibited the virtues of love
(e. g. 6") and the whole book of Deuteronomy is permeated by the
thought of it {e. g. lo^^^^ 14^' 15^^" 22^"*) | reverence and humility
before God was no new ideal Moses was credited with it in a surpassing degree (Nu. 12^); cf. Am. 2' Zp. 2^ Is. 6 29^^. But it is,
nevertheless, a great saying surpassed by nothing in the OT. and
by but little in the New. It lays hold of the essential elements
in religion and, detaching them from all else, sets them in clear
virtue
relief.
It links ethics
with piety, duty toward
men
with duty
toward God, and makes them both coequal factors in

In this respect
22**"^),
and
it
the prophet's
it
anticipates the
famous saying
religion.
of Jesus (Mt.
marks a wide breach with the popular religion of

times.
With the latter, religion was pre-emi-
own
MICAH
128
nently a matter of obligation toward God, and this obligation was
looked upon as consisting mainly in the proper performance of
and
sacred rites
in
a liberal bestowal of
But
sacrificial gifts.
this
prophet makes religion an inner experience which determines
human
whole sphere of
the action, but also,
On
6. nna]
d.
f.
Religion becomes not merely
activity.
and
chiefly, character.
^'2k^
inn, Ges.
7.
^ytr-a-]
with two ace. hav-
jpj
ing the meaning "give something in exchange for, in compensation

for something"; so Ez. 27"
to
make
an
'd
'guilt offering'
is- is- 17. i9. 22).

{cf. 2712-
purpose or
ace. of
which
nowhere
it
and
effect
This
to create for
\i
it
else possesses; contra Ko.^'-'".
has the meaning 'sin-offering'
first in 2
ment of money
From the time of Ezekiel on,
is
to the priests.
common
very
better than
the meaning
in the legal literatiire
K. 12", where
and
nxan]
deno<;es a pay-
it
in Chronicles.
this
But
meaning
it is
not
appropriate here because of (i) the parallel word and (2) the nature of
the gift here spoken of.
pers. sg.
An
]7jxn]
899n.
masc, Ges.
8.
"^
adv. use of
On the indefinite subj. expressed by 3d

On change to direct question, Ko. ^3'
7<>.
denoting here manner;
inf. abs.,
The meaning
223 b.
Tijn]
hdi]
"*.
of [/
seems
to
be "modest";
18.
The Sin of
and
the City
of the disasters
it is
and
the
Punishment
Come
(6^"^).
Israel's
wicked
to
which Yahweh must bring upon the nation
Yahweh
as punishment.
Pr. 11*;
This section gives a vivid poetical description of

life
Ko. ^"2^-
Its idea suggests
the reverse of 'arrogant,' 'conceited,' 'self-sufl&cient.'

the parable of Lk. 18'"
cf.
cf.
himself
is
represented as speaking, and
his utterance falls into five four-line strs. of prevailingly trimeter
movement.
acterises
it
Str. I addresses the city in
Yahweh's name and char-
as an abode of violence and deceit.
Str. II asserts that
town have been acquired by cheating and fraud

Str. Ill announces that
in ordinary commercial transactions.
Yahweh's hand will soon begin the task of chastisement and that
the riches of the
all
attempts at escape will be
forms which the chastisement

famine.
Str.
futile.
will
destruction.
the second two
assume,
IV
all
details the various
of
them involving
due to
states that all this terrible vidckedness is
persistence in the sins of the past

is
Str.
and that the inevitable result

thus, denounce the city's sins,
The first two strs.,

annoimce the consequent doom, while the
summarises both
sin
and punishment.
last str.
6"-'"
IJARK!
Yahweh
Hear,
Whose
And
rÂN
tribe
rich
is
calling to the city:
and assembly
men
129
of the city,
are full of violence,
her inhabitants speak falsehood.

I forget the treasures in the
And
the accursed scant measure
Can
I treat as
And
with the bag of
"DUT
To
now,
I,
pure him with the wicked balances.
midst of thee.
And thou shalt try
'THOU
false
weights?
will begin to smite thee,
lay thee in ruins
And what
house of the wicked,

?
on account of thy sins and thy ...
remove but shalt not
to
thou rescuest
I will
rescue.
bring to the sword.
shalt eat, but not be satisfied;
Thou shalt sow, but not reap;

Thou shalt tread out the olive, but not
And the must, but thou shalt not drink
pOR
in the
anoint thyself with
oil;
wine.
thou hast kept the statutes of Omri,
And
all
the activity of the house of
Ahab;
In order that I may give thee to ruin.

And her inhabitants to mockery.
This piece has undergone much change in its transmission. The arrangement here given involves the omission of vv. "> "" ""> ', and the
transposition of w. - to follow v. ' and of v. " to precede v. >6.
The
''
almost identical with that offered by Marti, but the
reconstruction
is
elision of v. ">
and the two transpositions were decided upon before the
appearance of Marti's commentary. Siev. (followed closely by Gu.)

retains only w. ^"^ <= '" " '3, dropping v." as a gloss, and athetizes
w. ><
'5
posing
V. '^-
as
it
as a separate poem, dropping v. "*>

to follow
*>
stands in
poem
with
V. i^"- ^-
defies all attempts to trace
such radical treatment

the
5<,
is
unnecessary.
as here reconstructed
is
as a gloss, and trans-
as a gloss.
any
The movement
passage
but
of thought in
and simple; and met-
perfectly natural
rical considerations of themselves,
The
logical continuity,
unsupported by other evidences, do
not warrant extreme measures in textual criticism.

is wholly independent of the preceding one.
There the
one of sympathy and instruction; here it is denunciation of sin.
The date and origin of this prophecy are problems that have not been
solved.
Stk., van H. and Du. assign it to Micah; Marti places it in the
This section
tone
is
postexilic period, urging the linguistic usage
cence in
v.
'
undecided as to
to
its
any period of
Parallels to
and the
as evidences of late date; while We.,
it
The
fact
Israelitish history
may
sins specifically
time.
be found
all
is
historical reminis-
Now. and GASm.
are
that the utterance might belong
subsequent to the reign of Ahab.
through the history of prophecy.
The
mentioned are characteristically urban and would argue
MIC AH
130
Micah who was indignant against the

or for the last days when Jerusalem
was the centre of all Jewish interests and trade and commerce had come
The prophecy would seem most
to occupy a large place in Jewish life.
fitting at a time when some disaster to the city was imminent, or was
equally well for the authorship of
oppression and vice of the great
city,
thought to be so; but such periods were only too frequent both before
Tradition claims the passage for Micah and cannot
after the exile.
and
be proved wrong; but, on the other hand, the surrounding context, which
is certainly not due to Micah, is likewise claimed for him by tradition;
hence, the question must remain open.
9. Nipi] (S
n> lU'N.
iTriK\t]0'fi<TeTaL.
Rd.
ns"!';]
Oort^'"-, Marti,
of
Kenn. and3
We. my,.
i>^ Tr\yi
& S=
so Du.. Ro.,
Hal.
and Gu.
Siev.
10. cxn] Rd., with We.,
H., Hpt., Gu..
connecting with
foil,
]^-yv\
Gu.
FiK
GASm.,
Four codd.
''ni;.S
nac.
na'j;
rxn; so
&
& H,
ntac] 05
soPerles,
ij^^bi;
Kocr/x'â-ei. irb'Kiv
and who bears witness ?
Elh.
so
Ro.
nnjjini.
Oort^""-
njpi..
impf. of
-lysK?.
05 Kal rls
fb
n-i5?iDi n^jjn
râviry,
""O/)
05 M'?
Hal.
Taylor,
Rd., with We., T'yn
di].
approhabit illud ?
'DI.
ycnm.
H B.
<S (poôvfi^vovi; so
the rest of the people of the land
mj7>
n^'y'?
from m;j\
mj;>
nij?
tc'; so Ro., Taylor, Pont, We., Gr., Gu.,
(5&sg.;
lyDB']
cf.
Marti, van H., Du., Hpt..
and
21
nâ-mi] C5 Kal auiffei
so Theiner, Rosenm., Gu..
''XI'';
!H et quis
^p-i.
Gr.
ni^n.
Ro. map.
idi.
nnj;"!
deR.
iDsr] C5
GASm., Now.,
with Ew., Hi., Pont, Gr., Or., Now.,
van H, Gu., Du.
of
OortE-, Now..
vocative.
nN-)i,
om.
'n
word, niarsn; so Oort^'"-.
-inQpi.
Tijin -iy.i.j2
H, but with
Du.
^)?
as dittog.
"!iy
Now., Marti,
'\'^y,\
=
=
van
Siev.,
Schnurrer,
n.
x-f sn.
n>3]
One
yan]
cod. each of Kenn. and de R. niaa; cf. g-U. Du. n?. Elh. nvx^.
Du. om. with na as a variant of 't 'sx. Elh,
Oort^'"- om. as dittog..
nnxx] Rd. n^^ss, with Marti, Now.'^, Siev., Gu.. <S inserts
ip'y.
e-na-avpiûv
Gu..
Ro.;
Am. 8^
cf.
Elh. mn>
We.
n-i.xx.
dj!i
-injixn;
= ^5'''!;
Om.
12.
as 'dittog. with Marti, Now.*^, Siev.,
êrA (probably an error for
C5 koI
fj^peus dSiKla;
cf.
so Now., Marti,
Siev.,
n'>nia'y]
{,xj/i!,0rj,
riîxn.
& similarly,
yB'i 'jixna]
Rd.
'niSnn]
11.
but in
ay:"j.
so
SiKaiud-qcreTai.
el
pi..
"B
numquid
GASm.
HpIO^!.-
D^jTxna
(& iv ^vyip ivofios
with (5
''niSnn,
fiirpa;
irae plena.
norxn] Rd., with
Du..
Hal.,
(^ rbv irXoOrov aCiTQv
13.
d^jtn.
van H., Gu..
Ro. n?Txn; so Elh., Pont,

Hpt.
mensura minor
ei
Gr. jn- Oort^^"-
fn; na^xi.
QortEm. nsTxn.
ÂQ
yjin.]
so Ew., Che., Gr., Gu..
justifkabo.
j;e;-i.
HDiiJT |itn nfl'^xi]
nin-'i]
(S^
{ixpdid-q'ri,:
so TJ
dpôfjLai;
& Aq.,
Bauer, Struensee, Ro., Elh., We., Pont, Gu., GASm., SS., OortE-"-,
Kal dw dpxm
Now., Marti, Siev., Du.. Cf. 11 codd (Kenn.) ^nSnn;
iyd)
elfii
Ss
iKd\e<ra.
perditione; so Aq.,
ÔTM.
05Q, several
S
S
iTipnoprio-dfjLrjv.
.
mss. and
14.
DDtt'n]
ii,i<rT7)(rav.
&"
/cat
^|<i(rw
<re.
05
dcpaviQ
in'^"i]
Aq.,
(S
/cai
<re;
so
(rKordvei
^.
=--
Kara(f>vTeii(ru>
S dXXi
^'?nB'N^.
&
tua.
Marti, i^n.
Oort^n. pc'ni.
JDni] (& Kal iKveicei
riNtyM,'
so
& 21 Aq.,
aVan]
vb. in
Ro.
pi.,
S.
Six codd.
Marg.
=JiDm.
16.
Q:
&
d<f>ai>t.(Td-/ia-eTai
One
and Gu.
Marg. nppni.
ipn]
sg..
B=
J>p'ni;
Ro., We., Gu.,
<&
Taylor,
idb'''1.
Aq.,
(T
nns; so Now.. Hal.
foil.
has a double rendering of

v6fUfM XaoO fiov Kal i<pO\aâi rd,
0.
na^yn] (g
so Pont, OortEm.j Du..
lotr^;
wth
ibif'n],
Kenn.
cod. of
Rd.
01
diKai(i)fj.aTa Zafi^pel.
Gr.,
Du.
J^pni
Marti, Siev., van H., Du., Hpt.;
the phrase, viz. Kal
-\cc*M.
apprehendes
qu-riDn.
jn e^m.
Du. Jf n. Marti, Jipn. Hpt. jd:%

pi nnBr] (S om. noun and has
so Ro., Ry., Taylor. & also om. ]>",
-idpit'ii]
10 custodisti; so
0,
humiliatio
Gr.
15.
perhaps reading ivnu'n;

in sg..
Hpt.
nj-ipa irn^Ni.
^n^B'M,
Elh. qnu'M.
Gr.,
jerii,
GASm., Now., OortE-,
Or.,
<re
Ps. 109'').
(c/.
D^Sisn; so Ry., Elh..
but retains vb.
<g
SiatpdepeT
<coi
Che. T^n^
dysentery.
pi..
n>2^]
a^ns'.
no-in] (g SI pi..
nptyi.i.
i^Sni]
''Cjj]
Rd.
Elh.
We., Or,
Hartmann,
with (B
D'c;:,
Elh.,
Hartmann, Bauer, Ro., Che., Taylor,

Pont, We., Gr., Gu., Or., GASm., Now., OortEn>., Marti, Hal.,
Siev.,
Du., Hpt..
\aut>; so Schnurrer, Struensee,
Yahweh who
In Str. I the prophet introduces

city,
declaring
Yahweh
it
to be full of oppression
is calling to the city]
Jerusalem
glossf as
the use of the
is
clear
from
its
"and he who
lated,
sees thy
is
Hark I
is success to
fear thy
is
and
characteristic of the wis-
Is. 28'^.
name
9.
certainly meant, as
parenthetical character
word "success" which
dom literature, though found also in
it
addresses the
trickery.
is
And
the city par excellence for all Jews.*
name]
and
M can only be trans-
strong"; and this unique
expression has given rise to a wide variety of explanations, none of
which are
cf.
Pr.
of the
i''
satisfactory.
9*'*
city]
With the thought
14" Ps. 34"
Judah
is
1 11^".
Hear,
the tribe addressed,
of the text as corrected,
tribe, and the assembly

and the assembly is the
general meeting of the citizens of Jerusalem for the consideration

of all matters affecting the welfare of the city as a whole.
ably corresponds roughly to the "town-meeting" of
The
prob-
presupposition of the prophet that in addressing the popula-
tion of Jerusalem he speaks practically to the tribe of

to reflect a period
when Jerusalem had come
Jewish interest and

* C/.
It
New England.
The
use of urbs
t So Hartmann (1800),
life.
Rome,
Grimm
is to
to
Judah seems
be the centre of
be translated "hear the rod and
by Marti.
{JAOS. XXII,
cited
36),
GASm.,
Marti, Siev., Gu., Du., Hpt..
MICAH
132
the one
who appointed
it,"
"the rod" being a concrete designation
of the chastisement to be inflicted by Yahweh; but this involves
using "hear" in the double sense "hear about" and "listen to,"
and
noun
as
definite.
Hence
text
as
"rod"
the
it
with
and
is
preferred
by
recent
accordance
many
corrected, in
^
QI,
scholars.
12. Whose rich men are full of violence] The transfer
it
makes
the feminine suffix refer to a masculine antecedent,
treats the indefinite
of V.
^^
to this position furnishes the feminine suffixes of v.
required antecedent, which
lacking
is
when
it
follows v. "
^^
and
the
also
two lines necessary to complete Str. I, leaving v. ^ to go

" into Str. II where they belong together. The charge
yields the
with
v.
that they have gained their wealth
by
against Jerusalem's rich
is
oppression and
a not infrequent complaint of the proph-
injustice,
Zp. i^ Ez. f^ 8" Is. ^g^.And her inhabitants

violence was predicated only of the rich,
While
speak falsehood]
This is
against
all without discrimination.
is
charged
deceit
ets; cf.
Am.
3^ 6'
the poor would be as

had they but the power. Trickery which is
And their tongue
possible for all is confined to no especial class.
that not a word
A
vivid
way
of
saying
is deceit in their mouths]
is
a
common
oriental
vice even
trusted.
Lying
they speak can be
7* 10*
Ho.
apparently
always
has
been;
present
day,
and
at the
cf.
practically saying that all are equally bad;
oppressive as the rich
Je.
6*^ 9^"^
Zc.
5*
This phrase
Lv. 19".
on the preceding line;*

superfluous to the str.
cf.
Ps. 120^-
and the
is
^.
to
be
It
adds nothing and
set aside as a gloss

is
parallelism.
Str. II points out the impossibility of
justifying a certain kind of cheating
commercial transactions of his day.
Yahweh's condoning or
commonly
practised in the
10. Can I forget
the treasures
in the house of the wicked] These ill-gotten gains must always

arise as
an ugly reminder of the injustice through which they
were obtained and so render

cious.
rendered;
is
e.
it
g.
"Are
Yahweh
impossible for
corrupt here and obscure.
It
be gra-
there yet treasures, etc.,"f with the variations
"are there not yet?" and "there are yet"; but this
grammatically
to
has been variously
{v. i.).
Or, "the great
man
is
is
improbable
yet in the palace,
* So Marti, Now.^, Du..
t So Cal., Dathe, Rosenm., Hi., Mau., Ew., Um., Kl., Or., Hd., Casp., Ke.,
et
al.
6^"-"
133
etc.";* or "fire devours the houses, etc.,"
"are there yet foundations
cj.
Or, yet again,
(g.f
For the corrected
in the house, etc."t
And the accursed scant measure?] In days when no

and unvarying standard for weights and measures was known
and when no police power existed for the enforcement of such laws,
knavery of this type was doubtless very common; cf. Am. 8^ Dt.
25".
But Yahweh's curse is upon all such dealings (Dt. 25^^);
text, V. s..
fixed
he demands justice and

11.
Can I
fair
dealing between one
man and
another.
pure him with the wicked balances, and with the
treat as
bag offalse weights
Cf
?]
This closes Yahweh's
Dt. 25" Ps. i8^^
He
appeal to the moral consciousness of Israel.
has pointed out
unpim-
the moral impossibility of his permitting wickedness to go
According
ished.
with, etc."
if
M the verb must be rendered, "can
be pure
This has usually been interpreted either as repre-
Yahweh
senting
to
asking
how he
could be considered pure and holy,
he permitted such unfair practices; or as dependent upon an
But
unexpressed thought such as "let each one ask himself."

neither interpretation
makes good Hebrew
punishment involved by
Str. Ill begins the description of the
the sins just exposed.
But
hostile
army
Dt. 2^^
The pronoun
refers,
invade
will
"but
Je. 30*^.
indeed, will
I,
But
make
this use of the
verb
"make
sick"
To
nominal object
not expressed in the
implied in the context.
14b,
c, d.
Hebrew
And
The meaning of the main word in

known no help is to be derived from the
thee]
text, parallel as
it is
thy
this
i3I,
the
tured for
text,
.
phrase
Vrss..
In
seems
pro-
clearly
is
tJie
is
its
The
but
in
3*
midst of
wholly un-
present con-
with "thy sins," somesuch meaning as "trans-
gressions" or "abominations" seems called

in
Na.
not paralleled
is
lay thee in ruins on account of thy sins]

is
as a whole.
sore thy smiting"; cf
elsewhere, hence the change of pointing suggested by

preferable.
cf.
not to the individual guilty of the
offences just described, but to the "tribe" (v.

reads,
13.
Israel.
For a similar idiom,
indeed, will begin to smite thee]
I,
usage.
for.
In
its
context as
meaning "hvmger" or "emptiness" is usually conjecthe noun; but the presence of the suffix is hardly in
harmony with such a
rendering.
So AE., Ra., Abar., Struensee.
The
cognate languages
t So Mich..
know
So Ro..
MICAH
134
Hence no assurance
no such word.
And thou shall try
I will give
dost deliver,
ment apparently
is
to the
The
sword]
none
refers to property,
women and
the second, to the
possible as to
meaning,
its
remove hut shall not deliver ; and what thou
to
first
of
part of the state-
which
will
be saved;
children who, though temporarily
carried to a place of refuge, will finally
meet death
at the
hands
of
Margolis, following Ibn Ganah, adopts the rendering,
the enemy.
she shall conceive, but shall not bear; and whomsoever she
"and
On
beareth I will give to the sword."
the basis of this Margolis
"and thy
wife in her body"

must be urged the harshness of the idiom,
conceive in her body"; and the fact that iDfl
suggests for the preceding phrase,
But against
(v. s.).
this
"thy wife shall

nowhere else in the OT. approximates the meaning 'conceive';
the regular verb for this idea
is
n^lH.
continues the description of the coming disaster, by
IV
Str.
how all of Israel's labour shall

Thou shall eat, but not be satisfied] The
an invading enemy is still in the prophet's mind. Pent
pointing out with a few bold strokes
coimt for naught.

thought of
up
by
in the city
ties,
Israel will
52^ Lv. 26^
IV
is
tion
made
^.
14a.
and reduced gradually
siege
know
The
v.
^^
and
v. ^*^,
established between v. "^

solves the
The
and
cf.
v.
Dt. 28^*
hut not anoint thyself with
"beaten" (Ex. 2f^ Lv.
oil]
be cut
Str.
ing
it
to
cf.
oil vats.
off.
Ju.
Je.
it
causes in the connec-
and by the ease with which
structure.
15. Thou
it
shall sow,
is
shall tread out the olive,
the only direct mention
Jo.
cf.
Anointing with
2^^.
The
finest oil
was
cf.
Am.
oil
was a
shall not drink wine]
custom
toilet
6^ 2 S. 12^" 14^
Ru.
AH
3^ 2
Ch.
the joy of
Allusions to the treading out of wine are very
9" Am. 9"
closes the
Thou
This
but the bulk of the olive crop was
24^);
common to all hot cHmates;

28^^.
And the must, hut thou
common;
^^,
^.
of the treading out of olive-oil;
life will
K. 6^
process of harvest will be prevented by the ad-
vance of the enemy;
trodden out into
cf.
by the admirable connection thereby
problem of the strophic
but not reap]
transference of this line to this place in Str.
imperative by the break which
between
to the last extremi-
the agonies of starvation
all
Is. la^*'
6f
poem summarising
Je. 25^^ Jb.
24" Ne. I3^^
the sin of Israel
be the occasion of the disaster which Yahweh
and
declar-
will send.
6..-
135
No
16. For thou hast kept the statutes of Omri]

of
Omri"
are elsewhere mentioned,
and
it is
special ''statutes
doubtful whether this
is meant to apply to definite laws.

Omri is harshly
condemned by the Deuteronomist in i K. i6^ ^. But he is prob-
expression
ably mentioned here as the founder of the strongest dynasty of
northern Israel, and thus as representative of the type of

characteristic of that
721 B.C.
kingdom and responsible
life
for its downfall in
In Assyrian records after the reign of Omri, the northern
kingdom was commonly designated

of the house of Ahab]
btt
Huniri.
And
In view of the charges
all the
made
in ,yv.
work
^'^^,
probable that reference is had here to the judicial murder of

Naboth (i K. 21), as typical of the methods of self-aggrandisement common to Ahab and the tyrannical rich men of Jerusalem.
A nd ye walk in their counsels] This adds nothing to the thought,
is extraneous to the metrical form, and uses the plural of the verb,
whereas the preceding and following context has the singular.
Hence it is best considered as a gloss.* For similar phraseology,
81^^ I S. 8^.
In order that I may give
cf. 2 K. 16^ Je. f* Ps. I*
thee to ruin] In accordance with a common Hebrew usage, the
prophet ironically attributes what was an inevitable but undeit is
signed consequence of a course of action to the deliberate pur-
pose of the actor.
must
And
The pronoim
her inhabitants to mockery]
refer to the city, as in v. ^^^; the
abrupt and confusing, but finds
sudden change of person
many
parallels in
Hebrew;
is
cf.
Gn. 49* I K. i^ Is. 22^ 23^ 31. That there may be no possible
doubt as to the source of the mockery, a reader has added the
gloss,f
and
the scorn of the peoples ye shall bear]
the secondary character of this line
is
later origin of the addition to v. ^^^.
JH's "scorn of
of exegetical ingenuity,
are but far
more
suffering brought
will
now be
sensitive
Hebrew
people" has occasioned great
fertility
e. g.
Israel will not be
punished as heathen
severely in proportion to their privileges,^ or the
upon the people of God by their rich oppressors

upon the rich themselves by the foreign foe;
Siev.,
Du..
now Du.; but v. AJSL. XXIV,
% Cal..
and
inflicted
* So Marti, Now.^,
t So
my
evidence for
This threat represents the
lowest depths of humiliation to the proud

spirit.
The
identical with that for the
187
if.,
where
this suggestion
was
first
published.
Datbe, Rosenm..
MICAH
136
heathen
or, the
will delight in humiliating the
God," but
the ideal of "the people of
nation representing
this disgrace will justly
endured by the present representatives of the ideal who are

sponsible for
my
which
you;f
being brought into disrepute;* or, the disgrace
its
people has brought upon
my name
must bear the disgrace
or, Israel
be
re-
will
be borne by
of being the people
whom
have rejected; J or, the chastisement borne by the people as a

whole will also be borne by each one of you individually. But
none of them are satisfactory solutions of the difficulty occasioned
I
by the
"my
9.
who
meaning and etymology,
rightly connects
form.
tuqtilat
retes
On
n>B'in]
35-44,
and the phrase
essential identity of the subject of the verb
people."
ending
niaN
Ko.
hni"']
having supposed an
are cited. nac]

,
is
ni_
itrx; ^D
id]
of course,
Ko.
where
^"'"=,
no indication of fem. gender;
always has interrog. force, direct or indirect.
10.
CND
terrogative
is
all infs. in
to Ex. 4"; the fact that the pi.

cf,
Usually rendered him who, but this would require
assembly given to the emendation

I".
Grimm, JAOS. XXII,
ellipsis of s^^h; cf.
is,
cf.
with Assy. as{l, "to support, to help," as

"" explains
as due to the Masso-
Of masc. gender ace.
(Nu. 17")
rnND.
it
-w;] 'y
ijJic, cf.
Jb.
30" Nu.
For the meaning

16' Is. 14" Lam.
precedes interrogative only in Gn. 19", but there in-
a pronoun which often yields
first
place in the sentence to
some more important word. If Vii = vsi,cf. Ges. ^ "'' on interchange

of N and ', and the regular usage in Aram.. 2 S. 14" is, perhaps, another example of the confusion of these two words, but the text there
by no means
certain;
also Pr. iS^^.
cf.
jo-\
no]
'n 0133; cf. Tini,
is
Ho.
an ace. of place in which, Ges. ^"'. nsrs] The Pi'el does not elsewhere have the forensic force of "declare pure" or "treat as pure"; but
since it occurs only three times, and since the Qal does carry the fo6';
rensic idea (Ps. 51'), this can hardly be considered a serious objection
to the reading proposed.
may
Museum.
n?;-\c]
Very common
but also in early books,

both
^:2n]
Weights were commonly of stone, as
be seen by an examination of the
this
and man are
cf.
Am.
substs.
and
in the
8^
fine collection in the Haskell
Psalms, and
Ho.
12 Je. 5".
Wisdom
13.
in relation of obj. to
''n''Snn;
rected text, they are supplementary infins. with verb, force.
derives
from 1/
mology was
to
nns',
connect
(soe. g. Ges., Hi., Ew.);

Ke., Casp..
t Ry-
Literature;
DDcn] In iM
but in cor-
14. ina^]
as a noun formation with prefix \

it
Old
ety-
by metathesis with Ar. ip^j^y, he famished
Hd. proposed
/^^y =the Syr.,
X Schegg.
dysentery; but
S Hi., Reinke,
van H..
6-"
137
and the context
neither of these meanings combines well with the suflBx,
demands an
as reconstructed
in protasis,
Dr,
cj.
entirely different sense.
isi a. . is* obs.^
^^
Hiph. of
elsewhere
JiD
Jcn^J
is
On
juss.
always used
of the displacement of a boundary; but Hiph. occurs in all only 7 times,
and
in the Qal,
tivity
Niph. and Hoph. no such restriction of

^Vdh
appears.
sake of variety; there
is
Hiph. only here and
ta^Von]
no necessity
its
scope of ac-
Is. 5'';
used for
for correcting the text to produce
meaning "deAlways of the anointing in

n;:'D is
of material here and 2 S. 14' Dt. 28'"'.
identity of form; the related vb. c^d likewise shares the
liver"
between Hiph. and
the toilet; with the ace.
Pi'el.
15.
liDp]
used of both secular and religious anointing;
cf.
Am.
6^ Je.
22" Lv. 7".
16, nana'n] Masc. sg. of vb. with two subjects, nearer of which
fern, pi.,
Ko. ^^'i' '; but
meaning of the Hithp.
in Ps. i8*<
as ace. after the Hithp..
abnormal,
this, difficult
The
(=
as
2 S. 22'*);
'
is
in
not in keeping with the
nor can
mpn be treated
w. " ' is
consecution of vb. forms in M, of
simple impf., impf. with
viz.
better at beginning of v.
it is, is
],
since reference
impf. with
1.
Impf. with
is
to a definite fact of the past
is
and present. \'i'o^'\ On force of purpose clause, cf. Dt. 29'8 Ho. 8* Am.
np-is'] Always in parall. with nnty.
2', and K6. ^"9.
Cf. Wkl. AOF.
II, Titff. who connects it with the Assy, larraku, to which he assigns the
value "desert," "wilderness"; but see Muss-Arnolt, Diet. s. v., where the
meaning "thief is clearly established for Sarrdku by the passages cited.
'
19.
Israel's
Lamentation Over the Faithlessness

People
This section
is
a group of six four-line
strs.
which bewail the
Str. I laments the state of general
general depravity in Israel.
weakness into which Israel has
Str. II accounts for this
fallen.
weakness by describing the wickedness universal

Ill exposes the covetousness
ruling classes.
and
their
rise to
IV
Str.
Among Her
(7'-").
in Israel.
Str.
and bribery prevalent among the
declares their condition to be hopeless
day of punishment
to
be close at hand.
a climax in the denunciation of
sin,
Strs.
V and VI
by showing that no man
dare trust even his most intimate friends and nearest relatives.
WÔE
is
me
for I
am become
Like the gatherings of summer
fruit, like
the gleanings of the vintage.
There is not a cluster to eat,

Not an early fig that my soul desires.
TTHE pious has perished from the land,
And
of the upright
All of
them
Each hunts
lie
among men
there
in wait for blood,
his brother with
a net.
is
none.
MICAH
138
'T'O do
The
And
He
made ready
demands a bribe,
they have
evil
prince
man
the great
their hands;
expresses the desire of his soul;
and they weave it.

'T'HE best of them are like a brier;
The most upright of them like a hedge.
The day of their visitation comes;
.
Now
will be their havoc.
pUT no confidence
in a friend;
Trust not an intimate;
From her that lies in thy bosom,

Guard the doors of thy mouth.
"pOR
a son insults his father;

daughter rises up against her mother;
The daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law;
A
The measure
man's enemies are the men of
poem
of the
The
Str. II, line 4.
vv. '
which
metre
is
fall
strophic
and
2,
is
rising
once
to tetrameter, viz.
badly preserved and has thus far
norm
of the piece
naturally into four lines each
already fixed by
is
Siev.,
(c/.
Du.); the same
well throughout, with the exception of Str. Ill,
fits
where the
text
beyond recovery.
The
fact that the style changes in v.
an address
5
and transposing
persons
a very
is
Siilistik,
238
ff.),
>-<),
v.
'
from that of a lament to that of

^ as a parallel from
reason for separating vv.
is insuflficient
the original piece (vv.

V.
and
text of Str. Ill
The
defied restoration.
house.
prevailingly trimeter, falling occasionally
is
to dimeter as in Str. IV, lines
own
his
with Marti
to follow v.
',
with Siev. and Gu..
common phenomenon
as
is
also the
Du., Hpt.), or for eliminating
(cj.
in
Hebrew
change from one
Change
discourse
of
Ko.
{cf.
style of address to an-
from apostrophe or direct address to narrative (Ps. 34<-'' 45"'-"

Looked upon as an announcement of coming disaster, the
Is. 24'^ ').
But dispiece, of course, finds its most natural conclusion in Str. IV.
Its main burden is rather that
aster is only incidental in this prophecy.
Vv. ' ^ consequently form an emiof grief for Israel's pitiable plight.
other,
e. g.
nently fitting conclusion.
The
picture of universal disloyalty, even in
and intimate human relationships, is the true climax.

What can compare with this as a just cause for lamentation ?
the most sacred
The
section
time to which the prophecy belongs

is
Yet
lowing.
come from
it is
the
generally conceded that 6'-"
is
looked upon as
the time of Micah; but
Zc. 13'
^- 14'
and
same time and the same pen.
ligious situation in general is reflected in
judgment
is difiicult to
discover.
This
wholly independent logically of both the preceding and the
still
it is
' Mai. 35 f).
to
both passages.
come
(7^) is
The fact that the
consistent with origin in
not inconsistent with postexilic origin
The charge
fol-
might easily have

The same moral and re7'-
against the ruling classes
{cf.
(v. =)
139
f-'
is
upon
likewise explicable
either basis
{cf.
"
3' Zc. 11'
Zp.
The
3').
general condition of depravity pictured here, and especially the faithless-
more
ness so widely prevalent are
But a
12, 14).
now
easily
accounted for in the postexilic
59'-' S^^~S1^ Mai. 2" " 4' Ps.

knowledge of the history of Israelitish life than is
us might show other periods when such conditions
period than at any previous time
{cf. Is.
fuller
accessible to
prevailed.
1. 'spxr]
avvdyuv; so B; hence Elh.
(g
van H., Du., Hpt..

Hal.
''0DN3.
Siev. 'riflpN?,
nSS^D] Now.
rhSv\.
Pont, tH^v, droppings.
nniN]
or
fiDSD
Hal.
rhS-;-i
so van H.. Elh. nSSj? ipps^.
'2 j\s.
or mn.
niiN,
foil. (S.
a''mS]
ace. after i3nt<\
13-\!<'']
(g
ms"'] (S iKdXlôva-iv
(S
so Marti, Now.'^ (?), Gu..

Siev.,
Gu., Du., Hpt..
article,
3. ynn
; so
Rd., with Marti,
Sj?]
Perles, ain;
J)'^^''^;
so Now.*^,
obj. ace. of aiB^n.
Rd.
o-'Dd]
Dathe, Bauer, Seb., We., Ru., Now., OortE"".,

Hal.
u>ih.
Rd.
3'>E)''nS]
with (g
-laitain,
irot-
bonum; so Bauer, Taylor, We., Marti, Now.'',

# 21 insert a negative before the inf. and treat inf. as
dicunt
Gu., Hpt..
a prtc, or
Du. iDnn.
treats as in cstr. with 'dd, notwithstanding the
Marti, Siev., Gu., Hpt..

/xdôvcTLv,
pn] Gr. Sx.
free rendering.
dya^^/uan.
and makes the whole phrase the
DniB3, with 06
Siev.,
Aq.,
tvo:,
v \pvxv M<"^ ot/xoi

but substitutes
iS'--!;.
^/c^Xt/39,
^ to destruction.
''^^Vp.
Marti,
>}ffo:]
viz.
(S
ad mortem.
Hpt.
Siev. >nSVj;D3, fem. prtc; so Gu..
miDs] Gu.
Nine codd. of
have a double rendering,
iK\i\onrev.
& om.
fvX^- 2. nax] Aq., S
the cog.
biKaôvTai =
= mx\ Din] ^
perhaps a
=
(g otfxoi
so Now.,
'flDK?;
prtc. with old fem. ending; so Gu..
i. e.
finite
form.
# has double rendering of 2â^ri^ viz. for evil they
make ready their hands, and they do not good. SNtt*] ^ adds, give.
'3 tD3E*ni] Om., with Marti, as a gloss on icn; so Now.'^, Siev., Gu..
& SI and the judge says. Now. adds ast'. Van H. om. and makes 'a*
1
obj. ace. of
'7S'a'.
nin.
xin
and
^
Soo-er?
T\yj\
aeu-pn;
Sao-i/TTjs
Hal.
and they
outoO.
-innisii.
in reddendo
"i3i]
Siev.,
conturbaverunt earn.
reject their
We.
om.
Now.'^.
so
06 kuI iêXoD/nai.
renders,
(g
good
ia>'n''i.
Gu.
Ro. may.M; so Elh., Pont, van H..
S
S
Gu.
Siev.,
irpjp tasrni,
connects with
/caJ
so Gr., Marti, Now.''.
nim.5J''.i;
est.
06 iXdXrjcrev.
Marti, Now.'^, irjn.
cod. nix; so Gr..
Marti,
irsj]
DinayM]
V.
One
nin]
siSa'a] 06 elprjviKois X67011S.
give a bribe. Snjn]
iv avTaTToSoffei.
XaXer.
Du.
Kark ras
Siev.,
-imrj.
Gu.
xin]
&, and reads oijion, using

|'^^D] 06
the sufiBx of the preceding vb.; so Elh., Pont, van H., Hpt..
ws (TTjs iKpwyojv = pyy^. Aq. ws /SoX^j
B quasi paliurus. & like a
Hpt. iTnx\
4.
t33iE)]
Ro. connects with
v. ',foll.
rag.
21
Houb.,
We.
as from a thornbush.
pnnn.
it:"']
Rd. a^c'% with
Jus.,
Dathe, Bauer, We., Gr., Now., OortE""-, Marti, Hal., Siev.,
Gu., Du..
06 xal âdlûv.
&
HDiDD?; so Taylor, Pont, Gr.,
which is torn in pieces. naiDCc] Rd.

Now., Marti, Siev., Gu., Du.; D and n
MICAH
14
have been confused here as
r\yvD3.
wj ^1
Gu. om. as
Siev.,
Now.*^, Siev., Gu..
Siev., Now.'^,
oiat,
în
al iKdiKTâeis aov;
before 'pD.
ilarly
&.
nDi3D.
C5,
anîac]
.
(35
:\^î.
innpa]
(6 iv ijn^pqi.
Rd.
B thy watchmen.
with Marti,
Dni,'^?,
from noa, u'eep; simCod. 17 (Kenn.) anDi3D; so Ru.. Hal,
AfXav^/xoioiJTwv, deriving
&
yn] <B
sv]
as gloss, with Marti,
Ru. and Now. om. as gloss upon tidxd, C6 oial

hence Marti, Siev., Now.'^, Du. and Gu. insert
vastitas eorum.
5. r\hn
from thy
Om.
T'DXd]
!B speculationis tuae.
Gr.
(g ivX Kav6yos
(g.
quasi spina de sepe.
05 a-Koirias.
Gu., Du..
H, S,
cf.
by the moth, a conjectural render-
gloss.
Ru. Dn>sxp.
Taylor, q\2xp.
&
ing of a misunderstood text.
Marti,
i";
in
ifjLippaytôv.
pi..
& render v. st very freely,
<g
6.
bedfellow, beware of entrusting anything to her
e.
g.
131N]
Str. I introduces Zion bewailing in figurative speech the total
absence of righteousness and truth
me I
for I
am
become
Zion
the gleanings of the vintage]

is
among
her people.
like the gatherings of the

is
the speaker;
Zion
is
as
harvest and the vintage are completely gathered.

cluster to eat, not
an
early fig that
my
soul desires]
is
like
the language
wholly inappropriate in the mouth of Yahweh; nor
easily attributed to the prophet himself,
Woe
1.
summer fruit,
is it
when
There
It is
to
be
the fruit
is not
unneces-
sary to drop the suffix and render "that any one desires," with
The figure is
Marti.
clause
perfectly intelligible as
shows that Zion does not identify
to the bare vineyards
it
stands in IH.
and orchards, but rather
upon the scene seeking
fruit after
of the particle of comparison
is
This
herself with or liken herself
it is all
gone.
common
in
to
one appearing
This pregnant use
Hebrew,
e.
g. Ps. 18^^
Jb. 38' Gn. 34^^
same thought as Str. I, but in plain, un"There is none that doeth good, no not one."
The pious has perished from the land, and of the upright among
Str. II expresses the
mistakable terms.
2.
men
there is none] Cf. Ps. 12^ Is. syV

The term "pious" does
not appear prior to the time of Jeremiah and Deuteronomy; it
occurs chiefly in Psalms.

ligion as
it
It
emphasises the practical side of re-
finds expression in kindness
The "pious" and "upright"

term "land" applies to
and
loyalty toward
are the grapes and figs of Str.
Israel only, not to the
the comprehensive term
"man"
I.
men.
The
world at large; and
includes only such representa-
7"'
tives of the race as are to
be found
141
The prophet has no
in Israel.
concern here with the world in general and passes no judgment
upon
Israel absorbs all his interest.
it.
blood]
Cf.
Ho.
6-
The
'.
All of them
figure of the hunter
lie
and
in wait for
his prey
is
here applied to the devices v/hereby one Israelite takes advantage
own profit. Each hunts his brother with a net]

Hb. i'= ^- Ec. f\ The hunter's net rather than the fisherman's is probably meant here. The greed of the people stops
of another for his

Cf.
short at nothing; fraternal obligations are ignored

in the
mad
and violated
rush for gain.
Str. Ill specifies distinctly the kind of crimes the prevalence of
which Zion
and
bewailing, viz. bribery of the courts of justice
is
consequent perversion of law and
justice.
3.
To do
evil they
have made ready their hafids] iKJs^ untranslatable. It has been

rendered: "besides doing evil thoroughly with their hands";*
hands to make it good the

hands go out to evil, to do it earnestly"; J
"they reach out both hands after evil to make it good"; "their
hands are upon that which is evil to do it diligently."** But the
grammatical difficulties are insuperable. The thought of the text
aFemended is that of Je. 4^ 13^^. It is the deliberate purpose of
"on account
of the misdeed of the
prince, etc." ;f "their
the accused to
do
to that end.
The
judge;
they have trained and equipped themselves
evil;
prince
^- i
cf. 2 S. 15^
demands a
3* ^.
K.
of oriental governments.
bribe]
Bribery
inserts
i. e.
is still
and the judge
a gloss indicating the prince's judicial function.
tempt
to interpret
is
and would
so getting the rendering,
But ingenious as
ciple in
this
treat
is, it
^n;n
with
here.
And the great man
Rosenm..
Um.;
similarly Casp., Ke..
interesting at-
meaning "priest,"
who would
one who
i. e.
Dl^l^S as a corruption of some verb,
fails
."
because such a use of this parti-
and because the parallel

demands a similar construction
established,
participle "121"
expresses the desire of his soul]
and powerful make known
An
"the prince, the priest and the judge.
Hebrew cannot be
its
after "the prince,"
that of Prof. Morris Jastrow,f f
assign to the participle /XU' the
seeks oracles,
in his capacity as
the outstanding vice
their wishes,
t Ew..
* RV..
and
The
rich
these are carried into

t Or..
tt JBL. XIX, ps
/..
MICAH
142
efifect
by the
whose judgments are
courts,
The word
bidder.
"desire"
for sale to the highest
always used of
is
evil wishes.
It is
man " is an official and that the meaning of

great man decides according to his own wicked
possible that "the great
the phrase
is,
"the
The pronoim
desires."
^^^^
must be taken with
would
correct; the rendering then
be,
"and
this line
if
is
as for the great man, he
expresses the desire of his soul," the pronoun being emphatic; but
the length of the line thereby produced and the unnecessary
em-
M's arrangement. The pronoun has been taken

the suffix, viz, "desire of his own soul"; but this is
phasis are against
as intensifying
un-Hebraic.
It
seems best to regard Xin as a fragment of the
first
part of the following line which has been lost or corrupted beyond
He
and they weave it] This line is partly
and what remains is obscure. The verb occurs only here,
recognition.
missing,
and its meaning must be conjectured from the substantives "leafy"

and "cord," formed from the same root, and from the context here.
The emendation "pervert"
{v. s.) is attractive,
a context no certainty as to details
but in so imcertain
The
is possible.
sufl&x ap-
parently refers to the wicked desire of the great, while the subject
must be the combined
classes represented
"the great man," who together overcome
by "the prince" and

opposition and cir-
all
cumvent the righteous poor.

Str.
IV
in its first half
present point, and in
its
sors with punishment.

2 S. 23^-
^.
summarises the denunciation up
The
4.
The comparison
reference to the roughness
best
is
of them are like a brier]
and sharpness
cf.
most upright of them like a hedge] For

just than a hedge,"
which
is
Cf.
probably double-edged, having
combustion;
susceptibility to quick
to the
second half threatens the wicked oppres-
of briers
Ex. 22
and
text, v. s..
nonsense.
also to their
Is. 9^*
10".
The
M = "more
RV. "the most
upright
worse than a thorn-hedge" cannot possibly be derived from M',

while RVm., "the straightest is as it were taken from a thornis
hedge"
is
no
better.
Whether the hedge
is
mentioned as suggest-
ing an obstruction or injurious roughness cannot be determined;

cf.
Pr. 15".
havoc]
The day of
their visitation comes,
The day of Yahweh
is
now
will be their
here before the prophet's mind, that
great day of judgment that engaged the attention of the prophets
7"'
from
first
to last;
cj.
Is.
day of thy watchmen (i.

is poor Hebrew.
The
e.
143
Hence a
22^.
gloss
makes
read, the
iJI
thy prophets), thy visitation comes] which
must agree with those of the preced-
suflSx
ing and following lines.
Str.
abandons the form of the lament wholly and passes over

beware of treachery,
the heart of his most dearly beloved.
5. Put no confidence
into direct address, cautioning each Israelite to
even in
in a friend ; trust not an intimate]
bosom
to the
scale;
none
her that
no
is
lies
friend
the friend in general (y*l)
the prophet proceeds in ascending
worthy of confidence, not even a man's
wife.
From
in thy bosom guard the doors of thy mouth] There
hint here of
eral as
(5)1 7t<),
From
any intention
upon womankind
to cast a slur
unable to keep a secret;
it is
is
in gen-
simply the crowning proof of
thejmiversal faithlessness. Roorda's view that
v.^
depicts not exist-
ing conditions, but those that shall supervene in the "day of their
visitation," is wholly without foundation;
cf.
v. ^^.
Having uttered the warning in Str. V the prophet proceeds in

VI to state the facts which warrant his advice. 6. For son
insults father] A heinous offence in Semitic eyes; cf. Code of
Hammurabi, 186, 192, 195; Ex. 20^^ 21*^- " Dt. 21^^^- Lv. 20^
Pr. 20^. Daughter rises up against her mother] The submissive-
Str.
ness of the daughter to her parents

riage customs in accordance with
is well illustrated by the marwhich the daughter's hand was
Her subcf. Gn. 31^^,

was more complete than that of the son; consequently her
in subordina tion would be correspondingly more shocking.
The
absolutely at the disposal of her father;

jection
daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law]
The
between mother-in-law and son's wife
revealed to us by the
story of
The mother was
Ruth and Naomi.
authority over her son's wife.

his
own
house]
Not merely
vv.
1.
allH;
^-
cf.
A man's
ideal relationship
granted absolute
enemies are the
his servants or slaves;
chiefly, his nearest relatives,
With
is
the
members
Ovid, Metamorph.
I,
but
men
also,
of
and
of his own. family.
144/..
Again in Jb. lo'S; both times expressive of grief; cf. Assy.

Ko. "-p-ws. >2dx] On d., cf. Sta. ^"-2). 'e-N px] Circum-
'SSn]
stantial clause, with the force of the negative continuing in foil, clause.
SdnS] Inf. with S has force of a gerundive;
cf.
Ko.
5<06a,
'j
nriNJ Rel.
MICAH
144
clause with
Ges.
' 8-
rel.
particle omitted; Ges. ^'"".
Ko. M32
analogous usage
is
uj
this is the sole
found
2.
oin] Ace. of instrument
example of
in Ju. 19' Ps. 5'^ 51".
this construction,
3.
oi'?B'3]
but
Acc. to
dependent upon Sxa', which is to be understood with aoBTi; but

SNif always applies to the consulting of deity through oracles, which
unsuitable here. '3 is probably due to the editor who inserted taflcn
this is
'3
is
and was intended by him as 3 of price. Nin vvoi] Treated by Ges.

13S
Ko. ^ " as a pron. strengthening the sf.; but such prons. are usually
introduced by OJ (c/. i K. 21"); c/., however, Zc. 76 Dt. 5'. 4, nN3]
f
Agreeing with the nearer noun, rather than with Dv, the real
subj..
5. 'n 0331^] Genitive, instead of acc. of place, or prep. 3, seems to im-
ply a closer relationship;
instrument for product;
20.
In four
strs.
Ko. ^"p.
Ko. 5 ^'o .
cf.
cf.
>nnc]
The Discomfiture of
the
The
Foe
pi.
by metonymy,
{f'^).
of four lines each, the prophet expresses his con-
Yahweh will vindicate his people by overthrowing

enemies. The poem sounds somewhat like an imprecatory-
viction that
their
psalm.
Str. I
warns the enemy not
to rejoice too prematurely,
for Israel's distress is only temporary.
Str. II expresses the res-
Yahweh's chastisement imcomplainingly, since it

Str. Ill declares
is due to sin and will end in Israel's vindication.
that the tables are to be turned upon Israel's enemies; those who
olution to bear
have reviled her will themselves be put to shame. Str. IV announces a time when those who scoffed at Israel's God because of
Israel's calamities will in their turn be grotmd down by oppression.
"DEJOICE
not,
mine enemy, over me!
Though I am fallen, I shall arise.

Though I sit in darkness,
Yahweh will be my light.
'T'HE anger of Yahweh I must bear
For
have sinned against him
up my cause,
my right.
me forth to the light;
Until he shall take
And
TJE
execute
will bring
I shall gaze
upon
his righteousness.
And mine enemy will

And shame will cover
CHE
see.
her;
that said unto me,
Where is Yahweh, thy God?

Mine eyes will gaze upon her;
Now
will she be for trampling.
7'""
145
There are traces of the qina rhythm in this poem; but the interchange
and dimeter is too irregular to permit us to classify the poem
as elegiac.
This may be seen from Siev.'s attempt (cf. also Du.) at such
an arrangement which involves three changes for metrical reasons only
as well as the omission of the first two lines of Str. Ill as a gloss in
tetrameter.
The parall. is beautifully regular and the logic unfailingly
of trimeter
indicates the strophic divisions.
The
general period to which the poem belongs is manifest. Israel

no longer awaiting punishment as in 7'-, but is already enduring it,
and is hoping for deliverance. This points naturally to exilic or postexilic conditions.
There is the same acknowledgment of the justice
of the punishment as in Is. 40-55, and the same conviction that deis
But the
liverance will come.
attitude toward the heathen foe
that of the Servant passages toward the world in behalf of
which
is
not
Israel
but rather that of the later prophets who had become bitter
fOb." '. No satiscf. Is. 6^^"- Zc. 14"
suffers,
against their oppressors;
factory connection can be found for v.

tion or with this.
7.
T(fi
from
OS
Siev. cm..
'JNi]
ffuTTJpl /iov;
M at
ifxisTiei
nn-\n]
Siev..
so
nin<]
8.
iS]
either with the preceding sec-
y!\-\H,
deriving
from
it
Sin.
Siev.
tr.
to precede ^D2>it;
mss. hkini; so 9.
Oort^""-
warning upon
9.
for the
7.
But I
God of my
will
nj?.
Siev.
cf. (S.
it
The
text.*
to
my God
deliverance;
evidently contrasts
^3.
speaker here
is
is
no
seology,
is
original
shown by the man-
"I" with something
may
some connection between w.
that has
present con-
be due to an
and
'.
The
apparently not an individual, but the oppressed

to its
unquenchable
as the source of ultimate deliverance.
faith in
For similar phra-
Hb. 3^. The original poem

8. Rejoice not, O mine enemy, over me J] "Encollective here, including all of Israel's foes; cf. Ob. '^^
cf.
Ps. 5^ 18'^ 25' 38'^ 43^
begins with v.*.
emy"
is
fitting contrast in the
community, which gives expression
Yahweh
Yahweh,
The
will help me]
presence of this fragment here
establish
^S iin]
watch expectantly for Yahweh, I will hope
gone before, though there
effort
Israel's foes that her present mis-
connection of this verse with another context
ner in which
ICN ly] Du. nij?.

10. vn] We. n>t<; so Now., Oort^"-,
fortunes will soon give place to honour and glory from
her God.
>j;z>^]
supposes the omission of a trimeter line
several mss. <^ws fwi.
& om.. nnj;]
Str. I serves
Siev.
so6 5I&;
'
be a misplaced fragment.
to
n'?''niN]
V.
this point.
fioi;
Some Heb.
seems
It
* Cf. Du.
who
attaches
v.
'
to
\'v. 5- .
MICAH
146
Though I am
Ps. 25^ 35*^.
the exilic
and
Darkness
perity;
postexilic prophets;
light]
Am. 5"
cf.
cf. Is.
A common
was
sS^"*
diffi-
characteristic of all
60^ ^- Ez.
37-39 Zc.
14.
and pros-
figure for calamity
9^ff-
ff-
Is. 62^
Faith under
fallen, I shall arise]
culties, the certainty of final vindication,
59 Jb. 3o2.
In Str. II the speaker declares himself ready to bear patiently

the well-merited pimishment of
weh may choose

This
hear]
to release him.
accord with
is in
Yahweh
9.
until such time as YahThe anger of Yahweh I must
Semitic thought which always
all
From
explained disaster as due to divine wrath.*
the time
of Josiah's imtimely death on, the consciousness of being imder
the wrath of
Yahweh was a heavy burden upon
K.
Israel;
cf.
For I have sinned against him]
par-
enthetical statement of the occasion of the divine anger.
Sin
23^
^-
42^
24^" Is.
*.
and punishment are indissolubly imited in Hebrew and Semitic

thought. There is in this ascription of the disasters of Israel
to Yahweh's anger because of her sin a direct rebulce of the foes
who have
failed to realise in their
unholy glee that they are but
struments in the hand of a just God.

cause and execute
cf.
my
pimitive purpose
is
Yahweh
destruction;
cf.
Zc.
is
now
in-
up my
a limit to Yahweh's wrath;
is
angry at
Israel, yet
when
his
accomplished he will take his place as Israel's
avenger over against her

righteous;
There
right]
Though he
Ps. 103^.
Until he shall take
foes.
As compared with them,
therefore will not allow
them
to
Israel is
push her
to
i^^ ^.
Str. Ill contrasts the fact of Israel's vindication with its neces-
sary corollary, the public humiliation of her foes.
bring
me forth to the light ;
9e,
f.
He will
I shall gaze upon his righteousness]
"righteousness" of Yahweh, as in
the vindication of Israel.
Is.
40-55,
Israel being
is
more nearly
with the divine vnll than the nations are
The
here identical with

in
who triumph
accordance
over her,
it
Yahweh that he deliver his people and

punish their oppressors who have exceeded their commission of
chastisement upon Israel. The destruction of Israel by the heathen
is
required of the justice of
nations would be wholly inconsistent with the character of the
God
of justice.
His righteousness demands
* Cf. Mesa-Inscription,
1.
s; the Stele of
triumph over
Israel's
Nabonidus,
1.
if.
her
foes.
^lOa, b.
And mine enemy
will see, and sham^ will cover

would be incomplete apart from the disThe latter is involved in the former. But
Israel's vindication
her]
grace of her enemies.
Caspari that Israel's joy
to say with
God
overthrow of the enemies of
Such an element
is
dured;
Str.
Na.
cf.
a holy exultation over the

tell
the whole story.
undoubtedly present, but there
wanton and gross
the element of revenge for
it
is
does not
3 Ps. 109
IV announces
is
coupled with
insults long en-
and Ob..
and
the complete
mies of Israel and Yahweh.
final
lOc-f. WJiere
overthrow of the eneis
Yahweh, thy God?]
A proverbial expression indicative of the powerlessness of Yahweh

cf.
K.
2" Ps.
18^* Jo.
Among
peoples entertaining a
champion
of a particular nation,
79^ 115^.
limited conception of deity as the
must always be interpreted as

due to the weakness of its patron deity. Mine eyes will gaze upon
her] She who doubted Yahweh's power, if not his very existence,
The "gaze" is
will now feel that power in her own person.
one of gloating hatred; cf. Ob. ^^- '^ Ez. 28" Ps. 22^^.Now will
the continuous disaster of a nation
she he for trampling]
note of triumph over the prostrate
final
Like the mire of the streets] An editorial expansion, as

shown by the metre;* for similar additions, cf. i^.
foe.
8. 'Pa^K]
here and
maj:.
95.
âo'i^'O
10.
ns'j.']
ii')^'\\
in Zc. 95
9. lyr] Of anger of '\ only

collective, Ges. ^'"^
a stronger term than the more common ^h ,d>v and
i. e. do me justice, give judgment in my favour ; cf. Ps.
Fem. as
Is. 30'";
An abnormal form and
and Gn.
4133 (in
some
desire to avoid hiatus before

flecting
^3M
D.
f.
for a
her."
n;
37"; the
sf.
is
accentuation, but found also

According to Ges. ^"p due to
but perhaps better treated as
Qn
the force of the tense,
cf.
unnecessary in view of 2 K. 19"
vividly anticipates the subj.;
affectuosum, as in ^^jj^n, Ju. 5"; Ges.
cf. Ko.^'*"''.
" ". There
is
re-
Ko.
Is.
^J''N">n]
no room here
sf..
* So Marti, Now.^, Siev., Hpt..
upon
foil,
mss.).
Aramaic usage, Ges. " hh,

vk] Correction to n^N
f.,
1912 Je.
is
But
c/.
Du.,
who retains it and drops " mine eyes will
gaze
MICAH
148
Restoration of Jerusalem
The
21.
Exiles
A single
be
rebuilt,
the Return of
and
(7"-'^).
eight-line str. tells of the time
when
the city's walls will
her borders extended and her citizens brought back from
every quarter of the earth; while the heathen world will receive
drastic
for the sin of its inhabitants.
pimishment
DAY
On
will there
be for rebuilding thy walls.
that day the border will be distant.
day
be when unto thee will they come,
will there
From Assyria even unto Egypt,

And from Egypt even to the river,
And from sea to sea and from mountain
But the earth
On
account of
become a
will
is
very close, except between vv.
make any
stood to
The
order to connect
it
and
",
connection possible.
in this way,
be secured
'
it
with
v.
M;
but
connection within the
str.
this oracle as
doubtful at several points.
is
mountain.
inhabitants, because of the fruit of their deeds.
its
Tetrameter rhythm prevails in

the text
to
desolation,
to separate v. ", either in
(Marti) or with v.
The
tion with vv.
pers. does not
and
its
is
not
context on
proposition of Marti (so also Now."^) to secure connec-
by changing the
'-'o
There
(Siev.).
the slightest link of connection between this passage

either side.
found in
where contrast must be underBut since good connection may
seems unnecessary
'
it is
commend
itself,
sf.
of the
2d
pers. here to that of the ist
for such promises for the future are ordi-
community or concerning it by a prophet and do not

emanate from the community itself. Van H.'s proposal to place w.
iib.i3 immediately after v. , involves an impossible exegesis of v. .
The
passage is, therefore, a fragment lacking close relationship to the other
fragments of which chs. 6 and 7 are composed (so also Du.).
narily spoken to the
The
time of the writing of this piece
within certain limits.

the
fall
razed
The
is
clearly revealed as falling
terminus a quo for
its
origin
is
necessarily
oi Jerusalem in 586 B.C., at which time the walls of the city were
(2
K.
251'')
the terminus ad quern
is
evidently the year of the rebuild-
The prophet apparently looks forclose at hand; hence we might place the proph-
ing of the walls under Nehemiah.
ward
to the rebuilding as
ecy shortly before that task was actually begun. But

to say how many times prophetic hopes of this character
kindled only to meet with disappointment.
to specify
any time within the
first
it is
impossible
may have been
It is unsafe, therefore,
century and a half after the
Jerusalem for the utterance of this prophecy.
fall of
7"-"
11. ov]
Ninn ora.
Add
Nin,
nunS]
i^dXeiÛ aov.
Siev. om..
with Marti and
B longe fiet
fMKpcLv
iiriray-^.
"'I'^n;
7}
Marti,
/Ay <jwe.
v.
Aq.
lex.
''pn
Taylor, Gr., Now., Marti, Siev., Hpt..

diafjiepiafji6y.
n>'i]
Rd.
'^yi,
\^th Aq.
We., Gu., GASm., OortEm-, Marti,

Gr.
^;jr\.
ij.:i.
-iixn]
19
(tl
Nia'']
^jdS]
9 Ew.,
ii
12.
Rd.
Marti, 't
^d'V.y,\,
T'?X'}
iNta;,
&
^npi.
with
(8,
We.,
<S els bpiaXidpubv Kal els
Hi.,
Mau., Ro., Now., Elh.,
common
noun.
Taylor,
iixd ^jdSi] (g
dvb TiJpou =ivxp 'JoS; so &. dm] Elh. hd'I. ini] ^

Nu. 20. Elh. mm.nnn] Rd. ->np, with <S B, Taylor,
We., GASm., Now,, Marti, Hal., van H., Du., Hpt..
eis BiafxepuTfibv
dKpi<rla.
'nip'?'\2'
van H., Du., Hpt..
Siev.,
take as
(g
T'}:^.h
9 ical al ir6Xeti aov =
(S
so Now.'^, Siev..
it^v,
'nin-i\
nmj]
wvin ov]
^ thai thou be taken
<rov.
Oort^-
anp\ Du.
so Now., Hpt..
';
Hal.
Che.cn,
cf. v. ".
Siev. n^jan.
fiaKpvvd'^ffeTai
Gr. phi pni.V
Hpt.
so Now."^, Siev..
agreement with
copula;
nuaS.
pnn^] (S Koi dTroTpl\perai vSfund

pn.
in
so Now.'^, Siev..
''1V/,
away, omitting
fffrai.
Now. '^, as
(g dXot^^s v\Lvdov
Marti,
pn
149
nni;
Elh.,
c/.
This short poem
is full
movement, the rebuilding of walls,

numbers from every quarter, and over
of
the exiles returning in great
against this scene of joyous activity the desolation of destruction
upon the pagan world.

walls]
The
city of
^11.
Jerusalem
A
is
day will there be for rebuilding thy

addressed.
The language of the str.
as a whole shows that the literal rebtiilding of the city's walls is meant,
rather than any such general idea as the restoration of the fortunes
On
of Israel.
that
rael's territory will
day
will the boundary be far distant]
be very extensive.
extension of boundaries,
may
cf.
Is. 26^^.
be either that of the city or that of the land;
somewhat
text here is
token of definiteness
suspicious;
is
pn without
.'5n
Zc.
cf.
is
"that day
distant
i.
e.
be
Some would
is
harmony with
Other interpretations of
this
the opti-
phrase are
the date (pn)";* "the decree shall be ex-
to include
around Judea and

lytes to
The
vmusual, and the repetition of DT* and Dl^
far distant," is wholly out of
of the passage.
tended,"
2*.
as a dittograph from the verb; but the resulting sentence,
"that day
mism
Is-
the article or other
mn in the first three lines is suggestive of dittography.

drop
i. e.
For pni as applied to the

The boundary referred to
not only Babylon but
to provide for great
all
the coimtries
numbers becoming prose-
Judaism ;f the limit separating Israel from the nations will

and all the nations will come flocking to the people of
set aside
* Ew., Urn..
t Hd..
MICAH
150
God;* the Mosaic law

the heathen
will
be surperseded ;t
= the principles of
pn
be abolished; J pn =
^'^, with which
w. "''"*'
after the captivity idolatry will
law and order
in the time foretold in w.
all restraint will be cast off and anarchy will

But these are all open to serious objection and are now
generally abandoned in favour of the view adopted here.
12. A
day will there he when unto thee will they come from Assyria even
unto Egypt] Not a prediction of foreign invasion,** nor a promise
should be connected,
prevail.
an assurance of the return
of the conversion of the nations ;ff but
The language
of the Jewish exiles.
wide extent of the diaspora; the
exiles are sojourners
among
all
Assyria and Egypt are the extremities of the prophet's
peoples.
world on the east and west.
The
of the verse presupposes the
And from Egypt
river in question is the Euphrates;
tically identical
mountain
to
particular sea
indefinite,
The
mountain]
word
and
is
this clause is prac-
And from sea to sea, and from
with the preceding.
the text of the last
even unto the river]
hence
order of words
is
unusual
in
imintelligible in this context; v.
alluded to; the expression
is
M, and
s..
rather general
No
and
so intended to convey the impression of vastness
The
and Orelli, which identiand the Dead Sea, and the

mountains as a northern Hor (Nu. 34') and a southern Hor (Nu.
20^^), makes Canaan the whole of the territory covered by the description of V. ^^*^- ^-y but this is an anti-climax after v. "^,
For
similar descriptions of a world-wide restoration from exile, cf.
Ez. 34^^ Zc. 10^ ^- Is. 27*2 ps jQy2 f.._i3. But the earth will become a desolation] In its present context, the land thus threatened
cannot be Canaan but must be the heathen world in general, the
of expanse.
fies
interpretation of Hitzig
the seas as the Mediterranean
land of Israel's foes;
cf.
Je. 49^^-
"
50^^
Zp.
2'^- ^^
Jo.
3^^.
Because
on account of the fruit of their deeds] That the

of
land should suffer because of the sins of its occupants is a common
thought in the Scriptures; cf. 2 S. 21^^- Is. 24^ Lv. 18^ Rom. 8'^
its
The
inhabitants,
final
phrase more specifically defines the occasion of the land's
devastation; for other examples of the phrase, v.
Is. 3^ Je. 17^
21"
32^^ cf Je. 6'\

* Ke..
Van
H..
t Kl..
** Van H..
t Baur, Hal..
tt
Cal.,
Rosenm., Hesselberg, Man., Kl..
151
f'-''
nn =
11. nua"^ ov] For
make
ula would
Now.)
predicate (so
but
Ez.
36'"'-
The
".
this violates the metrical
lack of cop-
to this clause as its
norm
better to
it is
Ninn or] An ace. of time when. For lack of with

Ges.
12. sin ov] Lack of explained by Ges. 5'"
art.
^'"''.
cf.
art.
as due to corrupt
But
of ai\
and
cf.
draw Minn ar
sin.
insert
ov,
rebuild,
necessary to
it
text;
much
is
it
by Ko.
H.
cf.
44, 3.
due
to
prominent character
taken with av as subj. of sentence
better
Nin as copula {contra Hpt.).
unto thee";
^''"^ as
T'î''1]
"and unto
iixd] Elsw. only Is.
"when
(= Is.
common noun,
thee,"
i. e.
K.
1924
19^ 2
37").
Perhaps intended
siege.
Wkl.""'-, 170, proposes to point nx^'p or iixc, which he
to suggest
by
its
pointing the
connect with Mi-is-sa-ri of the Tel-el-Amama

sence of art.
Zc. 9>o
As denoting
2,
1.
Three
all non-Israelitish territory, cf.
strs.
would
Letter of
poetic usage, Ko. ^
in contrast with SNTiy in Je. 322", cited
22.
v.
and that of Tar-hundaraS of Arsapi, 1. i. -inj] Ab295 e,

for similar refs. to the Euphrates,
Ps. 72' I K. 421- 2< i45 2 S. io' Gn. 1518 Dt. i'. 13. vis<^]
Ashur-uballit,
cf.
letters;
by
the corresponding use of

Stei.
m^
and Now..
Prayer for Yahweh's Intervention
(f*'^).
of four lines each, in qtna rhythm, call for
Yahweh's
manifestation as the deliverer of his people and base the appeal for
deliverance
upon
his mercy.
Str. I is a prayer to
Yahweh
for the
resumption of his former attitude of favour toward his people.

Str
II prays for the utter humiUation of the heathen nations
and
Yahweh. Str. Ill recalls the wellYahweh and reminds him of his oath to the
their complete subjection to
known
character of
patriarchs concerning the glory of Israel.
QHEPHERD
thy people with thy
That dwells alone
May
As
in
staff,
the flock of thine inheritance,
a jungle, in the midst of a garden.
they feed in Bashan and Gilead, as in the days of old.
days of thy coming forth from Egypt, show us wonderful things.

and be ashamed of all their might.
they lay hand upon mouth, and may their ears be deaf.
in the
TyTAY
the nations see
May
May they lick dust like the serpent, like crawlers of the earth.
May they come trembling from their dens, may they quake and fear on account
of thee.
^/"HO
is
a god like unto thee, forgiving iniquity and passing by transgression?
And thou wilt cast into the deptlis of the sea all our sins.
Thou wilt show faithfulness to Jacob and kindness to Abraham,
As thou
The
hast sworn to our fathers from days of yore.
qina rhythm
need pruning
is
to bring
clearly marked in this poem.

Only three lines
them within the limits of the metre {v. i.), and the
MIC AH
152
The
gloss-like character of these additions is very apparent.
are sharply differentiated one from another, the

the second with the nations,
and
first
God.
the third with
three strs.
dealing with Israel,

Siev. sets Str.
and the
Ill apart as an independent poem, but the identity of form
good
seem
logical connection
{ZAW. XXIII,
164
ff.),
w.
to require its junction with
Now. and
followed by
'*".
Sta.
Marti, has recognised
w. " and '''

But these fragments have no real connection with v. ", where they
To put them there involves the appliare attached by Sta. and Marti.
cation of v. " to the land of Israel, and a contrast between the condition
portrayed in vv. "-'^ and that actually existing as described in v. ",
which is hardly conceivable in the absence of any particle indicating
the changed time relations. They are better treated as a variant or
that vv. "'' " interrupt the close connection between
{v. i.).
parallel to vv. "
The
'">.
general tone of this passage marks
days.
Israel
is
in distress; the land
many things
down vengeance.
people have suffered
whom
they call
is
it
as belonging to the later
only partly in
at the
The
hands of
its
possession; the
upon
their enemies,
attitude of the author
quite
is
and the two passages might well come

from the same period, if not from the same pen. The return from exile
seems to lie in the past; the people are dwelling in Canaan, but their
The days when Bashan and Gilead were
territory is of narrow limits.
occupied (eighth century B.C.) are "days of old." This indicates a time
after the return movement under Ezra and Nehemiah and the accomsimilar to that revealed in vv.
-',
Many
panying development of particularism.

later
Psalms occur
14.
Elh.,
Van H.
ny3.
pi..
^jss-]
Now., Marti,
01 pi.
may
Rd.
it
the metre supports this.
Pont, Gr.,
Du., Hpt..
& 21
<8 6\p(r6f.
Dn>jTK] ij 21(8*^
also has
noun
sg..
in sg..
sf.
of
16.
iSnrs] (5
i&
3d
from
pers. pi..
Sdc] (S
'ti;
Some
Sdsv
3d
codd. of <S Selâ
i^]
(6
so Taylor, Pont.
onimjODD]
paths.
om.
their
0.
^^
H=
(5
pi..
17.
is
cnja]
'dd3; (6
nns'' ijtiSn m^1-Sê]
Om.
shown by
compared with qgc, and by the metre.
the use of 3d pers. as
Or.
in
so Marti, Siev., Du.;
C5;
with Marti, Now.'^, Siev., as a gloss; this
M''nhn 'i-Sn,
sf.
21,
Rd. W-^n; so We., Taylor, Elh.,
and 3 Heb. mss.
but (S^
(6 "B pi.,
&
Che., Oort^""-, Marti, Hal., Siev., van H.,
Ro. unih; so Gu..
airois.
169),
Hal. yp\
^dkts]
omitting vin with
ijnik]
GASm., Now.,
in the
(ZAW. XXIII,
ny] & = sheep.

15.
be established.
D''-(XDC,
common
terms
{v. .).
so Ro., Sta.
'J3S*;
van H., Hpt..
Siev.,
ij;;,
anxD ^nxD]
few verses
in these
It is
not
improbable that the entire phrase including nno^ is an editorial citation

from Ho. 3'. This would leave a smoother text and an easier metre
(c/. Siev.).
nini,
mtr.
in'?nj
iNT'1] Siev.
cs..
V^s
nnNB'S]
Om.
om. mtr.
.
cs..
inc] & om..18. ima]
p?] C5 21 pi..
Siev.
adds
Siev.
~tv; after rv,
as gloss, with Now., Marti, Du..
Siev.
adds
mtr.
cs..
and Gu,
7"-"
153
]n'?m PNBn-Vj;, and omit remainder of verse as gloss.
lyS] 0^ tls frnpTipiov
and Gu.
8*133']
so Marti.
1;
20.
inn]
wnl Gu. "WHz.

in
will gather together.
onNBn]
Elh., Pont, We., Gr., Gu.,
Du..
Sdxrei.
dt]
pvnn] jj ad pers. sg.
has ad pers.
(6 Kal iirofiKpiicovrai;
pers. sg. active.
Ro. om.
and he
ft
ft
sg. of vb..
opening of verse, and change
insert nriN at
pers. sg..
13J.
= lyh. ^-cn]
but
Rd.
2d
ft 31
3d
tScpi]
some codd.
dahis, so
of <&, as in
ij^nNon, vdth (S ft ]?; so Ro.,
Now., OortE"-, Marti, Hal.,
Siev.
to
some codd.
in
19.
all vbs.
/card rdt ijnipat
of
Siev. jnni.
confusing
*D'r,
van H.,
Siev.,
(8.
and D as
i.
Str. I is a prayer for
Yahweh's favour upon

by
Israel in the restora-
tion to her of the territory once occupied
thy people with thy
staff,
her.
14. Shepherd
Yahweh
the flock of thine inheritance]
Ps. 23 28 80^
addressed as the shepherd of Israel;
cf.
On
63"
"flock of thine inheritance,"
cf. Is.
10" Ps.
Je.
Gn.
74^ 95' 100'.
Yahweh's "inheritance,"
Deuteronomy and subsequent writings;
Israel is frequently designated as
i. e.
his possession, in
cf.
^20 ^26. 29 22^.
This
is
Dwelling alone in a jungle in the midst of a garden]

may be kept apart from the pagan
which serves as the occasion
Yahweh
a description of
is it
is
shown by the
Israel as
fertile
we
if
plains
is
in a forest-
rather represents
It
denied them, because the latter are
The
powerful enemies.
in possession of
the qtna.
The "jvmgle" (GASm.)
is
it is
A reference to
Israel as dwelling in the
The
is
May
prophecy before the
ZAW.
and
fall
Bashan and
is
in Is.
2
29"
K. 19^.
Gilead, as in
not necessarily
and
in-
so proof of the
The phrase
The prophet liv-
of Samaria. J
this out of the question.
XXIII, 169.
cf.
midst of Mt. Carmel would
they feed in
reference to these regions
"days of old" renders

Contra Sta,
against the metre of
Is. 21*',
dicative of the recent loss of this territory,

origin of this
not materially
contrasted with "garden" as here;
be unintelligible here.
old]
is
here used as a symbol of
barrenness and desolation, as in 3" Ho. 2"
where
sense
translate, "dwelling alone, (like) a jimgle in the midst
of a garden"; but this division of the line
days of
home
as having his
occupying the hill-tops of Judah, while access to the
surroimding
changed
participle)
for the request of the previous line.
shrine on Carmel, the sacred mountain.f
32*^,
as
Dt.
not a prayer that Israel
nations,* but a statement of fact (as
Nor
is
49^^.
t So Hi..
J So van H..
MICAH
154
ing at a late day prays for the restoration of former glory, with re-
united Israel once more occupying

that to the east of the Jordan.
forth
of
all
15.
in the days of thy going
from Egypt, show us wonders]
"I
The exodus
of Israel
going forth of Yahweh, just as in Ju.
their might]
i. e.
^16.
wonders which
May
i. e.
"thunder of his power" (Jb. 26").
Yahweh
the earth before
have
may
keep
silent in
30^
17.
the serpent, like crawlers of the earth]
May
and
the nations see,
he
Is.
astonishment
52^^
And may
Deprived of both speech and hearing by the
their ears he deaf]
49^^.
Israel
comparison with the mighty deeds of Yahweh.
in
cf. Ju. 18^^ Jb. 21^ 29 40* ?r.
terror;
designated as a
because their vaunted strength will
May they lay hand upon mouth]

and
is
complete humiliation and
to perform, viz. the
demoralisation of the enemies.
ashamed of all
seem so puny
is
60^.
cf. 2 S. 5^^ Ps.
5*;
Str. II indicates the character of the
Yahweh
show him"
longs for a miracu-
nothing else can give Israel the honour due her
as Yahweh's people.
desires
will
The prophet
impossible in this connection.

lous intervention
long-lost territory, even
its
As
in reverence.
they come tremhling
from
Cf, Ps.
fled terror-stricken.
they come quaking]
The
May
they lick dust like
prostrate themselves to
i. e.
Gn. 3" Ps. 72* Is.

which they
Cf.
their dens] into
Unto Yahweh our God
18^^.
Yahweh our God"
phrase "unto
belongs with this verb rather than with the preceding, as appears
from the idiom

nised in
iJI
on account of thee]
jeered at
inS which
î<
fitting state of
Yahweh and oppressed
Str. Ill closes the

to
occurs also in Ho.
by the position of the verse accents.
Yahweh
as the
mind
for
his people;
3^; this is recog-
And may they fear

those who have long
cf.
Ps. 33^ 67^ 102^^.
prophecy and the book with a tender appeal
God
of
mercy and pardon that he
will
be gra-
cious toward Israel in accordance with his ancient Covenant.
18a.
Who
is
a god
Ex. 15" Ps.
like
71^^
A common
unto thee]
77" 86^
thought in Psalms,
97^ Elsewhere, the point

of the comparison is always the power of Yahweh; here only is
it found in his quality of mercy.
But Yahweh's power is the theme
e. g.
of
w.
here.*
^^'"
and thus
89'-
96*
constitutes the
background of the thought
Forgiving iniquity and passing hy transgression]

*So
Sta.
ZAW.
XXIII,
171.
Also
7"-'"
common
To
the
thought in the Psalter,
155
iting the application
chosen people.
of
The
Yahweh's character
is
tached by some editor.
g. 86^-
e.
remnant of his inheritance]
*^
99* 103^-
gloss specifying
Yahweh's forgiving spirit

drawn from
*^
130^.
and lim-
to Israel, his
inference to be
this
plainly stated in the following
comments
18b. He
phase of
at-
will not retain his anger for ever,
The change from the qina measure

and from the 2d person in address to Yahweh
the 3d person show the secondary character of this material.
for he delights in kindness]

to simple trimeter
to
Similar phrases are frequent in the Psalter,

34*^
57** "
19a-.
He
e.
g. 25^" 30 32^" 33^
show us mercy]
will again
Israel's past
experience of Yahweh's grace warrants this conviction as to his
purpose for the future.
He
will tread
sins of Israel are poetically pictured as
he
will
down our
The
Yahweh whom
iniquities]
enemies of
The figure is striking and

And thou wilt cast into the depths
the continuation of v. ^^^. The
subdue and render powerless.
without parallel in the OT.. 19b.

of the sea
all
our sins] This
is
prophet employs the strongest terms to express the conviction that
Yahweh
will fully forgive his
people and restore them to the en-
joyment of prosperity and power.

ness to Jacob, kindness to
20. Thou wilt show faithful-
A braham] The names
of the forefathers
of the nation are here applied to their descendants; the kind of
treatment accorded the former

latter.
of
old]
As
Cf. Ex. 34^.
may
be confidently expected by the
thou hast sworn
to our fathers from days

Referring specifically, perhaps, to Gn. 22^^^- 28^^^-, and
in general to all the
promises through patriarchs and prophets
throughout Israel's history.

14.
"ijaa"]
So-called hireq-compaginis, really the old genitive end-
ing retained in the
cstr.; cf.
Ges.
culty of masc. prtc. agreeing with
commonly accepted
masc.
{v. s.), in
may be explained
"o; Ko.^272
t><x
b. c,
Qn account of dif5-
(fem.), the reading as cstr. pi. is
agreement with
as due to the force of
coll.
03;,
the
noun;
cf.
But
u'i\
main noun
to
which
|NX is added parenthetically; or as due to }nx itself being treated as

masc, as in Gn. 30'^ =, because of its relation to oy. np^] Ace. of place
in which, as after 2Z"' in Gn. 18'.
15. ijn^.n] Treated by Ew. "s as
Aram, form of imv. this was objected to by Ew.'s contemporaries because
an Aramaicism in the language of Micah was improbable; but this objec-
tion loses its force with the prevalence of the
view of the
late origin of this
MICAH
156
In any case it might have been due to a scribe who spoke

material.
Aram.. But more probably it was intended as first person of impf. by a
scribe who conceived of v. " as the beginning of Yahweh's answer to
Israel's petition,
sf.
in
1DD
K6.^"*'-.
a view which
(v. ").
18.
'd]
An example
19.
clamation, Ges.^M**.
by addition of
possibility of
Nin.
is
riD h)! ni]
16.
ffln]
irreconcilable with the presence of the
A common
Verbal
v^^2S>]
adj., rather
than Qal
pf.,
shown
as
a confusion with 033, which would furnish excellent sense

cf. Is. i'
Je. 4'* Ps. $i*-
used with the sense wash away, only in Lv. 13"
Hpt. makes
art.,
This isolated usage of C33 suggests the
here and an idiom frequent in the OT.;

is
idiom, hence without
of the near relation of question to ex-
this
same suggestion
in
AJSL,
July, 1910;
';
cf.
y:}-^,
033
Is. 4*.
but the preceding
sentences were written a year before the appearance of that article.
20, -\vh\
iB't<3,
as in Je.
2,^''^
48' Is. 54' Ps. io63^.
A CRITICAL AND
EXEGETICAL COMMENTARY ON THE
BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF

ZEPHANIAH.
I.
FROM THE FALL OF THEBES TO THE FALL

OF NINEVEH.
These two termini include the period of the decline and fall of
Within its limits belong the prophecies of
both Zephaniah and Nahum. The difficulty and the greatness of
the Assyrian empire.
work can be properly appreciated only as we obtain an unit formed a part.

Judah, under Manasseh, continued the vassalage to Assyria that
had been inaugurated by Ahaz, through his panic-stricken recourse
to the aid of Tiglath-pileser HI, and had been riveted upon Hezekiah by Sennacherib. Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal maintained
their
derstanding of the course of events of which
the high prestige of Assyria throughout western Asia.
The former
had established her dominion over lower Egypt as far south as

Memphis in 670 B.C., and had died (668 B.C.) while on the march
to Egypt to drive back the Ethiopian Taharka, who had incited the
Delta to revolt and was actively engaged in the attempt to free
Egypt from the Assyrian yoke. Ashurbanipal (668-626 B.C.) imup the unfinished task of his predecessor. His reign
was the last blaze of Assyria's glory. Taharka was driven back
into Nubia and Assyria's sway re-estabHshed over the Delta.
mediately took
Twenty kings
of the Mediterranean littoral
islands, including
Manasseh
submission to Assyria.
The
and the neighbouring

renew their
Taharka resumed his
of Judah, hastened to
irrepressible
intrigues with the princes of the Delta soon after Ashiurbanipal's
return
home and
again stirred up revolt. The traitors were all

by Ashurbanipal, with the exception of Necho,
who was shown honour and appointed Assyria's
severely punished
prince of Sais,
representative in charge of the whole of the Delta, being granted

a body of Assyrian troops with which to maintain his authority.
159
2EPHANIAH
l6o
This plan of organisation worked well
for
some time
after the death
Taharka (663 B.C.). But in the third year of his successor,

Tanutamon, negotiations were again opened between the princes
of the Delta and the Ethiopian king, who attacked Necho and his
Assyrian soldiers, inflicting defeat upon them and slaying Necho
of
In 661 B.C., Ashurbanipal despatched an expedition to
himself.
Egypt which drove Tanutamon back
into Ethiopia
and seized and
plundered Thebes, the ancient stronghold and capital.
From
this
blow Thebes never recovered though Tanutamon re-entered the

city after the withdrawal of the Assyrian army and remained there
;
654 B.C., when Psamtik, son of Necho and king of

Memphis, expelled the Ethiopians and restored Thebes
until
Sais
to
and
Egyp-
tian ownership.
While the Egyptian campaigns were draining Assyria of blood

and treasure, Ashurbanipal was also compelled to wage a bloody
war against Elam, which had resumed her former hostility shortly
after his accession.
Two campaigns reduced Elam to temporary
submission, under the rule of princes appointed as Assyrian vassals (665 B.C.).
Another draught upon Assyria's resources was
occasioned by troubles in the far west, where Ba'al of Tyre had

to
be besieged and Arvad and Tabal brought to submission and
Shortly afterward, Assyria's aid was besought by Arvad,

Tabal and Lydia against the Cimmerians who had become agtribute.
gressive.
An
pire
irremediable injury
by the
civil
war
was done
to the life of the Assyrian
em-
instituted through the revolt of Ashurbanipal's
Shamash-shum-ukin, king of Babylon. The struggle was

and of seven years' duration, ending in 647 B.C. with the complete triumph of Ashurbanipal, who became king of Babylon under
Thereupon followed a series of campaigns
the name Kandalanu.
against Elam, which had aided Shamash-shum-ukin, These re-
brother,
fierce
sulted about 640 B.C. in the total destruction of
The
western peoples,
offered
by the
revolt of
burden of vassalage
Arabian
who had
tribes,
to
eagerly seized
Babylon
Elam
as a nation.
upon the opportunity
to rid themselves of the oppressive
The
who had
Nineveh, also required chastisement.
including the Kedarenes and Nabataeans,
aided Shamash-shum-ukin, were brought into subjection by Ashur-
FROM
66l TO 606 B.C.
161
banipal in a series of battles, in the course of which his troops
overran the territory of the Kedarenes, Nabataeans,
Ammon and
Ushu and Acco,
Hauran.
the
unmercifully punished.
were also
any credence may be given
If
Chronicler's story of the captivity of
Manasseh
which brought
to say that the events
Edom, Moab,
in Phoenicia,
it
of Judah,
to the
it is
safe
about must be placed
connection with this same revolt of the western peoples.
in
In ad-
on the east and west, the peoples of the north

and north-west initiated hostilities and persisted in them. Among
others the Mannai and the Cimmerians were smitten by Ashurbanipal.
Not until about 640 B.C. was peace restored throughout the
Assyrian empire. For twelve years Assyria had been engaged in a
dition to these foes
desperate struggle for
which she won, but at
life,
own
and
terrible cost.
by the energetic
Psamtik I, had expelled the Ethiopians, made alliance with Gyges
of Lydia and so strengthened herself and increased her resources
Meantime, Egypt,
that Ashurbanipal
mission.
The
left to
her
made no
last fourteen
devices
led
further effort to reduce her to sub-
years of the reign of Ashurbanipal are
shrouded in obscurity.
Since the accession of Manasseh,
The
through a period of reaction.

Isaiah
and Micah had suffered
Judah had been passing

by prophets like
ideals exalted
eclipse.
relation of vassalage to
Assyria had been inherited from Hezekiah's reign.
Heavy
tribute
taxed the resources of the people to the utmost and fretted the
freedom-loving
ance.
It is
spirit of these hill-dwellers
probable that,
when
almost beyond endur-
the neighbouring peoples entered
into the conspiracy with
Ashurbani-
pal,
hopes were
Shamash-shum-ukin against
Judah did not stand aloof. In any case, high
raised by the general revolt throughout the empire
dashed to the ground with the coUapse of the whole
This
political
maelstrom of
hope and despair was
and
religious hfe
the reactionary
old deities
fast
by the cross-currents of the
and
furious.
social
Foreign customs and
welcomed with open arms. Manasseh himself led

movement in religion which sought to reinstate the
and shrines that had been discredited by Sennacherib's
The Baalim and Asherah, so generally worshipped
practices were
invasion.
movement.
dissatisfaction, restlessness, intrigue,
intensified
which ran
only to be
ZEPHANIAH
1 62
throughout Syria, were restored to favour in Judah.
was
too
to
officially
approved and practised.
That
Sun-worship
all this
was due
something more than mere religious indifference, easy-going
toleration or even diplomatic acceptance of the cults of the neigh-
bouring peoples allied with Judah in the

pose to obtain freedom from Assyria,
Manasseh
offering.
stitious
help of
common
desire
and pur-
evident from the fact that
is
is said to have offered up one of his own sons as a burntThis means agonising endeavour on the part of a super-
and idolatrous people and its king to secure the favour and
Heaven in their endeavour to better their lot. Despairing
Yahweh
of success with the aid of
alone, they turned eagerly to the
other gods of the local pantheon in the hope of securing their co-
They were
operation.
aid,
willing to pay the highest price for such
own
withholding not their
nificance of the statement in 2
cent blood very much,
another"
is
till
he had
undiscoverable.
fant sacrifice, though
it is
21^^ that
may refer
It
unlikely that
precise sig-
"Manasseh shed
inno-
Jerusalem from one end
filled
to
to frequent resort to in-
Manasseh would have been
or to a bloody persecution of the
held solely accountable for this;
prophets of
Yahweh
the judicial
murder of Naboth the
(r/.
The
heart's blood.
K.
Je, 2^")
or even to acts of tyranny, like

Jezreelite in
Ahab's time, oc-
casioned by the desire to replenish the royal treasury or to remove

influential opposition to the royal policy.
The
interplay of such
conditions and influences produced a high degree of ferment in
Jerusalem.
With
the passing of
Manasseh and
accession of Josiah about 638 B.C.,
new
Amon and
influences began to
the
come
The
principles inculcated by the earlier

and were to receive official endorsement when the boy king came to maturity of judgment.
While the new regime was establishing itself in Judah, new forces
and strange faces began to appear in the larger arena of western
Asia. The Scythians, breaking loose from their mountain fastto the fore in
Judah.
prophets were bearing
fruit
came pouring down upon
nesses in the north,
sweeping everything before them.*

countered Psamtik
of Egypt,
who had for years been occupied

now forced to abandon by
with the siege of Ashdod, which he was

* Hdt.,
Assyria's territory,
In the extreme west they en-
I,
103
ij..
FROM 66 1 TO 606
the advance of the
new
B.C.
163
Crowded back across his own
foe.
border,
there he held the barbarians at bay, whether by force* or by pay-
ment
of a large
seem
to
have
left
amount
They
down to
an open question.
of goldf is
Jerusalem untouched, both on the way
But echoes of their march are heard in

and Zephaniah, both of whom were
In the
called into public life probably by this great invasion.
eastern half of Assyria's domain, Nineveh was undergoing a siege
at the hands of Cyaxares, the Mede, when the Scythians appeared
upon the scene. Cyaxares was continuing a struggle between
Media and Assyria, the opening stage of which had closed with
The son, again takthe defeat and death of Phraortes, his father.
army,
defeated
aggressive,
the Assyrian
the
had
gathered
a
new
ing
forces in pitched battle and encamped before the walls of Nineveh itself (625 B.C.). The entrance of the Scythians into Media
forced Cyaxares to raise the siege of Nineveh and return to the
defence of his own land. J There he was defeated and rendered
Egypt and on the return.
the prophecies of Jeremiah
hors de combat for nearly twenty years, while the Scythians held
his
This timely
kingdom.
relief for
Nineveh did but postpone
the inevitable downfall of Assyria.
little
Ashurbanipal,
viz., Ashur-etil-ili
to recreate the
pended by
The
for
successors of
and Sin-shar-ishkvm, were unable
blood and treasure that had been so lavishly ex-
their predecessor
on the one hand, and so ruthlessly de-
stroyed by the Scythians on the other.

fabric of Assyrian
power was
The damage done to the

Weakened as Nine-
irreparable.
veh was, Babylon under Nabopolassar was able once more to assert her
The
independence and to maintain
it.
exact course of events immediately preceding the
Nineveh
is
not on record.
It
fall
of
can only be conjectured from three
varying sources of information,
viz.,
the narrative of Herodotus,
by Berossus and preserved in

citations from him by later Greek writers, and the cuneiform records of Babylonia. Herodotus relates that Cyaxares, the Mede,
the Babylonian tradition received
treacherously murdered his Scythian masters, drove out their fol* Cf. Breasted, History of Egypt, 581.
The Persian tradition preserved by Ctesias
is
t So Hdt., /. c.
wholly untrustworthy.
t Hdt.,
The
I.
c.
tradition of
Berossus was copied by Polyhistor (c. 50 B.C.) and transmitted by Abydenus. The latter,
however, vitiated the tradition by combining it with the tales of Ctesias in such a way as to
render practically
futile
any attempt
to differentiate precisely
between the two elements.
ZEPHANIAH
l64
lowers from his land and then proceeded once more against Nine-
veh which
now fell into his hands.
Berossus
us that Sin-shar-
tells
ishkun (Saracus) heard of the approach of a numerous

lossorus to check their advance.
his king,
made
army from
Thereupon, he sent his general Busa-
the sea toward Nineveh.
alliance with the
The
however, deserted
latter,
Medes, giving his son in marriage
daughter of the Median leader, and then turned against
to the
Nineveh.
Sin-shar-ishkun then set
perished in the flames.
Still
fire to
his
own
and
capital
another strand of the tradition of
Berossus represents the king of Assyria as having been shut up
by the combined forces of the Medes
in his capital for three years
and the Babylonians. The Tigris then swept away part of the
city's walls and the king offered himself and his wives upon the
funeral pyre.
The
Nabonidus, the
stele of
last
king of Babylon, in relating
the overthrow of Assyria says that the king of the
came
to the help of
Babylon and that he
Umman-manda
laid waste the land of
Assyria like a cyclone, ruined the temples of the Assyrian gods and
destroyed the
cities
on the border of Babylonia which had not sup-
The vandalism of this ally is

who had himself rethe shrines. The league between
ported Babylon in the struggle.
said to have grieved the king of Babylon,
frained from desecrating

the
the
any
of
Medes and Babylonians seems to have been brought about by

fact that while Nabopolassar was absent in the north of Meso-
potamia attacking the Subaru, the Assyrian king had taken advantage of the opportunity to enter Babylonia and cut
turn of the absent king
lassar called
upon
and
the
only too glad to give.
his
army.*
Umman-manda
In this
it is
efforts of the
Umman-manda
constituted the
man-mandaf).
itself is
was
partici-
uncertain
directly
Babylonians and Medes (with
are probably to be
most
which they were
Whether or not the Babylonians
quite clear that the fall of the empire
combined
dilemma, Nabopo-
for aid,
pated in the siege and capture of Nineveh
the re-
ofif
due
whom
identified; at least, the
but
the
Medes
influential element in the hordes of the
The view that Babylon aided
to the
Um-
in the overthrow
* So Messerschmidt, MiUheilungen der vorderasialischen Gesellschajl, I (1896), 7 ij..

t But Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, II, 289, identifies the Umman-manda with
the Scythians; so also Sayce,
Lehmann,
et al..
FROM 66l TO 606
One
to refer to the events of this period.*
to the
165
by two Neo-Babylonian
of Assyria is corroborated
seem
B.C.
of
which
them reports
letters
king concerning a campaign against Assyria which has
re-
sulted in victory for Babylon; the other, probably referring to the
same campaign, makes it clear that there were two commanders

and that one of them was a foreigner, per-
of Babylon's forces
haps a general of the Medes.
Even before
hands were
in
609
was extinct in the body

upon her estate. Necho
life
laid
B.C., set
politic of Assyria,
II,
greedy
successor of Psamtik
out at once to seize Assyria's possessions in the
Gaza and Askalon- fell before him. On his way to the

north he was met by Josiah of Judah, probably at Megiddo (608
B.C.).
The inhabitants of Judah, knowing of course that Assyria
was powerless and almost certainly doomed, were in a state of exHe
ultant confidence in themselves and in Yahweh, their God.
who had at last brought the proud foe and cruel tyrant to ruin was
with them and ready to protect them. In this frame of mind, the
west.
prospect of replacing Assyria's yoke
now broken
Egyptian make was not to be tolerated.

battle with
Necho dashed
all their
But the
with one of
result of the
Necho
hopes to the ground.
proceeded on his victorious way as far as the Euphrates, bringing
Egypt and upon
the entire west into subjection to
placing an Egyptian vassal

territory already
upon
gone on every side into the hands of Egyptians,
Medes and Babylonians, Nineveh

struggle about 606 B.C.
Two
hundred years
name
and
later,
adventurers past the

lection of the
march
With her
his return
the throne of David.
site
herself gave
the Assyrian empire
when Xenophon
of
Nineveh (401
up
the hopeless
no more.
Greek
he found no recol-
fell to rise
led his
B.C.),
band
of
of the former mistress of the world (Anabasis,
III, 4, 8-i2).t
* Published in Cuneiform Texts on Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, XXII, 46
IX (1906), 444 ff., who first connected them with the fall of Assyria.
/..
Cj. Meissner, OLZ.,
An
excellent study of the last half century of Assyrian history
Nahum undder Fall
Nineves, SK.,
LXXXIII
(1910), soi #..
is
furnished by P. Kleinert,
CI. also
T. Friedrich, Nineve's
Ende und die Ausgdnge des assyrischen Retches, in Festgaben zm Ehren Max Biidinger's von
seinen Freunden und Schiilern (1898), where a close study of the ruins of Nineveh is made and
the conclusion reached that the fall of the city was caused by a flood due to the high waters of
the Tigris and its tributary streams.
So also Lehmann-Haupt, Israel : Seine Enlwicklung
im Rahmen der Weltgeschichte {iQii), p. 149, who testifies to a tradition among the natives
that the wall of Nineveh was broken through by the river Khusur.
ZEPHANIAH
l66
ZEPHANIAH AND HIS TIMES.
2.
The Man.
I.
The
aside from the super-
traditions regarding Zephaniah,
His prophecies con-
scription of his book, are wholly valueless.

stitute the
is
only other source of information and what they furnish

;
As
painfully slight.
personality
lies
in the case of so
in view
an inhabitant of Jerusalem,
topography of his capital
(i^^")) ^^^
social conditions within the city
his
own
many of the prophets, his

He seems to have been
hidden behind his message.
somewhat by the
was a
and the
i^.
and
his courage in
Moreover, his complaint
is
and
religious
fact that he identifies
it
as
claim of the superfamily
fact of his familiarity with the
in the princely households

classes (i^- ^3^).
his familiarity with the
The apparent
member of the royal
standing-place in
scription that he
.of
knowledge of
is
supported
manner
of
life
denouncing the upper

almost wholly against
and the powerful yet he does not

pose as the spokesman of the poor and there is lacking in his
utterances that note of sympathy with their sufiferings which is so
evident in Amos and Micah, a lack easily explained if he himself
were a member of the aristocracy and had never felt the pinch of
these privileged classes, the rich
poverty.
Pseudepiphanius {de
vitis
prophetarum, ch. 19) declares him to have
been "of the tribe of Simeon from the field (or hill) of Sabaratha (or
Baratha)" and to have "died in an apocalypse of the Lord and been
buried all alone on his own land." An apocalypse ascribed to Zephaniah
is
known
to
have existed by reason of a quotation from
Stromata (V,
me and
11, 77) of
me
Clement
of Alexandria, viz.,
it
preserved in the
"And
a spirit took
and I saw angels, called lords,

whose diadem was placed upon them by the Holy Spirit, and the throne
of each of them was seven times brighter than the light of the rising sun
and they were dwelling in temples of salvation and singing hymns in
praise of the inexpressible God, most high."
Pseudo-Athanasius refers to the same apocalypse.
Two fragments of an apocalypse in
Coptic, ascribed to Zephaniah and discovered at Akhmim [published
by Bouriant in Memoires de la mission archeologique au Caire (1885);
cf. Stern, Zeitschrift fiir ^gypt. Sprache (1S86)] may also have belonged
carried
into the fifth heaven,
ZEPHANIAH AND HIS TIMES
1 67
Cesch. d. jild. Volkes^, III, 271/. According to Din/^^

tomb was in Gibeah of the Lebanons. The traditional representation of him in art shows him carrying a lamp in his left hand; but
to
V. Schiirer,
it;
niaN, his
Sargent's Frieze of the Prophets in the Boston Public Library.
cf.
Schw. seeks to discount the probability of the ancestor Hezekiah hav-
ing been the king, which arises from the unusual length of the genealogy,
calling attention to the fact that long genealogies are frequent in the
by
may be
However, when only one of sixteen prophetic books
exhibits a striking variation, the probability seems to lie on the side of
Furtherthat variation having been deliberate rather than accidental.
OT. and
that their lack in the superscriptions of the prophets
purely accidental.
more, long genealogies are indeed characteristic of priestly writings

(Ezr., Ne., i, 2 Ch.), but are not common in the corresponding prophetic histories (Ju.,
Ki.), being
i, 2 S.,
in i S.
1'.
TJw Times.
2.
The
found only
date of Zephaniah's prophetic activity, according to the
was in the reign
superscription,
of
King Josiah (639-608). Scholars,

There is no
with one exception,* have accepted this as correct.
good reason
to suspect the statement;
tents of the book, yet
it
it
rests
it
to fairly early times.
The
profitably be discussed concerns itself with the
which the prophecy should

work before or after the cul-
particular portion of Josiah's reign to
be assigned.
Did Zephaniah do
his
mination of the great Deuteronomic reform in 621 B.C. Pf
The
own
state-
answer
to this question
ments as
must be sought
in the prophet's
to the conditions prevailing in
Judah
in his
day and
in
his outlook for the future. -^His denunciations of syncretism in
worship, apostacy from Yahweh, the worship of the heavenly bodies,
and
the aping of foreign customs in religion

the practical scepticism
fectly
seh
Amon
(2
K. 21^-^^
and
in dress (i*"-
* ),
rebuked in
with the state of affairs as
and
^),
i^^ seem to accord perwas during the reigns of Manasand as it may be supposed to have
it
Viz., Ko.Einl., who places him in the reign of Jehoiakim.

t In favour of the later period may be cited De. (on Habakkuk), KJ., Schw., Schulz and
But the great majority of scholars is in favour of the earlier period; so, e. 'g.. Hi.,
Lippl.
We., Or., Dav.,
GASm., Now.,
upon
natural to suppose that
It is
an independent tradition that goes back
may
could not easily have been conjectured upon
the basis of the book.
question that
accords well with the con-
Marti, Beer, Cor.,
Kennedy
(i?B.).
^\ /<i68
ZEPHANIAH
continued during the early portion of Josiah's reign, before he had

arrived at an age
when he could
upon the currents
of
to argue, as Lippl does, that the
any powerful influence
exercise
and thought
life
in his
kingdom.
movement
for
It is
unsafe
reform must have
begun with Josiah's accession, since the conspirators who slew

Amon were supported by the prophets and priests. The motive
for the assassination of
Amon
as a matter of fact
is
unknown and
need have had no connection with his attitude toward
The
den from
us.
religion.
Jerusalem at that time are hid-
intricacies of the politics of
home
may well have caused
him. The lad Josiah was
Opposition on Amon's part to some policy,
or foreign, endorsed by popular sentiment
"the people of the land" to
rise
against
an unknown quantity and, perhaps, developed into a

ent kind of ruler from what those
totally differ-
who enthroned him had hoped
In any case, during his early years religious interests prob-
for.
ably remained for the most part in the hands of those

trolled
who had
con-
them vmder Manasseh and Amon.
Effort has been
made
to
account for the conditions reflected by
Zephaniah's utterances as indicative of the period of Josiah's reign

after 621 B.C.
But
it
seems improbable that such
irregularities
and tolerated in the

period immediately after a reform, the main outcome of which was
the purification of the cultus.
Josiah was a zealous worshipper
of Yahweh and no record has reached us of any cooling of his zeal
of cultus could have been openly practised
after the reform.

to
show
Passages from Jeremiah are sometimes cited
that conditions were as
bad
in
Judah
after the reform as
Three
they are declared to have been by Zephaniah in his day.

facts render this
argument inconclusive.
ciations apparently lay relatively
the cultus which
is
little
Jeremiah's early denun-
stress
upon
emphasised by Zephaniah.
miah's prophecies so confidently assigned to the

the reform probably belong to his latest work.
ecies
and
the impurity of
Many
first
None
of Jere-
years after
of his proph-
were written down until the fourth year of Jehoiakim
it is
(36^
^),
practically certain that in the process of transcription they
were largely coloured by the prophet's
later
thought and by the
conditions amid which they were written.
Other considerations urged
in favour of the post-reformation

date
make
fail to
(i^) is
Baal"
of
said to presuppose the almost complete destruction of Baal-
But
ism in 621 B.C.
ism to the
like
The phrase "remnant
probable.
it
169
the phrase
last vestige "
is
Am,
as in
equally well translated "BaalC/. H'^'iriK in
i*.
manner, the phrase "sons of the king"
pulsion to
common
mean
(i) is
Am. 4^ 9^ In
under no com-
In accordance with a very
the sons of Josiah.
usage of the word "son " in Hebrew,
it
may and
probably
does denote those characterised by the fact of membership in the

royal family, viz., uncles
and cousins
"sons of the prophets. "
Zephaniah as
to the king,
the royal family,
king's youth as
and the
of Josiah
similar phrase
it is
CJ. the
though denouncing other members of
on the basis of the
just as easily understood
is
like.
Again, the total silence of
on the supposition that Josiah's well-known
piety after 621 B.C. rendered
him immune from
all criticism.
Nor
does the fact that counsel was sought of Huldah, the prophetess, at
book
the time of the discovery of the
clude that at that time Zephaniah
The same kind
law force us to con-
of the
was not
known
yet
as a prophet.
would dispose of Jeremiah who had

Zephaniah may have died
eight years.
of reasoning
then been in public
life
for
before 621 B.C., or have been absent from the city at that particular juncture, or
not have been in the confidence of the party push-
ing the reform.
Anything which would account
satisfactorily for
Jeremiah having been ignored would be equally applicable to the

case of Zephaniah.
The
have
occasion of Zephaniah's appearance as a prophet seems to
some imminent danger
lain in
regarded the day of
Yahweh
to his nation.
as close at
hand
(i^).
He
evidently
In accord-
ance with the character of earlier prophecy in general and of

the day of Yahweh prophecies in particular, it is probable that
Zephaniah interpreted the approach of some foreign army as
heralding the
dawn
of
Yahweh 's day.*
the requirements of the situation
is
The
event that best meets
the Scythian invasion. f
exact date of the appearance of the Scythians

Palestine cannot be surely fixed.
F. JMPS.,
The Bay
t This connection was

(1778);
0]
Yahweh, AJTh.,
Eschalologie (1905), 142
d. isr.-jiid.
it is
now
first
Psamtik
(1901), 505
if.; cf.
The
upon the horizon of

of Egypt began his
Gressmann, Der Ursprung
ff..
suggested by C. F. Cramer, Scythische Denkmaler in Paldstina
the prevailing view.
ZEPHANIAH
1 7
operations in western Asia in 640 B.C. and since the Scythians put
;
an
effectual stop to his
that
advances in Syria, and Herodotus reports
Psamtik was engaged
years,
it is
in the siege of
ans was nearer 620 than 640 B.C.
king in 625
Ashdod
for twenty-eight
practically certain that his encounter with the Scythi-
B.C.,
was forced
Cyaxares, the Mede,
to raise the siege of
who became
Nineveh about
B.C. by the descent of the Scythians upon his own territory.

Somewhere then between 630 and 620 B.C. it is probable that the
Scythian raid upon the north and west provinces of the Assyrian
empire took place.* The Greek tradition declares the Scythian
620
domination of western Asia to have lasted twenty-eight years.

Since their final expulsion was effected somewhere between 599
B.c.,t this gives 627 B.C. as the earliest date for their ap-
and 590
This coincides with the year of Jere-
pearance in that region.
miah's call
and furnishes the necessary external stimulus for

both Jeremiah and Zephaniah. The widespread
Je. i^)
(
the emergence of
activity of the Scythians corresponds with
Zephaniah's vision of
coming judgment as extending from Assyria on the north-east

Ethiopia on the south-west. The speed with which the Scyth-
the
to
them seems reflected in certain

2*).
That neither Assyria nor
Egypt was thought of by Zephaniah as the agent or forerunner of
the coming judgment is clear from the fact that they both are represented as falling victims to it.f These being out of the question,
the Scythians remain as the most likely candidate for the doubtful
honour of world-destroyer. The Babylonians cannot have bulked
large in the prophet's mind until shortly before 606 B.C., and other
ian hordes swept everything before
of Zephaniah's utterances
considerations render
late a date {v. s.).
it
[e. g.,
i"
unlikely that the prophecy belongs to so
The
fact that neither Assyria
nor Egypt was
destroyed by the Scythians, but that, on the contrary, Nineveh was

temporarily saved by them, only proves that the expectations of
the prophet were not fully realised.
* V.
J.
V. PrdSek, Gesck. der Meder u. Perser, I (1906), 141
against Egypt follow the attack
on that
Ezekiel (38") distinctly im-
upon
the Medes; but
it
if..
seems
Hdt., indeed,
makes the march
difficult to reconstruct the history
basis.
t PraSek, op. cit., 132.

t Schw., in spite of this, seeks to identify the expected destroyer with Egypt.
possible only
by eliminating
i'2
Zephaniah probably did not do.
or by discriminating sharply between Ethiopia
This would be
and Egypt as

former prophecies of disaster had not been
plies that certain

filled
and looks
Gog, of the land of Magog, as destined
to
reahsation of these predictions.
tlie final
fjl
Gog and
his hosts, more-
over, very closely resemble the Scythians in their character
The
actions.
to
ransom
ful-
to bring
and
reference of Zephaniah to the inability of Jerusalem
herself
from the coming foe
no proof
(i^^; cf. i") is
that
he knew of the success of Egypt in buying herself free from the
He may
Scythians, as Herodotus reports.
regarding Egypt's escape
may
not
rate, threats similar to that of
(e. g.,
who
On
Is.
have arrived
at
Indeed, Herodotus's statement
ruthlessness of these barbarians.
prophets
v^êll
on the basis of the reports that reached him of the
his conclusion
tell
certainly did not have
13" Ez. f';
cf.
At any
the whole story.
Zephaniah were made by other
any thought
of the Scythians
Je. 4^).
the whole, therefore,
it
seems probable that Zephaniah
prophesied on the verge of the Scythian invasion of Syria.
It is
not necessary to suppose that he conceived of them as exhausting

the divine anger in their chastisement of the nations.
They seem
rather to have been thought of as furnishing the prelude to the

great
drama
Human and
of destruction.
divine forces were to
co-operate in this as in other judgment scenes depicted by the
prophets
{e. g.,
Am. 5" 8*"
'').
In the approach of the Scythians,
Zephaniah saw signs of the breaking up of the existing worldpowers and hastened
Yahweh,
the
God
3.
to
proclaim
it
as the great judgment day of
and the God
of Israel
of justice.
THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

I.
The
Contents.
^
The thought
coming
theme
the
is
first
of the
book is centred upon one great theme, the

day of Yahweh. As the book now stands, this
of the
presented under four successive phases.

of these, viz., the
the great day with
its
the world in general
announcement
Ch.
of the near
sets forth
approach of
overwhelming terrors which are
to involve
The
prophet's
and Judah
primary interest naturally
is
in particular.
in the fate of his
own
people
hence
ZEPHANIAH
172
his
message
subject,
is
addressed to them.
Ch.
announces the coming of
neighbouring peoples,
the
viz.,
the second phase of the
2,
same great day upon the

Philistines, Moabites, Ammonites,
this
Ethiopians or Egyptians, and Assyrians.

ch. 3^"^, the prophet returns to his
own
In the third division,
people and contrasts their
Yahweh. In this contrast lies

coming upon Jerusalem. In the fourth
sinfulness with the righteousness of
the cause of the disaster
and final stage of the presentation, ch. 3^'^, the thought leaps forward to the future, and declares that after the process of the purification of the people of
Yahweh
is
completed, the nation will en-
joy world-wide fame as the redeemed of
Yahweh,
the mighty
God.
Later Additions.
2.
Critical study of the contents of the
book during the
last half
century has resulted in the setting apart of certain portions of the
Zephaniah nor
text as belonging neither to

to accretion in later days.
which have produced
this
to his times,
but as due
presentation of the considerations
change of opinion
may
be found in the
commentary in connection with the various passages involved.

Here we may present only a sketch of the history of this
critical movement and a summary of the conclusions reached in
following
this
commentary.
The process of criticism began with Eichhorn (1824), Einl.*, and

Theiner (1828), who decided against 2'^-" as alien to the thought of
Zephaniah. Forty years later, Oort, in Godgeleerde Bijdragen for 1865,
His view of
pp. 812 ff., set aside 2'-" and 314-20 as secondary matter.
the latter passage has
now won
general recognition.
Sta.^^' (1887),
Zephaniah and questioning 2'-'- ".

Kue., Onderzoek (1889), responded by denying the force
of the arguments against all but 3"-2o.
in 1890, Schw. made an elaborate investigation of chs. 2 and 3, coming to the conclusion that Zeph644, followed
by denying the whole
aniah wrote only

tributed
25-'2
and Schw. on
2'3-i5
and a
of ch. 3 to
and possibly
postexilic, 3'-2.
2^-*,
while an exilic hand con-
We. endorsed
ch. 3, athetized also 2'-"
the views of Sta.
and expressed doubt as
to 2'-
'.
Bu. {SK., 1893, pp. 393 ff.; so also in Gesch., 1906) separated 2*-^^
39. 10. 14-20 from the genuine material.
Dav. made a careful examination
of the arguments of all his predecessors and was content to give Zephaniah credit for
all
except
3'"- "-2".
Now.
eliminated only
2'- ''= *-"
THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH

3"-2<'
(similarly also Baudissin, Einl., 553
DB.).
GASm.
ff.
accepted Bu.'s view of ch.
and
3,
173
Zephaniah,
Selbie, art.
but dissented as to ch.
2,
Dr. [EB., IV (1903), 5406 /.; so also

in his commentary (1906); in Inlr. (1910) he adds 3I8-20 to the passages
that are "very probably later additions"], with customary caution, conregarding
all
but z^'i as genuine.
late origin of 2"'- " 3'-
ceded the probability of the

cide as to
open
the latter part of which,
3'^-^",
to suspicion than 314-u."
viz., 3"-^*',
">
and refused
to de-
he considered "more
Marti, with enviable certainty as to the
exact dates of the various additions, agreed with Sta. In taking
away
from Zephaniah the whole of ch. 3, but in ch. 2 deprived him only of
23. 8-n. 16^ aside from numerous glosses.
Cor. accepted the view of
s" 3H-20, Van H., a scholNow. for the most part, setting aside 2'arly Catholic, contended for the unity of the book as the product of
Zephaniah's preaching, with the exception of a few glosses (e. g., a'-'"- ")
In the same year (1908), Beer gave essential adherence to Sta.'s position,
rejecting 2'''-'<'- ^^, with the whole of ch. 3, and questioning 2'-3.
The
<=
conclusions of Fag. are practically the same.
Lippl, vnth Catholic
caution and sound learning, concedes the later origin of only a'"-
3"its
'",
though granting a reasonable doubt as to the originality of
"^
Du., the most recent writer, follows closely after We.,
present form.
dropping
"
2 8- in
a'*- ^- ^^-
<=
s-"-
and the whole
'*
of ch. 3.
In this commentary, the following materials, in addition to minor

glosses, are treated as of
Moab and Ammon
secondary origin.
The
oracle against
relegated to later times since
(2^- ^) is
its
phrase-
ology presupposes the conditions of the exile as actually existing.
An
veh
is
found
in 2^"- ".
2^^,
which
is
expansion of this oracle

is
taken for granted in
The
fall
event.
In the third chapter the only original matter
w.
Vv.
^^.
may
' ^
which
is
now
dition
from
found in
between vv.
postexilic times,
Vv. ^^^ are a post-
included a gloss (w.
a different attitude toward the heathen

tinuity of thought
is
possibly be old material; but in that case
they are out of place in their present context.

exilic addition, in
of Nine-
therefore placed after that
and
^'^^)
revealing
and interrupting the con-
".
Vv. "^'' are another ad-
which has likewise undergone some
inner expansion.
The
allowance of time necessary for the various additions to the
book, together with the
still
later glosses
upon those
necessitates placing the completion of the
prophecy
form well along
The
in the postexiHc period.
have been given as
late as the
Greek period.
final
The
additions,
in its present
touches
may
history of the
ZEPHANIAH
174
growth of
OT. books shows
that they were all subject to this kind
of treatment, at least until they
deed,
it is
were recognised as canonical.
by no means certain that canonicity
in
its
In-
early stages
guaranteed immunity from such modifications. The Book of the

Twelve was, in all probability, the last candidate to secure admission to the prophetic canon.
Poetic
3.
The honour
announce the discovery

the book of Zephaniah belongs to
of having been the
of a special poetic metre in
Budde,* who declared that

rhythm,
i. e.,
in lines of 3
Form.
2*-^^
first
and
to
3^"*^
were written in the dirge-
beats each.
-I-2
In 1886, Dr. C. A. Briggs {Messianic Prophecy, 221-225) had printed

a translation of Zp. i^- ' <-' 2'-' 3'-=" arranged in poetic lines, but
without special consideration of the question of poetic form. The
next scholar to discuss the question was D. H. Miiller {Die Propheten
in ihrer urspriinglichen Form, 1896), who hailed this book as the first
prophecy to which
it
had been
of 3""^,
possible to apply his
scheme of strophic
Treating the book as a unit, with the exception
analysis throughout.
and laying undue emphasis upon incidental resemblances,
he wrought out a system of "inclusion," "concatenation" and "responsion" {V. H.'*^", clxv), yielding seven strs, in ch. i, with 5 + 7+7
+ 7+6+6+6
lines
7+7 + 8+8+4
-1-7
+3+ 7+ 7
acter of this
and with
each respectively.
lines,
lines
scheme
i'^-" is
and
each respectively.
is
Ch.
ch. 3 yielded seven
2 fell into five strs.
more
strs.
having
having 7 +
An example of the artificial
furnished in the fact that 2"
organised into an eight-line
str.
is
+7
char-
separated from 2""
GASm., without any
attempt at strophic reorganisation, followed Bu. in printing 2<-'- "-"

Marti was the first to attempt to
as poetry written in elegiac rhythm.
restore in the various oracles both the metrical
and the strophic
formity which he supposed to have belonged to them originally.
genuine material in chs.

in trimeter
movement
(or
and 2 he organised into strs. of four lines each,

two lines each in double trimeter). In ch. 3
he discovered three different poetic forms,

each in dimeter;
3'-'2
strs.
viz., 3'-'
poetry by printing
made
it
str.,
of four giwa-lines each;
of four lines each in interchanging trimeter
garding both metre and
uni-
The
strs.
and
and dimeter.
of six lines
3'4-2o
strs.
Hal., disre-
indicated his recognition of the material as
according to the parallelism.
Siev. thus far
has
the most serious attempt to reduce the text to rigidly poetical

*
SK.
(1893);
cj.
Gesch. (1906).
THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH

But
forms.
example,
-i3.
and
17
the result
is
by no means
is
organised into seven
while the second
is
composed
lows,
w.
down
breaks
*'' "> '" ';
in the
second section,
3'-' is
presented in five
But
of four.
to
make
at six different points
This
necessity.
Str.
is
IV
two heptameter
of
IV
But
lines each;
strs.
strs.,
each
in the first secfol-
and
"; while
lacks the requisite tetrameter line.
Again,
of
two
lines each,
this possible,
and most
of
''
vv.
one of eight beats and one
a total of eighteen words
them
for
too high a price for so slight a boon.
of twelve lines each
(i. e.,
is
omitted
no reason but that of metrical

Cor. satisfies
himself with stating that the genuine materials in Zephaniah
reduced to
for
i,
of vv. *
transposes materials as
VII brings together
Str.
strs.
composed
tetrameter.
metrically; Str.
and
first is
"-" and comprises four
'
and one
of two lines, one heptameter

tion, Str. I
strs.
of vv.
Ch.
self-authenticating.
presented in two sections; the
is
175
six
double
lines).
may
all
be
Strophic
uniformity of this kind can be secured only by rejecting as ungenuine

all that
does not readily conform to this strophic norm.
Fag. offers a
book which differs only in slight details

from that of Marti. Lippl attempts no strophic structure, but prints
in lines based upon the parallelism and points out the numerous changes
strophical reconstruction of the
necessary to reduce the various lines to uniformity even within the separate sections of the prophecy.
Du.
finds strs. of four lines each all
through the book, except in the case of a few glosses and additions, and
applies the qina-rhythm. throughout.
In this commentary, effort is made not to lay imdue emphasis

upon considerations arising from the poetic form. The science of
Hebrew metre is as yet in an inchoate state, notwithstanding the
praiseworthy and painstaking studies of Sievers, Rothstein, et al..
Consequently, conclusions as to the integrity of a text which are
based solely or primarily upon metrical considerations are inevitably open to grave suspicion.
The
parallelism has been followed
here as the only safe guide to the length of lines and the logical
grouping of the thought as the primary consideration in the formation of strs..*
For a statement of the views here controlling in

and str., reference may be had to H.^^, clxvi^..
reference to metre
Attention
may be
called to a sHght variation in usage here,
the distich, rather than the single stichos or line,

unit of the
is
str..
This seems required by the
is
made
whereby
the basal
fact that the thought
completely presented only in the distich and that in some cases
there is
no
clearly
marked
C/. Intr. to
caesura within the distich
Comm. on Micah,
1.
{e. g.,
Mi.
ZEPHANIAH
176
"^
7*^ Zp. i*^ 2^-
3'").
may be noted
It
whUe
also, that
there can
be no doubt that the number of poetic feet in a stichos was de-
termined by the number of tone-phrases,* and that as a rule the
same number of
feet per stichos or distich prevailed
poem, yet cases are
poem
within a
{e. g.,
Zp.
2^'''
i^'^^
To
3^'^).
reduce these variations
such arbitrariness in textual
to metrical uniformity involves
icism as to discredit the whole process.

in the use of poetical
throughout a
which changes of measure occur
plentiful in
forms seems
to
large degree of
crit-
freedom
have been exercised by the
prophetic poets.
The book
of Zephaniah, as here analysed, consists of eight po-
etic oracles of
varying length.
probable that these
It is scarcely
Nor
represent the entire literary output of this prophet.
is it
that any of the eight constituted a complete sermon; they
likely
body of
are rather selections from a larger
used are three,
Of
(2:2).
viz.,
hexameter
(3
these, the qina is the
nouncement of chastisement and
The
measure.
length of the
strs.
3),
qina
(3
strophic unit within a
poem
and tetrameter
2)
most commonly used;

affliction,
it is
varies from
the
two
but, with two somewhat uncertain exceptions

is
The metres
materials.
for
an an-
most suitable
distichs to eight;
(3^'^
and
3"'^"), the
constant.
He
does
not rank with Isaiah, nor even with Hosea in this particular.
He
Zephaniah can hardly be considered great as a poet.

has no great imaginative powers; no
heart
is
reflected in his utterances;
beauties of nature.
of
life like
deliver
His harp
and proceeded
in
some measure atoned
He
realised the
present
made
it
What he
an imperative message
direct
and
forceful
and convincingly to his hearers.
Yahweh more
* Cj. H.AH,
to
to dis-
clarity of his speech.
terror so keenly that he
the picture of the day of
way
lacked in grace and charm, he
by the vigour and
approaching
vividly
to the
not attuned to the finer harmonies
the most
for
human
nor any keen sensitiveness
He had
that of Jeremiah.
charge his responsibility.

in
is
deep insight into the
/.
c.
was able
to
No prophet has
real.
zephaniah's message
177
THE MESSAGE OF ZEPHANIAH.
4.
Zephaniah spoke at a time when wise and courageous leadership

was needed in Judah. Whatever enthusiasm and loyalty to Yahweh had been aroused by the preaching of Isaiah and by the deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib in 701 B.C. had died out
during the long period of distress and humiliation under Manasseh.
Lacking the incentive of a great devotion to Yahweh, the people
had fallen away into all kinds of idolatry and corruption. Nowhere is the religious and moral situation of the times more clearly
portrayed than in Zephaniah's prophecies.
He
directs his blows
against a syncretism in religion that does not hesitate to couple the
worship of the Baalim, of Milcom and the host of heaven, with that
of
Yahewh
mount
to
(i** ^).
In Zephaniah's eyes, such conduct
apostacy from
Yahweh
(i^).
is
tanta-
Indeed, he charges cer-
tain leaders with a kind of practical scepticism, or atheism; they
count upon the inertia of Yahweh, alleging that he does nothing,

neither good nor bad; they therefore proceed to the furthest lengths
and
its claims on the

was accompanied,
as in all similar cases, by a corresponding materialism which had
no sense of justice. Hence Zephaniah denounces the prevalent
violence and trickery, the tyranny of the rulers, the perversion of
justice by the judges themselves, the prostitution of religion to base
ends by the priests and prophets and the aping of foreign styles
by the rich (i- 3^-").
The religious indifference and eclecticism on the one hand, and
the materialistic selfishness and injustice on the other, were a
natural reaction from the exalted ideas and ideals of the previous
The expectations and high hopes of Isaiah and his
generation.
contemporaries had failed to materialise. Yahweh's people was
still under the heel of the oppressor.
The yoke of Assyria was as
heavy and as galling as ever. In despair of deliverance through
Yahweh, his followers were seeking to supplement his weakness by
of wickedness.
part of those
This indifference
who were
"settled
their lees"
in
conjunction with him, or were
The
naive faith of that earlier time
having recourse to other gods
abandoning him altogether.
to religion
on
ZEPHANIAH
178
was outgrown.
power was gone.
Its driving
was
tion of history
New
the need of the hour.
new
interpreta-
conceptions and
must be substituted for those outworn.

Zephaniah was not the man to supply this need.
ideals
new
He
ideals.
saw no further
furnished no
meaning
into the
He was
decessors.
new
He had no
He
constructive principles.
of current events than his pre-
content to apply the interpretations that had
long rendered good service in the hands of the prophets.
His
preaching was not positive and constructive in tone, but wholly
Denunciation and threatening consti-
negative and destructive.

tute his message.
As Amos and Hosea were

from the north, so
it is
called out
by the approach of danger
probable that Zephaniah and Jeremiah were
aroused by the imminence of the Scythian invasion.
As
earlier
prophets had seen in the Assyrian army the herald of the day of
Yahweh,
Zephaniah interpreted the approach of the Scythian
so
was the one great absorbing theme of his prophecy.

Again, like Amos, he saw the day of Yahweh as fraught with destruction, as near at hand and as coming not only upon other
nations, viz., Philistia, Egypt and Assyria, but also, and pre-emi" 2*^- ^^^). Unlike
nently, upon Yahweh's own nation (i*^hordes; this
''
who uttered warnings of coming

was breaking, Zephaniah betrays no
sympathy, compassion or emotion of any kind over the imJeremiah, his contemporary,
catastrophe while his heart
pending
fate of his people.
He
speaks almost as a disinterested
spectator.
judgment as understood by
was a condemnation of sin and an
Yet this
expression of the ethical righteousness of Yahweh.
ethical motive finds expression only in the announcement of the
judgment upon Judah; it plays no part in the threats against the
nations.
In these latter utterances, the old narrow particularism
The purpose
of the approaching
Zephaniah was moral.
seems
The nations are overthrown as enemies

Out of the general catastrophe, a
will' survive to worship Yahweh in undisturbed
to find free course.
of Israel
and
remnant of
serenity.
It
later
Israel's
Israel
God.
The spirit which will characterise this group,
hand,
will
as noted by
be one of humility, meekness, straightforward-
zephaniah's message
Yahweh and genuine
ness, trust in
179
piety (3"- ").
type
It is the
6^'^.
of religion enjoined in Mi.
In only one particular has Zephaniah ever been credited with
Until within recent years he has been generally ac-
originality.
knowledged as the
first
It is
him can now stand.*
claim for
announce the coming
of the prophets to
of a universal judgment.
doubtful, however, whether this
For a prophet who displays no
capacity for constructive thought elsewhere, so great an advance
seems
step as this
The
unlikely.
which holds the foremost place

^ji6-i8
2i2)^
thought
The
catastrophe.
of
Yahweh
evidently a
war
latter
is
only the dark background against
shown
is
in lurid colours.
catastrophic, cataclysmic subversion of the physical universe
seems rather
be a part of the eschatology of the times to which he
to
This phase of the judgment has no
fell heir.
totally lacking in
moral discrimination;
consistency of presentation
marks
(e. g., i'; cf.
and
for its
of its origin in the misty realm of
The
not arise in the clear light of history.
definite
aim;
it is
exhibits a certain in-
it
i^);
no reason being offered
definite warrant,
the
is
presumably the Scythian invasion, not a world-wide
which the concrete impending disaster
The
day
feature of the
in his
it is
without any
coming.
It
bears
myth and myths do

;
conception of a world-
destroying judgment belongs in the same category with the story
Like the
of the Deluge.
prehistoric days.
^18-20 ^4-6
Ho_
^3
latter, its origin
Zephaniah,
Mi
j3f.
js
2ioff.)^
just the old conceptions to the
proach of the Scythians,
Zephaniah and
their
probably dates back to
like his predecessors (e. g.,
The
new
^jQgg
Am.
i^
^'^
but endeavour to ad-
conditions created by the ap-
essential sanity
and
clear vision of
emphasis not upon the
and cataclysmic features

upon the definite historical
which are interpreted by them as great
old, imethical
of the current eschatology, but rather
forces of their
own
time,
ethical agencies for the purificatory chastisement of Israel at the
hand
of
The
of
Yahweh.
conception of a day of imiversal judgment does not in and
itself
demonstrate a monotheistic idea of God.
*CI. Gunk.,
Zum
his predecessors is evinced in the fact that they lay
religumsgesch. Verslandnis des
tologie (190s), 144 if-
N.
T. (1903), 21
f}.;
The Deluge
Gressmann, Escha-
'
ZEPHANIAH
l8o
myth
in
Babylonia arose in the midst of a crass polytheism; and
monoupon the
the story found a hospitable reception in Israel long before
Nor does Zephaniah's
theism was developed.
attack
syncretism in the religion of his day (i^Ô guarantee his monothe-
mind had long been characteristic of the prophinsisted upon exclusive loyalty to Yahweh as
over against foreign deities. Yet these views are not at all inconsistent with a view of Yahweh as the Lord of lords and the only
God. That such was Zephaniah's view is rendered probable by
the emphasis he lays upon the ethical requirements of Yahweh, for
This probit was by this route that Israel arrived at monotheism.
ability is reinforced by the fact that the religious writings of his
contemporaries, e. g., Jeremiah and Deuteronomy, reflect a monotheistic theology.
It may be, indeed, that Zephaniah himself was
one of the group who wrought out the Deuteronomic Code and
aided in the promulgation of the reform. Whether or not he was
directly engaged in this enterprise we have no means of knowing;
ism; this attitude of
ets,
who had always
but
it
may
be readily granted that his preaching had
much
to
do
with preparing the minds and hearts of the people and the court for
the reformation.
5.
LITERATURE ON THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

I.
Commentaries.
The more important commentaries
of recent times are
Ewald
(1867), Reinke (1868), Hitzig-Steiner (1881), Orelli (1888; 3d ed.,

1908), Wellhausen (1892; 3d ed., 1898), Davidson (1896), Nowack
(1897; 2d. ed., 1903), G. A. Smith (1898), Marti (1903), Halevy
(1905), Driver (1906),
1909),
and Lippl
van Hoonacker (1908), Rothstein
(in
Kau.,
(1910).
2.
The
chief writings
Special attention
may
On
Introduction.
on isagogic problems are
cited
in
3^.
be directed here to the studies of Stade,
Schwally, Budde, van Hoonacker and Lippl.
Useful summaries
LITERATURE ON ZEPHANIAH
will
be found in the well-known "Introductions" of Driver,
Cornill,
cles
l8l
Konig, Kuenen and Wildeboer; in the Dictionary
arti-
by Selbie (DB.), W. R. Smith and Driver (EB.), and Beer
{PRE?); and
in E. Besson, Introduction
au Prophhte Sophonie
(1910).
Discussions of the poetic form and character of the book are

listed in 3^.
3.
The Teaching.
In addition to the sections in the commentaries and "Introductions" setting forth the thought and teaching of Zephaniah, expositions of this subject that are worthy of mention will be found
Duhm, Die Theologie der Propheten (1875), 222-25; Kuenen,

The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel (1875), 171 /.; Orelli, Old
in
Testament Prophecy (1885),
34;
Marti, Geschichte der israeli-
Smend, Lehrhuch der alttestament(1899), 243/.; R. H. Charles, A Critical
tischen Religion^ (1897), 184;
lichen Religionsgeschichte'^
History of the Doctrine of the Future Life in Israel, in Judaism and

in Christianity (1899), 97-99; Stade, Biblische Theologie des Alien
Testaments (1905), 250/.; Gressmann, Der Ursprung der

itisch-judischen
Gnade
(1905),
Eschatologie (1905),
195/;
Staerk,
Das
141;
Assyrische Weltreich
der Propheten (1908), 165-170; Cheyne,

Israel
(191 1), 44-46.
israel-
Koberle, Siinde und
The Two
im
Urteil
Religions of
A COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK

OF ZEPHANIAH.
THE SUPERSCRIPTION
I.
(i').
This introduces the author, traces his lineage, declares the

source and authority of his message and states the period of his
public activity.
The
of the
statements of the superscription are supported by the contents
any evidence is forthcoming. Yet in view

upon authorship in early Hebrew literature,
being anonymous, and in the light of the superscriptions to
book at
least so far as
of the sHght stress laid
much
of
it
the remaining prophetic books, the majority of their

of late origin, the probability
an editor
(contra Hi.).
is
There
that this one
no
is
tion that the chronological clause
is
titles
likewise
being certainly
from the hand
of
however, for Marti's supposi-
of later origin than the remainder.
UA^' ^"^ ^. Which came unto] V.

Zephaniah] Nothing is known of him except what is to
The word
I.
basis,
is
on Mi. i^
of Yahweh] V.
be learned from his book
(v. Intr., i).
The son of Cushi,
the
son of Gedaliah, the son of Amariah, the son of Hezekiah\ This is

Eight of the
the most extended of the prophetic genealogies.
prophets are
others are
left
without any family history;* the fathers of six
named ;f
while Zechariah's father and grandfather are
both recorded; but Zephaniah
the
is
traced two generations
This variation
is
certainly not without reason
most natural explanation
is
that offered
further back.
Hezekiah here
bility is
listed
was
still
and
by the view that the

This proba-
the king by that name. J
supported by the fact that the
name Hezekiah
is
not borne
* Viz., Dn., Am., Ob., Mi., Na., Hb., Hg., Mai.,
Viz., Is., Je., Ez.,
t So,
e. g.,
Ho., Jon., Jo..
AE., Hi., We., Schw., Dav., Now., GASm., Marti
ct al..
182
confra Abar., De., Cor., Or.
183
I'
by any other
pre-exilic person
on record and that
all
the genealogy, save Cushi, are formed with the affix
formation seems to have been specially
The
ily.*
not here designated as king and
is
common
only two objections to this view are

(2)
the names of
"yah" which
in the royal
(i)
fam-
that Hezekiah
that the genealogy cites three
generations between Hezekiah and Zephaniah, whereas between
Hezekiah, the king, and Josiah in whose reign Zephaniah prophesied there are only two.
ficient to
In reply to the
first
objection,
say that at the time the superscription
it is
was attached
sufit
is
was taken for granted that it would be understood

as indicating the king, and the word 'king' was not added since its
presence would have occasioned an unpleasant repetition. As to
the second, it will be remembered that the reigns of Manasseh and
Amon extended through fifty-seven years and that Manasseh was
forty-five years old when Amon was bom (2 K. 21*- ").
If Amariah was of adult age, or nearly so, when Manasseh began his long
reignf and if we allow a lapse of twenty years between the birth of
each father and that of his first son, Zephaniah may easily have
been from fifteen to twenty years old when Josiah ascended the
throne and thus of mature age when he began his ministry. Unfortunately, the exact date of Hezekiah's death is imcertain, and
consequently the birth-year of Manasseh cannot be determined
with precision but the period between the birth of Amariah and
that of his great-grandson may be reduced to not more than fortyeight years, and the genealogy will still be not improbable.
For
Jehoiachin, king of Judah, was bom when his great-grandfather
Josiah was but forty-eight years old (2 K. 21^^ 22^ 23^^- ^*'^''').X
probable that
it
Zephaniah's royal ancestry
is
rendered probable also by his ap-
parent familiarity with the conditions at court in his

Intr.,
The
2^
/w the days of Josiah,
son of
own
Amon, king
day.
Cf.
of Judah]
designation as "king of Judah," rather than as simply "the
king,"
is insufl&cient
reason for making this portion of the super-
scription of later origin than the rest; for oriental kings were not in-
frequently so designated by their contemporaries and even by them* V. G. B. Gray, Studies in Hebrew Proper Names, 262.
t Manasseh was not necessarily older than Amariah, since the succession did not always
to the eldest son, especially in
J V.
polygamous
families.
G. B. Gray, Exp., July, 1900, pp. 76-80.
fall
ZEPHANIAH
184
The
selves.*
is
accuracy of this date for the activity of Zephaniah
not open to legitimate doubt
no
far to say that since
from the book
The
its
would seem
truth
to
it is
going too
must be
correct.f
be even greater indeed
and unmistakable indications

to which it belonged.
there were clear
if
Yet
the chronological statement
itself
probability of
(v. Intr., 2).
editor could have derived his information
in the following
prophecy of the period
1.
'>
nijflx], i. e.,
Je. 21' 29"-
29
and
Elephantine papyri (C 20,
brew gem
in the British
inij3S
The same
in
jDX'''^N
ni,
Museum
still
Ch.
6^'.
The
another nijax; and a He-
(No. 1032) carries the legend
hi'Zio^s
variant
its
'E\i.<ra((>av.
inscriptions; e.g.,
woman; and
32) furnish
priest in
25'8 Je. 37'; as
imnrS
name
root occurs as the second part of a proper
(Nu. 34") with
three places has
name of a
form inijcs in 2 K.
Zc. 6"'- ", and a Levite in
in the fuller
designating a returned exile in
p.
It occurs also as the
is protector.
5224
jjjxSn
(Ex.
Lv.
6^2
10'^);
(S in all
Similar formations occur in Carthaginian
in CIS.,
Nos. 207, 371, 415, as the name of a
in Assyrian; e.g., Baal-sa-pfl-nu, Gir-sa-pu-nu, Giri-sa-pu-
Ba'li-sapflna,
west-Semitic
Ba'il-saptina
names {KAT.^,
and Sapdna,
479).
all
of
them apparently
The place-names
pss
Sj?3
(Ex.
13" Ju. i2'(?)); the personal names pes (Nu. 26"^,

j^sx (Gn. 46>); and especially the Phoenician pas -\2y (CIS., 265;
Euting, 192), and Jfls ia {CIS., 208), and the divine name on the socalled Job-stone, found east of the Sea of Galilee, which is probably to
be read idxnj31n {v. Erman, Zeitschrift fiir Mgypt. Sprache, XXXI,
100/.) make it probable that \D'i was originally the name ?f a Semitic
god whom the Hebrews ultimately came to identify with Vahweh exactly as they had treated the Baalim {e. g., n^Sya, i Ch. 12^; cf. Ho. 2'8)
142)
and pes
(Jos.
and as the Babylonians of later times treated their various deities whom
they came to consider as but partial manifestations of the supreme god,
Marduk
(Pinches, Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria
XXVIII,
8/.;
cf.
ligionsgeschichte,
Itistitute,
Zimmern, KAT.% 609; Baethgen, Beitrage z. sent. Re'^'13]

Else22; H. P. Smith, AJSL., XXIV, 56).
Schw. has
an ins. from Ipsambul {CIS., No. 112) as a man's name, 'CO.
^^^CN] This son of Hezekiah is otherwise unknown.
The most
plausible view of 2 K. 20" makes it a late expansion, referring to "sons"
where a
gentilic,
except probably in Je. 36'^;
it
also occurs, as
noted, in
Cf.,
e. g.,
the opening lines of the inscription of Nebuchadrezzar
"King of Babylon";
I,
who
is
there entitled
so also in the inscription of Ashurnagirpal from the temple of Balawat, the
monolith of Shalmaneserll, the Nimrud inscription of Tiglath-pileser III, the cylinder inscripTaylor cylinder of Sennacherib and several inscriptions of Esarhaddon,
tion of Sargon, the
Ashurbanipal and Nebuchadrezzar

t Contra Cor.,
11.
185
I'^-^
words
in the looser sense of "descendants," the
Ti'7'in
ncN being a
gloss.
In any case, the captivity of the royal family there mentioned is only a
partial one, and, on the hypothesis of the literal accuracy of the narrative
as
it
that
we may
stands,
it
either suppose that
Amariah escaped
entirely or
did not occur until after the birth of his son Gedaliah.
7\^pm]
so Kenn. 178, 155, 201, 224, 225, and de R. 341, 346.
!^;i'?'7";
an Arm. ms. cited by HP. as reading

and Kenn. 258 = i'idn.
viou Todo\iov xXeou.
Cf.
pcN]
(6^
THE DAY OF DOOM UPON JUDAH AND
2.
JERUSALEM
A
single
str.
of eight lines
the approaching day of
Judah
T
(i^^"^.
announcing with prophetic
judgment upon the world
finality
and
in general
in particular.
WILL
sweep away all from upon the face of the ground; it is the oracle
Yahweh.
sweep away man and beast; I will sweep away the fowl of the heavens and
utterly
of
I will
the fish of the sea;
And
I will stretch
out
my hand against
Judah, and against
all
the inhabitants of
Jerusalem;
And from
this place I will cut off
Baal to the
last
remnant, and the name of the
idol-priests;
And
And
And
those prostrating themselves
upon
the roofs to the host of the heavens;
Yahweh, who swear by Milcom;

who withdraw from following Yahweh;
Even those who have not sought Yahweh, nor inquired of him.
those prostrating themselves before
those
This
str.
stands at the head of Zephaniah's prophecies, announ-
cing the general theme of

the
hands of
editors,
/ will utterly sweep away
day
of
doom
them
all.
all
has suffered somewhat at
from upon
for the entire world.
discriminating
It
but the additions are easily recognisable.
The judgment
and all-comprehensive.
It is the oracle
nouncement
{v.
H.^^'
of Yahweh]
'*).
is
cf.
Mi. i^^-
The most solemn form
man and beast;
Am.
of an-
Metrical considerations are insufficient
warrant for the omission of these words as a gloss.*
sweep away
wholly im-
For a similar approach
by way of the universal toward the particular,

i^'*.
2.
the face of the ground]
3. / will
I will sweep away the fowl of the
* Contra Marti, Siev., Fag..
lieav-
ZEPHANIAH
l86
ens and the fish of the sea\ For similarly all-inclusive pictures of
destruction,
cf.
4^ Is. 2^^^^ Ez. 38^*.
Ho.
Noachian deluge (Gn.

versal destruction.
man,
their ruler.
721-23^
The
And I
fish
escaped in the
demands
imi-
subordinate creatures share the fate of

will cause the wicked to stumble]
who
a gloss* from some reader

nate punishment,
The
Universal depravity
felt
This
is
the injustice of an indiscrimi-
M, can be rendered only, "and the ruins with
the wicked," which, as von Orelli notes, seems to be suggestive of
an earthquake as constituting the
The
disaster.
RV., "stumbling-blocks," involves a change of

to
improve the sense.
rendering of
text {v.
i.)
and
fails
In any case, any kind of allusion to "the
wicked" at this point is premature. And I will cut off mankind

from upon the face of the ground; it is the oracle of Yahweh] This
is a glosSjf which adds nothing to what has already been said in
w. ^- ^^. Some seek to save this line for Zephaniah by reading
"the wicked "t or "the men of wickedness " with (g. But the
reading of (g is more easily explained as due either to free translation or to an inner Greek corruption than as representing the original text from which
has been derived. 4. And I will stretch
out my hand against Judah and against all the inhabitants of Jerusalem] The real object of the prophet's interest and Yahweh's
wrath
now
emerges.
The world-judgment forms
setting for the tragedy of
Yahweh's hand
j^26.
27^
Zephaniah
is
figure of
Is. 9*^- ^^- ^^
10^ 5^^
upon the wickedness of Jerusalem by

For
is the case with Micah.
only slightly less than
both prophets
offending.
laid
cf.
only the stage-
For the
affliction.
uplifted for punishment,
emphasis
'pj^g
Judah's
alike, the capital city is the
The
difference between the
head and front of Judah's
two
is
that for
Micah the
outstanding crimes of Judah were in the ethical and social sphere,

while for Zephaniah they
ligion proper.
remnant]
And from
The more
fall
within the narrower sphere of re-
this place
I will cut
off
Baal
familiar translation here is "the
to the last
remnant of
Baal," which would imply that Baalism had been reduced to small
proportions by the time of Zephaniah.
* So We., Dav.,
Now
Such a diminution of
its
ârti, Siev., Dr., Stk., Fag., Roth..
t So We., Now., Marti, Siev., Stk., Fag., Roth.; Schw. om, only "from upon, etc."; Kent
drops "it is the oracle of Yahweh."
t Schw..
GASm..
!-
influence
would seem
after the
reform of 621 B.C.*
an
i87
this date is less
probable than
{v. Intr., 2).
The
But
on other grounds
earlier period
Zephaniah's work be placed
to require that
here chosen avoids that necessity and
rendering
supported by usage
is
else-
14" if.-f The prophet simply announces

where; cf. Am.
The Chronthe total extermination of Baalism as close at hand.
4^ Is.
icler
does indeed place the beginning of Josiah's reform
very early in his reign (2 Ch.

rative is
open
34^"^),
Baalism died hard in
to serious question.
Yahweh never had
activities
but the historicity of that narIsrael.
the sole and undivided allegiance of Israel in
Notwithstanding the
the pre-exilic age. J
Baalism on the part of Elijah, Hosea and
all
bitter
opposition to
the succeeding proph-
Nor
ets, it still called for
the prophetic wrath of Zephaniah.
necessarily a diluted
form of Baalism with which we have here
do, a Baalism cloaking
itself
It
to
Yahwism, a synYahwism was filled with the
under the guise of
cretism wherein the outer shell of
inner spirit of Baalism.
is it
was rather an unadulterated Baalism

The out and out idolatry named
which Zephaniah denounced.
So does the
in the following verse points in this direction.
tes-
timony regarding the idolatrous reaction under Manasseh and
Amon
(2
K.
21),
which continued without serious check
The
time of the Deuteronomic reform.

is
treated
which
by some as a
this is
urged
Jerusalem which
and
all his
Zephaniah was
works.
if
his
place
at least in the city
home were not
meant
there.
And
when he
name
the
cf.
H.^^-
^*^-.
Name and
person-
were so intimately connected in Semitic thought that
stroy the former
is
designation for idolatrous priests found only
here and Ho. 4^ 10^ 2 K. 23^;
is
The
thus designated as the headquarters of Baal
used this phrase even
ality
but the metrical basis upon
not sufficiently strong.
is
is
of the idol-priests]
gloss;
until the
phrase "from this place"
was
to destroy the latter also.
to de-
This expression
not infrequently used to indicate a most complete and thorough-
going destruction.
ment or explain
* So,
e.
g.,
Mau.,
With the priests] A gloss** intended to suppleword "idol-priests." The best witnesses
the rare
Hi., Ke..
t So Schegg, Reinke, We., Or,, Dav., Now., van H., et al..

So Marti, Now.K,
t V. Toy, JBL., XXIV, 91-106.
** So Schw., Dav., Bach., Marti, Now.'', Roth., Kent.
Siev., Stk., Fag.,
Roth..
ZEPHANIAH
l88
to
CS>
omit
this
phrase
(v. i.)
it
adds nothing essential and
is
super-
fluous metrically.
And
b.
those prostrating themselves
the heavens]
charge
is
Here begin three
made
given
first
in v.
The worship
*.
place.
It
Manasseh and Amon (2

K. 23^- ^^).
of Josiah (2
Ez.
8*^
tops
{cf.
under the general
moon and stars

was prevalent throughout the period of
K. 21^- ^- ^^), and continued into the days
It was denounced by the prophets and the
Hints as to
Jb. 31^,
the roofs to the host of
of the sun,
Deuteronomists as a current practice

17^ Ez. 8^^).
upon
specifications
(Je. 7^^ 8^ 19^^ 44""^^ Dt. 4^^
character are supplied by Je. 44^^'^
its
and the fact thattit was practised upon the houseshows that it was offered directly to the heavenly
Je. 32^^)
bodies themselves, rather than to any representations of them.
The Deuteronomic
of the northern
editor of the
books of Kings attributed the
kingdom, in part at
of this worship (2
K.
17*; cf.
Am.
least, to the
5^).
Its
fall
prevalence there
prevalence in Judah
at this time is generally attributed to the close contact, dating
from
Ahaz (2 K.
such worship had been
must
the time of
^), between Judah and Assyria, where
16^*'
carried
on from time immemorial.
It
be remembered, however, that the worship of the heavenly bodies,
and
and moon, was a custom common

and hence likely to have persisted
especially that of the sun
the ancient Semitic world*

Israel
mem
from early times.f
{CIS., No.
7),
to
in
Furthermore, such names as Baal-sha-
En-shemesh, Beth-shemesh, Har-heres, Heres,
Timnath-heres and Jericho make
it
clear that the Canaanitish
Baalism, with which Israel had come into the closest possible contact,
ies.J
was
vitally
The
concerned with the worship of the heavenly bod-
reaction under Manasseh, due in part to the stimulus
of foreign cults, did not introduce sun-worship as a
rather revitalised a worship which
though
it
had
lain
more or
less
chiefly to the rural population,
And
* Baethgen, Beilrdge zur
sent.
but
official
recognition.
Yahweh who swear by Milcom]
"who swear" immediately

Religionsgeschichte (1888), 61
t Cj. Hal., ad loc.

Burney, EB., 4784; G. F. Moore, EB., 3354
ligion and Ethics, II, 288 /..
X Cj. C. F.
cult,
in Israel,
dormant, or had been confined
having had no
tlwse prostrating themselves to
introduces another
new
had long been known
/.;
after
"them-
;?..
L. B. Paton,
Encychpadia
oj
Re-
I*
189
selves," thus rendering the structure
ing a
ous
of
Hebrew
diflBculty
rough and broken and
syntactical usage otherwise
with
is
that
it
makes
unknown.
creat-
Another
seri-
the prophet put worshippers
Yahweh on the same level with worshippers of Milcom, both

doomed to destruction. Zephaniah's charge against
alike being
his
countrymen, however,
Yahweh
is
not that some of them have forsaken
Milcom, but that
for
alongside of
its strictly
The whole
Yahweh.
religious side,
was
struggle of the prophets, on
Yahweh
in behalf of the idea that
The masses
alone was Israel's God.
do not yield undiMilcom and other gods
in general they
vided allegiance to Yahweh, but worship
of the people, however, did
not reach this point of view until after the Exile.
Indeed, the re-
cently discovered papyri of Elephantine include a
list
religious purposes
as the
fifth
by the Jewish
century B.C.
colonists
Yahweh was
of gifts for
which shows that as
still
late
under the humiliation
of seeing the devotions of his people shared by two other deities,
one of
whom was the goddess Anath.*

woman in
of papyri reveals a Jewish
oath both by
Yahweh and by
tude of Zephaniah
case of
Naaman,
is
Sati,
Another of the same group

a legal transaction taking
an Egyptian god.f
The
atti-
in striking contrast with that of Elisha in the
the Syrian (2
K.
5^^ ^),
and thus
illustrates the
The proposal of Nestle

"to Yahweh" is attractive, but
growth in the Hebrew thought of God.

to read
"to the
moon"
instead of
not convincing; moon- worship has already been included in the
word against "those worshipping the host of the heavens" and

needs no further consideration; while the change to the third person
involved by the introduction of
currence
weh
(e.
when a prophet
g.,
"
"
s'-
is
Am.
"Yahweh"
is
no uncommon
oc-
speaking as the representative of Yah3^- ^- '
Ho.
4-
" ^
Mi.
2^^. 13
47^^
M has "their king" in place of "Milcom," the difference being

The Vrss. imite in supporting the read"Milcom" (v. i.), and on the whole this is preferable. Milcom was the god of the Ammonites (i K. ii^- ^ 2 K. 23^^) who
only one of vocalisation.

ing
with other gods shared Judah's hospitality toward

Ez. 23^^
^.
In case the reading of
is right,
all cults.
the essential
* V. Sachau, Die Aramdischen Papyrus aus Elephantine (igii).

t Sayce and Cowley, Aramaic Papyri from Assuan, Papyrus F,
1.
5.
Cf.
mean-
ZEPHANIAH
IQO
ing
is
King
The
the same.
title
and Lord
of kings
"king"
is
then applied not to Yahweh,
of lords, but either to the various local
whom was entitled "king" of

word of Jeremiah being in point here, viz., "according to the number of thy cities are thy gods, O Judah" (2^*) ;*
or to the Phoenician god Milk (whose name is regularly distorted
to Molech in OT. and is thus made to suggest bOsheth^shsime),
whose very name meant "king" and whose cruel cultus was practised in Judah in Zephaniah's day (2 K. 23^" Je. 7^^ 32" Ez. i6^ ^18^* 20^"^)
The chief objection to Milcom lies in the
cf. Lv.
.f
fact that after the time of Solomon who built high places to Milcom for his foreign wives (i K. ii^- ' * ^ 2 K. 23'') no reference
But this at best is only an
is made to his worship in Israel. J
argumentum e silentio. Furthermore, while Milk and Milcom are
in one passage clearly differentiated (2 K. 23^"- ^^), it is probable
deities
throughout the land, each of
his special city, the
that fundamentally they were closely related, being simply differ(cf. Je. 32^^), and that the
them were closely similar.** And those who withdraw from following Yahweh] This verse does not merely sum-
ent
members
of the Baalistic pantheon
rites offered to
marise in a general characterisation the practices of those con-
demned
in
w.
*^-
^,tt
nor does
it
contrast the apostate
Jews
of
"*
with the godless heathen of ^;tt but it adds a new

going, viz., those who do not merely divide their loyalty between
class to the fore-
Yahweh and
out;
it is
other gods, but rather actually reject
Yahweh
out and
something worse than religious indifference;

open and downright apostasy. Even those who have not sought
1^^.
cf.
It is
Yahweh, nor inquired of him] This does but repeat in negative

form what has just been said positively. There is hardly suffiwho urges in further support of this view an interesting interpretation of the legends
* So Hal.,
njiif i'^d'7 ,oSnp ^SDS .jn^n i'^dS T'f I'^n'?, stamped upon old Hebrew jar-handles
(Bliss and Macalister's Excavations in Palestine, 116-121) to the effect that the "kings" here
named were
the tutelary deities of their cities.
t So Dav.,
X
GASm.,
Other allusions
Cj. the
** Cf.,
name
e.
g.,
= nnp
^Sd), god of Tyre.
Milcom
are 2 S. 12'" (S Je. 49'-
'.
a Phoenician deity in CIS., Nos. 147, 194, 380.

the king of Moab's sacrifice of his oldest son (probably to Chemosh, his god)
with the Hebrew
'7J,'33Vd for
rites in
ions semiliques"^, 09
tt Contra
to
Cj. r\'\phD
Or.; G. F. Moore, EB., 3085.
honour of Molech
(2
K.
3^'); v,
also Lagrange, Etudes sur les relig-
fj..
Ha!..
tt Contra Marti
similarly. Or., Hal..
Or., Dr..
!*'
dent basis
igi
an interpolation* The
for the rejection of this verse as
change to the third person has already occurred in v. ^ (q. v.) the
metre of this str. is too irregular to warrant the elimination on the
;
ground of the poor balance of
somewhat
The metre
of this
str. is
and the thought though
this verse;
forms a
repetitiously expressed
fitting
climax to the
str..
rough and uneven, being a mixture of hexais regular and clearly marked,
meter and pentameter; but the parallelism

thus indicating plainly the poetic
The arrangement
lines.
sented involves the setting aside of the latter part of v.
and
^\^hvJor\^,
gloss.
the wicked
is
viz.: (i)
here pre-
beginning with
from
also the dropping of the phrase o^jn;n oy
threefold objection
cj;*'"!^ in v.
',
as a
v.
holds against the phrase pn mScDDni
no such discrimination between the righteous and
implied in the threats of the immediate context;
(2) it lies
outside of any possible metrical scheme; (3) the presence of the asterisk
The remainder
in (8^.
of v.
'
does but weakly reiterate what has
al-
ready been said in the opening words of the verse.

(5, iKXelxpei.
H, congregans. Four codd. of Kenn. f\\on.
This can only be a Hiph. juss. from f|iD. But this is open
2. ids]
1PN]
three objections, viz.: (i) the Hiph. of this vb. occurs only here
Je. 8''
where the
text is almost certainly corrupt;
(2)
the juss.
and
is
to
in
un-
from a different root. An analogous case of the inf. of one vb. with the finite form of another occurs in
Is. 28", uu'n^^ B'nx; but a root v\h is otherwise unknown and the text
called for here; (3) the use of the inf. abs.
is
probably corrupt, unless Barth, NB.'i**^, be correct in supposing
that forms like qbs
form of the
and rns are
survivals of a primitive Hiph. inf. abs.
Rd. ips as ist pers.

Or., Schw., We., Now., Ges.^"", Marti,
1
'y vb..
sg.
impf. of
Siev.,
r\Dn,
with
Stei.,
van H., Stk., Fag.,

Mi. 4* Ps. 104". Cf.
For similar forms, cf. i S. i5 2 S. 6'

Ges.^"''- "-. S3] (gBY and Kenn. 245 om.; so Roth.(?).3, ipN]
Roth., Kent.
Rd. ips both times as

omitting
it
in v.
*.
Vrss. render as in v. ^
the second time as do also Fag., Kent.
a^ycn."!
Stk. nbx,
dn mS^'aDni]
Rd. 'uvnWoni; so GASm., OortE>-, Now.^ van H., Roth., Kent.

H, et ruinae impiorum sunt.
&, and I will bring the stumbling-block upon sinners. HP. 36, 240, koL
tA (TKdvSoXa aiiv rois affiêffi. HP. 130, 211 om. the phrase, while 05^ has
(8, Kal dffOevi^ffovffiv ol d(re/3e?j ((g**, /SafftXeis).
it
under asterisk. Bach., 'nn
'ui; so Fag..
viz.,
but
piDt? ino'i.
Schw.,'ui
Marti, 'ui 'rncOTi; so Stk..
'ruins' ('stumbling-blocks' calls for the text as

it
is
telligible
We., O^SiysDn
^nSB-Di.
H's rendering of
is
correct,
emended by We.);
hardly an appropriate term in this context;
it
would be
only in the pregnant sense 'ruins about to be made.'

Contra Marti, Now.
^, Fag.,
Kent.
in-
<S ij
ZEPHANIAH
192
seem
presuppose a verbal form and dittog. would account for n of
to
and
since c
ffl
are so easily confused; v. on Mi.
i^.
Or.'s objection
weak is not well taken, in view of 2 Ch. 25^ 28^'

word much more common in exilic and postexilic
to this reading as too

Je. 6".
a^pe'in]
writings than in earlier times; but
make
frequent enough to
of a passage
upon
this
it
vf"^ Dnx.
(B
4. -iNB']
cause
if
Rd.
is
as
so Schw..
(g, toi>s dv6/j.ovs;
arisen through avovs as an abbreviation
Ho.
(c/.
2''), Oort^""-,
Marti, Siev., Dr. (?),
were correct we should have expected
<S
D-:'-nN]
oiNn-rN]
M deserves preference as the harder reading and be-
But
Stk., Roth..
may have
margin; so also Schw.
in
is
any case neither '1 nor 'i>' can easily have been changed
(6, tA ovdfxara = DC'; SO 2 codd. of Kenn. and one more
for a.vdpd}Trovs; in
to DIN.
occurrence in pre-exilic literature
word, especially when the writing in question
close to the exile as Zephaniah.
GASm.,
its
unsafe to base an argument for the late date
oa'-nNi, with (B
"B vi,
oa'
with DijnDn also.
and many Heb. codd.; so
Or.,
We., on basis of asyndeton of M, suggests

om. of DB'-nx as a variant of nss'-nN; so Stk.. annon] A word occurring
in Strassburg Papyrus i', in the Elephantine papyri published by Sayce
Marti, Siev., Fag., Roth..
and Cowley (E
15)
and by Sachau (i^, and on the Teima Stone; always

It was a common Semitic word beHebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Nabatasan, Punic (v. G. A.
applied to non-Yahwistic priests.

ing
now known
in
Cooke, North-Semitic
Ins.,
Nos. 64, 65, 69, 98; Lidzbarski, Handhuch
nordsem. Epigr., 297) and Assyrian (a high Babylonian official is

called Kamiru in Amarna Letters, No. I, 15, 33; and an Arabic priestess
d.
is
entitled
Kumirtu
in
an
^ om.;
in
marg. of
O'lon^n] (gJÂ.
ins. of
Ashurbanipal;
&"
v.
KAT.^, 467).
36, 42, 51, 62, 68, 86, 87, 95, 97, 147, 185. 228, 233, 238, 240,
5. nujn] (g**, tboKa.
Eight mss. of Kenn.
plut.. Arm., Slav..
de R., nujn,
233 om.; while

is
om. by
(S^,
nin^S cyas'jn o^'inntt'Dn riNi] (6-^
&"
HP.
has
all of it
-op
HP. 22,
310, Com-
with asterisk; but found in
and
7 of
^^
jjp^ ^^^ jq^^ j^^,

in marg. under asterisk and only 'cdh-pni
23, 26, 36, 40, 42, 51, 62, 86, 95, 97, 114, 130, 147, 185,
and Arm.. "Swearing by '''" was a perfectly legitimate proceeding as appears from Is. 19'* 45^' 2 Ch. 15", in all of which
But the phrase S 'wir\ here encounters three diffiit means 'worship 'v'
238, 239, 240, 311
culties, viz.: (i) it is
preceding word;
niD'''?
(2)
a useless repetition of the thought of the immediately

it
renders the sentence heavy and awkward;
were correct after
'cjn,
state of (8 indicates very
early date.
The
mirably balanced
in this context.
much
we should
(3)
expect oaSD*? likewise.
if
The
uncertainty as to the text at a relatively
omission of DMnns'Dn as a dittog. would leave an adline;
Hence
but nin^S follows

the latter
is
it
more
easily than
it
does
'b'jh
better om., with We., Schw., Oort^""-
Now., Or., Marti, Dr. (?), van H., Fag., Roth, and Kent, as a dittog. or
a marg. correction of the foil, 'f jni. nin>S] Or. adds niN3s. Nestle
suggests rn^; so Marti, Now."^, Stk.; cf. Dt. 17' Je. 8' Jb. 3i.
7-1
jp2
<gA.
i with
Hi., Stei., We., Now., Marti, Dr. (?), Stk..
dn here points to the absence of i originally. The whole
word is om. by (S"3*, HP. 26, 130, 311. Eth. reads, "and those swearddScs] Rd.
ing in the name of '> their king deceitfully"; similarly, 01.
D'V^tyjni]
Om.
The om.
of
DbSp3, with (gY
HP.
22, 36, 51, 95, 185, 238 (all
Stei.,
We., Now., Marti,
HP.
HP.
62, 86, 147, fioXox.
114, /card rov
XOfiifovi ToO Kvpiov.
van H.,
/ucXxom), ft TS; so Hi.,
Kent.
Stk., Fag., Roth.,
ft", by the king their God.
01,
(S.Q """s^-,
their idols.
MeXxow; 240, KarcL MoXxo/U. 6. intt'-\n] 05, ivreFor a comparison of lyn with cpa, v. H.^", 113.
THE TERRORS OF THE DAY OF YAHWEH
3.
Siev.,
vivid picture of the terrible
The poem
falls into
eleven short
judgment now so near

strs.
(i'-').
at hand.
of two lines each, as though
the burden of the message were too heavy to be borne by strs. of
greater length.
day
II
(i');
^j8a. 9b^.
Str. I
announces the near approach of the dread
pronounces judgment upon the king's counsellors
jjj deals with those
customs of foreign origin
upon every quarter
practise social
IV describes
of the city (i*"- "^)
impossibility of the escape of
how such men
who
(i^^- *^);
any
will realise their
guilty
the
and religious
woe to come
vividly represents the
man
(i^â. b^.
yj gôws
Yahweh
mistake in disregarding
^j.i2c. i3a^.
Yjj reiterates the announcement that Yahweh's day is

VIII and IX characterise that day with its terrors
X describes the pitiful condition of mankind on that day
near (i");
^ji5. 16^
(i")
and XI
closes the
destruction (i**^-
CILENCE
in
poem with
the threat of a
most complete
'),
the presence of the
Lord Yahweh,
for
Yahweh's day
is
near at
hand!
For Yahweh has prepared a
ND
ND
sacrifice, he has consecrated his guests.

punish the princes and the king's sons.
fill their master's house with violence and deceit.
will punish every one who leaps over the threshold,
I will
Who
I
And
every one
UARK!
who
clothes himself with foreign raiment.
a cry from the Fish-gate, and a wail from the
New-Town;
And a great crash from the hills, and a wail from the Mortar.
TTOR at that time, I will search Jerusalem with a lamp,
And I will punish those who are at ease, thickened upon their lees;
HTHOSE who say in their hearts, "Yahweh does neither good nor bad";
And their substance will become a ruin, and their houses a desolation.
ZEPHANIAH
194
"NJEAR
hand is Yahweh's great day, near and speeding fast;

hand is Yahweh's bitter day, hastening faster than a warrior.
A DAY of wrath is that day, a day of distress and straitness;
A day of desolation and waste, a day of darkness and gloom.
A DAY of cloud and thunder-cloud, a day of the trumpet and battle-cry,
Against the fortified cities and against the lofty battlements.
A ND I will press hard upon mankind and they shall walk like blind men,
at
Near
at
be-
cause they have sinned against me;
And their
TvJEITHER
For a
blood shall be poured out like dust, and their flesh like dung.
them;
their silver nor their gold can deliver
full destruction,
yea, a fearful one, will
Yahweh make
of all the inhabi-
tants of the land.
Str. I, in a striking figure, declares that the
close at hand, all preparations
the presence of the
day of Yahweh
having been made.
Lord Yahweh I] By
7.
command
this
is
Silence in
for a
solemn
hush, the prophet vividly conveys his feeling of the immediate
At the same
proximity of God.
time, the silence he enjoins
probably a characteristic feature of the
We are reminded
here used figuratively.

guis (Horace, Odes, 3
clares that the
Arabs
sacrificial ritual,
i,
2; Vergil,
also "stood
was
which
is
of the Latin favete Un-
^neid,
aroimd the
Smend
de-
altar a long time
still
71).*
performance of the sacrificial slaughter " and

was the time when the deity was thought to approach the
For similar injunctions to silence in the presence of Yahaltar.f
weh, cf. Hb. 2^** Zc. 2^^ Am. 6^". For near at hand is the day of
Yahweh] The thought of this dread day bulks larger in Zephaniah
than in any preceding prophet.J It is the black shadow that overcasts all of his message. He agrees with Amos, the creator of the
ethical conception of the day of Yahweh, in supposing its advent
The
to be imminent {cf. i") and in making it a day of judgment.
ethical aspect of the judgment is less prominent in Zephaniah than
in Amos; but, on the other hand, more stress is laid upon its xmi-
and
silent after the
that this
versal scope
(i^-
The
2^"^- *^- ^'

3^).
connected the day of
Yahweh
probability
is
that as
Amos
with the operations of Urartu or As-
day was aroused

But neither Amos
syria in the west, so Zephaniah's expectation of the
by the onslaught of the Scythians

* So Schw..
(v. Intr., 2).
t Rtl\ 140.
t For a sketch of the historical development of this idea,
H.*^, 131
/.;
Gressmann, Eschatologie, 141
if..
v.
JMPS., AJTk.,
V, 505-33.
Cf.
I'
195
nor Zephaniah looked upon the invasion of the foreigner as exhausting the terrors of the judgment. War, drought, pestilence
and cataclysmic convulsions of nature were all to contribute toward
Natural events were but the forenmthe appalling catastrophe.
The near
ners of more terrible supernatural phenomena.
ap-
proach of the end of the age, the indispensable prerequisite of the
dawn
of the
new and
phetic idea of
better day, is a constant feature of the pro-
Yahweh's day
Yahweh has prepared a
(e. g.,
sacrifice]
Am.
This
6' Is. 13^ Jo. i^^ 2^).
is
the
first
instance of
weh's judgment upon Israel being represented as a
The
For
Yah-
sacrificial
up and expanded by Ezekiel (39^^ ^- cf.

Is. 25^ 34^ Je. 46^" Rev. 19" ^).
The victim, of course, is Judah.
He has consecrated his guests] Such preparation, involving purification from all imcleanness, was necessary to participation in
the sacrificial meal; cf. 1 S. i6\
The participant must pass from
the sphere of the profane into that of the holy.
Wild beasts and
feast.
figure is taken
birds of prey constitute the 'guests' in Ezekiel's representation;

left undetermined.
Some would identify
them with the Chaldeans;* others prefer the Scythians ;f while
GressmannJ declares that guests and victim are the same, viz.,
Judah. Davidson feels a certain inconsistency in the figure, in
but here the guests are
that
it
represents
Yahweh
as slaying the sacrifice, whereas the real
slaughterers are the guests themselves,
viz., Israel's foes.
All such
attempts to interpret the figure in every detail seem to ignore the

ideal element in the representation.
of the figure
to
is
The
only essential feature
Judah as a sacrificial victim about

punitive wrath of Yahweh. The remaining
the picture of
experience the
features are but accessory circumstances, necessary to the roimd-
ing out of the view, but never intended to be taken
literally.
evidence that guests were invited to participate in sacrifices,

I
S. 9''-
among
2=^
2 S. 6^'
15"
the Arabs.**
For
cf.
and the common usage

The argument for removing v. ' from its
I
K.
i"
Ne.
8'
^ as the opening
sentence of the prophecy,f f or preceding v. " and there opening a
present position to another, whether preceding v.
* So Abar.,
Jer.,
Rosenm., Mau., Hd..
X Eschatologie, 136
** WRS.""-, 236 /.;
Wc,
tt So Marti, Fag., Kent.
t So Ew., Dr.;
/..
"iM/e d.
Arab. Heidmthums, 114
So van H..
/..
cf.
We..
ZEPHANIAH
196
new poem,*
is
is
The
not sufficiently strong.
son between the verbs of
v.
and
v.
',
use of the third per-
which are
in the first person,
not a serious consideration in view of prophetic usage and in any
case
is
not obviated unless
Even
be also eliminated.
v.
when
matters are not helped much,
transferred solely for that reason
v.
'
then,
in the third person is
which
is
household with punishment,
is
and placed before
v.
^,
in the first person.

Str. II, threatening the king's
introduced by a line in prose, contributed by some editor,f
And
8a.
slight
rifice,"
and do away with the
of the third person
even
if
princes
this line
and
but this
for
my
sac-
by some as to the use

would not be a serious one,
difficulty felt
difficulty
text.
the king's sons] Lit., 'visit upon,' a
royal family
sacrifice]
"in the day of
this read,
were a part of the original
'pimish,' especially in Je.
sible
Yahweh's
will come to pass in the day of
it
emendation would make
viz.,
{e. g.,
and the members
9^
will punish the
common
idiom for
11^^ 25^^ 36^^; </. 23^-
The
^^).
of the court are here held respon-
the wickedness of the times, the king himself having
been too yoimg probably at
government into
his
this
own hands;
time to have taken the reins of

cf.
K. 22^
In any case, the
reference here cannot be to the sons of Josiah, the eldest of
whom
was not bom until six years after Josiah assumed the crown (2 K.
23^ 22*) and was not old enough to have wielded any influence until
Zephaniah's
well toward the close of Josiah's long reign.
relationship to the royal family
court which enabled
on and
9b.
him
to
Who fill
keep
as in
i^)
in touch
their master's house]
Yahweh
on
gave him a position at

with
all
that
was going
machinations of those high in authority.
to expose the secret
temple of
(v.
<$.
The
i. e.,
the king's palace, not the
charge
is
not that they use the
palace as a storehouse for stolen goods, nor even primarily that
they enrich the royal treasury through fraud and oppression; but
that they themselves
by
king's house a symbol
their
conduct and character make the
and synonym
of all that
deceit]
This
is
22. 8. 9 ^1-3. 9. 10
* So
Siev.,
the true prophetic cry.
2.
22"-''.
Here and
t So Marti,
Siev.,
Cf.
in
Am.
i*'-
Now.^
is
'^
Where
bad.
With
righteousness should reign, iniquity abounds.
violence
and
3"
Mi.^
3^" Is.
Zephaniah shows*
Fag., Du., Kent.
f'*
197
that he too, like his great predecessors,
and wrongs
eries
was
For the
of the poor.
sensitive to the mis-
justification of the trans-
^^, V. i..
position of V.
Str. Ill devotes itself to the denunciation of certain practices of
foreign origin, the adoption of

old, long-established
every one
who
of this action
placed upon
ideals.
leaps over the threshold]

is
it.
unknown.
CS's
successors, finds the
shippers of
which indicates disloyalty to the
customs and
Dagon
Many
9a.
The
And
I will punish
precise significance
have been the interpretations
rendering yields no sense.
meaning furnished by
are said to avoid stepping
of his sanctuary, because of the fact that
21,
i S. 5^,
with
many
where the wor-
upon
the threshold
Dagon had
fallen across
and been broken to pieces in the presence of the

ark; a similar custom has now come into vogue in the temple
of Yahweh; cf. Is. 2.
Jerome also interprets the custom of the
that threshold
threshold of the temple, but finds the blame in the arrogance with
which the worshippers tread the courts of Yahweh.
Hitzig refers
and
cites the testi-
the custom to the threshold of the king's palace
mony
of travellers to the effect that the Persians crossed the king's
threshold without touching
W.
it
and with the
right foot forward.*
Robertson Smithf and Driver see here a reference to the foreign
body-guard of the Jewish king, his Philistine janissaries

15' 2
tom
K.
i^^).
Another
(2
S.
series of interpretations refers the cus-
to the palaces of the rich,
making Zephaniah condemn,
for
example, the eagerness with which the servants of the rich rush out
of their palaces to seize the property of the less powerful; | or the
guardians of the portals of the palaces of the great
who abuse
their position
(2 S.
i^'
^^
15^ ^),
by extorting money from those who would
seek their master's aid.
Kimchi, on the other hand, finds the
reference to the thresholds of the poor, the doors of
whose houses
are burst open by the rich in their search after the goods of their
weaker neighbours.** It is unlikely, however, that Zephaniah

would charge the great and powerful nobles with petty larceny.
The threshold of the house has been regarded as a favourite abode
* So in the time of della Valle and Olearius.
t Old Testament and the Jewish Church\ 261
t So. e. g., Hd..
So,
e. g.,
van H..
/..
* So also de
W., Ew., Ke..
ZEPHANIAH
198
demons and
of
among
spirits
practically all races.*
some
probable, therefore, that the prophet spoke of
It
practice (perhaps, though not necessarily, of foreign origin)
was now
vogue particularly among the
in
rich.
seems
superstitious
It is
which
more
likely
have been connected with private houses than with either the
to
The
temple or the royal palace exclusively.

concerns
itself
In
ligious significance.
that day]
i. e.,
the
a gloss added by some zealous hand;t
is
and adds no
self
next
line, at least,
with a custom primarily of social rather than re-
essential thought.
with foreign raiment]
i. e.,
imported
after the latest

tice
was the evidence
and
and
pride.
it
And
day
The
Yahweh.
This
line
who clothes himday, who followed
every one
the fops of the
styles.
of
overburdens the
it
serious aspect of the prac-
afforded of the decay of the national spirit
Furthermore, the nation and
its
god were inseparable,
abandon or neglect distinctive national customs was to be

Imported garments were naturally expensive
disloyal to Yahweh.
and could be obtained only by the wealthier classes (2 S. 13^^
Mt. II*). The prohibition in the law (Dt. 22" Lv. 19*^) commonly
cited in connection with this passage has no bearing whatever upon
to
the question here, since

Str.
IV
springs out of a different circle of ideas.
it
strikingly presents a picture of the distress that will
overwhelm Jerusalem on Yahweh's day. The

a
line of prose,
probably of editorial origin. J
pass in that day,
to
it is
introduced by
And it will come

Yahweh] The introduction of
edge of the cry that follows, which
this line blunts the
original abruptness
the oracle of
str. is
10.
is
stardingly vivid.
left in its
Hark! a cry from
the Fish-
This was one of the entrances to the city of Jerusalem on the

north side, the exact location of which we cannot determine. It
gate]
probably corresponded to the present Damascus Gate, opening
upon the roadway along the bed

cording to Ne. 3^
12^^, it
"Sheep Gate," near
of the
Tyropoeon Valley.
stood between the
to the
tower of Hananel,
"Old Gate" and

According
to 2
Acthe
Ch.
* V. H. C. Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant (1S96), 10 H.; Baur, Mitlheilungen und

d. Deutschen Pal. Vercins, for 1899, p. 10.
Gr. cm. as dittog. from v. '", while Schw. tr. it
t So Marti, Now.^, Siev., Fag., Du., Kent.
Nachrichlen
to the beginning of v.
'.
So Marti, Fag., Du., Kent.
V.
GASm.,
Bible Times, 120
Jerusalem,
/..
I,
Siev.
201
/.;
om.
all
but the opening nim.
Merrill, Ancient Jerusalem, 339; Paton, Jerusalem in
r^2^*, it
was a part
new
of the
199
wall built by Manasseh.
may
It
have been identical with the "Middle Gate" of Je. 39*"^, standing
in the middle of the line of the north wall.
The name Fish-gate
may be accounted
for
upon the fishermen
of
probably entered the
by the fact that Jerusalem depended largely
Tyre
for its fish supply (Ne. 13*)
by
city
and these
this gate as affording the nearest entry
or giving ^hem easiest access to the fish-market.*
The prophet
in
imagination places himself in the midst of the coming scene of

desolation
and
listens to the
sounds of
And a wail from the New-Town]
air.
grief
and ruin that
Lit., the
fill
the
second (town).
We
section of the city located probably near the Fish-gate.
no
it
precise information concerning the site of this part of the

is
mentioned elsewhere only
But
possibly in Ne, 11^.
it
in 2
(=2
K. 22"
Ch.
have
town
and
34^^)
probably was that portion added to
the city by the building of Manasseh's wall, constituting the oldest
Lying on lower ground than the older
suburb on the north.
and
so
more easy
first
to sufifer at the
of access to an invader,
it
As a matter
hands of an enemy.
city
would naturally be the

of fact, the
natural defences of Jerusalem rendered her impregnable on every

side but the north
and every
And a great
that side.
has been laid against
siege of the city
crash from the
hills]
These are not the
hills
lying aroimd Jerusalem, but those within the city itself; whether
and south-west quarters occupied by the temple,

and the houses of the rich, or those in the higher por-
those in the south

the palace
tions of the north
end of the
city,
or the
cannot be exactly ascertained.

higher portions of the town were
Heights."
seems
The
use of
titles for
to point in that direction.
hills of
the city as a whole,
It is possible that
known
some
of the
as "the Hills" or "the
the other quarters here
The "crash"
is
named
probably that
caused by the downfall of walls and buildings re-echoing from

to hill.
11a.
And a
inhabitants of the Mortar."
a fourth
member
constructed of a
noun and a
as zrt the three preceding members.
known
as "the Mortar"
nowhere
else
hill
M, reads, "Wail, O
But the parallelism seems to call for
wail' from the Mortar]
employed.
is
What
prepositional phrase
part of the town
Jerome thought of the vale
* Cj, GASm., Jerusalem,
I,
317
/..
was
name
is
of Siloam;
wholly uncertain, since the
ZEPHAISTIAH
200
of the valley of the Kidron;

it
and Josephus (Wars, V, 4, i) connected

Maurer, on the other hand, de-
with the Tyropoeon Valley.
clared
21*^),
it
to be a figurative
name
for the braying of her inhabitants.

tify it
Jerusalem as a whole
for
which, surrounded by higher
hills,
was
to serve as a
Most modem
(cf.
Je.
mortar
interpreters iden-
with the upper part of the Tyropoeon, partly because of the
fitness of the title as applied to that region, partly
make
because the con-
Mortar a centre of trade and industry and

the Tyropoeon furnishes an excellent site for a market,* and partly
because both Fish-gate and Mishneh were on the north and the
text
seems
to
Maktesh probably
the
lay in the
same general
The last conmay have
region.
sideration, however, is not a legitimate one; the prophet
been picturing the desolation and grief which were to overwhelm
some one special quarter therein. The

and the Mishneh, it is true, probably lay on the north
side; but "the Hills" and "the Mortar" are completely imknown.
Hence, it is unsafe to confine the distress described by the prophet
The remainder of v. " seems to be a later
to the north side alone.
the entire city rather than
Fish-gate
by the introduction
and departing too widely from the metrical
norm of the context to be brought into harmony with the form
of the rest of the poem.f ^llb. For all the people 0/ Canaan are
interpolation, interrupting the flow of thought
of unnecessary detail
destroyed]
The speaker may mean
the merchants of the oriental world
Phoenician traders
;J
or better
still,
who were
the merchant
among the Jews themselves, which enriches itself by unjust

measures and trickery of every sort. For the use of the term
class
"Canaanite" as denoting the trader and merchant, cf. Ho. 12*

The
Is. 23 Ez. 16"'' 17* Pr. 31^ Jb. 41^ and, perhaps, Zc. 14'*.
seems
parallel line
to
show that a
whether of native or of foreign
class of financiers is
origin.
lie.
Cut
meant,
off are all those
Not money-changers especially, but the

The weighing of the silver was
necessitated by the fact that there was no Hebrew coinage prior to
the Exile.
Indeed, it is not certain that there was a fixed coinage
who weigh
out money]
whole merchant class in general.
* V. Merrill, Ancient Jerusalem, 291-307.

t So Marti,
Siev., Fag..
t So,
Dr..
e. g..
Cf. Du.,
who erects
i'"-
" into an independent poem.

So most interpreters.
I"-"
anywhere
in the Semitic world piior to the time of the Persian
In Babylonia, as far back as the time of the
empire.
nasty
20I
(c.
2000
syrian ingots
B.C.),
stamped money was
in use.*
dy-
first
Later on, As-
stamped with the head of Ishtar served as recognised
currency; while Sennacherib, in a recently discovered inscription,

alludes to "casting half-shekel pieces,"! which even
in the technical sense evidently served the
is
if
not coins
purpose of coins. J
It
doubtful whether Zephaniah himself would have shared such
a hostility to trade and commerce as
though
is reflected in
increasing complexity
of civilisation
to the
of life involved in the
advance
firmly for a return to primitive
nomadic
and luxury
and stood
this verse,
was opposed
true that the old prophetic spirit
it is
simplicity.
Str.
sets forth the
thoroughness with which
search for the wicked in order that he
them.
may
Yahweh
visit their sins
will
upon
And it will be at that time, that I will search Jerusalem

Yahweh will go up and down the
the city.
The figure expresses the thought of the im-
12si.
with a lamp] Like Diogenes,

streets of
possibility of escape
Ez. 22^ Ps.
tom
of the
139''^^.
from the avenging eye of Yahweh. Cf. Je. 5*

The figure is probably borrowed from the cus-
night-watchman carrying
his
lamp and may involve also

made by
the thought of the diligent search of Jerusalem that will be
her conquerors in their quest for spoil.
Cf. Is. 45^ Lk. 15^.
The
houses of the orient being small and dark, a thorough search required the aid of
those
this
who
artificial illumination.
are at ease]
M reads "the men"
12b.
And
I will punish
for "those at ease";
would be poor Hebrew, unless men were
to
but
be distinguished
women and children, which can hardly be the prophet's

The epithet "at ease" is applied to the same class of
people in Am. 6' Is. 32*- " Zc. i'^ Ps. 123*. It denotes freedom
from
thought.
from anxiety and a complete
satisfaction with oneself.
further characterised in the following suggestive
figiure.
They
are
Who
are
* V. Meissner, BAS.,
II, 559 /..

Cj. Sayce, Contemporary Review, August, 1907, p. 259.
t The new Sennacherib prism, No. 103,000, col. vii, 18; copied and translated by L. W.
King, Cuneijorm Texts jrom Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, part xxvi (1909).
t Cf. C. H. W. Johns, Did the Assyrians Coin Money? {Exp., 1899), pp. 389-400. Lehtnann-Haupt, Israel: seine Enlwicklung im Rahmen der Weltgeschichte (1911), p. 162, claims
that the coinage of money was invented by Alyattes, king of the Cimmerians, in the sixth
century B.C..
ZEPHANIAH
202
thickening
ment
upon
wine
of
usual treatment
been
their lees]
The metaphor
based upon the
is
in the process of its ripening.

is
well set forth in Je. 48"-
treat-
Cf. Is. 25^.
The
These men have
*^.
undisturbed in their false security; they have not been
left
"poured from
Just as wine
left
too long in such
a condition thickens and loses strength, so these
men have sunk
into
weak
vessel to vessel."
self-indulgence, having lost all interest in
for the higher things of
life
and being
and concern
solicitous only for their
own
bodily comfort and slothful ease.

Str.
VI
further describes these indifferent citizens
hearts,
"Yahweh
of "favourable"
The terms "good"
does neither good nor bad"]
and "bad" here are not used
in
an ethical sense, but
and "unfavourable."
Yahweh does
human affairs and
known Hebrew
idiom, the phrase in reality says that
he
may
is
without influence upon
be ignored by practical men.
in the sense
In accordance with a well-
nothing at
all;
and pro-
12c. Those who say in their
nounces judgment upon them.
Similar phrases coupling to-
gether two terms of opposite meaning and subsuming everything
under them in order to express the idea of
totality are
"the shut
up and the freed" (Dt. 32^' 1 K. 14^'' 21'^ 2 K. 9" 14^^), "the moist
with the dry" (Dt. 29^^), "the deceived and the deceiver" (Jb.
12*").* The state of mind indicated by the prophet means practical
atheism. While not proclaiming their thought upon the housetops, these men by their actions show that in their heart of hearts
they deny God any part in the affairs of men. This has ever been
As man's
the temptation of a cultured and commercial age.
place and power in the world increase,
ble only
by the
spiritual vision,
he
is
God
decreases.
Discerni-
ever in danger of being hid-
den from the eyes of the mass of men by the increasing bulk of
This same attitude of mind is attested
their material interests.
by Je. 5^^ Mai. 2" Ps. 10* 14^ The charge of powerlessness
^'
or non-participation in
weh,
is
one used with
human
affairs,
telling effect
here preferred against Yah-
by the
later
prophets to dem-
13a.
And
their
wealth will become a ruin and their houses a desolation] Those
who
onstrate the futility of idolatry (Je. 10^
have lived in careless disregard of
Is.
God
* V. Dr., Dt. (ICC), 376, where the idiom
is
41^).
will
be rudely awakened
illustrated
from the Arabic
I"-"
from
their fatuous ease
203
by being brought face
The
putable evidence of his power.
to face with indis-
accumu-
treasures they have
and the palaces they have reared will fall into the hands
That for which they have laboured and in
of an invading foe.
which they have trusted will fail and forsake them in their day
lated
The God whom
of need.
they have ignored will force his vm-
welcome presence upon them

of this verse
passage very
in
avenging
The remainder
justice.
redundant, being due to a marginal citation of a
is
common
in the prophetic writings
gested by the language here.*
13b, c.
which was sug-
And they will build houses
and not inhabit them, and plant vineyards and not drink
their wine]
Am. 5" Mi. 6^^ Dt. 28'"- '' Ez. 2^^^ Is. 65=^^ f-. The day of
Yahweh as announced in i^'^^ would seem to have been too close
Cf.
at
hand
in the
mind
of Zephaniah for
him
to
have contemplated
the possibility of sufficient time elapsing for the building of houses
and planting of vineyards.

Str. VII starts a new section of the poem which
description of the terrors of
imity
is first
Yahweh's day.
Its
is
devoted to a
immediate prox-
^14. Near at hand is Yahweh's great

What has already been said in v. is
increased energy of language." f The great-
re-emphasised.
day, near and speeding fast]
here "amplified vdth
ness of this day and
its terror
V.
i..
bitter
"Bitter"
are standing features of the prophetic
Cf. Jo. 2"-
pictures of judgment.
Yahweh's
"^
^^
Mai.
is
an epithet not elsewhere applied

its
text of this fine according to
is
M.
character.
man
cf.
The
Is.
13'-
"then")
bitterly."
Je. 30-'.
crieth there (or
come the
"then")."
it
GASm., Now.,
8^".
but
The
usual rendering
is
The mighty
For similar representais bitter;
adverb "there"
is
the mighty
fail to
over-
without any
can easily be referred, whUe the meaning
for this particle is
* So Schw.,
Am.
But such renderings
difficulties, viz.: (i) the
antecedent to which
"then"
is
Another rendering runs, "The
sound of (or "Hark!") the day of Yahweh
man
to the day,
Cf.
"the voice of") the day of Yahweh!
crieth there (or
tations,
hand
very difficult and furnishes no
close parallelism with the preceding line.

(or
at
day, hastening faster than a warrior] For text,
one thoroughly representative of
"Hark!
Near
4^.
not well established;
Marti, Siev., Fag., Du., Kent.
(2) the
order of
t Ew..
ZEPHANIAH
204
words
in the latter part of the line is wholly
abnormal, and that
without any corresponding gain in strength that
man"
the term "strong
is
undefined;
(4) if
is
appreciable
(3)
"bitter" be taken with
the first half of the line, it forms an unsuitable predicate to "sound,"

and when treated as predicate to "day," the resulting sentence
"the day of Yahweh is bitter" furnishes an inappropriate contin-
uation of the particle
second half of the
The emendation
turbed.
is
"Hark";
if
"bitter" be connected with the
rhythmical balance of the line
line, the
exactly parallel to the preceding line, reiterating
The final clause may mean

day of Yahweh is swifter than that
stronger terms.
rush of the
his foe, or that

Str.
day.
VIII
15.
it
will
piles
lation of this
up
is dis-
here proposed furnishes a line which

its
thought in
either that the on-
of the warrior
upon
be too swift for the warrior to escape.
epithets descriptive of the terrors of
Yahweh's
day of wrath is thai day] Dies ircB dies ilia, H's transsentence, forms the opening phrase of the great hymn
on the Last Judgment, by Thomas of Celano {c. 1250 a.d.).

For similar emphasis upon the divine anger in connection with the
day of Yahweh, cf. v. ^ Is. 13^ Ez. 7*^ Pr. 11* Jb. 21^^ The effects of Yahweh's wrath are enumerated in the following clauses.
day of
distress
and
straits]
This and the following clause are
examples of the paronomasia so
common
This kind of a day was exactly contrary

tation
(Am.
5^^)
A day
phrase recurs in Jb. 30^
The
in prophetic literature.
to the old
popular expec-
of desolation aîd devastation]
The
38^^.
The same
primitive chaos will once
more
would be improved here by transposing this clause to the beginning of v. ^^, as Marti suggests.
A day of darkness and gloom] This and the following clause are
found again in Jo. 2^, The terrors of darkness are a standing
hold sway.
parallelism
day of Yahweh. Cf. Am. 5^^- ^^ Is. 13^

was probably learned from observation of
feature of the prophets'
Ez.
34*^.
The
figure
eclipses of the sun,
though
it
may
reflect the
darkness that so
fre-
quently precedes and accompanies a great storm.

Str.
IX
continues the description, passing from the terrors of
nature to those of war.
The same phenomenon

ence
is to
15e.
is
A day
of cloud and thunder-cloud]
34^^, where the referand the deportation which lay be-
described in Ez.
the fall of Jerusalem
This
hind the speaker.
is
a characteristic frequently connected
with theophanies in OT.; the word "cloud" occurs no less than

fifty-eight
times in such connections.*
16.
day of the trumpet
The prophet now turns to the horrors of war. The

combination of the blowing of homsf and shouting is found also
in Am. i^^ 2^ Je. 4^^ Jos. 6^
Against the fortified
Cf. Ju. 7^*- *l
cities and against the lofty battlements] Cf. Is. 2*^.
The word
and
battle-cry]
rendered "battlements"
2
26'^
Ch.
BS. 50^
is literally
"comers," but here and
The
structed for the protection of the angles of the walls. f
and strength of the walls and
acter
in Palestine
in 3
probably denotes special fortifications con-
it
may now
char-
fortifications of ancient cities
be learned not only from an examination of
the walls of Jerusalem, but also those of Jericho, Gezer, Lachish,
Taanach, Megiddo, Tell-Zakariya,
The number and

fact that
size of
and Samaria.
Tell-es-Safi
such fortresses
may
be inferred from the
Sennacherib in his report of the campaign against Heze-
kiah claims to have captured "forty-six of his strong

tresses
Not only
and smaller towns without number."
cities, for-
so,
but the
great fortress of Jericho as revealed by the recent excavations
only about eleven hundred feet long and
Str.
pants.
leaves the fortresses
17.
And
and turns attention
Men
walk
like blind
that their attempts to discover a
Is. 59*
hundred
was
feet wide.
to their occu-
I will press hard upon mankind and they shall
weh
the imcertain
five
men]
will
be reduced to such
way
straits
by Yah-
of escape will be like
and hopeless steps of the blind. Cf. Dt. 28^ Na. 3"
There is no causal connection in the prophet's
Jb. 12^.
mind between the darkness of v. *^ and
"Mankind"
but rather sets

fications.
the groping here predicted .**
here does not comprise the
human
human
race as a whole,
beings in contrast with city walls and
As a matter of
fact, the citizens of
* So BDB..
t Tacitus describes the walls of Jerusalem as,
Judah are
t V. H.*H 43
forti-
in the fore-
/..
"per artem obliques
et introrsum sinuatos ut
oppugnantium ad ictus patescerent" (.Hist., lib. V, cap. ii, s).

For reports on Jericho, v. Mittheilungen d. Deuischen Orient-Geselhchafl, Nos. 39 and 41.
For Taanach, v. E. Sellin, Tell Ta'anek. For Megiddo, v. G. Schumacher, Tdl-el-MuteselHm.
For Lachish, v. F. J. Bliss, A Mound oj Many Cities. For Tell-es-Safi and Tell-Zakariya, v.
F. J. Bliss and R. A. S. Macalister, Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900.
Cj. Dr., Modern
Research as Illustrating the Bible, 54 fj., 92. The work at Samaria is not yet finished, but preliminary announcements appear from time to time in the Harvard Theological Review.
latera
** Contra Hi..
ZEPHANIAH
2o6
front of the prophet's thought,
others from consideration.
This
if
they do not even exclude
Yahweh;
sin is practically rebellion against
usage of the word *sin' as

ular sense of
its
all
Because they have sinned against me]
'rebellion,
</. 2
'
for a similar
K. 18" and the
This clause
Assyrian equivalent, hitu.
is
reg-
omitted
as a gloss by several interpreters* on the ground that the change to
(M =
the third person
The emendation
the
person
metrical
is
ple of
very slight
For a radically
God,
superfluous met-
(v. i.)
and
at the
it
to
same time eases the
different estimate of the value of the peo-
And their flesh like dung] Cf. Je.

The word "flesh" occurs only here and
Ps. 72".
cf.
where the
text
and meaning are as uncertain as
been variously rendered,
The
it is
of the text necessary to conform
And their blood shall be poured out like dus{\

Human life will be as worthless as the dust of the
Ps. 83^ Jb. 26'.

20'^,
too abrupt so soon after
diflficulty.
Cf. Ps. 79^ 18^^.

streets.
is
person and that
first
rically.
first
Yahweh)
against
the occurrence of the
e. g.,
in Jb.
here.
It
has
viscera,f carcasses, J vigour, sap.**
rendering flesh f | rests upon (^

in Arabic.
'
9^^ 16*
'
(v. i.)
and
is
supported also
by the usage
Str.
XI
poem
brings the
to
a close with a representation of the
completeness and inevitableness of the coming destruction.
Neither their
silver
nor their gold can deliver them]
18.
things they
be of no avail in the great day.
Cf. Is.
where the Medes, the agents of Yahweh, are said
to care
have held most dear

13^^,
The
nothing for
silver
will
and
gold.
The
Scythian invasion, according to
Herodotus, was halted at the borders of Egypt by the receipt of a
But Yahweh cannot be turned

by such means; cf. Pr. 11^. This
line and the following clause occur also in Ez. f^, where it is an
interpolation and does not appear in (^.
In the day of the wrath
great
sum
of
money
as ransom.
aside from his punitive purpose
of Yahweh and in the fire of his zeal, all the earth will
This line is made up of elements appearing also in
probably a later expansion, interrupting as

nection between the
first
and
e. g.,
Marti, Now.^, Siev., Fag., Roth., Du., Kent.
t So,
e. g.,
Mau.,
DI.P'"'- ^^,
i^^ 3^.
BDB..
GASm.,
So We..
Dr..
It is
does the close con-
last lines of this verse
* So,
t So van H..
tt So, e. g., Hd., Dav.,
it
be consumed]
* So Ew..
and being
1"-'
meaning with the
identical in
nounced
i^- ^ 3^.
Cf.
Is. lo^^ Je. 5^^ 46^^
Ez.
1^^
of
28' Is. i6^)
but the reading of the Vrss.
is
For a
all the in-
20".
m may be rendered "altogether fearful"
i..
here an-
Is. 28^^.
Yahweh make
a fearful one, will
habitants of the land] Cf.
The judgment
latter.*
probably universal, as in
is
full destruction, yea,
text, V.
207
{cf.
preferable.
For the
Dt. 16*^
The
use
of the third person here furnishes insufficient warrant for treat-
ing the whole verse as a later addition, f or for changing
person ;J
first
v.
on
v.
''.
The remaining
first line
occurs also in Ez.
proves nothing in
7*^
The
fact that
as to the
priority of either passage; but the structure of Ez. 7*^
upon the
originality of that passage as
it
jîe-20 j^7-9 igis-ie^g

^Yv^^ jj jg
must be an
The custom
common {cf. 2 K.
stands.
so
which Egypt escaped the
in
The
scourge of the Scythian invasion.
claim that those
represented as dead in v. ^^ cannot be thought of in v.

ing to buy their deliverance
throws doubt
hardly necessary to suppose that this
manner
allusion to the
now
was
of buying deliverance from an attack
to the
itself
favour of discarding the verse are of slight weight.

the
it
considerations urged in
makes no allowance
^^
who
are
as attempt-
for the agility of
The indefiniteness of our knowledge regarding the

velopment of Hebrew eschatology is no basis for saying that
thought.
dethe
idea of a universal destruction here presented demonstrates the

late origin of the passage.
It is
destruction here contemplated
thought in
w.
*^- ^
concerns
is
itself
by no means certain that the

thought of as universal.
the language here does not forbid the
judgment.
is
But
if,
present, such a conception
is
not at
all
out of keeping with the
(y. Int., 4).
liberties
is
The metre
of the first four strs.
* So Marti
( ?).
with the
text.
poem can be
The parallelism,
this
very marked and thus indicates the poetic lines clearly.
fortunately,
Schw. hesitates between
^^'^
prevailingly pentameter or qina.
is
and
'*;
Fag. om.
'^c;
Kent om. both; Du. om.
"zeal."
t So Marti, Now.^
It
limitation of the
smooth, regular and uniform metre throughout
produced only by taking undue
all after
same
as seems probable, the thought of universality
authorship of Zephaniah himself
The
with Judah and Jerusalem and
(?), Siev..
was a frequent experience in the campaigns

II, Sargon and Ashurbanipal.
Shalmanezer
So Now.^
(?), Fag..
of such conquerors as Tiglath-pileser
I,
ZEPHANIAH
208
Through the remainder of

ment of thought from str.
The move-
the poem, hexameter prevails.
and
the whole
doom.
The arrangement here presented involves few textual changes that
are not called for on grounds wholly independent of the poetic form.
From the reconstructed poem, the following materials found in
are
lacking, viz., i^* ("and it shall be in the day of '^'s sacrifice") ("in
'
that day"), '" ("and it shall be in that day, it is the oracle of "), "
13 b. c. 18 b,
The first two of these are simple prosaic introductions by
some editor. The third is shown to be extraneous to the movement of
thought by the interruption it occasions between " and '2, in both of
which the speaker deals with Jerusalem; and also by its marked variation from the metrical movement of the context.
The fourth addition
(13 b. e) is betrayed by its hackneyed phraseology as well as its metrical
to str.
is
easily recognisable
closes with a splendid climax of universal
*>
>
*>
variation.
the latter
The last one

makes a
("
plainly identical in thought with
is
*>)
'*
but
closer connection with '8. than "> does and,
little
therefore, has the right of
practically a duplicate of
way.
It is
worthy of notice also that
'8i>
is
3*''.
The rearrangement of w. * ' here accepted was first proposed by

Schw. and followed by Now. and Fag. (cf. Siev. who rearranges thus:
w. s- 8i>. 9b. 8c. 9a. io)_ ^he rcason for the transposition is found in the
excellent sense thereby secured
in the fact that v.
'
as
it
stands in
lacks the necessary balancing clause, stating the cause of the

it
M,
judgment
announces; and in the further fact that the two clauses dealing with
foreign practices are thus brought together.

7. on] &, fear.
Gr. adds
8.
So as in Zc.
n-^ra
2'.
nat] (g
inat.
om. 'ja] <S = nâ; so We. (?),

Gr., Dav., GASm., Oort^"-, Now., van H., Fag..
For the same interchange, cf. Gn. 45 Ex. 16" Jos. 17" 18^ i Ch. 2^" Ne. 7" Je. i65- " Ez.
2' Ho. I^
o^tt'aSn] Rd. raVn; so Schw.,
Cf. the use of no in v. '.
tfnpn]
invited.
i^cn
^ja H'l]
Now., Fag.; d
is
a dittog. from the
foil,
9.
word; cf. jSnn.

ra wphirvKa.
jnj3Dn-S>'] (S^ÂQ g,H^ ^ttJ Trdcras efxcpavws iirl
S,
iirl
irdvTaj
toi)i
iTTtâlvovras
ingreditur super limen.

those
who walk
Arabic drg and
"B,
S>'
*?!,'.
super ontnem qui arroganter
all extortioners
and
spoilers.
21, all
Wkl., AOF., Ill, 381^.,

mount the throne." This involves a
in the laws of the Philistines.
would render, "against
new meaning
/c.t.X..
&, upon
jSnn Sa
om. Sa
(S^
for both
made
all
who
words.
jSn
mean 'mount'
is
connected by Wkl. with the
Cf. 2 S. szô where

an admirable meaning for the Pi' el.
But 'skip,'
'dance' or 'leap' is required by Is. 35' Ct. 2BS. 36" and is suitable both
here and in 2 S. 22'". Furthermore, the meaning 'mount' or 'climb' is
doubtful for the Arabic drg, aside from some derived stems where it is
used figuratively; the ordinary usage is 'walk slowly.' jpdd is taken by
Wkl. as designating primarily the pedestal upon which the image of the
'scale' furnishes
to
or 'climb.*
was placed
deity
(i S. 5*-
'),
209
and
The
who stood
secondarily, the king's throne.
phrase as a whole would thus point to the king's advisers, those
upon the steps of the throne. But though this meaning of 'd would yield
good sense in i S. 5*- ' Ez. 9' io<- ", it hardly suits in Ez. 46' and is impossible in Ez. 47'.
Furthermore, neither on the numerous Babylonian
and Assyrian seals nor in any known relief is a god represented as placed
upon a pedestal, or a royal throne as raised upon a dais; the god and the
king alike sit in a chair of state with a footstool attached. an^j-ix] (&
aninSN 'jnN. &, (heir storerooms, an inner Syriac error of ? for ).
Better treated as sg. than as pi.; Ges. ^ '"s. lO. aunn] (g, diroKi>To6vTwv
H=
=
D''J;"!\}
{cf-
11.
Ch.
or
^^^*)
D''J-\n;
so &.
njtfon] (g
& H =
second
Rd. BTijDn p ^^^''Y, so Marti, Fag.

and Kent who retains ob'V. irnsDn] (S, t^v KaraKeKonixivqv. U, pilae.
& transliterates as a proper name. , by the brook Kidron. A, S, rdv
nmj] ($, i}fjLoi60T). jyjj] 9, /xera/SiXwv. iS-'Mj]
6\ixuv.
0, iv T^ ^ddei.
(gaê).
c.-iDDD
'<3B'i
i'7'''?in]
<8,
ol iirripfiivoi.
The word
is
dTr.
"weighed down"
Tpe
{cf.
and
is
B, involuti.
ordinarily treated as a passive formation =
{cf. T'rJ' .n-ityD jD^dj;);
,-i'Dn);
,-i>xp
jmz exaltantur {in argento
51,
V.
but
it is
et
auro).
better taken as active
Barth, A^B. ^'", 12. wsmi]
HP.
(S^',
36, 51,
have a double rendering, viz., I will search Jerusalem with a

lamp and I will visit Jerusalem with a lamp {and I will visit, etc.). Marti,
nnja] Rd., with (g 0, nia; so Schw. (?);
vjamy, so Siev., Now.^, Fag..
Marti (?), Fag., Roth., Kent. Eth., with a lamp of wisdom. a''!:'jNn]
97, 238,
Rd., with
sunt.
13,
Now^j
oiJJKB'ri;
deflxos.
a^Nopn]
despising. antics']
so Fag., Kent.
&, those
5J,
C5,
qui contemptores
to.
(pv'KdyfjLara
HP. 86 mg. ^deXij-yfiara. 51, ne custodiant mandata. U, in

faecibus suis. 51, who in tranquillity enjoy, 't' is always in the pi., v.
The meaning is clear, but the root uncertain.
Is. 25' Je. 48" Ps. 75'.
HWB.^^ connects it with 'b*, to keep; may it not, however, be better
traced to Assy. Samdru, 'to rage,' being so named as that which causes
aiiTwv.
turmoil either in the process of fermentation or in the brain of the
drinker?
13. noa'DS] d,
14. mm or]
biapiray^v. U, in direptionem.
laa"] (6 &
Marti suggests ''eii in both cases because
so Fag.. inm] ($, Kal roxera. Rd., with Schw.,
els
add in them.
of the 1st pers. in v.
'';
inpDi; so We., Now., Marti, Siev., Fag., Roth..
was formerly
treated as
an
inf.,
Bach., Niijn
such a construction being understood (Ew. ^ "o*; Hd.) but

;
analogy.
ID')
cf.
(so Or.,
145,
113 j]
yields
133
this is
without
For a similar case of a prtc. without initial D, v. jxr (Ex. 7" 9'
Ges. ^ . HWB.'^<' treats it here and in Is. 8 ' as a verbal adj.
GASm.); but
^'i-^p;
Marti,
Diri.
the impf. that ordinarily accompanies
it is
better here to correct the text.
so Marti, Now.k, Fag., Roth..
-isn;
so
Now.k, Fag., Roth.
Rd. lUJD
E^n,
(?),
dropping ix as
Siev. om..
Du., Kent.
dittog. of
ms
-\c]
Rd., with
C5, 7riACK<.
in
foil.
Kenn.
Sip]
line.
ae*
mx
This
a text in perfect conformity with the corresponding portion of
'<
ZEPHANIAH
2IO
and Si^jn rn and "incc. Note the same Juxtaposition of a-n

and ins in Is. 8'- '. For other cases of vertical dittography, cf. 2^ Mi.
This correction is based upon the sugi2 0. 11 a 2"
s"' Ez. I-''-" 7'3 '.
Cf. inn
''
LXXX,
gestion of Miiller, SK.,
Swariq
(TK\r)pa riraKTai.
etc..
Gr.^"-, 113^3
Roth.
(?).
mx
nnx\
HWB.^^, Du.)
?),
reads
Marti, dj (for
meaning
its
^,
'^).
Now.^
nx.
(5,
koX
tribulabitur,
Siev. (?)
(?),
42", but this with the Assy.
clear.
Of the passages usuHi., Mau., We. ( ?),
Dtt']
e. g.,
due to a corrupt text
several are
rn
"i^3JD
v.
so
db-);
Is.
support of a temporal sense (so here,
ally cited in
(
who
/.,
occurs again only in
sardhu, 'cry aloud,' renders
Now.
309
being joined with
(5'
(viz.,
Ps. 66* Je.
50' Jb. 23'), while in others a local sense is equally good, if not better (e. g.,
Jb. 35'2 Ps. 145 3613 668 132'^ 1333 Pr. S^? Ho. 10' Ju. 5"). 15. 'di nn-i]
The same
phrase occurs in Jb.
are conjoined in
due
BS.
to the
SI'".
Is.
Hebrew
other formations from the same root
152^;
30' Je. 19' Dt. 2&^'-
"
^^-
Such cases are
Pr. 1".
Also in Jb. 30' 38"

In addition to the assonance, increased emphasis is secured by
liking for assonance.
'ci hn'J']
such junction of two slightly different formations from one root;
Na. 2"; ncB'm
npuDi
npi3,
Jjipna,
Ez. 6".
"^cny]
Ez.
nnDtt>,
Schw., on the analogy of Spn? and Snin
33'), regards Ssnj as the original form; cf.

\
106 b^
treats
it
e. g.,
nijsi nijxn, Is. 292; lypn
;^^^^;
as a qutalib form; but
Syr. 'arpeld.
Earth,
(Is.
NB.
better taken with Vol., ZA.,
it is
XVII, 310/., as a composite noun, with Sn used as an intensifying epithet; cf. Assy, erpu = 'cloud,' and the various usages of the Ar. equivalent which may be traced back to a primary meaning, 'cloud.'
On the
divine name as giving superlative significance, v. Kelso, AJSL., XIX,
152 /.; cf. I S. 1415.-17. nin^"-] Rd. >% icr^] (5, Kal iKxêc, but in
HP. 36, 51,

Some mss.
meaning
firm' (so
'flesh,'
wholly uncertain.
is
is
unsuitable in Jb. 20".
fairly well here,
but
certainly corrupt
raiffdpKas
DSim(?).
bourn.
axirCsv.
Bach., a>D
0iSSj3]
Je. II".
is
{cf.
Bach.,
pers., viz. iPNjp
H,
fits
better here than

(1886), 721, sug-
with Syriac Ihm, 'to threaten';
The
2o33.
6Mvas) and the same
The
mnS (from
rendering
objections, suits
text there
difficulty
may
is
almost
exist here.
Schw.
(?)
-inî.
Schw., anSi; so Now., Marti, Roth., Du.;
sicut stercora; so
The
ZDMG., XL
and No. urge weighty
inadmissible in Jb.
(&,
di'jdj?.
.
it
ocn'^]
derives from Dn^, 'be close,
but wholly out of place here.
against which both Dl.
'flesh,'
No.,
meaning 'wrath,' connecting
this is fitting in Jb. 20^3,
C5,
Dl.'''"'' '^^
cf. H, effundani.
Baer and Ginsburg.
BDB.), and renders Eingeweide, which
but
gests the
62, 86, 95, 97, 147, 185, 228a, iKxeu;
DonS, but better without dag.; v.
18.
vinay..
inxjp
&.
.
(&,
-j/
nn*^), cf. adj. rh.
ws ôKîra.
nin> maj;]
in] Rd. in, with
(S,
Gr.^"'-,
c/".
51, sicut stercora
Fag. changes to ist
Kal
and
>;
so Schw.,
GASm., Now., Marti, Hal., Dr., Du., Kent. Cf. U, cum.

Gn^m. nSna; so Now. (?), Marti, Roth.. But this is
(Tirovdrii'.
Gr.Era -, We.,
nSnjj]
(5,
unnecessary since the prtc. makes excellent sense and the same construction
2'-'
occurs in
lo" 28" Dn. 9".
Is.
ace, or the
first
ace.
is
poem
In a
nSa]
The
vb. takes
two
identified with the vb. that
and takes an obj. in the

46" Ez. 11" 20" Ne. 9". Now.''
nB>;i to !^K'^,.
DOOM UPON
A DAY OF
4.
and
treated as a vb.
is
Je. 5'^ (rd. dspn) 30>'
ace; so also
changes
ne>5J
so closely welded to
combined expression
the
211
that has suffered
the prophet foretells
PHILISTIA
many things at
woe upon
the
hands of
The
the Philistines.
{2'-'').
editors,
reasons for
the divine anger against Israel's ancient foe were apparently so

well
known
to the prophet's
The poem
rehearsed here.
each.
audience that they did not need to be

is
composed of four
soimds the note of warning
Str. I
near approach of her day of judgment
(2^- ^*).
coast
(2^).
Str.
IV
to destruction
represents this former abode of

(2^- ^^).
as given over to the pasturage of flocks
SSEMBLE
view of the
announces the complete depopulation of the whole
Str. Ill
Philistine
men
of two lines
Str. II specifies
doomed
four of the five great Philistine towns as

(2^).
strs.
to Philistia in
yourselves, yea, assemble,
nation unabashed!
Before ye become fine dust, like chaff which passes away.
TTOR Gaza
As
for
will
be forsaken and Ashkelon a waste.
Ashdod
at noon they will drive her out; and Ekron will be uprooted.
'V\/ÔE to the inhabitants of the coast of the sea, the nation of the Cherethites;
For
ND
By
I will
make
thee perish, without an inhabitant,
land of the Philistines.
thou wilt become pastures for shepherds and folds for flocks;
the sea will they feed; in the houses of Ashkelon at evening will they
lie
down.
Str. I calls
awaits her.
is
upon
2^. Assemble yourselves, yea, assemble]
This rendering
somewhat uncertain, being directly supported only by
{v. i.).
The
shock that
Philistia to brace herself for the
(^
^ B 2
verb does not occur elsewhere in the forms here used,
but in another stem
it is
used of the gathering of straw and
Various renderings have been proposed for

'turn pale
here;
it
and be pale';f
e. g.,
sticks.
'end your-
yourselves, yea,
selves,
etc.';*
test'it
'crowd and crouch down'; 'gather yourselves firmly
E.
g.,
Mau., Hd., Ke..
t Ew..
'test
De
W..
Or..
to-
ZEPHANIAH
212
gether and be firm';* 'purify yourselves and then purge others ';|
'conform yourselves
law and be
to
But none of
Hebrew usage of this
regular.' J
finds adequate support either in the
these
root,
Several scholars aban-
or in the related dialects, or in the Vrss..
don as hopeless the attempt to interpret. The least objectionable of the emendations proposed yields the meaning, 'get you
shame and be ye ashamed'; but this is scarcely possible for two
reasons: (i)
the thought of v.
wrath
to
way
come, or
to so difiScult
presupposes in
to prepare for the
to
evitable destruction,
and easy a reading
M now
offers;
either a call to flee
Jo.
cf.
summons
difficulty of the translation here
assemble in order to ward
calls to
i^ 2^^
(2)
from the
'Be ashamed' seems too mild
conflict.
For the
For similar
i..
v.
so clear
a one as
repent and so escape, or an ironical
coming
a term for this context.

given, V.
how
difl&cult to see
it is
could have given
3"
Je. 4^.
off in-
nation unabashed!]
Here again we can attain no certainty as to the meaning. The obscurity lies in the word rendered 'unabashed.'** Among many other
we may cite 'undisciplined,' ft 'unlovable,' {J 'that

does not desire to be converted to the law,' 'that never paled (sc.
with terror),*** 'not desired (= hated),' fff 'that hath no longrenderings,
JJt Here again the attempt to discover the sense is abandoned

by some. The Hebrew usage of this word affords no basis for
ing.'
any other meaning than 'not longing

84^ 17^^ Jb. 14^^
Gn.
31'.
But
for,'
this is too
'not desirous of;
vague and indefinite
cf.
Ps.
in the
The idea of 'shame' is associated with this

Hebrew and in colloquial Arabic. This
present passage.****
root in Aramaic, in late
furnishes a good
better,
may
meaning
be adopted.
the Jewish ;tttt nor

tion, JtJI for
*
Stei..
nation addressed
is
probably not
t Fiirst {Concordance).
GASm.,
Van
H..
Stk., Roth..
many interpreters, e. g., Rosenm., Dav., Or., GASm., Dr., Fag.,

.
tt B.
** Mau., Ew., Ke..
t RVm..
ttt Hd..
. g., Schw., We., Now., Marti, Stk., Roth., Kent.
**** Cf. B, which retains this sense here, but puts it in the passive, whereas elsewhere
is always active,
tttt Contra Hd., Or., Schw., We. Dav. GASm., Marti, van H., et al.
titi Contra Dr., Stk., et al..
tt
it
The
the pious element within the Jewish na-
Zephaniah would scarcely address a mere fragment of
Schw., We., Dav.,
** So
is it
in this place and, in default of anything
2'-'
the people as 'nation.'

the bulk of this section
213
It is rather the Philistines,

is
the secondary elements in vv.
^'^
against
whom
This becomes much clearerafter
directed.
are recognised.
2.
Before ye he-
come fine dust] The Philistines are now addressed as individuals

and warned to seek some way of escape before it is too late. The
might picture either the completeness of the coming
figure in itself
destruction (Ps.
or the worthlessness of the vanquished (i"
i8^^),
In view of
Zc. 9^), or the wide dispersion of the stricken people.
the added comparison to chaff, the latter

of the simile;
tion rests, V.
For the
29^ 41^.
cf. Is.
IH
i..
is
open
is
text
to objection
probably the real point
upon which
this transla-
on the ground of serious
grammatical diiBculty and the inappropriateness of the terms used.
rendering of M. yields, ''before the bringing forth of a
literal
mean
decree," which might

{cf.
either "before
a decree brings forth"
Pr. 27*), or "before a decree is brought forth."
variously interpreted,
before the events befall you that are decreed by

the term
bom,"f
is
forth,"!
Dt. 31^^.
But
is
made
scattering
fulfilling the
these all leave too
17^^
(e. g., Is.
{v. i.)
RVm.
Ho.
renders, "before the
much
away
is
curse
it
pronounces in
to the imagination of the
is
13^ Jb. 21^^ Ps. i^).
very
difl&cult, if
it is
as a simile of
The
offers as
evidently the
RV.
"the day passeth as

But the image of chaff fly-
an alternative,
always applied to things that depart, not
approach of things
text of (^ is
not impossible.
day pass as the chaff," supplying the word
the chaff," a parenthetic statement.
ing
i. e.,
God; "before
by God breaks
of the future; "before the law bring
Mosaic law
to chaff, except possibly in Is. 41^^,
here followed
'before.'
has been
Like chaff that passes away] Everywhere that refer-
interpreter.
ence
the
e.,
i.
before the day fixed
e.,
i.
womb
from the dark
forth
It
"before the decree brings forth,"*
e. g.,
to
to the rapid
come, whereas the day here mentioned
coming day
of judgment.
The
is
only other available
commonplace for such exalted

upon the word 'day' an abstract
interpretation which it will not bear.
Before there come upon you
the burning anger of Yahweh] Lit., "the burning of Yahweh's
meaning,
viz.,
tempus fugit,
is
too
utterance as this and also places
* So,
e. g..
Hi.,
So,
e.
Hi.,
g.,
Mau., Hd., RV..

Mau., Ew., Hd..
t Ew..
J Kl..
ZEPHANIAH
214
anger," a phrase found no less than thirty-three times in the OT..
The
perhaps having originated
line is best treated as a late gloss,*
had become
after the preceding line
come upon you the day of
Yahweh] Probably only a
the anger of
variant of the foregoing line, being identical with
word.f
3.
Is. 55^.
Seek Yahweh,
The
address
The
world over.
with the fact that
all
is to
Before there
imintelligible.
it
except for one
ye humble of the earth]
the pious
community
Cf Am.
of Israelites the
phraseology and the ideas of this verse, together

it
^*
interrupts the close connection between v.
and V. * and does not conform to the îna-rhythm of the context,

show that we are dealing with a later interpolation. J The phrase
"humble of the earth" occurs also in Am. 8^ Is. 11* Jb. 24* Ps.
76^", while the adjective humble is a favourite epithet for the Israelitish community in the Psalter, e. g., 147 149^; for the opposite
'
'
characterisation, cf Ps. 75^.
The term
religious in its significance as is

follows.
This usage
pecially the Psalms.
is
as used here
shown by the
is distinctively
defining clause which
characteristic of the later literature, es-
Who
do his ordinance] Thereby differenti-
ating themselves from the pagan communities around

also
their
from large numbers of
own impopular
faith
faith of their conquerors.
Israelites
who
deliberately
them and
abandoned
and became zealous adherents

Seek righteousness]
word 'righteousness' underwent a process
The
of the
content of the
of change in the history
of Israel, the determining factor in the process being the idea of

God that lay behind it. The fact that the exhortation " seek right-
Yahweh" shows that

That is to say, he who
do so by following the path of
eousness" runs parallel to the one "seek

here the two are considered identical.
would secure Yahweh's favour will

righteousness, which has already been outlined as the doing of
Yahweh's ordinance. Seek humility] This second route to the
divine favour
The word
*
Om. by
is
clearly indicative of the late origin of the verse.
'humility' occurs besides only in Psalms
<SN=*>-^
HP.
95, 185, 228 marg., 233, with 6 mss. of
and Proverbs.
Kenn. and 8
of
de R.;
so also Oort^"-, Marti, Siev., Now.^, Stk., Fag., Kent.

It is om. by Gr.^""-, Schw., We., Bu. (SK., 1893, p. 396),
t g>" has it under an asterisk.
Now., Marti, Hal., Dr., Siev., van H., Fag., Roth., Du., Kent.
Marti, BDB.,
t So Schw., Sta.GVi, We., Now., Grimm (Lil. App., 84-86),
Fag., Du., Kent.
Siev.,
Beer,
2^-*
It expresses the state of
duced by the
mind
to
Israelites
them
and
in
"a broken and a
cated constantly the necessity of

Ps.
which pious
terrible calamities that befell
were
re-
after the
Smitten to their knees by the wrath of God, they incul-
Exile.
cf.
215
51"
Perchance ye
34*^ Is. 57*^ 66^.
cj Yahweh's anger] Cf.
Am.
5^^
and
v.
may
contrite heart";
he hidden in the
The
H.^^, ad loc.
day
figure
that of a storm or an invasion sweeping over the land;
is
26^ Jb. 14*^.
Is.
The
terrible that escape
from
it is
The
almost inconceivable.
cf.
and
destruction will be so comprehensive
writer
does not dare to promise certain deliverance even to the pious.
Repentance and right
living cannot
always be depended upon to
guarantee freedom from the buflfetings of fortune, or the chastise-
ments of God which seek the enrichment of character.

Str. II
resumes the story of
4.
For Gaza
6'^
f\
will be forsaken]
On Gaza and
coming destruction.
Philistia's
threat of depopulation.
the Philistines, v. H.^^-
23. 25 f. hc
Cf. Is.
xhe He-
brew words 'Gaza' and 'forsaken' furnish an assonance that canSuch a play upon words was
not be carried over into English.
not inconsistent with the most solemn utterance;
And
25*^.
Ez.
many
The
Ashkelon a waste]
city, after
acknowledging
masters in the long course of her history, was finally de-
Ashdod
stroyed in 1270 A.D.f
The phrase "at noon"

first is
is
at
noon they will drive her
all
business in the orient; hence an attack at that time
would come unexpectedly and find the

6^ 15^ 2 S. 4^ I K. 20^").$
The second
unprepared
city
is
at Sinjirli, in
day
which he
it
V. also
M.
GASm.
Is.
38".
until noon,
If this latter
A. Meyer, History oj the City oj
says,
e. g.,
will
an
be
all
inscrip-
"Memphi,
and
says,
I
"I fought
took it"
(11.
view be correct, there
Gaza (1907).
Historical Geog. 189-03.
Mau., Hd., Schw., Now., Dr., Kent.

V. Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, I, 40 /..
t So,
from the break of day
cf Jb. 4^"
15, 16);
Je.
besieged, I captured, I destroyed, I
burned with fire."** The Moabite Stone likewise

against
it
parallel statement occurs in
Esarhaddon, found
his royal city, in a half
(cf.
which finds
preferable,
the phrase to designate the shortness of the siege;
over in half a day.

tion of
out]
The
susceptible of two interpretations.
based upon the fact that the heat of mid-day causes a sus-
pension of
t V.
Mi. 1^^-
cf.
So Dav., GASm., Marti.
is
ZEPHANIAH
2l6
probably an allusion here by way of contrast
by Psamtik
which
I,
(640-611 B.C.) and,
to the siege of
Ashdod
said to have lasted twenty-nine years
is
if so,
was
in progress
when
these
words were
spoken.
Hdt.
is
the only source of information concerning this siege of Ash-
The
dod.
Hdt. for
length of
it
this period is
it can be tested.
gone protracted
But the narrative of
seems almost incredible.
very detailed and on the whole accurate so far as
Not only
sieges;
so,
e. g.,
but other
cities
known
are
to
have under-
Tyre withstood Nebuchadrezzar
for thir-
and the Hyksos defended Avaris against three or four successive rulers of Thebes.
The so-called siege of Ashdod may have been
a long series of intermittent hostilities, involving a more or less complete blockade of the trade routes both by land and sea.
teen years,
And Ekron
will be uprooted] Paronomasia is here again emJudgment has now been declared on four of the five great
cities of PhiHstia.
Gath is passed over in silence, by reason of
the fact that it no longer existed in Zephaniah's time; v. H.^^ on
ployed.
Am.
The
6^.
only later allusion to
it,
viz.,
Mi.
probably of
i^", is
a proverbial character and does not imply the actual existence of
Gath
at that time.
Str. Ill passes
5.
Woe to
from the individual towns
to Philistia as a whole.
the inhabitants of the border of the sea]
fitting desig-
nation of Philistia, which lay along the Maritime Plain;

Je. 47' Ez. 25*.
named
are thus
Dt.
2^^
which
also in
i S.
cf. Is.
9*
The Philistines
Am. g' Je. 47^ and
the Cherethites]
30" Ez.
they are said to have

is
KeftiUy
The nation of
25^^.
come
In
to Philistia
from Caphtor,
probably the Hebrew equivalent of the old Egyptian

e.,
i.
Crete.
According
to
Hdt.
(I,
173), the Philistines
barbarians formerly occupying Crete.
were the descendants of the
Marcus Diaconus
(c. 430 a.d.)

Byzantium (c. 600 a.d.) relate that Zeus Cretagenes was
worshipped in Gaza and that the city was originally called Minoa, after
Minos, king of Crete, who had led an expedition to the mainland and
Recent discovery of Cretan pottery at Gaza
given this city his name.
at least establishes the fact of intercourse between Crete and the Phil-
and Stephen
istines;
Gaza
of
though, of course, the presence of ancient Cretan settlements at
is
not proved thereby.
around the Mediterranean
The dominance
littoral
of Minoan civilisation
and the indisputable evidence of
2*
217
steady contact between the dwellers on the Nile and the inhabitants of
the northern islands from very early times combine with the foregoing
facts to
make
it
in the highest degree
probable that the Philistines were
immigrants into western Asia from Crete and the neighbouring

{Cf.
Evans, Cretan Pictographs, loo
ff.;
J.
isles.
H. Breasted, History of
Egypt, 261, 338, 477/.; G. F. Moore, EB. 3715/.; W. Max Muller,

Asien und Europa, 337, 387/.; Schw. ZwTh. XXXIV, 103 /., 255.)
This probability is converted into practical certainty by the recent discovery of the so-called Phaestos Disk in Crete.
Upon it there appears
common
and characteristic Philistine

from the Egyptian monuments. The
exact place of the origin of the disk is uncertain, whether in Crete itself,
or in some neighbouring isle, or on the adjacent coast lands of Asia
Minor. But, in any case, it reveals the influence of the Cretan civilisation and may with confidence be assigned to some region in the
While the exact
vicinity of Crete where the Philistines were residents.
as one of the
head-dress as
known
period to which
it
signs the familiar
to us already
belongs
uncertain,
is
it is
quite clear that
Rivista d. societa Hal. di archeologia e Storia
Ed. Meyer,
dell' arte,
in Sitzungsberichte der Konigl. Preuss.
XLI
senschaften {Phil. -hist. Classe),

Einflilsse der agdischen
it
V. L. Pernier, in
the emigration of the Philistines to Palestine.
antedates
A usonia,
III (1909), 255^.;
Akademie der Wisvon Lichtenberg,
(1909), 1022^.;
Kultur auf Aegypten und Paldstina (1911), 18-22,
66/.; and especially, Evans, Scripta Minoa, I (1909), 22-28, 273-293.
An
unsuccessful attempt has recently been
interpret
it
as a
Greek
ins.; v.
made by George Hempl
to
Harper's Magazine, January, 19 11.
David's body-guard was composed of Cherethites and Pelethites (2 S. 8^" 15'' 20'-
^^
K.
i^'-
"
Ch.
18^^),
terms probably
The word of
reflecting a twofold source of the Philistine nation.
Yahweh
some
against you] This
editor or reader.*
Canaan]
Its
best treated as a marginal note by
is
presence mars the metrical form.
further gloss,f going with the following "land of the
Philistines," rather than with the immediately preceding phrase.
In the Egyptian inscriptions, the

part of the land of Palestine
denote Philistia alone;

it
may have been
cf.,
however, Jos. 13' Nu.
* So Marti,
is
applied to any
OT.
does
13^^ Ju. 3^.
it
Here
used as an opprobrious epithet, stigmatising the
Philistines as rascally traders.

that there will be
name Canaan
but nowhere else in the
no inhabitant,
For I
will bring about thy ruin, so
land of the Philistines] This in-
Siev., Fag..
t So We., Preuschen {ZAW. XV, 32),

Siev., Fag., Stk., Du., Kent.
GASm.
(?),
Now., Wkl. {AOF.
Ill,
233
/.),
Marti,
ZEPHANIAH
2l8
volves a transposition* of the last clause,
place
holds in
it
M,
which
made
"O
land, etc.," from the
immediately before "I will bring,
is
necessary by the structure of the qina-lme,
etc.."
This
which
calls for the shorter part after the caesura.
is
"without an inhabitant"
26' 33'" 34'^ 46'^ 48^ 51^^
is
shown by
The
a favourite one in Je.,
is
That
The phrase
e. g.,
not to be taken too
it is
4^- ^*
9"
literally
Je. 44^^.
fourth and last
str.
adds picturesqueness of
detail to the
announcement of Philistia's devastation. 6. And thou wilt become pastures for shepherds] RV. renders, "and the sea-coast shall
be pastures, with cottages for shepherds." But this involves the
difficulty of treating 'sea-coast' as
masculine everywhere
else,
even in
a case of vertical dittography from

is
a feminine noun, while

^.
v.
is
as
The word
'.
v.
it
It is better to treat it
M-
an almost impossible construction in
in
'pastures' too
RV.'s 'cottages'
word is
But a simpler
are without solid foimdation; a better rendering for the

'cisterns' or 'wells,' or
way out
even 'caves,' as in RVm..
of the difficulty is to regard the word,
which occurs only
here, as a corrupt dittograph of the immediately preceding word,
which
it
Another treatment of the word
so closely resembles.
suggested by
(^,
possible; but,
if
which interprets
it
as
'
Crete
'
adopted, the words 'Crete' and 'pastures' must
exchange places, the former becoming the subject of the verb,
"And
is
this in itself is quite
become pastures."!
Crete, the border of the sea, will
viz.,
With
the omission of "border of the sea" suggested above, this latter

interpretation
becomes very
because
not likely that Philistia was
it
is
attractive; J but
named
Zephaniah's time and was yet so
The
line is
it is
cf.
Am.
i^
Ps. 83^^.
as 'Crete' in
only once in the OT..
smoother with the word omitted as
tures for shepherds,"
hardly convincing
known
in IT.
For "pas-
And folds for flocks] A
picture of complete depopulation,
crowded towns and
giving place to pastoral solitudes.
At
* So Now., Marti, van H., Fag.. Wkl.

there will be
(I.
c.)
t So Wkl. (AOF.
is
gloss.
villages
later editor,
Du. om. "I destroy you that
no inhabitant."
Ill, 232),
van H..
Wkl.
sets
against the Philistines, but the islanders of Crete
DTnD
om. as a
this point
w. 5itself.
apart as a separate oracle, directed not
The
occurrence of the forms n"13 and
too slight a basis for so novel an hypothesis.
C/. Or.'s rendering, "shall become pastures for shept So We., GASm., Now., Dr. (?).
and the land of Crete sheepfolds."
herds,
219
'
zealous for the pre-eminence of Judah, has inserted a line safe-
guarding the interests of his people.

will belong to the
of this line
remnant
shown by the
^ and v.
is
7a. And the border of the sea

Judah] The
of the house of
nection between v.
way
in
which
it
late origin*
breaks the close con-
the 'they' of ^^ goes back for its
'*';
antecedent, not to the 'remnant' of
but to the 'flocks' of
^*,
v.
Then, too, the use of the word 'remnant' presupposes at least

The same hatred of
first deportation as having occurred.
nations in general and
'' *
here as in 2 Ob.
of the Philistines in particular
Zc. 9'
Am.
g'' Is.
is
ii" Je. 49^
the
the
manifested
of
all
which
By the sea will they feed ; in

evening
will lie down] The original
Ashkelon
they
at
the houses of
resumed
finished.
The
closing scene shows the
here
and
poem is
hives
men
trade
and
busy
of
given over to the unformer marts of
are of exilic or postexilic origin.
7b.
disturbed possession of well-fed sheep, going in and out of the
vacant houses at
will,
The
"with none to make them afraid."
qina-rhythm would be restored by the transposition of the

clause 'by the
sea, etc.,' to
first
the end of the line;f but the order of
The first clause in

reads,
is more natural as in M.
will
the
antecedent
'them'
can
only
them
they
feed";
of
"upon
thought
be the 'pastures' of
v. ^;
but this
fer to a feminine antecedent.
is to
make a masculine
Hence,
suffix re-
adop-
in part, the general
"by the sea," which involves only a very slight

Those
change of Mholding to the integrity of the verse as a
felt
compelled
whole have
to make the verbs 'feed' and 'lie down'
tion of the reading
find their subjects in the
Jb.
11^^),
flocks.
V.
''^
But
now
Jews themselves
rather than in the flocks or the

this is
keeping
'^
and
so far apart,
natural subject for the verbs.
vacant houses,
is
14^"'
Ez. 34**
these
a forced exegesis which, with the removal of
between the shepherds and the

that the prophet
{cf 3'^ Is.
nomad shepherds of
becomes unnecessary. As
more
flocks, the latter furnishes the
The
objection usually urged, viz.,
would not represent
flocks as occupying the
not well taken in no more effective way than this

;
could he have represented the desolate and deserted state of the
once populous region.
The
various attempts to
emend
the latter
* So We., Wkl. (l. c), Marti, Siev., Beer, van H., Fag., Stk., Du., Kent.
t So Now., Marti, Kent. Du. treats it as a part of the interpolated matter.
ZEPHANIAH
220
part of this line
them and turn
their captivity]
For Yahweh,
This
line belongs
V. '*
and completes the editorial addition .f It clearly

the remnant of Judah and presupposes the exile. The
with
to
seem wholly unnecessary.*
(v. i.)
their God, will visit
refers
refer-
ence to Judah here introduces a foreign element into a context
which
is
concerned entirely with the
used of Yahweh's punitive

his forgiveness
Philistines.
activity, here
The promise
and mercy.
'Visit,'
frequently
denotes the exercise of
from
of return
hardly accords with the view presented by the writer of
v.
^,
exile
who
contemplates the possibility of Judah's pious ones escaping from

the approaching calamity.
V. B..^'^' *^
The
292,
^-
is less definite
and
The opening
For the phrase 'turn
their captivity,'
alternative rendering 'turn their fortune'
forceful here.
of this oracle
str.
take on the qina-ihythm.
The
is
remaining three
in tetrameter; the
by
conform to either of these measures.
Vv. 2b. c. 3. 7j. are omitted from the reconstructed poem as later
accretions.
Vv. ^b. c are variants of a gloss explaining the figurative
language of ^ . It is impossible to say which line presents the gloss in its
alien elements betray their character
their failure to
The
original form.
and by the
ligion
late origin of v.
fact that
it
'
is
shown by
evidently addresses
its
conception of re-
itself to
whereas the context
is
concerned with the Philistines.
jection applies to v.
=.
'
Indeed, on the strength of vv.
the Israelites,
The same
^-
',
this
ob-
whole
is denied to Zephaniah by Schw., while Sta.^vi^ 645, athetizes

and Bu. {SK. 1893, pp. 394 jf., and Gesch. 89), w. *' (so also
Kent). The argument against vv. ^-' is that whereas in the genuine
material Israel is represented as having done wrong and is therefore
threatened with punishment, here Israel has been wronged by the nations and it is they that are to be punished.
This, however, is not true
of vv. ^-', for not a word occurs in them charging Philistia with having
injured Judah. The same kind of argument would also eliminate
section
vv.
Am.
"-3
I'-'-
Just as
tion
*-'
Amos
"-'5 2'-3,
which are quite generally accepted as genuine.
believed that Philistia would suffer in the general destruc-
about to be wrought either by the people of Urartu or by the AsZephaniah includes her in the universal devastation he an-
syrians, so
ticipates.
The
prophets were
men of broad
vision, not limited in their
range of interest and observation by a provincial horizon.

* There
as
They saw
is no good reason for including this line with the rest of the verse as a late addition,
done by Wkl., Marti, van H..
t So We., Preuschen, Now., Wkl., Marti, Dr., Siev., van H., Fag., Stk., Du., Kent
t On the origin and meaning of the phrase, v. Preuschen, ZAW. XV, 1-74.
is
221
2
own
the history of their
people against the background of world-history.
Not one of them looked upon his nation as a thing apart from the world's
Amos, Jeremiah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ezekiel and others prophlife.
Zephaniah cannot be
esied the downfall of nations other than Israel.
denied prophecies of the same
them than
sort,
unless there be other evidence against
the simple fact that they are directed against non-Israelites.
What the relations between Philistia and Judah were in the days of Josiah
we do not know, nor does Zephaniah tell us anything upon that subject,
But
unless i' be an allusion to Philistine influence.

for disaster to
overwhelm the whole
if
Zephaniah looked
no special cause
of western Asia,
would be needed for a threat hurled against the Philistines.

The argument for treating w. ' as the conclusion of ch.
vincing {contra Hi.,
GASm.,
Bu.,
stands.
Moreover, the
a basis and
this is supplied
as
it
w.
'-'
The
ei al.).
2'
The
'-.
chapter
i is
is
uncon-
complete
some antecedent material as
of 2* needs
'o
by
first
chief reason for
with the preceding rather than the following context
combining
lies in
the ex-^
traneous material incorporated in this section which makes close connection with
removes
1.
w.
Vi'lpi iS'S'ipnn] (S,
62, 86, 95, 147, 185
treatment of this material as late
rj'pi,
without
trvvdxdvre khI avvbid-qre; so #.
have the variant,
(probably an error for
have
The
*- difficult.
this difficult}%
1,
is
HP.
(S**-
S, <n;XX^7T;Te
B, convenite congregamini.
(rvvire).
which
avvde-^dtjre.
a-i/vere
Many mss.
the normal writing of this form; v. Baer.
Che. (Proph. of Is. on Is. 29'; but abandoned in CB.), yi'^2^ iâ'orm; so
Gr., Bu. (SK. LXVI, 396), BDB., Now.k, Dr., Fag., Bew. (JBL.
XXVII,
165),
Kent
other suggestion
'p
from \/
nspp.
M are At'.
Hal.
iB''ni
vjX'iNnn.
Siev.
An-
itrs'ippni y^^p.
irrippn Vx, deriving 'n from 1/ c'rp 'be hard and
is irf^
'
Van H.
ib'i";i
iB'U'pnn (or
For similar combinations
iK'^7]).
Both of the forms
in
Qal and Hithpo., v. Is. 29*

Hb. I*. The derivation of the vb. remains doubtful. Some would make
it a denominative from w'p, 'stubble,' meaning 'to gather stubble, sticks,
etc.'; but when so used the obj. S'p ,pn or a^xy always accompanies it,
a fact which seems to point to the vb. itself as having only the simple
meaning 'collect,' 'gather.' In any case, the vb. cannot be here used
of
denominatively.
Van
H.'s reading connects
sponding to the Arabic {jtXi

is
it
with 1/ cip or 'c^-p, corre-
'mensuravit'; but the resulting sense
hardly satisfactory enough to warrant the necessary change in point-
ing involved.
Mau.
attaches
it
to rip
(= Arabic (j*<o) and renders
'bend yourselves'; but no such vb. occurs in Heb. and the Arabic vb.,
as Dav. points out, is a denominative, meaning not 'bend' but 'be bowshaped' or 'be curved in the back.' Stei. suggests ;/ crp, connected
with nrp, 'be hard.' Ew. proposes the Aram. 1/ rrp = 'be old,' with a
supposed primary meaning 'be withered,' and renders 'turn
pale.'
But
ZEPHANIAH
222
none of these is more than a barren conjecture, providing no suitable

meaning. IDjj nS] (B rb dtraiSevTov; so &: 19 non amabilis. Van H.,
Schw. np.33 n"?. Bew, (/. c), 1?J *? {V l^^)- The
foil. (S, 1D1J j<S.
most plausible explanation of JH
bic ksf\r\ classical speech
suggested by
is
GASm.,
Ara-
viz.
'cut a thread' or 'eclipse the sun'; but in
IV
the colloquial, 'to rebuff,' 'disappoint,' 'put to shame'; in forms
and VIII
means 'be
it
disappointed,' 'shy,' or 'timid'
Sîxd's Arabic-
{v.
This meaning as possible for the Heb.
English Vocabulary).
is
sup-
which means 'lose colour,' 'be ashamed' {v.

Jerusalem Targum on Nu. 12" Ps. 35^ 69'). Barth, Etymologische
Sludien, 61, derives it less easily from an Arabic ksf = 'be oppressed,'
'afflicted.'
2. pn mS] Rd. p-iS vnn, tr. the letters nn (vsdth a slight
ported by the Aram.
-^Z
change in the second) to precede
nS.
Am.
for
Si3 for noS; Ho.
3'2,
for r^W;;
ments
i3'<'-
in iH,
", ins for n\s.
finds
2'=^),
by
sibly supported in part
length and structure.
Gr.
ing
For similar transpositions, cf.

73^0^1 forinB'D'>; 10', niSy
pxi;
This reading accounts for
does away with the rare usage of an
besides only in Hg.
{Monatsschrift,
GASm.,
vnn; so
ijni
5',
an exact parallel
(S
&
05 rov yeviffdai
yields a line of the right
similarly
iifiSis;
Schw.
p. 506), n^nn nS.
1887,
OortE-"-, Or., CB.,
.0001^ \^t^
We.
id-ijp.
Now., Marti, Hal., Dr.,
s*?
Siev. (add-
But (i) this involves the

moa, not found other-
Fag. (om. nS), Roth., Du., Kent.
B'i'J?),
the ele-
all
with dio (found
in Is. 29^ {cf. 40"), is pos-
and
{v. i.),
inf. cstr.
introduction into classical Heb. of the usage nS
wise except in the late gloss upon this passage, which immediately
lows; (2)
(3)
is
it
yields a line shorter than the
by no means certain that
the
inf.
might
easily
Bew.
first
(/.
context
c),
is,
Or., CB.,
of
letters
D1''
mS
lijj.i'r
an end.'
Vina).
its
-i3J;;
so^ B
Hal. (using
foil.
(/.
(&
ws
S^vdo^
away"; but
The
Du..
or \^.
M in
this
this is altogether
OortE-n-,
Van H
HP. 48, 233 om.;
Bu.
Dv) o^naj?. av] g> %. (gu.N.A.Q
(before)
Dpjjn hnSi?
VJ?
GASm.,
g>"; also Gr., We.,
for
yevifTdaii
'
only possible rendering of
Siev., Fag., Roth.,
(4) it
05,
difl&cult context.
c), ph niSp
Bu. {SK., 1893, p. 396),
"like chaff a day has passed
Now., Marti, Dr.,
by the context; and
present form in that
in such
'ui yya:)]
The
vt<n >r.
set
Bew.
easily antedate 05.
pointless. -ij;'] <g
n-jD^'.
measure
represents the text that lay before
be the rendering of
may
the appointed time is at
(using
it
construction of 05 suggests JE in
corruption
fol-
does not satisfactorily account for either the t or the p of IK;
it
ibj;^.
so Schw., Gr., We., OortE-, CB., Now., Marti, Dr., Siev., van H., Du..
&" has it under asterisk.
is supported by (&^ HP. 22, 36, 40, 42, 51,
62, 68, 86, 87, 91, 95, 97, 114, 147. 153, 185, 228, 238, 240. nS D-iaa]
Explicable only as a strengthened negative, Ges. ^'"V; nowhere else in
the
it.
list
of fifty-one occurrences of
The accumulation
't3
is
a second negative employed with
of particles is characteristic of late Heb..
pin
2^^
apparently om. ix; so
t^K] 05 (JpY^jv,
preceding clause of
3. nj;]
Kenn.
M for
'n.
139, 251
renders 's as imv.; so
Gr.,
pis
marg. om..
of
'd.
iVjjd]
(iY
HP.
Ehr.,
substitutes
147, 228
86,
so Fag..
15;;;
this is scarcely in
irpaor.
diroKpiveffOe
/fai
M.
240 support
HP.
njiry] 05 Bfripiraffn^vT].
nii'N]
of the
oi''
qx jnn dv.
(6
om, and
accord with the position
S adds auroO under asHP. 36, 97, 228

avrd = nij;ji. HP. 22,
Kplâ.
(6
StKaiocriyj'rjv
05
51, 62, 86, 95, 147, 185,
cf.
Fag.
f^.
1>< di']
^tas^'D]
*cal
nijy irpij]
Siev..4.
^Dj?;
&; but
-iS^nin.
itypj]
terisk.
223
'
om.
cn] Marti isn,
so
'"';
62, 147 Sie(nra<rfi4vr]; 86, 95, 185
Aq. S G iyKaToKekeifj-dvij. mtyij^] 05 iKpicp-^crerai =

Kenn. 30, 89 nii-nr. Gr. nnnt-^ Bacher (Z.4PF. XI,
Sieavapnivri.
cijn; so Schw..
185/.),
260/.),
foil.
Abulwalid Merwan ibn Ganah,
îB''.;-^'V
r\n,
e.
Dt. i' Je. 47'.
g.
AOF.
^zn} Wkl.
Only here and
kabal tamtim.
Din
5.
in v.
mj]
(B
Schw. {ZAW. XI,
niu'-j"..
Sjp;
Ill, 232 /..

is 'n
used with
irdpoiKoi
a>;
c/.
Siev.
n^^.
Assy, ina
elsewhere
iin.
it is
aTinr]
E' B all treat it as a common noun and connect

Aq. S
mo, 'cut,' e. ^. 'destroyers,' 'destruction,' etc.. Ed. Meyer,
Die Israeliten und ihre
achbarstamme, 221, suggests the possibility of
this and no being survivals of the name 'Zakkari' borne by allies and
kinsmen of the Philistines in the twelfth century B.C.; so also Che. EB.
699 /.. But the total loss of an initial consonant from a form with a
doubled middle radical is very improbable and without parallel.
u-s-hy} Schw. ySy,-,
so We., Preuschen {ZAW. XV, 32), GASm., Now.,
05 Kp7]TCx)v.
it
with |/
Stk.,
But the address
Kent.
rather than to the land.
fix]
'1
|\xn
& =
An
foil,
Siev.
is
in reality to the Philistines as a people
Bew.
jyjD]
TTnoNrii]
yiNi.
always
preferable.
(g
c), ^yri
(/.
DO
but,
1?,
'for will
be
afflicted.'
as Schw. has shown,
a local designation, never a personal one; hence
om.
Now.
1.
'nT?!*nV
Bew. nimoNni
(?).
is
pNc]
intensified negative in a circumstantial clause expressing result.
6. nmni]
Kent.
Rd.
n^ni; so Sta. (in SS.), Marti,
Oort^""- n\ii.
Siev.
'ri'ôni.
Now.^, Fag., Roth., Du.,
Bach, would derive from Aram.
nnx and make it = nxai; but this conjecture has no redeeming fea'n might be retained as referring, with a change of person, to
tures,
dti Son] Om.
the foregoing 'q X"^^', but the change of text is simpler.
as a correction of 'n in v. '; so 05 and Schw., We., Sta., Preuschen (/. c),
Dav., GASm., Now., Marti, Siev., van H., Dr., Fag., Stk., Roth., Du.,
S. t6 vepifierpov \fj\ rb
Kent.
Aq. rb ffxoivLcr/ia t^s wpaiSrrjTOS.
vap6.\iov. Bach, njrn oin.
mj] C5 von^. % requies. Now. ni2. Dr.
so Fag..
n^j;
iM
is correct,
As here
written, the
in pronunciation (Schw.).
well
known
in
form
is
Hir.;
elsewhere niNj.
If
the form furnishes a significant hint as to the force of
Aram.;
An
cf. e. g.
analogous exchange between x and
>
is
jnNi and pn^ (Dn. 228) and ono for 00

and Cowley). The syntax here, with
in Elephantine Papyri, C, 2 (Sayce

':
as the
first
of
two
cstrs.
both defined directly by
Dij?n is difiicult.
':
ZEPH1\NIAH
224
is
not a simple predicate (there being no case in
connected with a
coming,
sg. subj.
here being equivalent to S nin (Schw.).
rrin
a variant of nu; so
Tl as
OT.
of a plural pred.
by the copula), but an ace.
Bohme {ZAW.
after a vb. of be-
n->3]
Om.
with
VII, 212), Schw., SS., Gr.,
Dav., OortE"-, Marti, Siev., Dr. (?), Now.", Fag., Roth., Du., Kent.
&. Bach, nâni (for 'd '1). Ew. derives 'j from Ar., wkr,
(& KpriT-i); so
going over into wkn, whence
GASm., Kent).
only the last
which
The
JP
in Assy.
jp
'nest';
hence
'3
'huts,' 'cots' (so
But every step of this process is at fault. To take

has no connection with wakana, but comes from JJP,
'coil,' 'curl
usual derivation of
'3 is
up'
{v.
Johnston,
from ni3
'dig';
JAOS. XXIX, 224 /.).

is common
but since vb.
would be strange that this should be the only ocHi., foil, by Hal., traces it to "\3 = 'pasture' {cf.
Assy. kif'Q. = 'grove'), but the pi. of -\o is ona (Ps. 37"). 7. San] Rd.
D-'D San, as in v. , with (S 0;
so We, Preuschen {ZAW. XV, 32),
Wkl. {AOF. Ill, 232/.), Now., Marti, Dr., van H., Roth., Fag., Du..
&" supplies D''n under asterisk. Gr. Soj (?). Oort^"- om.. Schw.
(15 occurrences),
it
currence of the noun.
suggests om.
and reading nn'>ni for nini. The absence of the art. points
om. by error. M, can only be rendered, "and it shall
to the cstr. with avn
be a portion for the remnant,
etc.," the subj.
being the 'n of
v.
there
masc. oniSj;] Rd. u\t\ Sj;; so We., Preuschen, GASm., OortEni-, Now., Marti, Dr., Siev., Or., Stk., Roth.,
Kent. Bach. DiSjj;. Van H. on vSjj. Now. and Marti tr.
D^^ hy
and 'ui 'naa. '-\^ anya pSp-i^N ^naa] 05 adds d7r6 irpoawirov vKav^loiha;
so &" but with Ioi;5tt under asterisk. (^^ has the added phrase, but under
an obelus; HP. 133, om. all of it. GASm. supposes (5 to represent a
remnant of a lost line. For aijj^, Schw. suggests pipya; Gr. Di'';;aa(?);
treated as fem., but here as
'>
CB.,
Marti om. pSpifN as a
a"i;n.
'ui ^nj? or 'H'.niaina; so
'i\
Now. J'.
Fag. om. 'n and reads oinaa.
Nu.
and reads, manna

and adds 'nnny. after
later addition
Siev.
om.
'n >naa
omaB"] Qr. =
OP'âB';
so the standard
and perhaps Ez. 16"; elsewhere 1. is offered as Kt. in

eleven passages (with 1 as Qr.) and as Qr. in three passages (w'th 1 as
Kt.).
The frequency of the ace. cog. in Heb. 'avours a derivation
from av^ rather than nac; but an ace. of similar sound may be chosen
for the sake of assonance where there can be no thought of an ace. cog.
e. g. Ps. 107", 11DN ncin; Nu. 24", Yr\D\ rsn; Is. a"- *. y\i}JJ Y^V^', Ez.
text in
1720
,;iBJ-i
2129
IfiE'lfi-l.
225
THE DIVINE VENGEANCE UPON MOAB AND
5-
AMMON
(2'-").
Moab and Ammon

and the dire destruction
Later hands have expanded
of both people is foretold (w. ^- ).
the oracle and made it foretell the world-wide dominion of YahIn a single
weh
T
of six lines, the attitude of
str.
toward Judah
in her calamity is recalled
The
(vv. """).
entire section belongs to the postexilic age.
HAVE heard the reproach of Moab and the revih'ngs of the children of Ammon,
Wherewith they have
cast reproach
upon
my
people and vaunted themselves
against their border.
Therefore, as I live
Surely,
Moab
Yahweh of hosts, the God of Israel

Sodom and the children of Ammon like Go-
the oracle of
it is
become
shall
like
morrah,
A land
overrun by weeds and salt-pits and a desolation for ever.

of my people shall prey upon them and the remainder of
The remnant
my
na-
tion shall take possession of them.
The
Moab
oracle against
^Je. 48 Ez. 25*
finds parallels in
and that against
Ammon
in
Am.
Am.
2^"^ Is.
i^^"^^
15, 16
Je. 49*-*
25*"'';
but they are coupled together as partners in sin only
here.
8.
/ have heard]
here
was suggested by
Ez.
est
ground
Yahweh
Is. 16
for supposing the
(cf.
speaks.
37^);
Perhaps the language
but there
is
not the
The reproach of Moab and
from Isaiah and Amos.*
slight-
whole oracle to have been borrowed

the revilings
of the Ammonites] The taunts meant are probably those resented

in Ez. 25^-
^- ^
Je. 48^-
The
^.
Judah
sion for all the foes of
fall
of Jerusalem furnished occa-
to exult over her
did not
fail
Ob.
^^.
The conduct
ised
by insolence and arrogance on at
of
early history (2 S. 10*,

less treasured
ities
cf-
3^
many
Moab
cf. Is.
toward Israel
25").
least
one occasion
in the
Tradition and history doubt-
other recollections of indignities and hostil-
endured by Israel at the hands of her neighbours on the east;
Ju.
ff-
and apparently they

full; cf. Ez. 35"
had been character-
to improve the opportunity to the
S'"-"" ii'-"-
13^" 24^
Am.
'"'' 12^-"
I S. II, 14'' 2 S. 8*i*3-*5
2"
Ch.
=*
" 10-12, 2 K.
But it is
20* 26^ 27^ Je. 49' ^.
absurd to attribute the prophet's anger here

* Contra de W., Ew..
to the offences re-
ZEPHANIAH
226
The prophets were too vitally concerned

own age to be harbouring resentment
corded in Nu. 22-25.*
with the problems of their
or threatening chastisement upon foreigners for crimes that had
been outlawed for centuries.
Wherewith they have reproached
my
people and vaunted themselves against their border] This spirit of

is in marked contrast with the
Amos, whose denunciations of foreign nations were based primarily upon their excessive cruelty in
the violation of great human laws and customs, rather than upon
the mere fact that they had injured the prophet's own people (</.
Am. i^- ^- " 2*). The latter half of this line is somewhat ambiguous and has been subjected to various interpretations. A com-
revenge for injuries done to Judah

broad, humanitarian feeling of
mon
view has seen in
large their
own
Am.
15*^-
i^^ Is.
it
a charge that these foes have sought to en-
territory at the
and the Mesa
expense of Israel and Judahf
The verb
stone).
however, in the sense 'enlarge the mouth,'

Ez. 35^^ Ob.
^^
at the expense of
Is. 37^^)
i. e.
is
{cf.
better taken,
boast, taimt
This
Judah.J
{cf.
the
is
meaning
in V.
^^
called for by the parallelism, by the interpretative gloss

and by the use of the same idiom elsewhere, viz. Jb. 19^
Ps. 35^" 38^^ 55^^
The
connected with persons
fact that elsewhere the
suitability of 'border' as
currences
i^
is
suflScient
idiom
is
always
reason for doubting the
an object here, for the number of
its
too small to afford a basis for a general rule.
shows that the idiom

9. Therefore, as I live
of Israel]
not
is
is
oc-
Mai.
susceptible of wider usage.
it
is the oracle of
Yahweh
of hosts,
God
"Since he could swear by none greater, he sware by him-
self" (Heb.
6^^)
The doom of Moab and Ammon is announced in

Surely, Moab shall become
the most solemnly impressive terms.
Sodom and the Ammonites like Gomorrah] A simile suggesting

same time the depth of their depravity and a sudden, awful
and total destruction through the outpouring of Yahweh's wrath.
like
at the
The
NT.
fate of these cities is constantly referred to in
49^" 50'"
g. Dt. 29^
both
OT. and
23"
r^j^ ^29 ^ pet. 2.
land abounding in weeds] These two Hebrew words are obscure
as furnishing a fearful example,
Lam.
4^
Am. 4" Mt.
* Contra van H..

J So Schw., GASm., Marti.
lo'^
e.
Lk.
Is. i 13*^ Je.
lo^^
t So Hi., Mau., Or., Dav., Now., Dr..

Contra We..
2"
in
meaning
brew, nor
any
The
light
it is
one
first
is
thrown upon
The second
languages.
reference
(v. i.).
is
227
clear that
is
found
weeds
it
found nowhere
from the first

some special vari-
some kind
and thick enough
tall
He-
in Pr. 24^^ Jb. 30';
in general or of
ety are meant, while the second requires
bush or a species of weed
else in
by the Vrss. or the cognate
of a shrub or
to furnish conceal-
ment for a man. With that for a starting-point, we can conjecture

the meaning of the first word as a place overgrown or something
'
'
And salt-pits] This picture
of the kind.
of desolation
is
by the region about the Dead Sea, where the ground

with incrustations of
OT.
in
salt; cf.
as a symbol of
sterility
The Hebrew word
107'^).
unless used collectively,
come a
Ez. 47". Salt
is
and ruin (Dt.
is
suggested
is
covered
frequently employed
29^^ Je. 17^ Jb. 39 Ps.
number
in the singular
would mean that the
here and,
entire land is to be-
The reference may be either to pits into which the

Dead Sea are admitted in order that they may evap-
salt-pit.
waters of the
orate, leaving their deposit of salt, or to salt-mines such as are
found along the south-western shore of the Sea, where the Jebel
Usdum,
the base of which
is
a ridge of rock-salt,
c.
200 feet in
Cf. Lynch's description of the

scene was one of unmixed desolation.
height, extends for five miles.
north-western shore.
.
"The
Except the cane-brakes, clustering along the marshy stream
which disfigured, while
it
sustained them, there
was no vegetation
whatever; barren mountains, fragments of rock, blackened by sul-
phureous deposit, and an imnatural

its
margin,
all
sea,
with low, dead trees upon
within the scope of our vision bore a sad and sombre
We
had never before beheld such desolate hills, such

And a desolation for ever] This adds the
the ruin is for all time.
The remnant of my peofinishing touch
ple shall spoil them and the remainder of my nation shall take possession of them] This step is not conceived of as following the de-
aspect.
calcined barrenness."*
structive scene just portrayed, but rather as simultaneous with
and supplementary
to
it.
The
reference
themselves rather than their land.

their hands, will in the great
Narrative
(1849), 275.
oj
the
day
to
United States' Expedition
now
is
to the peoples
Judah, so long a sufferer at
come
to
(he
strip
them
of all they pos-
River Jordan and the Dead Sea
ZEPHANIAH
228
sess and reduce them to servitude; cf. Is. 14^ 61^.*

This seems a
more natural interpretation than that which makes the suffix refer
to the lands in question and explains the apparent inconsistency
of plundering and possessing a wasted wilderness as due to the
idealistic character of the prophetic utterance.
10. This will he their
in return for their arrogance, because
lot
they cast reproach and vaunted themselves against the people of
Yahweh
of hosts] This
is
a supplementary gloss. J
cation of the lex talionis on a large scale;
of the offence of these nations

selves against Israel's
pride of
cf. Is.
Moab was
16^ Je. 48^^.
is
God; cf
cf.
It is
an appli-
The
^^ ^.
Ob.
if^-
Je.
evidently a prominent national characteristic;
11.
Yahweh
will be terrible against them]
a similar conception of Yahweh's awe-inspiring might,

66^ 89^ 96^ Mai. i".
to the
In
its
two nations denounced in vv.
The
addition to this context.**
"over them,"
"Yahweh
attack.
(S's reading,
tractive,
but not sufficiently so
Ps.
Some
it is
interpreters con-
better handled as a later
may
preposition
be rendered
will
i. e.
appear over them,"
to displace
M- For
in
is at-
he will make
Here the poor connection with the
lean all the gods of the earth]

oracle on
^-
in judgment, or "against them,"
i. e.
For
cf.
present position, the suffix must refer
sider the verse out of its place, but
either
height
that they have dared to set them'' '\ The

48'- '^ i S.
Moab and Ammon
is
revealed.
The
terror exercised
over those two nations hardly finds a satisfactory origin in the fact
that
Yahweh
The language
destroys the gods of other peoples.
used does not necessarily imply the writer's belief in the reality of
may easily have been his highly figurative

coming downfall of idolatry the world over.
terms are used in the denunciation of idols by
the heathen gods; this
way
of describing the
Similarly realistic
writers
who
Is. 19* 46*- ^
certainly looked
Ps. 135^;
* So Hi., Marti, Dr..
cf.
Ez.
upon them as mere
30^^.
The
verb used
t E.
g.
t Its late origin is defended by all those cited as assigning vv.

favour of the separation of this as a gloss upon the foregoing oracle
5-
nonentities,
is
in itself
e. g.
unam-
Dav.. van H..

'
to
may
late date.
But
in
be cited: Marti, Siev.,
van H., Fag., Stk..

I So Hal. who places it after 2'5, while Buhl (ZAW. V, 182) places it with 3'.
** So Sta.'^'-, 644, Now., GASm., Marti, Dr., Siev., van H.; others treat vv. -" as a unit
all of which is equally late, so e. g. Oort (Godgel. Bijd. 186), Schw., We., Bu. {SK. 1893, pp.
394 #.), Fag., Stk., Du., Kent.
biguous
lo^ 17*
(cf. Is.
applied to gods
is
Mi.
6*
2'-
"
Ez.
24^")
but
its
appropriateness as
If the text is correct, the
doubtful.
figure lies either in the thought that
weh
229
will enfeeble their gods,
point of the
by destroying the nations Yah-
whose existence
is
bound up with
that
of the nations worshipping them;* or in the fact that in earlier

times, sacrificial offerings were looked upon as the " food of the
gods"
weh
(cf.
Ez. 44')
hence, by causing the offerings to cease,
Yah-
And
there
gods of their means of support.
will deprive the
how down to him, each from his place, all the shores of the
nations] This vision of the world-wide acceptance of Yahweh as
shall
God
of the nations far transcends the reach of faith in Zephaniah's
time and indelibly stamps the verse as later;
cf.
4*'*
Mi.
Mai. i"
Zc. 14^.
This representation of the heathen as worshipping Yah-
weh
sharp contrast to the announcement of their destruction
is in
which follows immediately
in vv. ^"^.
It is
unnecessary to sup-
pose that the writer conceives of the various peoples as undertaking pilgrimages to Jerusalem ;f the preposition
'from the stand-point
of,'
i.
e.
in or at his
own
from means only
place;
'
cf.
Ps. 68^.
'Each' applies not to individuals, but to the various nations or

lands constituting the inhabited world.
as worshipping
Yahweh,
cf.
Ps. 66*.
'
For the idea of the lands

Place
'
in itself
might mean
'sanctuary' like the Ar. maqdm;'^* but, the reference being to
each nation,
all
it is
hardly likely that the writer would think of them
as having concentrated their worship at one sanctuary in each
land, like the Jews.
This oracle
offers
previous section.
smooth and
a distinct change in the metre from the qtna of the
The movement
regular.
It is
is
clearly
adhered to even
in
hexameter and is fairly

some material (v. ") later
subjoined to the original poem.
That w. ' " form no part of the original oracle is shown as regards
" by the fact that it merely repeats what has already been better said
in V. ' and that it descends to plain prose. V. " reveals its alien origin in
the character of its contents and in the fact that it breaks away from
the consideration of Moab and Ammon into a prediction of universal
V.
dominion.
* So
t Conira Rosenm., de W., Ke., Kl., We..
. g. Hi., Ke., Now..

So Hi., Mau., Hd., Schw., Or., Dav., Dr..
** So GASm..
Contra Ew., Hi., Dav., van H..
ZEPHANIAH
230
The
oracle against
Moab and Ammon
even cannot be assigned to
Zephaniah, but must be held to have come from a later day; so Oort,
jf.; Schw.; We.; Bu. SK. LXVI,
Now.; GASm.; Baud., Einl.; Marti; CB.;
Du.; Kent. The considerations which have
Godgeleerde Bijdrageti, 1865, pp. 812
393
Cor.; Sm., 244;
ff-'>
Beer; Fag.; Stk.;
Siev.;
brought so
marked
many
interpreters to this view
difference in
diversity of authorship.
more
may be summarised,
rhythm from the context on both

(2)
The
The
(i)
sides indicates
oracle against Philistia in vv.
<-'
is
by one against Egypt (v. '2), the immediate

neighbour of Philistia, than by one against Moab and Ammon on the
eastern border of Judah.
Moreover, if Zephaniah had in mind a
devastation to be wrought by the Scythians, as seems probable, it is
hardly likely that he would switch the line of march of their invading
host suddenly away from the sea-coast to the opposite side of the Jordan.
As a matter of fact, the Scythians seem to have confined their operations
in Palestine to the coast.
(3) The conduct of Moab and Ammon here
denounced was that in which they indulged when emboldened by the
disasters that befell Judah at the time of the Babylonian captivity; cf.
Ob. vv. ">-'*. No such feeling as this is manifested by the prophets
against Moab and Ammon in any earlier period.
(4) The expressions,
'remnant of my people and 'remainder of my nation are used in such
a way as to presuppose the exile as an existing fact at the time when
this oracle was written.
naturally followed
'
8. na-\n]
pi.;
so Schw.; but
ordinate noun here
currences of
'n,
'
the pi.
is
preferable even though the co-
is
for out of a total of
is pi.;
used only three times
more than seventy
and once in cstr.. For other cases of sg. and pi. conjoined,
2" Pr. 26''. pay "ijj] So always; never simply 'j?; while
v. Is. 51' Je.
3X1D, never 'd ^j3
(so also oin).
On
oc-
in all, twice in the abs.
always
is
it
the other hand, either Vnt^" or
^ 'J3 ,onN or 'n 'ja. Similar peculiarities appear in Ar. (We.). iS''ij^]
CB. ijv'^\ d''13J] <S *" = ^Si3j; so Schw., Now., Marti (?), Hal.,
Fag..
But the change is unnecessary since the collective antecedent 'Dj?
furnishes suflficient basis for a pi.
was
destroyed,
oVB'pn; so
sf..
9.
^ Kal Ad/xaaKos, -wholly

light.
& and
pfcc]
B siccitas,
which affords no
perhaps conjectured from the context.
uncalled for in this context.
Now..
Marti v-vu
(Is.
so Roth..
14'');
'place of weeds,' a denominative from ciop.
IS);
but the
latter
word
is
witness to the meaning of
Snn]
(B
iK\\ifji.fj.4v7)
as doubtful as this
is entirely
nSin
was probably some rank kind

neglected ground.
fodder,
some
The
lacking;
(Schw.),
is
(cf.
dir., is
(6
spinarum.
wj
or
B'^rpn,
usually ren-
Reliable
(B MatreAc).
conjecture.
21
of weed, growing profusely
rn^Di]
iff'Op
traced to pi'D (Gn.
we can but
Syr. equivalent {hurla)
species of vetches.
'd,
dered 'possession,' 'place of possession,' which
Gr.
Van H.
prn'?n.
means a kind
6i./jL0)vid;
'n
on wild and
of horse-
clearly a guess;
28-11
cf.
a a
from y'
or
may
Ehr.
acervi.
hid, 'dig';
n"iTCi;
whether
it
be used of both kinds
Another
so Fag..
denotes natural or
is
uncertain.
inner-Greek error for d\6s (so Aq.
Now. m^c,
231
n'?^]
but evidently
Slit.,
artificial
caves and
(S &\wvoi,
pits,
probably an
0) under the influence of dinuvid.
or 'mallow' (Jb. 30'); so Marti, Roth. (?); this
'salt- wort'
goes well as a parallel to 'weeds' or 'vetches,' but
is
wholly out of place
cave be the true sense of the latter. On basis of (&,

Hal. reads the whole phrase, " Damascus shall be a pa-DD of thorns and
with m^n,
Edom
if
'
pit ' or
a pit of
'
'
Schw. questions
salt, etc.."
ruption of nn^Di ni'^n;
cf.
Je. 17'.
ona^]
^nn as a
'd 'di
Gr.
DU3''.(?)'
possible cor-
Rd.
'"]
'^.u,
Kenn. and de R., and practically all interpreters.

10. To om. iSnj'ii] and niN3X] solely mtr. cs. (so 'N ow. ^ cf,
Siev.), when there is no evidence that this verse was ever in metrical
form is an arbitrary method of procedure. It is noteworthy that 'x oc0h and HP.
curs in Zephaniah only here and in v. .
d;] (gB.N.A.Q
nivsjx] & adds, 'against Israel,* an explanatory gloss,
48, 153, 233 om..
11. ^t^lJ] (6^ iirKpav^ffeTai; so &. (&'^* iiri<f>a.v/is iffrai. Hence Buhl
(ZAW. V, 182), nx-ip. TS horribilis (similarly ). ^^-^ ^0] Rd. '^
with
all
the Vrss., 25 mss. of
"J."?;,
with Schw. (or
&.
et
Now. nn5>
r\-r\);
disperdet.
(
?).
et
Marti, iipn or I'pv
CB.
Gr. nnr; so Fag..
attenuabit.
An
impf.
so
(& Kal iôkedpeiceL;
so Dr., Roth. (?).
is
nra^
better than a prophetic
and the Pi'el is necessary since the Niph. and the Ar. equivalent seem to point to the Qal as an intransitive.
We. says, " 'n is
impossible and ^^^'' scarcely right." But all attempts to substitute
another vb. thus far have involved too radical a departiu-e from 133.
'hSn] ToDi 6eQii% tQv i6vG>v; so &".
om. tuv i9'. & = ^rSo; so
Gr..
jc] For the sense from the stand-point of, in, at,' cf. nân .Vidi? jV'!?^?,
pf. here;
O?.!?."?
'
,^J??i etc..
Originally 'coasts,' 'islands'; but later designating
'Vn]
the seas,
THE DOOM OF ETHIOPIA AND ASSYRIA
(2^2-*^).
(e.
g. Is. 411-
'),
pars pro
but probably an inner Syr. error of l*^*^
6.
^=
countries as a whole
In another single
str.
of six lines,
toto.
D''un]
for ]*^*^*^
Zephaniah marks the southern
limit of the Scythian invasion; then, returning to the opposite ex-
treme of the world-empire of his day, announces the downfall of

Assyria and describes in detail the desolation of Nineveh.
VOU,
And
And
And
too,
Ethiopians, are the slain of
my
sword.
he will stretch out his hand against the north and destroy Assyria;
will
make Nineveh a desolation, a drought like the desert.

lie down in the midst of her, every beast of the
herds will
Both pelican and porcupine will lodge in her capitals.

The owl will hoot in the window, the raven on the threshold.
field.
ZEPHANIAH
232
This
of the
str., now standing

poem beginning in
12.
Ethiopians, dwelling south of the
threatened with pimishment, in
You,
fresh in Zephaniah's mind.
too,
Ethiopians]
The
cataract of the Nile are
first
probability because the fact
all
had ruled Egypt from about 720
that they
formed the close
alone, perhaps once

2'
B.C.
654
to
native Egyptian dynasty
was still
had se-
cured possession of the throne once more only about twenty-five
As
years before the time of Zephaniah.
people in the extreme south
(3^" Is.
11"
a distant and powerful

18^
^-
Ez. 38'), the Ethi-
opians are contrasted with the Assyrians in the far north.

be, of course, that
tians themselves
Are
Ethiopia.
Je.
25^
by
Zephaniah
this
name, because of
the slain of
Ez. 21^- ^^^.
my
upon those southern peoples.
Yahweh
representation of the Scythians as the sword of
scourge of God."
for the Scythians
suffered
no
mish
605 B.C.
in
The
prophet
is
designation of Attila the
Hun
{cf.
as "the
prophet's expectation failed of fulfilment,
Egypt
were turned back at the border of Egypt.
Necho was defeated at Carcheby Nebuchadrezzar. Her complete overthrow
serious setback
was not accomplished

in 525 B.C.,
34^ 66*
7^" Is. 27^
Zephaniah probably thought of the Scyth-
10^) recalls the later
Is.
may
Egyp-
their long subjection to
sword] Cf. Ju.
ians as destined to bring destruction
The
It
sarcastically addresses the
till
Cambyses, the Persian,
until the reign of
about a century after the time of Zephaniah.
The
almost certainly announcing a future calamity rather
than recording Egypt's actual condition when he spoke, and his

oracle
his
is
probably incomplete;
^.
to
sins
13.
And
he will stretch out
the north
fittingly reserved to the last, as
Her
i..
and destroy Assyria] Cf. Is. 5^ 9*^- "

As the greatest political power of the time, Assyria
hand against
10* 14^
v.
^*
is
a climax to the series of judgments.
were too well known to Zephaniah's audience
for
them
And will make Nineveh a desolation,

From the days of Sennacherib on down to
need recapitulation here.
a drought
like the desert]
Zephaniah's time Nineveh had been the capital of the Assyrian
empire and the queen
Her reputation was world-
city of the world.
wide and grew with the passing years;

dict her speedy downfall
was an
cf.
Jon.
exercise of
i^ 3^
^-
4".
undaunted
To pre-
faith.
devastation with which Zephaniah threatened her was even
The
more
than that announced as impending over the Philistine
terrible
Nineveh was
cities, for
be swallowed up wholly by the desert.
to
Such a condition as is here described would involve the drying up

of the Tigris, which ran along the south-west side of the city, and
also of the
sive
Khusur which
skirted the north-v/est side.
An
exten-
system of canals conveyed a plentiful supply of water within
Gardens and orchards accordingly
the walls.
But
flourished.
prophecy knew no limits to the power of Yahweh.
A nd
14.
things,
herds will
seems a
it
bit
lie
down
On
in the midst of her]
the face of
incongruous for herds to be feeding in a region
'dry as the desert'; but the foregoing figure pictured the complete
destruction of the city, while this adds to that picture the detail
of the place's total desertion
field]
says,
i. e.
by man
{cf. 2').
For the
every kind of animal.
"every beast of a nation."
Every
text, v.
A common
i..
beast of the
HI
literally
interpretation of
an abbreviated form of 'every beast of every kind';* but

no clear case of such an abbreviation, nor is there any evi-
this is as
there is
dence that 'nation'

it
may mean
of beasts that form groups,
"all beasts in crowds ";J
mon
'kind' or
i. e.
'sort.'
and Davidson, "Nineveh
But
pasture for every tribe of people."
Hebrew beyond
Others interpret
gregarious animals ;f
the straining-point.
still
others,
shall be a
com-
these all force the
Hence, We. emends
to
"a
motley medley of mixed people," which does not satisfy the con-
would change
text at all, while others
swamp,"
to
"every beast of the
forgetting apparently the violent conflict thus occa-
sioned with the preceding statement regarding the drought of

the region.
The
Both pelican and porcupine will lodge in her
carved heads of Nineveh's
part, be lying
many columns
capitals]
will, for the
most
broken upon the groimd and defiled by being made
to serAê as perches
and nests
and vermin. The

and 'porcurendered 'chameleon' by (^ and
for imclean birds
exact meaning of the two words rendered 'pelican'

pine'
is
in doubt.
'cormorant' by H.
The
first i>
In Lv. 11'^ Dt. 14",
unclean birds; in Ps. 102^,
it is
habitant of the wilderness; in

So
. g.
Hi..
X Mau., Ew., Ke., RVm..
among the
made an inincluded among birds
it is
parallel to 'owl'
Is.
34^^
it is
t So
is
Rosenm, de W..
van H., Dr. (?).
e. g.
Hal.,
classed
and
ZEPHANIAH
234
and
is
It is evidently,
represented as frequenting desolate regions.
some kind
therefore,
The
of wild bird found in solitary wastes.
only objection to 'pelican'
is
that as a
consumer of
fish, it
would
scarcely be found in a region 'dry as the desert'; perhaps, poetic
The
license is equal to this.
'porcupine'
in Is. 14^^, associated
is,
with marshy ground and, in 34", with desolate regions as here.
We
do not look
for porcupines in marshes;
associated with birds as in
nor are they addicted
we
exclusively to desolate places; nor should
hand, the meaning, 'porcupine' or 'hedgehog'
word
and
in Syr., Ar.
The
Eth..
raven on the threshold]

cf.
Is.
in
The owl will hoot in

Owls and ravens are
in the cognate tongues.
34" Ps.
the Vrss. nor
window, the
the
fit
occupants of
In the picture of the raven at
102^.
the door, Zephaniah anticipated Poe's Raven.
rendered
assured for this
is
alternative rendering 'bittern,'
which finds many followers, has no support
desolation;
expect them to be
But, on the other
34" and here.
Is.
as usually
"their voice shall sing in the windows; desolation (or
is,
drought) shall be in the thresholds."
But
the second half of the
sentence presents a strange collocation of circumstances; and the

half introduces a pronoun, necessary to the sense, which
first
The
not present in JH.
is
translation here adopted has the support
d. For cedar-work has been laid bare] This fragment, which

has no relation to the immediate context, is probably either due
to corrupt dittog. from the following line,* or is a misplaced
of
gloss
on 'famish' in 2".t
This
over Nineveh
now
fallen
was here appended
The phraseology
by some pious reader.
occurrence; v. Is. 22^ 23'
Not
till
is the exultant city that
dwelt
In the regular elegiac rhythm, a stanza of triumph
in security]
mon
"/ am and
15.
there is
none
else.''^]
32"
47^-
to the original oracle
of this verse is of
^".
com-
Saying in her heart,
Nineveh had long dwelt supreme.
within the quarter-century preceding Zephaniah's ap-
pearance had Assyria received any serious check in her career of

world-conquest.
The book
when
of
Nahum
{ZAW.
So Marti.
had been vassal for a half-century.

the relief and satisfaction of the Jews
itself
reflects
the tyrant's fall
* So Buhl
i'
Judah
became
V. 182), Schw. (?),
inevitable.
Now.
How
has she become a
(?), Siev., Fag., Roth., Du.,
Kent
(?).
2''-''
ruin, a lairfor the wild heast] Cf. Je.
235
Her destruction was
50" 51^^
Xenophon, passing the site in B.C. 401, was able to

learn only that a great city had once occupied the spot and had
been destroyed because Zeus had deprived its inhabitants of their
complete.
Every one who passes by her hisses and shakes his
wits.*
scorn and fearless rage.
Indicative of openly expressed
gesture
Ez.
2^
is
not elsewhere mentioned;

2'^
Jb. 2f^ La.
The qina-Thythm
is
Ps.
cf.
K.
9^ Je. 19^
Jist]
The
49" 50"
22^
resumed
in this str.,
and
this fact lends force to the
a continuation of 4, which is
Moreover, the course of the Scythian
view that
in reality this section is only
composed
in the
same measure.
and the writer would natuwrought by

not improbable that 2'-' was once continued by
invasion led through Philistia on to Egypt
rally follow that course in his description of the destruction
them.
It is then, at least,
a'*"-; so
The
is
Now., Marti,
Siev., Fag., Stk.,
Du., Kent.
foregoing considerations also support the view that this section
from the hand of Zephaniah himself; so Schw., Now., GASm., Marti,
Dr., Siev., Fag., Stk., Du., Kent.
It evidently anticipates the destruc-
Nineveh and was, consequently, vsTitten prior to that event. The

historical situation thus indicated seems to accord with the opinion that
Zephaniah wrote this section. The argument of Bu. (SK. 1893, pp.
394/.; so also Theiner, and Eich., Einl.*, IV, 417) for the later origin of
this oracle is by no means conclusive.
His first objection to the early
date is that Assy, is here treated without any reference to her relation to
Israel and thus the oracle lacks any inner connection with the situation
and differs wddely from Is. lo. But surely the prophets were not mere
copyists or venders of second-hand goods.
Nor was it essential that
they should always furnish an invoice of the injuries inflicted upon
Israel by a foe; cf. Am. 2'-'.
Knowledge of these on the part of the audience might sometimes be taken for granted. The second consideration,
tion of
viz.
that the phraseology
is late,
concerns chiefly
v.
'*,
the late origin of
which must be granted; v. i..

The fact that Nineveh still stands furnishes a terminus ad quern not
only for this oracle, but also for the work of Zephaniah as a whole. The
actual fall of Nineveh at the hands of the Medes occurred in 607-606
B.C..
At what particular stage of the long struggle that preceded her
overthrow Zephaniah pronounced this sentence upon her, we cannot tell
with certainty.
But
if,
as seems probable, these verses constitute a part
of the prophecy beginning in
2',
we
shall
have to place
it
with the movements of the Scythians, about 627-626 B.C..

* Anabasis, bk.
Ill, ch.
IV, 10-12.
in connection
ZEPHANIAH
236
The oracle as found
more than
in
likely that v.
'-
is
is
apparently not in
original form.
its
It
is
only the beginning of what was once a more
or less extended judgment upon Egypt; so Schw., Now., Marti, Siev.,
van H., Roth..
when
It is scarcely
much more
atively so
probable that Zephaniah would devote
rel-
space to the Philistines than to the Egyptians,
the latter people were second only to the Assyrians in influence
and power among the nations
of western Asia.
may be
It
that the
course of the Scythians in accepting ransom and tribute and possibly

repulse from Egypt and in returning from her border without doing her
any serious injury ran so diametrically counter to the prophet's expectations that the remainder of the original prophecy was in glaring contraIn compensation for
diction to the facts and was therefore dropped.
Its later origin is revealed by its althis loss, an editor has added v. *.
most hackneyed phraseology and by the fact that it looks upon the destruction of Nineveh as a. fait accompli; so Now., Marti, Siev., Beer, Fag.,
Roth., Du..
Gr. joins with
DHN-DJ]
12.
& om.
'3in]
We.
GASm., Du..
".
v.
D'tt'i^]
and
so 3 mss. of Kenn.
sf.;
'3in; so Oori^'";
definitely recognise its presence,
analogy in OT., since when the pronoun
pronominal subj.
Is.
37"
mar, 221) and in Bibl.

is
is
Rd.
Bî]
^^^
so
nnr^]
Om.
The
Vrss.
is
without close
used as here to strengthen a

e. g. 2
S. 728
common in Syr. (No. Syr. GramAramaic (Ezr. 5"). The position given 'n here
is
that customary with nominal subjects;
13. n>
as in
iV^n.
2-\n;
''
take the sentence
all
always follows that subj. immediately;
it
The same usage
Ps. 44^
adds
Schw.
Siev., Fag., Stk..
though they
The usage
as declarative rather than vocative.
Siev.
':^.
de R.,
Now., Roth., Kent.
with one ms. of Kenn.; so Marti, Now.^,
do not
Gr.
2 of
r\-^\];
Gn.
e. g.
342'
42" Mai.
^s-=.b.A.Q.r.
so We., van H..
i".
and HP.
23, 26, 40, 42, 49, 62, 68, 86, 87, 91, 97, 106, 147, 153, 198, 228, 233,
310
The
ngxi; so 3, Marti, Siev., Fag., Stk..
n.>
most part retain
for the
ist pers. all
"and may he
connection with v. '^ As
through verse.
foregoing sources
Ew.
bm.
for the rendering,
stretch forth"; but this gives
ficult
the text stands,
pf.
waw
with
consec. in v.
'^
we should
as in v. ", but the received text
account for on the supposition that that was the original

possibility
would be
to treat
them as impf with

.
text.
waw consec.
rendered
difficult
by
1x311 in v.
the forms as impf. with simple

to
dif-
expect the
is
hard to
Another
continuing a
;
<.
attempt to secure adherence to the same person throughout
oracle, for the probability of
calls
now missing (so Ew.) but that is

The simplest procedure is to point
waw; cf. Ges. ^"'^''. It is unnecessary
prophetic pf in the portion of the text

.
a hiatus after
v.
'^
allows
room
this
for the in-
now lost.
om.. "-d] 05
troduction of a natural change of person in the material

13133]
U=
^ =
Ssi.
'd3. 14. DMiy] We.
iij]
Om.
as
a^3i;, 'Arabs.'
corrupt dittog. of the
Stk.
foil,
dj
and
insert
''t'
with (g
and de R.
QI
Now.,
20; so
Marti, Siev., Roth., Stk., Kent.
with NT3
abs.
Oort^""-
'field.*
om.
with the meaning 'swamp';
phrase mj Sa niSs Sd
(2
cf.
Ch.
Ch. 32"
for in 2
though
it is
so Gr.,
n-;*;
om. '^ and adds t^s 7^5; so

and changes preceding word
Hal.
The
Dr..
Ez.
'n So,
use of
lyi^'
where
'j
in
analogy
real
'sort' or 'kind';
original sense, 'nation' or 'people'
and
perfectly natural to speak of the 'gods of the nations,'
it is
along national
retains
'j
why
not so apparent
its
the animals should be conceived of as classified
We.'s proposal to resolve the problem by giving
lines.
niR the sense of 'group' or 'family,' as perhaps in 2 S. 23'"-
68" 74"
^)
At.
(cf.
is
accord with the preceding
in
GASm.,
so We., Now.,
6r}pla
(pup^ffet, ev tois
Kenn. 112
name
the
(?), 245,
of a bird,
waii;
it
also calls for
(?),
3"in]
Rd.
in the
pi..
H vox
biopiyfxa(nv aur^s.
4, -nia'\
e. g. -\z;\
GASm.,
Roth., Du., Kent,
or
n>-infl33]
'3
'>
(g.^*
d^d;
Kal
cantantis in fenestra,
Schw. suggests that Tntf> represents

the latter is adopted by Now., Hal.,
f|iK'r;
OortE"!-,
Bach.
i.
quoniam attenuaho rohor ejus (=
njj;).
its
Siev., Fag.,
&=
dvTdWayfM)
because
'p.
Ew., Schw.,
Aq. S
corvus.
((S'3*^
ipir
'2
Now., Marti, Hal., Dr.,
HP. 228 om..
5i6t( K^dpos t6 dvdffTTjfjui
'<j]
Rd.
Sip]
3nj, with C5 KipaKet iv rots irvXaffiv avTrjs; so
Gr., We., Bach.,
mj? nrns
'j
pSna Tniri
being joined to the preceding word by
Dr.
1D3
'y
Marti, Dr., Siev., Fag., Roth., Du., Kent.
nia'v
Ps.
'^
untenable, since the resulting sense does not
(6 iv rots (parviifiacnv.
houses.
its
to
abnormal.
is
no
44'") is
'j
01,
so van H., but
n^j, 'valley';
32'^; c/.
proposed correction û Ss
for the
'1
Bach, djn, 'swamp.'
ri\n.
The
Others prefer inxn to

(&
3i.n,
avrijs.
root is laid
perhaps an inner Syr. error of oifja^ for olxj^ (Seb.). Bach.

Oort^- substitutes ncxi
^)"!?. ^3, 'for one has laid bare shame.'
bare,
^53?.
for the
whole clause.
nn; so
Hi.,
We.
(?).
Ew.
The
treats
S.it.
nnx
nrivs
as vb. in 3d pers. Hiph. 1/
might be pointed
r^pi^.
If
iE
is
correct, mj; is best taken with indefinite subj. as equivalent to the
passive.
15.
nriSpn]
B fortified;
similarly S.
Best treated as analogous to ijp and

so-called paragogic
the
meaning
voix-ff.
p-i-"]
hnt]
om..
'Ddn]
So
Is. 478-
(& connects this verse with ch. 3,
nxin; so Roth..
>;
in'îr
{cf.
for'N elsewhere takes no
Ges.
sf.,
*!
3"' ^"'i
nor does
which the addition of the sf. requires.

and Kenn. 145 = p^y-^ Qt\ Bab. Cod. a'l
'besides,'
but corrected to p-w^; so de R. 1092.

of verse, icni.
ni]
(&
v-;\
&
's'),
it
Gr.
.
with
have
Tîc]
(6
originally,
adds at end
ZEPHANIAH
238
OF JERUSALEM AND THE RIGHTEOUSNESS OF YAHWEH (3^-^).
THE
7.
An
SIN
incomplete prophecy of which only two
of a third remain.
Str. I charges
and
Yahweh
faithlessness to
(vv.
* ^).
Str. II arraigns the ofl5-
cials responsible for the political, judicial
of the city (vv.
the justice
and
religious welfare
Str. Ill sets in contrast with the foregoing
^- ^).
and
and part
full strs.
Jerusalem with disobedience
faithfulness of
Yahweh
To
(v. *).
are loosely attached two other fragments (vv.
''),
this
fragment
having no
inti-
mate connection with that which precedes them.

A LAS, O
defiant and defiled one, the oppressing city!

She has listened to no voice, she has accepted no correction.
In Yahweh she has not trusted; to her God she has not drawn near.
UER princes within her are roaring
lions.
Her judges are evening wolves; they have left nothing till the morning.
Her prophets are reckless, men of treachery.
Her priests have profaned the holy; they have done violence to instruction.
VAHWEH
is
righteous within her; he will not do wrong.
Morning by morning he
establishes his justice; light fails not.
Str. I contains three lines
addressed to Jerusalem and charging
her with rebellion against Yahweh.
is
shown by
^'*;
cf. Is. i^^
ised
vv.
v.
1. Alas,
That Jerusalem
one, the oppressing city!]
The grounds
^.
The
is
O defiant and defiled
the one thus character-
for the charge are given in
city's attitude
toward Yahweh
dicated, together with her standing in his sight
toward the weak.
2. She has
listened to
is
here in-
and her attitude
no voice; she has accepted
no correction] This charge
is repeated almost verbatim in Je. 7^*.

Jerusalem has turned a deaf ear to the voice of God as it has
spoken through the prophets.

Je. 7-^
^-
^ ^-
ii"-
This
The
22^^ Zc.
is
a frequent accusation;
'correction' referred to
is
c/.
the
f-^\
chastening afflictions sent upon the city of Yahweh, which failed
to turn the
stubborn and rebellious people from the errors of their
ways.
Am.
Cf.
she has not
4^"".
drawn
had recourse
and chariots,
In Yahweh she has not
near]
The
to everything
implication
is
trusted; to her
God
that Jerusalem has
and everybody but Yahweh. Horses

and foreign gods have been her re-
foreign powers
3'"*
239
Yahweh, who alone can

Yahweh was always demanded of
liance rather than
help her.
faith in
Israel
cf.
K.
i8'' Is.
f Ho. 4'' 5' Jos.
Unwavering
by the prophets;
This lack of
24^
faith
was
the
inevitable result of Jerusalem's refusal to hearken to the instruction of the prophets, her religious teachers.
Str. II characterises the four leading classes
and
civic
religious
life
and furnishes
down
Her
princes within
the people are
themselves devouring them;
Her
in Str. I.
i*^- Mi. 2^ Zc. ii*-
cf.
judges are evening wolves]
suggest, 'wolves of the
'evening'
phrase;
is
cf.
3.
Those who should shepherd
general proposition laid

her are roaring lions]
Jerusalem's
in
specific illustrations of the
Arabah'
(cf.
Pr. 28*^
has 'wolves of Arabia'; others

Je. 5^^)
but
is
better, since
brought into contrast with 'morning' of the following
Hb,
Wolves are
i^.
in search of prey.
Judges are
prowling by night
in the habit of
set for the
defence of the rights of
the weak; but with wolfish greed, these seek their substance;
Mi. 3"
Is. i^^
Ez.
22^^.
They have
left
nothing
characteristic of the rapacity of wolves
the temper of these dishonest ofl&cials.
from
(B
and H, but
context well.
is
which
till
the morning]
fittingly illustrates
This translation
without other support, save that
The meaning
cf.
of the verb elsewhere
is
adopted
it
suits the
is
'gnaw' or
'crunch bones'; but the negative here makes that meaning alto-
The
gether inappropriate.
phrase
may
be descriptive of either
the wolves or the judges; but in the present uncertainty as to its
meaning,
it is
impossible to decide between them.
certainty renders
it
unwise
to
The same un-
omit the phrase as a gloss as some
4. Her prophets are reckless, men of treachery] This

and only accusation brought against the prophets by
Zephaniah. The epithets used imply a wanton disregard of Yahweh and his moral requirements. The prophets of past genera-
have done.*
is
the
first
tions inculcated faith
Mi. 2"
3^ ^- ".
The
and
men; cf
always found
loyalty; these are faithless
prophets of Israel's higher
life
themselves in conflict with another class of prophets whose vision

was immeasurably inferior; v. note on Mi. 3^. Her priests have
profaned that which is holy] One of the priestly functions, according to Lv. 10*, was "to make a distinction Between the holy and
* So
e. g.
We., Marti, Fag..
ZEPHANIAH
240
the common and between the unclean and the clean." There is
no reason to suppose that this function was not one of the earliest
assumed by or assigned to the priests. Zephaniah probably re-
which
fers here to ritualistic irregularities
lessness of the requirements of
They
have done violence
was
doubt and
to instruction]
that of delivering the
of
dispute;
cf.
The
last resort.
Dt.
and
17^"^^
priests evidently sold the decision to the highest
the eyes of all right-minded
and most sacred powers
The
important priestly
constituted a decision by the court of
bidder and so brought the priesthood of
ends.
the part of the priests.
An
judgment of Yahweh in cases

21^.
This was called torah, i. e.
function
'teaching' or 'oracle,'
reflected a criminal care-
Yahweh on
They
men.
to the
Yahweh
into disgrace in
prostituted their highest
accomplishment of
selfish
and base
sensuousness and materialism of the priesthood
al-
ways constituted a most serious obstacle in the path of the true

prophets; cf. Ho. 4^-' 5' 6 Am. y^^^- Mi. 3" Is. 28^
Jeremiah's
estimate of the priesthood accords with that of Zephaniah;
Je. 2
6^^
5^^
Str. Ill passes over to a consideration of the character of
weh
as
cf.
iV.
Yah-
manifested not only in his dealings with his people,
it is
The
5.
Yahweh
is
content of the term 'righteous' here
is
but even in the regularity of the course of nature.

righteous within her]
at least partly indicated in the immediately following sentences.
He
is
upright and reliable; there
action.
sarily
The
an evidence of the
the thought of
in Is.
40^.
{e.
is
no swerving
use of this word as applied to
Yahweh
in his course of
Yahweh
late origin of this passage.
is
not neces-
It is true
that
as righteous comes into prominence
first
But
g. 41*" 42^^ 45^^- ^').
it is
quite improbable that
the idea burst forth suddenly into full bloom; there naturally
would be preliminary stages of development. Yahweh's demand
for righteousness on the part of his people, which is so stronglv
insisted upon by Amos, presupposes righteousness in Yahweh himself.
He
is
indeed described as 'righteous' already in a J passage,

and the same epithet is employed with reference to
viz.
Ex.
him
in Dt. 32^ Je. 12^, the first of
9^^,
which passages
about the same time as Zephaniah.

is
He
is
probably from
will not do wrong]
This
the negative side of the preceding positive affirmation.
Un-
3'-
241
righteousness or injustice on Yahweh's part
Morning by morning he
is
is
unthinkable.
This
establishes his justice; light fails not]
a concrete illustration taken from the invariable order of nature,
which was recognised by the prophets as the order of God, of the

Yahweh. Just as he
absolute and unwavering righteousness of
acts with unfailing regularity in the order of the physical universe
so likewise does he in the moral order;
the time of dispensing justice,
RV., reads, "every morning
cf.
(or,
bring his justice to light; he faileth

interpreted,
e.
g.
Yahweh
cf.
Ho.
Je. 21'^.
For morning as
6'.
M,
as rendered in
morning by morning) doth he

not." This has been variously
daily manifests his justice (i) through
the protection he affords the prophet,* or (2) through the revelation of the rectitude of his character effected by the temple-ritual
and the teachings of the prophets,f or (3) by the fact that he recannot
wards virtue and punishes vice. J But the Hebrew of
be rendered 'bring to light,' which is un-Hebraic; it can only be
Yet the idiom
translated, 'he establishes his justice as light.'
'establish justice as light,'
meaning.
in
lit.
'give his justice for light,' is obscure
Moreover, the division of the
line as required
by
Hence the slight change

here adopted. But the unjust knows not shame] This is a
as is shown by its superfluity in the parallelism and by the
brings the caesura into the wrong place.

of text
gloss
Yahweh with
fact that the context is not contrasting
class,
but with the
officials in particular
the 'unjust' as
and the people as a whole.
Marti' s attempt to save the line by an emendation, reading 'error

is
unknown,' does not aid the parallelism and involves the
elision
of 'shame' as a gloss.
Vv.
"^
have no relation either with the preceding or following
context, or with one another.
They
are isolated fragments; v.
6. / Jiave cut off nations ; their battlements are destroyed]
perfect tense here
may
i..
The
have been used in a prophetic sense, "I
The
context affords no aid in the resolution of

There were many occasions in Israel's history when
such a statement might have been made as historical fact; e. g.
will cut off," etc..
that doubt.
after the Scythian invasion, or after the victorious career of Cyrus.
There were even more occasions when prophets longed

* Hal..
t Ke., Hd..
% Hi.,
Mau., Dr.,
el al..
for
So Schw., Du.,
and
et al..
ZEPH.'VNIAH
242
Yahweh's
predicted such victories on
part,
* *"
g. Je. 28'-
e.
".
Statements concerning the nations are wholly alien to this context,
which
is
Yahweh and
concerned solely with the relations between
The nexus
Judah.
tivities in the
usually
made
that just as
is
Yahweh's
ac-
course of nature have failed to influence his people,
so likewise his chastisements of foreign nations for their sins have
produced no
effect
upon
Israel.
But even
this
if
without an explicit statement to that effect in the

culty of the
sudden change
to the first person
tetrameter line would remain.
with no passer-by]
(as in Jb. 5*
streets
/ have made
were possible
text, yet the diffi-
and the drop
to the
their streets desolate
Schw.'s proposal to render 'open country'
Pr. 8^^ Ps. 144'^) instead of 'streets,' because
18''
would hardly be mentioned before the towns themselves,

The prophets were not fettered by logical strait-
unreasonable.
is
Their
jackets.
cities
have been laid waste, so that there
no inhabitant] For similar pictures,

*^
33^-
"no
Ez,
cf.
2^ Is. 5
The phrase "no man"
14^',
is
6"
is
no man,
Je. 9^-
32^'
probably a variant of
inhabitant," since the one renders the other vmnecessary and
the metre
becomes regular when one
is
omitted.*
7. / thought,
"Surely, she will fear me, she will accept correction^']
Yahweh
evidently recalling his former thoughts regarding Jerusalem.
is
His expectations
had met with disappointment;
for her
M and the Vrss. have, "thou
cf.
3^.
but in view of the
wilt fear, etc.";
immediately following use of the third person in the same sentence,

the slight change necessary to produce the third person here should
probably be made.
"And
there will not be cut off from her sight
anything that I have laid upon
had been
her'']
i. e.
Yahweh had hoped
that
upon Jerusalem's
mind and heart that the memory of them would never fade away.
For this sense for ^y 1p3 cf Jb. 36=*^ 2 Ch. 36^ = Ezr. il For
his injunctions
so deeply engraved
M, reads "her dwelling" in place of "her eyes"; but

yields a wellnigh impossible sense.
The usual rendering, as
text, V.
this
in
I
i..
RV., "so her dwelling should not be cut
according
to all
that
have appointed concerning her," really requires a change of
text,
since
it
off,
involves too great an ellipsis; for the italicised words are
not present in iU.
Schw. would cut the Gordian knot by drop-
* So Schw., Bach., Marti., Hal., Now.^, Siev., Fag., Roth., Stk..
3^"'
243
ping "all that I have appointed concerning her" as a gloss.*
But they zealously made
all their
doings corrupt]
They
deliber-
and apparently with enthusiasm, set about doing the exact

opposite of that which Yahweh required. The literal rendering
is ''they rose up early and corrupted all their doings"; this figure
ately,
is
found elsewhere only
24' 25^-
26' 29^'
32^ 3S"
44')
and
in 2
^11^
viz. 7"-
Jeremiah (eleven times,
in
Ch. 36^^
The measure of this poem is irregular, conforming to no single standThe parallelism, however, is very regular; hence the length of the
The qina-xhyihux is found in
lines is in each case clearly indicated.
ard.
w.
is
'>.
4b. 6j
ipjS iDiJ nS
this is
^-
'
<
have
line,
(v.
')
and nnj2
lines of four beats each.
Str. I
by Marti through the
"i^js (v. );
so also Fag.
{cf.
Str. II
elision of
Siev.).
But
unnecessary from any other point of view than that of poetic
form, and
it
likewise involves placing
while a full line
more, vv.
is
while vv.
brought into conformity with
3b- <,
is
two
classes of offenders in
devoted to each of the other classes.
as they stand in M,, have the
That the oracle, as

shown not only by
it is
in
M,
is
only a torso
one
Further-
same general form as

is
practically certain.
^^.
It
the incomplete character of Str. Ill, but also by
its
Strs. I and II denounce Jerusalem

and Str. Ill depicts the character of the righteous
God in contrast to his wicked city; but the indispensable conclusion,
viz. a threat of punishment upon the city, is wholly lacking.
In its
place, v. ' opens up a new theme, the destruction of the heathen nations.
For this reason, Bu. {SK. 1893) would place v. after v. '. This, however, is not satisfactory, for it forces an unwelcome intruder between vv. *
and ', which are intimately interrelated, and the resulting connection between w. ' and ' is little better than that between vv. ^ and ^ For in
v ', the prophet speaks of Yahweh's righteousness and uses the third
person, while in v. ' Yahweh himself speaks and the subject is the city's
wickedness which was under discussion in v. '. Vv. ' are not only
out of place where they are located in M, but they also lack any mutual
connection of their own. They can only be treated as two separate
failure to
and
its
round out the thought.
leaders for sin
fragments, explicable either as glosses, or as torn out of other contexts
wherein they originally stood, or as remnants of oracles
GASm. on
cf.
Some
v.
now
lost to us;
interpreters
deny
3'-" to
Zephaniah and place
it
somewhere
in
the exilic or postexilic age; so Sta.*^^', 644; Schw.; We.; Marti; Siev.;
Beer(?); Fag.; Du..

hardly convincing.
(3)
But
the evidence cited in behalf of this view
is
It is of three kinds, (i) linguistic, (2) late parallels,
a different conception of Israel's sin from that presented in

Similarly Siev..
i' "
The
ZEPHANIAH
244
argument is based upon nx: Snj nr nixin pi-^x and hy ipij.

But with our present sources of information regarding the history of
Heb. words as meagre as they are, no confidence can be placed in conclusions based upon the number of occurrences or the character of the
usage of such words as these. The argument from parallel passages is
to the effect that this oracle reflects the same social and religious background as Mi. 7'-' Is. 56' ^- Ez. 22. The date of Mi. y'-^, however, is
by no means certain (v. ad loc), and the lapse of time between Zephaniah
on the one hand and Ezekiel and Is. 56 on the other is too slight to warrant the conclusion that Zephaniah could not have held such sentiments
as are here expressed, even though Ezekiel and the author of Is. 56 ff.
shared them at a later period. Nor were the religious and social conlinguistic
ditions so radically different in Zephaniah's time as necessarily to render

his utterances widely different in character
The
successors.
from those
of his
immediate
third argument, that the charges against Jerusalem are
But surely no prophet

what he has once said.
The charges are exactly such as might be expected of Zephaniah, and
indeed they do breathe forth the same moral indignation as that which
Hence, it seems the part of caution to continue to
characterises ch. i.
attribute this oracle to Zephaniah until more convincing testimony to
the contrary is forthcoming; so e. g. Dav., Now., GASm., Bu., Dr.,
from those
different here
is
to
van H., Roth.,
in ch.
certainly true.
i, is
to the constant reiteration of
be restricted
Stk.,
Kent.
k"*?; Ges. ^ "".

C5 V iin.<pa.vfj%; cf.
21 ^'^''Ît
, the well-known. 9 17 dêroOo-a; cf. B provocatrix.
'hasty.' Bab. Cod. without 1; so many mss. of Kenn. and de R.. Fag.
1. nsii::]
Bach.
n-^T.
This
1/;
IS
cf.
ns root treated as a
i<yDn a\
perhaps the oldest
Mai.
hSkjoi]
n'^pji,
The anarthrous form of
I'.
as
known occurrence
in
of this
this
and
often.
weaker form
of the
Is.
59'
and the preceding
prtc. is
not sufficient reason for making them predicates (Schw.), rather than
It may indicate that they were regarded alvocatives; cf. Ges. ^'i*".
most as appellative proper names {cf. Marti). <8 koH ivoXeXvTpufiivr).

g> treats 'j? as vocaSchw. n'^'iip. Bach. nSijni. iiyn] Gr. del. n.
tive, placing it at beginning of the verse and repeating it at the close as in
JJI.
rnvn]
05
<S wj X'; so
kfftrepivoi.
7]
1 &
irepLffrepd.
SJ.
2->y]
dvSrjrot
i]
(g TTJs
Bach. 1T3, as in Hb.
Âpaptas.
i'.
id"\j
& of Jonah. 3. nviNj

B vespere; so & 21. S
nS]
The
use of the pf. does
not justify the treatment of this clause as a gloss {contra We., Marti);
all
the vbs. of the context are in the pf ..
aorist;
cf.
Ges.
^ '"''.
In Nu.
meaning 'gnaw' or 'crunch';
24',
'j is
The
pf here
.
clearly a
is
used as a gnomic
denominative from
in Ez. 235^ a similar sense
fits
o^.a,
poorly and
= 'cut off' and the

In both Ar. and Syr. the
is uncertain.
meaning 'leave over' found in the Vrss. is not far removed from that.
H non relinquehant. (& oix inreXlirovro. 2( j^dî:; xS. Schw. and
the text
3*"'
Du. om.
Bach.
N*^.
Fag.,
Stk..
4.
niNOj]
Gr.
where
Je. 23^2
it is
Roth.
niN''a'j.
This 1/
annfl]
in
Marti,
various
its
Gn. 49* and
characteristic, viz. Ju. 9^
applied to the prophets as here.
n''.
-ici]-.
GASm.,
as hopeless; so Now.,
'j
human
forms always denotes a
Hal. miJ nS.
icKn nS.
1,7,2^
abandon
Several interpreters
245
in
(S TrvevfMTo<p6poi.
Aq. dapLêvrai. H vesani. nnj3 'Cjn] We should expect either a^^'jx

onja or nnja ^cjx. The ending n'' apparently has an abstract force
here = to ni; cf. nias and Assy. abHtu. Marti and Fag. om. phrase
Siev. om. â^m and reads nj3 with 'j as subj., all the reas gloss.
mainder of
'3
V.
being dropped.
2 S.
13";
but
{q. v.);
'33.
"(iN is
as dittog. from
gloss;
e.
nx:"^.
iv
but puts
HP.
it
in
<S
n'?]
n^'i.
&=
Rd.
iinV.
'33i '33.
Am.
as in
distributive
4*
with S om.
"îx,
ds
CH
(pQs.
Some om. as dittog. or

Van H. tnS. myj nS]
et
has a double rendering,

ets j/tKOj aSi/ci'az'
AireKptj^T]
om.
130, 153, 233, 311
5.
non dbscondetur.
& and will not delay.
marg.. Bach. ic>'^ n^. Roth. ': nS\ Van H. adds
23 om. Kal OVK
'7
in marg..
it
Bach.
Stk..
(=riNt'3) Kal ovk
oiK aireKpi^ri
wane mane.
]J
Schw. makes
om., but puts
'3 Sij; yii^ nS] CS^
a.Tra.iT-q<Ti
-IDKC.
so Marti, Siev., Fag., Du., Kent.
foil, n*^;
(S Kal ovK direKp68i).
&" om.,
Gr.
distributive force, v. Is. 50^ Ex. 16='
Trpwt Trpwt.
"nxS]
We., Roth.,
g.
lOan]
never used as a synonym of o^\
&"
in lucent.
5"23c_
Ges
cf.
Roth. om. one
same idiom, with
ipaj] For the
(pus
is
ddiKlap.
iv
dirair-^crei.
diraiT-â-ei.
HP. 198 om.
els
viz. ovk eyvia dSiKlav
(= Hi'S).
HP. 26, 49,
Si.a<f>dopq.
(|Q
HP.
om.
95, 185
(pQs Kal ovk
(S'^
106,
Kal
direKpi^-q.
iv diraiTT^crei. to end of verse.

HP. 238
end of verse under asterisk. But these variants are
value, being due largely to copyists' errors.
II nesciit
HP. 239 and Comp. om.

has
of
(pus to
els
no
critical
autem iniquus confusionem.

Marti, Sj; pnij mSi;
marg..
Van H.
Si;; jjni>
nSi,
n'i'3]
and Kent.
H., Roth.,
S>" {Ja^ ]ZaA].l^ JJo; but

so Siev., Fag., Kent.
Om.
it foil.
Roth.
':'.^!?
iS in
'^''-
PT..
as a gloss by Marti, Siev., Fag., van
Marti, however, suggests the possibility of
its
being a remnant of an original DnuK'nx i3Vw3.

6. BMJ] (S vwep7](pdvovs
&
avTuv.
as in
Assy.,
D'lXJ
(Schw.); so van H..
s.-iijd]
nsj]
umddi
be correct;
cf.
-=
Stt.,
but
common
"I destroyed"
Dl.^^^'i',
in
Aram..
No. i,
(III R. 9,
It occurs also in
8),
text is too fragmentary to render exact assignment
tion of the vb. possible); v. Meissner,
Sob.
if
the reading
563b; Muss-Arnolt, yissy. Diet. 870a; also
in su-di-e anniiti tu-sa-ad-di-Su-nu-ti (IV R. 55, 30b,
biichern.
(^ywviau
(i^?, 'miseries,' probably an inner-Syr. error for I^^C]
I's (Seb.).
vi.:.
In view of these Assy,
where the conand interpreta-
Supplement zu den Assy. Worterpossibilities, the
common
state-
ment that 'i must be of Aram, origin and therefore a sign of late age
is somewhat hazardous.
The fact that there was an Aram, speaking
ZEPHANIAH
246
colony of Jews in Elephantine in Egypt at least as early as shortly after
600
e.
makes arguments from
B.C. also
Gr. reads
value.
g.
N-i;n
so Bach..
-isn:;
the use of Aramaicisms of uncertain
7. Tncx]
>npn
'I thought,' as often,
>ti-\>D] Rd.
Gn. 20" 26'. in] (8 ttXtJv.
and n,7!n; so We., GASm., Or., OortE"-, Now., Marti,
.
Du.. n3^]
Roth.,
(6^
(S.b.
iôXedpeveirre.
Siev. ni3n.
"I??! (?)
GASm.,
Or., OortE">-,
Bach.
Du., Kent.
n:ij?D]
ib-n-So] Hal. 'n S33.
ipinsfn] 05 ((pdaprai.
first
of
which
is
&
Gr.
iD''3B'n pt<] (g
and
destroy.
iroi-
has
logically subordinate to the
oniS^Sy] <S ivi^vXXls aCrruv,
of four lines each, Jerusalem
strs.
(gAQr
iôXodpeiieij.
with (S &; so Gr., We.,
r\^yv.}?,
31 cogilationes suas.
JERUSALEM DELIVERED
8.
In three
310
pers.
Siev., Fag.,
Now., BDB., Marti, Dr., van H., Fag., Roth.,
two vbs. in asyndeton, the

second; Ges. ^"o^.
Rd.
3d
in
iô\e9pev0-nTai.
68, 87, 91, 97, 228,
nrj^.
dpdpiaov; so &.
fjiiôv
<g*
iioXodpevdiJTe.
HP.
(3-").
assured that the
is
nations will perish, while she herself after her purification will be
restored to the favour of
forward
Yahweh.
Str. I bids
day when Yahweh's judgment
to the
Jerusalem look
will overtake the
Str. II informs her that a work of

(v. ).
and elimination must take place among her own peo-
nations of the earth

cleansing
ple (vv. " ").
Str. Ill states the characteristics of the purified
remnant and predicts

'T'HEREFORE,
for
wait for me,
a happy and peaceful
it
it is
the oracle of
Yahweh,
for the
life.
day when I
arise
as a witness.
For
it is
That
For
TN
my
decision to gather nations, to assemble kingdoms.
may pour
in the fire of
out upon them
my
my
wrath,
all
zeal all the earth will be
that day thou wilt not be
shamed by any
the heat of
mine anger.
consumed.
of thy deeds wherein thou hast
rebelled against me.
For then
And
But
I shall
remove from the midst
thou wilt no more be haughty

I shall leave in the
of thee thy proudly exulting ones;
my
holy mountain.
midst of thee a people humble and poor.
in
ND
the remnant of Israel will seek refuge in the name of Yahweh.

They will do no wickedness nor will they speak lies;
Nor will there be found in their mouth a deceitful tongue.
For they will feed and lie down with none to disturb them.
Str. I adjures Israel to live in
geance upon the nations in general.

the oracle of
Yahweh]
preceding context,
its
hope of seeing Yahweh's ven-
8. Therefore, wait for me,
If 'therefore' is
it
is
based upon the immediately
only meaning can be something like in view

'
3-'
of these facts.'
dence
(e.
g. Is.
7^ 9' Jb. 32^).
mined from
247
The word 'wait' usually implies hope and confi8" Hb. 2^ Ps. 33^), but not always so (e. g. 2 K.
Its significance here, therefore, must be deter-
To whom
the context.
is
the exhortation addressed
Evidently not to the nations, for they are at once spoken of in the
third person.
Consequently, some interpreters say that the prophet
addresses the people of Judah as a whole, ironically bidding them
await the day of universal judgment, when they themselves will
Yahweh.*
commtmity of the pious
in Judah as the party addressed, and find here a word of comfort
for them, I viz. "wait confidently for the coming day of judgment,
when you will be vindicated and all the wicked destroyed"; cf.
For the day when I shall arise as a witness] This defines
V. ".
more explicitly the "for me" of the previous clause.
reads
"rise up to the prey"; (| ^ read "rise up as a witness."
After
share with the nations in the destruction decreed by
Others, with better right, look upon the
the verb, 'rise up,' something expressive of aggressive action
expected, but 'to the prey' hardly satisfies the expectation.
attempts to meet
by rendering "to the attack"; but
it
unsupported by the usage of the Hebrew word.

cent interpreters follow
CI-
Mi.
i^
ing as a witness,
will
cf.
this is
Most
is
Ew.
wholly
of the re-
For the thought of Yahweh appearMai.
Yahweh's testimony
3^ Je. 29^.
be given not against Jerusalem,^ but against the nations or
against the wicked wherever they

side of Israel.
For
kingdoms] There
is
against Jerusalem
my
it is
may
be,
whether inside or out-
decision to gather nations, to assemble
not a word here about gathering them to or

Zc. 14^ ^- Jo. 3"'^^ Ez. 38, 39)
(cf.
nor
is it
necessary to suppose that such a thought was in the writer's mind.
"The
'gathering' merely expresses the idea that they shall be uni-
versally
and simultaneously judged";** cf
'decision' or 'decree'
mind.
is
the purpose formed in
That I may pour out upon them
mine anger] This
is
a very
common
42^^ Ps. 69*^ 79
and
reference of the
pronoun 'them'
So Hi., Mau., Now.,

t Contra Now..
fifteen
wrath,
cf.
times in Ezekiel.
all the
Ho.
The
heat of
5^ Je. 10^^ Is.
only natural
the aforesaid nations
GASm..
my
figure;
is to
The
Yahweh's own
Je. 25^^"^ Is. 66^.
Contra Schw., Marti.
and
t So Hd., Or., Dr., Marti,

** Dav..
ZEPHANIAH
248
For in
kingdoms.
the fire of
zeal
is to
In this fiery furnace
bracing.
nothing but pure metal
all
the earth will he con-
.all
be world-wide and all-em-
the dross will be consumed;
This sentence
will survive the ordeal.
evidently original here;
is
my
The judgment
sumed] Cf. I^^
it
forms the necessary climax
to the
description of punishment.*
At
threats,
by more kindly and generous
has inserted a section expressing his
For
elliptical
expression meaning that
The
6^
own
sentiments; v.
then I shall turn unto the peoples a purified speech]
the nations that

Is.
editor, actuated
toward the nations than are reflected by the foregoing
feelings
9.
an
this point,
now
is
Yahweh
will turn the speech of
impure into a speech that
will
be pure;
cf.
impurity, of course, consisted in the fact that they
The
prayed to and swore by other gods than Yahweh.

tion will
i..
An
purifica-
consist in their being brought to abandon the worship of
any and every god save Yahweh
cf.
Ho.
2^^
Ps.
Contact with
16'*.
other gods was, from the point of view of Yahweh-worship, fraught
with uncleanness and impurity of the most pronounced type.
So
may call upon the name of Yahweh and serve

consent] The result of the purification is here specifiYahweh alone will be the object of the world's wor-
that all of
him with one

cally stated.
ship.
them
The same
a whole
to the
expectation of the conversion of the nations as
worship of
Yahweh
is
foimd in Mi.
4^ Zc. 14' ^
upon the name of Yahweh' probably had its origin in the cultus and dates from the time when the
mere utterance of the divine name per se was believed to exercise
a kind of coercion upon the deity himself. To possess the name of
the deity was to hold a certain power over him and thus, within
certain clearly defined limits, to make him subservient to the worshipper's will.f
Such primitive conceptions were far from the
11^ 19^^^-.
Is.
The idiom
'call
thought of the writer of this passage; but this idiom

val.
"With one consent,"
lit.
"with one shoulder";
(&
is
a survi-
"with one
yoke," rightly interpreting the figure which does not occur
where in Hebrew, though familiar in Syriac.
upon the
fact that
It
else-
probably rests
oxen were joined together by one yoke
in their
* Contra Siev..
t C/. Giesebrecht, Die alttestamentliche Schatzung des Coitesnamens (1901), 94
fj..
3'-
"
249
The idea of unanimity is pictured in i K. 22*^ by the phrase

The essential thought finds utterance in plain
labour.
"with one mouth."
prose in Je. 32^ Ez.
ii^*' ^,
though there predicated of Israel
in
There
is
the Messianic age, rather than of the nations as here.
'Yahweh' and 'him' to the first personal

pronoun; in speeches placed upon Yahweh's hps the prophetic
writers frequently lapse into the third person.
10. Beyond the
no
necessity to change
Cush] Cush was the name of the Nile valley, south of
rivers of
the Egyptian border.
The
'Ethiopia.'
that traverse the
It
corresponds in general to the Greek
rivers referred to are the branches of the Nile
most southern portion of the region viz. the Atand the Bahr-el;
bara, the Astasobas, the Astapus or Blue Nile,
Abjadh or White Nile;

sition,
whether
yond,'
is in
{e.
lished
Dt. 30^^
g. Jb. i^^ 2
(e.
ence here
may
K.
Ch.
4^^),
20^),
be given to the
the daughter of Put(?)]
The exact
force of the prepo-
beyond' or 'from the regions be-
The former
doubt.
g. Is. 18^
18^"^.
cf. Is.
'in the regions
sense
but the
is
much
In view of
first
the
more common
latter is also clearly estabIs. 19^^^",
the prefer-
rendering.^T/ie princes(?) of
For 'he-goats' as a
figurative appellation
is commonly named
Cush and seems to have been a neighbouring state.
As located by this verse, it would lie south of Cush and thus be
representative to the Hebrew mind of the most distant lands. The
foregoing translation rests upon a wholly conjectural correction
of the text; but it is the most attractive correction thus far offered.
of chiefs or leaders,
cf. Is.
14^ Ez. 34".
Put
alongside of
iK
is
quite generally considered unintelligible.*
solve the
this
Some
problem by omitting these words wholly as a
does not
make them any more
and, on the other,
it
intelligible,
seek to
gloss. f
But
on the one hand;
renders the line of which they are a part some-
"my suppliants, even the daughter of

my dispersed," which is made the subject of the following verb.|
RVm. renders in the same way, but makes the phrase the obwhat
short.
RV.
renders
ject of the following verb.
as subject
So
is,
Another rendering which takes
"the suppliants of the daughter of
my
it
dispersed," **
Ew., Schw., We., Oort, Now., Marti, Hal., Dr., van H., Fag., Roth., Du..
\\'kl.'^-, 149 /., van H., Fag..
Cj. Or. who suggests that >ii) r^2 may be a
gloss on i-ipv'.
X So also 'B, Lu., Rosenm., Hi., Hd..
** GASm..
662.
So also ke.; cf. Is.
e. g.
t So Schw.,
ZEPHANIAH
250
who now
the heathen neighbours of the exiled Jews,
i. e.
favour of those they once oppressed and despised.

culties confronting these renderings, v.
words ordinarily rendered "daughter of

of a South
my
diflS-
finds in the
dispersed" the
name
Arabian species of incense, which the nations are rep-
resented as bringing to
i. e.
Hommel
i..
seek the
For the
bear offerings to
Yahweh.
Yahweh
Will lead along
the worship of Semitic gods.*
There
is
my
offerings]
common custom
in processions,
no need
in
to consider the
princes as bringing offerings to Jerusalem; they are rather to
bring gifts to Yahweh's altars wherever they
Jerusalem or in Ethiopia
was a temple
Yahu
of
to the recognition of
10"
2 S.
Ps. 72^"
The
work
itself; cf. Is. 19^^ ^-
The
in Elephantine.
be,
whether at
the fact that there
offerings will testify
Yahweh's kingship over the nations;
With the verse as a whole,
81
may
and
cf.
2"
Is.
45"
cf.
i S.
66^ Zc. 8''
f-.
original oracle is
of cleansing
now resumed
among Yahweh's
in Str. II
people.
which predicts a
11. In
that day, thou
shamed by any of thy deeds wherein thou hast transgressed against me] Cf. Ez. 39^. The pious community in Jerusawilt not he
The day spoken of is that announced in v. *,

upon which the heathen are to be judged. The word
'shame' is used in Hebrew in two senses, a subjective and an
objective one.
Those who find here the subjective sense 'feel
shame' explain the statement in various ways; e. g. (i) Jerusalem
will no more be ashamed of her past sins, the very memory of them
having been obliterated ;f (2) such crimes as Jerusalem now comlem
is
addressed.
the day
mits she will not then do, and thus will have no cause for shame. J
Against (i) may be adduced the fact that the memory of sin and
failure is a
most
effective
agency in producing the humility de-
and the query, why did not

no longer remember," if that was what
was hardly necessary for the prophet to
siderated in the latter part of the verse,
the prophet say "thou wilt
he meant?
make such a
tation.
* V.
e. g.
As
to (2),
it
self-evident statement as is involved in This interpre-
It is better to interpret it objectively, viz.
Naville, Deir el-Bahari (Egypt Exploration Fund),
Jerusalem will
where are reproduced the
scenes from the temple wall showing the products of the expedition to Punt being presented to
the god
Amon.
t Ew., Dav..
Mau., Ke., Or..
3".
251
not be put to shame in the coming age, because the conditions that
have occasioned such public humiliation in the past
new and wholesome
place to
will
have given
ones; the wicked will have been
Disaster and suffering were interpreted as signs of

Yahweh's anger against sin, hence such afflictions were as brandmarks of shame, known and read of all men. Cf. Is. 54^ 65^*. The
removed.*
removal of the relative clause as a gloss

takes
it
away
is
unwarranted, since
the necessary definition of the 'deeds' mentioned;
metrical necessities cannot outweigh the requirements of the

thought. f For then I will take away thy proudly exulting ones
from
the midst of thee] In Is. 13^, this designation is applied to the
Medes
viz.
quirements of
Yahweh; here
as the warriors of
priests, prophets, judges,
Yahweh and
who
etc.,
denotes the
it
rejoice in their
own
no more he haughty in
my
the re-
self-sufficiency.
process of sifting will be resolutely carried through.
wilt
officials,
jauntily ignore
And
thou
holy mountain] Haughtiness, arro-
gance and pride were always offensive
to the
prophets
who without
exception were the friends and champions of the poor and lowly.
The mountain in question is, of course, Mt. Zion, made holy by the
presence of Yahweh in his temple.
12a. And I will leave in the
midst of thee a people humble and poor]
It is safe to
say that weak-
ness and poverty do not exhaust the content of these adjectives,
even
they form a large part of
if
it.
It is
not so
much
standing on battle-fields, in markets, and at courts that

as a state of
Is.
66^
Mt.
mind and
5^-
heart,
an attitude toward God;
This conception of the ideal religious
late in Israel's history; v.
on
meant,
cf.
Mi. 6^
life
came
2^.
Str. Ill describes the Israel that
now
Israel's
is
Schw.
is
to
be as the exact opposite
need of supplementing
some way; hence supposed that something had been lost
at the end of the verse.
This supposition becomes unnecessary,
if V. "* be read with v. "*, a proceeding which secures excellent
sense and at the same time gives lines i and 2 of Str. Ill their
proper length. J 12b, 13. The remna^tt of Israel Tvill take refuge in
the name of Yahweh] They will recognise Yahweh as their only
of the Israel that
is.
felt
the
v. ^^^ in
Hd.,
t
Stei.,
Now., Marti.
So Marti, Now.k, p^g
t Contra Fag..
Roth., Du..
ZEPHANIAH
252
The
but all-sufncient source of strength.
Israelites of the past
have at times scouted Yahweh's aid and when shaken out of their
own self-sufficiency by the shock of great calamities have turned to
own God; cf.

^g ^ consequence of this positive confidence in Yahweh,
the Israel of the days to come will not be guilty of offences such as
have characterised its past. They will not do wickedness, nor will
they speak lies] An abiding faith in Yahweh will keep them from
the perverse and devious ways of the ungodly.
Sure of themselves
and their God, they will have no need to take refuge in lies. This
the gods of the nations for help rather than to their
j5. 6. i2_
writer evidently sees a vital connection between morality
Nor
ligion.
will there be found in their
mouths a
and
re-
deceitful tongue]
The emphasis
laid here upon this vice is a reflection of the fact

and cheating have always been most prevalent practices
among Semites and are, even at the present day. For they will
feed and lie down with none to disturb them] A common figure in
that lying
prophecy; cf Is. 14^'' if Ez. t,^^^- ^^ Mi. 4" 7^* Jb. ii*^ Lying and
kindred sins are largely due to fear and need. In the coming age,
such incentives to vice will be lacking, for
and none
The
will
be
left
who
strophical divisions of this
ical analysis of the
as clearly
enjoy abundance
all will
could or would do injury to any.
poem
are clearly indicated by the log-
progress of the thought.
shown by the movement
The
poetic lines are just
of the parallelism.
The rhythm
is
prevailingly hexameter, with a few descents to pentameter.
Vv.
"
constitute a disturbing element within this oracle.
to be foreign to,
if
They seem
not also later than, their present context; so Now.,
GASm., BDB., Grimm (Lt. App. 87/.), Dr., Cor.,

The main ground for this opinion is
Siev., Beer, Fag..
Bu.c^^^^^-,
Marti,
the fact that they
manifest a totally different attitude toward the nations from that of
In the
latter,
be converted.
Moreover, the
'for' of v.
is
their destruction;
is
nor can
to involve the
that of those without.
ment
to
s.
vnthout any significance in
the present context; the purification of the nations
tion
v.
the nations are destined to be destroyed; here they are to
it
is
justify the 'wait' of v.
surely
no reason for
unless the purifica-
punishment of the wicked within Israel as well as

But this is not stated and is too important a state-
have been taken for granted.
Still
further, the elimination of
w. ' "> leaves a good connection between vv. and ".

The date of w. '-" is open to discussion. Some scholars regard them,
wdth or without w. ' '", as the work of Zephaniah; so e. g. Dav., Now.,
^
3'"''
GASm.,
them
253
Or., Hal., Dr., Cor., Bu.êsch.^
to a later age; so
e.
van H.,
644
g. Sta.*^^',
/.,
Others assign
Stk,.
Schw., We., Marti, Siev.,
The argument for their genuineness rests

upon what seems an impossible exegesis of v. *; viz. that it is
and is addressed to the pious in Judah,
the logical continuation of v.
who are bidden to wait until Yahweh shall have gathered the nations and^
by means of them inflicted punishment upon the ungodly oppressors
within Judah itself. But this involves passing over dmj and niD'?OD,
the nearest and the most natural antecedents of the pronoun in Dn>Sy
and seeking its antecedent in the distant m^'niyn in'aa'n of v. '. Naturally interpreted, v. ^ becomes a promise to Judah that the nations who
have oppressed her will be destroyed. Judah, on the other hand, is to
be cleansed and saved (vv. " '*). This sharp discrimination between
the heathen and Judah does not appear in Zephaniah's picture of the
day of doom in ch. i. Likewise, the characterisation of Judah as 'humble and poor' (v. ") holds up an ideal of religion which belongs to IsBeer, Fag., Roth., Du., Kent.
largely
'
rael's last
days
(c/. 2^).
nant also belongs
The frank recognition of the
doctrine of the rem-
The abrupt man-
in the later period of IsraeHtish life.
ner in which the trend of thought
changed
is
that the present consecution of thought
is
in v.
is
'
a further indication
not the original one.
After
% we expect an announcement of dire disaster upon the wicked Israelites; but instead we get such an announcement against the nations.
V.
Not improbably,
the original conclusion of this oracle, expressing
some
unfavourable judgment upon Judah, was deliberately dropped and the

present passage put in
place;
its
Grimm, U. A pp. 87^..
cf.
OT. which conHeb. alphabet, including the final forms, r,

however, does not appear here. iDn] (SB = ''?n; so Marti, Now.'',
8. According to the Mas., this
is
the only verse in the
tains all the letters of the
Roth.. ly.';'] Rd. t;}?, with (16 ; so Hi., Schw., Gr., We.,
GASm., Now., Marti, Or., van H., Roth., Fag., Du.. H infuiurum.
"SapS] Rd. Tai^S, with (^ rod elad^Hal. I^Jl']'. HDn'?] (& ffvvayuyds.
âcrOai and & (F; so Schw., We., Now., Marti, Dr., Siev., van H., Fag..
Siev., Fag.,
niaScD]
9. hn ^B^N] = S
exchange.' wny Sn] Gr.
mnj]
Bach.
Gr.
so
y^ph.
of
nflty]
nnflCD.
iêiXeyfiivov;
cf.
'>
Dio] Marti,
^3yS.
<J6^
aD!']
HP.
"'DU-a;
48,
(HP.
yoke.
10.
iv
ixia
it
under
qSd]
y'^2y'i\
and
asterisk.
&
CS**
'^^
&"
51,
132, 228,
240,
0'<dj;
nnna.
"M
hs.
Aq.
omnes.
so Fag..
Roth.
na iiny; so Hal..
C5^ Q HP. 26, 49,

it in marg.; HP.
has
(postea ras) irpoffd^ô/nai
62, 86, 147, vpocrd^xoticLi) roin iKereiovrds
iffwapfxivuv (36,
'"'.^Jj';';
!3i3
fwv.
* <"'^'
irivras.
(&
Marti,
om.;
Bach.
ain9j%
na nny] Rd.
dieairapfiivon
48, 153, 233 om.;
'bestow upon by way
d^d^S
yevekv
so &.
so Fag., Roth..
irpoffSdônai
238 have
eU
C5
106, 130, 153, 198, 233, 239, 311

22, 97,
Schw.
Sn.
>Ej;
HP.
i S. io, *. e.
^fl^,
electum;
(&% =
05^^Q^
idj?i]
<S /Sao-tXeis.
GASm..
fie
(95, 185, /icra)
Si(xnapix^vuv).
twc
t'/ceTa/ovrd
/xe
ZEPHANIAH
254
riKva Twv
SteffKopwiff/ji^yuv uir'
Gr.
sorum meorunt.
'ui
T^ inde supplices mei, filii disper-
ifwv.
Schw.
''TB'j;.
Bach,
nnx.
iflj-;
'a
-ipns;!.
Ew. taia for 'xis; so Gr., Dav. (?),

Ew. connects nn; with -\nj7,(Ez. 8"),
Hal., Dr. (?). Roth, nat la-'li^:.
which seems to mean 'odour,' and renders 'my perfumes,' which serves
Oort^"-,
'sn.
>siBja
''y
nny\
But the
as the obj. of the vb. with 'd in apposition.
Ez. 8
is
too uncertain to permit
textual basis of
use as a guide to interpretation here.
its
The usual rendering 'my suppliants' derives it from "inj; 'to pray,' a wellknown vb.. But the ambiguity as to the persons so designated and the
fact that this form occurs nowhere else make it more probable that the
The usual rendering of 'xie na, viz. 'daughter of
text is here at fault.
my
dispersed ones,'
met by
is
three difficulties; (i) na in such
regularly connected only with proper names,

D^'jj
is
na ,]Vi ra; the notable exception,
'op.
na
g. oStt'n^
e.
titles is
onB'a na
na, frequent in Jeremiah,
not closely analogous to this case where the governing noun
is
in the
the pass, prtc, Vis, nowhere else occurs; (3) the uncertainty as to
whether 'd na is subj. or obj. of the vb. The reading bis involves an
pi.;
(2)
and
error in only one letter
may be
no
]-\y
dittog. of the initial
taken as 'daughter'
,
ii'DB'
{cf.
no, bU Yakin,
>
of the
foil.
etc.;
no and
na here
vb..
'd. of the Chaldeans') or as
no,
na are at times confused
cf.
{cf.
Qr. and Kt. in Is. 10"), Hommel's interpretation of 'a 'a {v. s.) rests
upon three contentions; (i) that Cush is not Ethiopia, but a region in
S.
Arabia;
names
(c.
follows the analogy of other Semitic plant-
(2) that 'a 'a

g. bint
'inab
el
'wine'; banal en-ndr
the
names
of
two kinds of incense), and
variety of incense;
and
On
will bring
a costly kind of incense as
tion of
would
this basis, the rendering
Cush with
Arabia finds
S.
my
little
name
of
1.
4,
some
special
inp originally meant 'to offer
(3) that the \/
incense.'
the
is
be
between
'nettle'), is to
connected with the S. Ar. 'Cdn (found in Glaser, No. 1083,
be,
offering.'
'
my incense-bearers
But the
identifica-
favour because of insufficient
evidence (so Ko., Fiinf neue arab. Landschaflsnamen [1902] and Ed.
Meyer, Die
Israeliten
und
ihre
Nachbarstdmme
Glaser, Skizze d. Gesch. u. Geogr. Arabiens, II,
und Ahhandlungen, No. VIII; Che.
art.
144); the use of na with a plant-name
is
[1906],
t,2)-
315-317; contra
Hommel, Aufsdtze
Cush, EB.; Wkl.
KAT.\
137,
without analogy in Heb.; and
the connection of nnj? with incense has no support in Heb. outside of the
dubious passage, Ez. 3^

11. 'n ova]
&
thou not blush, etc.?"

cf.
Ges.
Roth.
12.
13
^'>.
''DB'a.
joins to v.
iDm]
''
inn:D]
n':']
Rd.
and takes
i"
Stei.,
Gr.
vTinic,
first
Hal. nS.
'oni;
nnajS]
so We.,
nnNB*] (& joins with
with <S; so Ew., Schw..
clause as a question, "wilt
v.
An inf.
Oort^'"-,
cstr. in
Now..
" as subj. of
ion.
''
n__;
Diva]
'y^
nS]
3"-"
255
THE WORLD-WIDE RENOWN OF REDEEMED
9-
ISRAEL
In two
(a"-^"').
of unequal length, a late writer contrasts the Israel
strs.
commg Golden Age with the
of the
Str. I bids the people of
about to repulse
all their foes
and
Yahweh
flicted
own time.
Yahweh is
own
people with
to favour his
"
^^-
").
in his
Str. II declares
to destroy all Israel's oppressors, rescue her af-
is
ones and
because
known
rejoice
(w.
his gracious presence henceforth
that
Israel as
Yahweh
make
his people the object of the world's praise
' '').
(vv.
r^RY
aloud,
Be glad and
daughter of Zion; shout,

your heart,
rejoice with all
Israel!
daughter of Jerusalem.
Yahweh has taken away thine opponents, he has turned aside thine enemies.
The king of Israel is in the midst of thee; thou wilt no more see calamity.
Yahweh, thy God, is in the midst of thee, a warrior who delivers.
He
will rejoice over thee
T WILL take away
Behold, I will deal with
And
And
with gladness; he will renew thee in his love.
those smiting thee,

all
I will deliver the halt,
I will
make them a
and those bringing reproach upon
thee.
thine oppressors at that time;
and
praise
the outcast I will gather.
and renown
in all the earth.
community of the pious to rejoice enthusiYahweh's favour. 14.

daughter of Zion; shout, O Israel] The context shows
Str. I exhorts the
astically in the evidences of the return of
Cry
aloud,
that joyous exclamations are called for.
name
of the chosen people of
Israel proper
with
Ez.
had ceased
to exist.
It is quite
to 'daughter of Jerusalem';*
4'- *' 6^ ^\
Rejoice and exult with
of Jerusalem] Cf. Zc. 9^

eral are personified.
Is. 54*.
The
2j25. 32 J Q}^
2^3 J
hence
it
after
unnecessary to change
2^^
cf.
Mi.
all
your heart,
17" 50"^-
Je.
daughter
In 'daughter' the people in gen-
smaller towns, villages
surrounding a large city were
used as the
'Israel' is
Yahweh, a common usage long
known
as
was an easy
its
'
and hamlets
daughters
'
e.
g.
Nu.
step to the thought of the
inhabitants of these smaller places as the daughter of the mother

city {cf. 2 S. 2^').
the central place in

to
As Jerusalem came to occupy more and more

Hebrew thought, and as the territory dwindled
smaller and smaller proportions,
it
became
* Contra Now..
perfectly natural to
ZEPHANIAH
256
The
represent the capital as the mother of the entire community.
same usage obtained, however, with regard to Egypt (Je. 46"- ^),
Babylon (Is. 47^), Edom (La. 4^), Sidon (Is. 23^^) and Tarshish
(Is. 23^").
15.
Yahweh has removed thine opponents ; he has put

The prophet transports himself in
thine enemies out of the way]
imagination to the future for which he so ardently longs and proceeds to describe
as though
it
contemplated repulse of the foe
The afflicted and
for in V. ".
were actually
it
is
distressed condition of
time of the actual writing of this passage
m has "thy judgments"

ties
is
Judah
at the
thus taken for granted.
for "thine opponents,"
i. e.
the calami-
come upon thee as penalties for thy sins. But the

The king of Israel
calls for a word denoting persons.
that have
parallelism
The name "Yahweh"
in the midst of thee]
is
This
realised.
the ground of the rejoicing called
"Israel"
is
(cf V. "), but
due to a glossator, as
and the undue length
is
of the syntax
tion of
inserted in
after
a correct interpretation of the phrase "king of Israel"
Yahweh
41^^ 44^ Ps. 90^^
as Israel's king
Ob.
^^
is
is
shown by the awkwardness
The representaOT. view; cf. Is. 6^

among other Semitic
of the line.
a familiar
Similar conceptions
names Melek, Moloch, Milcom and the

Yahweh's presence
v. note on i^
in Israel is a guarantee of security and prosperity for his people.
Thou wilt no more see disaster] The Hebrew text here wavers
between 'see' and 'fear'; (g and ^ agree upon the former; "&
peoples are attested by the

like,
bestowed upon their gods;
follows the latter; while QT compromises by incorporating both read-
ings in
its
rendering.
the essential
Either reading furnishes admirable sense,
meaning being the same
in either case.
To
'
see
'
here
means to realise as a personal experience cf. Je. 5^^ Is. 44*. 16.
At this point an editorial addition appears, which does not conform to the metrical norm of the context and does introduce a
and " which naturally go together.*
foreign element between w.
;
^^^
In
that day,
it
at
cf.
The language
work upon a hard task suddenly

2 S. 4^ Is. 13^ Je. 6^^ Heb. 12*^.
resumed.
"Fear not, O Zion; let

up the picture of a man
go of his work in despair;
will be said to Jerusalem,
not thy hands drop"]
calls
letting
17. Here the original oracle
Yahweh, thy God,
* So Marti, Fag.;
c/.
Roth,
who
is
in the midst of thee, a warrior
is
who
drops only the introductory words in the third person.
315-17
This
delivers]
line is chiefly
257
last line of v. *^
an elaboration of the
For similar descriptions of Yahweh as a warrior bringing

erance,
cf.
Yahweh
Is.
The
9^ 42^^ Je. 14 20",
as he
who
righteous, not because they are,
it is
is
He
"he
his love."
widely
silent in
diflferent
people has been
fights in behalf of the
but because
true, his people,
here abandoned and the writer frankly
imaginary stand-point
looks to the future.
be
who
He will rejoice over thee with gladness] The
of their righteousness.
will
own
fights in behalf of his
transformed into the thought of him
deliv-
primitive conception of
Some
ways.
renew thee in his
will
love] IH reads,
This has been interpreted in
explain as, 'he will because of his
love keep silent regarding his people's sins';* others, 'God's love
will
be so strong and deep as to hush motion or speech;
silent ecstasy ';t
it
thought of silence seems wholly out of keeping with the
and
is definitely in conflict
Hence recent
with differing interpretations;

43^^) the like of
is
interpreters, for the
tioned the correctness of the text.

e.
g.
Many
probably a later ac-
most
(,
new things
been known ;
he will do
he renews himself in his love;ff
or,
have ques-
part,
have followed
which have not heretofore
renews his love;**
spirit of
with the 'shout' or 'ring-
ing cry' of the next line, though the latter

cretion.
be
But the
weh's meditative planning of good deeds toward Israel.J
the context
will
while one explains the silence as due to Yah-
or,
but
{cf.
Is.
or,
he
with the
rendering given above,t J through the manifestations of favour inspired by his love for thee, he will restore thee to pristine vigour
and
glory, giving thee
newness of
This
life.
is
a thought, not ex-
actly parallel to that of the other half of the line as

pect,
we should
but at least not wholly foreign to the context, and
upon a
text
the phrase, as
from which
M might
some do, on
the
and metrical
situation.
forms to the measure of the
ex-
based
To
drop
ground that it records the lament of
a reader, does not adequately explain

textual
have arisen.
easily
it is
it,
Where
line.
He
while
it
it
stands,
complicates the
it
exactly con-
will exult over thee with
shouting as in the days of a festival] This line, which incorporates

*SoMau.,
Hi..
t So Dav., Or..
** Buhl, ZAW. V, 183;
tt Gr., Now..
So Bach., Marti, Siev., Now.^, Fag..
Hd..
J Hal..
GASm.; Du..
tt Ew..
ZEPHANIAH
258
the
first
editorial
two words of
v. *^
as reproduced by
05,
expansion suggested by the shout of
view in
which opens
M,
sembly.
little
reflects the
its
reference to the days of festal as-
v. ^^
with the last two words of this
presents a very difficult,
line,
it
be an
to
adds
It
and
or nothing to the thought of the foregoing line

late priestly point of
seems
v. ".
not wholly unintelligible
if
RV.
text.
renders, 'them that sorrow for the solemn assembly'; AV., 'sor-
rowful for the feast'; and others, 'those grieved afar from the assembly,' * or 'them that are
But
phrase as
it
stands are insuperable.
accounted for as a part of
between
there
is
removed from the solemn assembly.' f

by the
in addition to this ambiguity, the difficulties presented
^*,
v.
for
It
no
cannot be satisfactorily
suitable logical connection
Nor
it and the remainder of the verse can be discovered.
any apparent reason why the phrase should hold so emNor can
phatic a position at the head of the sentence.

of (^
^ be derived from M-
and
the text
Consequently, some have aban-
doned the phrase, and indeed the whole of
v.
as hopeless;
*^,
while others exercise great ingenuity in attempts to discover a

satisfactory substitute,
rendering seems to indicate the
(g's
The
of escape for this phrase, at least.
occasion
of course, that of the worshippers,
is,
Yahweh
of
the spirit
is
and
and
This affords an interesting
likened.
way
joyous shout on the festal

to this the joy
side-light
upon
attitude of the devotees of the later priestly law.
Str. II represents
Yahweh
himself as telling
how he
vert Judah's present disastrous state into one of security
18. I will remove those smiting
thee
will con-
and
glory.
and those bringing reproach
upon thee] On the basis of m, the verb must be taken as governing the two words which have here been connected with v. ".
The remainder
reads,
of
'who were
reproach."
But
however,
the verse,
of thee; to
'of
thee'
whom
is
is
unintelligible.
the burden
literally
'from
RV.
upon her was a

thee,'
a wholly
im-Hebraic idiom for the expression of the idea of 'belonging

Furthermore, the
to.'
ellipsis of the
and the meaning 'burden'

*
Hi.,
% So
is
'
to
whom
'
is
too violent
else applicable to
Schw., Roth..
Similarly
AV., with the variation, 'to
nXt^D.
t Dr. (?); similarly GASra..
Mau., Dav., Dr.(?), Or..
e. g.
words
nowhere
whom
the reproach of
it
was a burden.'
3"-
RVm.
is
for the
solemn assembly which
even less satisfactory,
'they have been sorrowful
viz.
away from
took
ing up of reproach against her.*
259
This involves a
thee, for the
lift-
difficult ellipsis of
'which,' an almost impossible syntax in 'they have been sorrowful,'
and the
up.'
which
feast
reproach
insertion of the preposition 'for' before 'the lifting
make
another attempt to
Still
broke
ofif
But 'broke
is raised.'
sense is,* 'sorrowful for the
are certain of thee, thou land over which

off' is
an unauthenticated trans-
lation of the verb, 'certain of thee' is
an unparalleled Hebrew
idiom and constitutes an impossible subject of the sentence, and

'is
raised
'
is
a very free rendering of
more or
follow (6
'
gather; woe, whosoever
lifts
'
at best a rather disjointed utterance.
appropriate meaning
shame and
will
lift
is
Several scholars
lifting up.'
and render, thy smitten ones I will

up reproach upon her.' But this is
less closely
smoother text with an
furnished in, 'I will take
reproach from upon thee.'f
away from thee

But the word
removed from any resemblance to M- The

upon <i and partly upon
and presupposes a text from which
might have been de-
'shame'
too far
is
translation here suggested rests partly
&
rived with relative ease.
throw of
Israel's foes
As thus
who have
occasion for the taimts of
all
read, the line promises the overafflicted
her and
necessary to drop any part of the line or to transfer

context.^
time]
19. Behold, I will deal with
statement
eral character.
all
the
more
For a
Jq
21^ ps. 109^^
great day of
right.
The
'time' referred to
gather] Cf. Mi. 4^-
all
un-
and gen-
divine might
judgment upon tyranny and
Yahweh, upon which
And
It is
to another
thine oppressors at that
similarly indefinite use of the idiom 'deal with,'
2^25. 29
made
all
it
terrible for its indefinite
It leaves available all the terrors of
for the execution of wrathful
made her an
the surrounding peoples.
of Israel's
is,
cf.
iniquity.
Ez. 22"
of course, the
wrongs are
to
be
I will rescue the haU and the outcast I will

^
Ez. 34*^ Zc.
The terms 'halt' and 'outThey suggest the

the Hebrew people scattered
ii^.
cast' are applied to the dispersion as a whole.
homeless and crippled condition of
among
the nations, like a flock of sheep without a shepherd.
* Ew..
t Marti.
who ora. "ÔD ^PCOX

Ninn arj in v. ".
X Contra Fag.
to follow
as a gloss; and
Now. and van H. who tr.
the
same phrase
ZEPHANIAH
26o
I will make them a praise and a name in all the earth] Those
who have been an object of the scorn and contempt of the nations
And
are
now
This
at the
become
to
is
end of
caused
the object of envy
and renown the world
this line the phrase, their
difficulty to translators
and
over.
m adds
climax to a prophecy of restoration.*
fitting
shame] This has always
interpreters.
a verb, 'and they will be ashamed'; but this
treated
it
text and, even at that, is very poorly suited to this context.
considered
it
as in the construct relation with the preceding word,
Hebrew
'land of their shame'; but this involves an anomaly in
Others render, 'whose shame was in
grammar.
and
as
a different
calls for
all
the earth ';f
must be
this is the easiest disposition of the phrase, if it
re-
But even this would naturally call for a different order of

words in fH and places an unnatural emphasis upon the preceding
Hence
them,' \iz. I will make them a praise whose shame, etc.'.
tained.
'
'
on the whole, better
it is,
to
omit the phrase either as a gloss or as
a corrupt dittog. of DlD^mStt'

is
nS
expansion of
v. ^^,X
v.^^20. This verse

weak variant or repetitious
"mtTS in
generally recognised as being only a
which adds nothing
to the
thought already ex-
when I do good to you and in the time when

I gather you] Originally, this was probably the continuation and
close of the previous line.
With a change to direct address, the
In
pressed.
the time
fact is clearly indicated that the glorification of Israel is to
simultaneous with the return of the exiles

out the
among
known
all the
world.
For I
slightly different order of
viz.
When
your
eyes,'
i.
The measure
I turn your captivity before your
e.
in
captivity, v. note
your own lifetime; cf
of this section
is
str.
little
basis
It is
Is.
pentameter, which
is
2^.
'Be-
52^
on the whole well
where the
has suffered textually more than the
eyes, saith
on
text
first.
is
in doubt.
Its four lines
poem with v. ", making this a later prose supplement, seems

beyond the somewhat prosaic character of v. 's. But v. '^ also is open to
Du.'s proposition to dose the

to have
praise
with a
the addition of a temporal
sustained, the only irregularity being in cases
The second
^^'^,
repetition of v.
words and a change of person.
and completed by
Yahweh] For the phrase 'turn your

fore
be
scattered through-
make you a name and a
peoples of the earth]
likewise continued
clause,
will
now
that criticism.
t So Ew., RV.; cf. AV., "every land where they have been put to shame."
J So e. g. Schw., We., Now., GASm., Marti, Siev., Fag., Du..
3"-'
261
might be increased to six by the incorporation of v. 2<i- ; but this is unattractive, if for no other reason than that it results in two somewhat
heavy temporal clauses, in apposition one vnth the other, following the
main
clause.
The
unity of the section has been disturbed;
Not only
w.
""
i-
s"
are later ad-
by no means certain that Str. II

really belongs with Str. I.
The change of person in v. '^ might point to
a new departure in the thought; and the variation in the length of the
two strs. suggests different origins for them; so e. g., Roth.; cf. Dr.. But,
on the whole, it is simpler to treat the second as complementary to the
first, especially since the basis for the appearance of Yahweh speaking
ditions {v. s.).
but
so,
it is
own person is laid in v. ".

The passage as a whole (vv. "-2")
in his
ilic
or postexilic date by
niah's authorship are
EB.; Dr.
(?); Or.,
modem
now
and
is
quite generally assigned to
WRS.,
few, viz. Ko. Einl.;
On
Stk..
art.
the side of late origin
1865, pp. 812
Oort, Godgeleerde Bijdragen,
may be
The
way
'">
is assiu-ed.
known
facts.
tone of the section
The
The
here wholly to promises of peace and pardon.
The
The
exile
ces-
decreed; the restoration of the favour of
is
and dispersion are taken
return of exiles
is
consid-
Threats of punish-
erations in favour of the late date are convincing.
give
644;
ff-
Baudissin, Einl.; Strack, Einl.^; Beer; Roth.; Du.; Kent.
sation of Israel's affliction
cited,
Kue.
^^^ Gesch. 89; Cor.;
Grimm, Lt. App. 95/.;
Sta.*^^',
ff.;
Einl. 78; We.; Schw.; Bu. SK. 1893, PP- 393

Wildeboer, LiU. d. AT.; Dav.; Now.; GASm.;
ment
an ex-
ZephaZephaniah,
interpreters; the defenders of
is
that of Zc. 14
predicted.
and
spirit
and
the so-called Deutero-Isaiah.
total severance of the fulfilment of the
historical agencies is characteristic of
for granted as well-
The whole
promises here
made from
all
Messianic and eschatological utter-
ances of later times.
This use of the
pi. as over against the sg. in 'ji and 'nee* is

was not so keenly felt to be an individual and
personal epithet as were
na and aSiyn^ no; the collective idea was
more in evidence. Snt.;"] (S = a'^B'n' na; so Now.. 15. T'^dc'c] Rd.
*l'^Q-j'p, with S; so We., Oort^ra., Now., Marti, Siev., Fag., Roth.,
1.
due
i>''in]
to the fact that îf^v
]'\-'i
Hal. T^Sy'c.
The
objection that a forensic term like
a hardly
'ti2 is
not weighty in view of Jb. 9"

and the bitterness and wrath that Job attributes to his 'opponent' who is
suitable designation of Israel's enemies
none
less
Xirptoral
that in
<re;
its
pare,' a
than
'>
is
njs] XeM on the ground
himself, the source of all Job's sufferings.
hence Schw.
Tia.
Schw. objects to
seven other occurrences njg always means 'make
meaning not
'remove,' 'take away'; this
is
the primary meaning, 'turn';
meaning required
But
suitable here.
in Ps. 80'".
clear,' 'pre-
the
meaning
a legitimate and natural development of
and
^ (S'B approve
($
it is
n3''<]
not so certain that this
Rd.
";:;''><,
with
many
is
not the
mss. of Kenn.
ZEPHANIAH
262
and de
H . iSc]
R., (g
e. b.
''''d'-
(^^^^ '
a.y
hp.
62, 86, 95, 106, 185, 228, 238, 240, 311, â<Ti\eu(ri
Fag., Roth..
ovk
'^<^n] 05
Marti, Fag., Roth. om..
SxiiT'']
6ypio
thou shall not be alarmed

'Niin
ivl
<rk eiKppoffivrjp.
(ZAW.
New., Ew., Hi..
Gr.
so Now..
vesces,' 'boils over' {cf. Ps. 45'); so
and
force of a in nnca'3
'
in'
This
here also.
take an obj. with

join
to v.
it
with 05
B'in'>,
is
3.
van H..
a rela-
mm (?);
Schw.
dht;.
'he roars,' or 'effer-
m^nxa]
to call for the
Some
The
del. 3.
meaning
'with' or
supported by the fact that cin does not elsewhere

Fag. om..
-\^^-;]
18.
iyicD
Rd.
^Jti]
& ;
with 05 ws if vndpg. iopriji and
',
01
and &; so Buhl

Houb. U'^'in:; so
Kaiviei ae
H silebit.
Bach. v<n
seems
nj-\a
Bibles.
"idn>] (S ipei idipioi.
'1^2 I'Sy ^'''ly] (S iirdêi
Miiller {SK. 1907, p. 310), vr\y_
so Oort^-.
Bab. Cod., 38
Adjectival impf.
y^^rv]
Dr., Roth., Du..
^li'in'';
'Ni^n; so
16.
treats as prtc
Rd.
a"\n"i]
GASm.,
V, 183),
17.
&
ae.
ffiicrei
so Marti, Siev.,
to foil, ^3^p^.
tr.
and the Baer and Ginsburg
at the sight 0/ evil.
(g positively, 6dp<Ti.
*?{<]
tive clause.
Siev.
B non timehis =
iM; so &.
mss. of Kenn. and 31 of de
22, 26, 36, 42, 51,
:iSp;
so
li'iD oi>3
and
Buhl {ZAW.
V, 183), Schw. (?), Gr., Oort^"-, Now., Marti, van H., Fag., Du..
nugas, qui a lege recesserant. Hal. 'dd ^jid, Hoph. prtc. of \/ nj>; so
Dr.
Bach. 'cD c-ijo
(?).
Ges.^5".
-i;
Niph. form of
the Hiph.
this root
mju
'ni;
Bach.
{I.
c),
9 rnss. of
HNit'D
rn]
e\a/3e'
(^'s 'in is
PNi:'!?.
in
Rd.
is Is. 58''
The
D^N^B'on;
^D
known form
the only
Ko.
cf.
Aq.
în.
'?n-\B'>d
582.
& I will cause to
pass
Cf.
(xwreTpififiivovs
roi>s
H. quia ex
Hal.
te.
i?;?.
'belong-
and there the text is almost certainly

2" is not quite analogous.
of Ezr.
those
who were
so .
of;
of
I,
with 05
'H''?'?,
The form might
The only other case cited for the prep, p as =
here.
it is
Nii'j
is
Kai a-wdêi.
Rd.
an
Hiph. = 'push away'; but no
so Schw. (?), Now., van H..
'HDNip.
speaking.
erant
ut
non
oial
05
ultra
rls
habeas.
adopted by Buhl, Schw., Oort^"-, Now., van H., Fag.. We.

Buhl, nb'^ >p; so Now., van H., Fag..
Hal. 'nnNB'p; so Dr. (?).
Marti, ^nxrji nn'^s;
rendering of
tions; (i) the
'y 'ifo
so
Now.^
(?),
Roth.
anarthrous character of
The Hiph.
use of the Hiph.
is
(?).
by "the burden upon her"
pronoun and the copula;

else.
HP.
idd]
ing to* or 'springing from'
corrupt as
which
is
with an obtusion of
-j/ nji,
occurs in La. i^
occurs elsewhere, nor
D^nspx.
ffov (g'^Q);
Buhl
nj>
H's nugas
Tivlr'JJ.
sound, but without any basis
20") absolutely guaranteed textually.
(2 S.
'Pbdn] (&
away.
(+
fern,
be derived from another
also
in
M must be Niph. prtc.
The form in
The
in fact.
to
'co
Siev.
^riljl].
etymology suggested by the resemblance
(3) the
prtc. here
22'^,
is
even
if
required nowhere
2 S. 17''
rendering with this reading becomes, 'those
those
who caused
lift
is
not elsewhere found; but the
literal
(others) to
The
to three objec-
(2) the elision of the relative
meaning 'burden'
proposed
assured by Lv.
'c;
Siev. I'sjB'p vn.

is liable
be unsafe.
who smote
up reproach against
thee.'
The
thee
and
niSy]
Rd.
3'"-"
with B, Bab. Cod., and several mss. of Kenn. and de R.; so Oort^*"-,
^\'?3J>
We.
Fag..
so Hal..
orcVj?;
19.
n^Jj?D
So Pn] <8
larly Du..
ffol
^'
(Sy iveKev
<Aem aW humble in
<fe/.
ft
iveKev croO;
ifxov
tr. h^l
to foil, 'p
GASm.
hence
9 mss. of HP.).
(so
the midst of thee.
Gr. adds n^j;
interficiam.
N'nn
n;;3]
and reads
a^ncci]
and makes
&
Marti om. as dittog. from v. 2"; so

No. Colling, gel. Anzeig. 1871, p. 897,
(S^Bom^,
foil, 'z'2 obj..
Da'] <S pi..
onK'3] (S Karato'xi'J'î^croj'Tai.
parallel cases for
2"
K. 7"
Je. 25'';
with Buhl, OÔ^n
Du..
cstr.
with the
art.,
''Xap
nxai]
rijja
rQ
<S iv
{cf.
Rd.
'p nj;3i,
Siev., Fag., Roth..
It
n;'3i;
20.
Kaip(^ inelvi^
3"'t3ix H^r\T\
with Buhl.
As
3" 8"
Srav xaXwj
05 Kai 4v
is
Vfiiv iroi-qffoi)
GASm.,
(?),
OortE-n-,
rQ Kaip^ Srav
GASm.
good
Ninn nya] Rd.,
elffS^-
Marti, Dr.,
how so easy and natural a readway to the rarer idiom suggested
to see
ing as this latter one could have given
by M, which bears the stamp of
non
njo; so Gr.,
so We., Now.,
is difficult
Marti,
(?),
so Hal., Dr. (?).
but in every one of these instances there
Cf. Schw. (?),
Schw. y2pn N>nn
'3;
there have been cited Jos.
for suspecting corruption of the text.
so also van H..
fo/tiot.
Gr, inserts nnn before
Du..
Siev., Fag., Roth.,
1 S.
simi-
Roth. '>jj;d'7 'înx.

(gsANQY jjP. 48, 228,
om.; so Schw., We., Dav., Now., GASm., Oort^'"-, Dr.
ground
n^2.
it
"^liyjp^ ''3"J^?<;
ft" under asterisk.
X/yet Kyptoj.
Siev., Fag..
nsyy]
Van H.
so Now., Marti, Siev., Fag..
add
263
originality.
If this
be correct, there
is
strong presupposition in favour of the similar reading here adopted for

the
first
part of the
line.
33\-n3'.:']
Rd. 03013^, with
CI ft 19
Heb. mss.; so Schw., We., Now., GASm., BDB., Marti, Fag..
and 14
A CRITICAL AND EXEGETICAL
COMMENTARY ON NAHUM
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF

NAHUM.
THE BOOK OF NAHUM.
I.
Its Contents.
The
section of the
first
forth the avenging
with reluctance, yet

Its
book of
Nahum
as
wrath of Yahweh (i").

its
it
now
stands sets
Though manifested
exhibition against the ungodly
inevitable.
is
outpouring throws the physical universe into convulsions, but
Yahweh
furnishes shelter from his wrath to those that trust in him.
Those that oppose him are irrevocably destroyed. The second

section (i"-2^) alternates between words of reproach or threatening against some imnamed foe (supposedly Nineveh) and promises
"of comfort and deliverance to Judah.
The remainder of the book deals with one subject, viz. the
The
approaching destruction of Nineveh.

divides
itself
into two sections, viz. 2*""
and
however,
material,
3^"^*.
The former
of
these begins so abruptly as to suggest that the original beginning of
the section
is
embodiecîn i"-2^.
either lost or else
The
section
upon Nineveh, the

of the defenders and
as a whole gives a vivid picture of the attack

caj)ture, the
weeping of the women, the
flight
the plunder of the city's treasures
and
trasting Nineveh's past tyranny
and robbery with the waste and
The
desolate state which awaits her.
dressed directly to the
doomed
closes with a taunt-song con-
closing section
city, first of all
The
the awful state in store for her.
(3^"^),
ad-
presents concretely
reason for this
is
then as-
signed as lying in her treacherous treatment of other nations.
Hence she
is
to
be made the butt of the scorn of these nations.
she flatters herself that she
is
impregnable,
throw of the invincible Thebes.
and she
will fall
an easy prey.
Panic
No
267
let
will seize her
matter
If
her recall the over-
how
defenders
zealous she be in
268
NAHUM
strengthening her defences,
fire
and sword
will destroy her,
and
her population will scatter like a brood of locusts, leaving behind
no
Her
clue.
destruction will be total
the plaudits of
all
and
final
and
will call forth
peoples.
Its Unity.
No
was
question
raised as to the unity of the
appearance of Gunk.'s
until the
book of
ZAW.
article in
Nahum
Ber-
for 1893.
thold had, indeed, in 18 14* asserted that the three chapters were
independent one of another and claimed

thor, they
were separated by
different
nearly
all
and
in
ficial
for a poet of
is
cast
its
origin
first
nature of the thought of
The
The
freshness.
noted by We.,
The
acrostic
is
and
in
arti-
psalm-like
marked conand abstract
theological
i^ ^- is strikingly different
vivid tableaux of chs. 2
by
considerations pointing
seems too mechanical and
with the language of prophecy.
and
The
Nahum's vigour and
character of the language,
concrete
Gunk., how-
but also
later origin for i^'^" are as follows.
which the material
form
trast
i,
Essentially this view has been followed
hand.
succeeding interpreters.!
to another
though from one au-
independence of ch.
ever, asserted not only the
from a
that,
slight intervals of time.
3.
from that of the
This
is
the language
of reflection, not that of prophetic passion forged in the heat of cur-
rent controversy
plied to almost
In
i^
^,
Yahweh
and Lebanon; whereas,
The
chs. 2
and
it
3.
is let
and 3.
upon Bashan, Carmel
Nineveh is the sole object
loose
and 3,
and eschatological character of the
in chs. 2
indefinite
acrostic distinguishes
found in
descriptions here might be ap-
foe; they lack the specific detail of chs. 2
the wrath of
of his anger.
The
and hope.
any
sharply from genuine prophecy, such as

It is true,
as
is
is
urged by GASm., that
vagueness and eschatological tone are found in Zephaniah; but

there the eschatological material leads naturally
to the
announcement
of the
coming
and smoothly
historical events
which are
to
* Eitd., cited by Hap..

t Exceptions are Dav., who refrains from a decision; GASm., who admits " many provocations
to belief" in the late origin of ch. i, but does not regard it as proved, and therefore leaves the
question open; and Or., who ascribes the acrostic to Nahum whom he believes to have used so
much of an earlier poem of his own as seemed appropriate here.
UNITY
fiilfil
269
the expectations of the prophet.
theophany
is
kind with the
Here, the eschatological
without practical issue and lacks connection of anyfinal catastrophe,
which
mediated.
is historically
Various hypotheses have been formulated as to the

the acrostic
became a part
of the
book of Nahum.
way in which
It
goes with-
out saying that the union was deUberate rather than accidental.
it now stands originally written as an introOr was it, though written for this purpose,
thoroughly revised at some later date?* Or again, is it a poem
found ready at hand and forced into this service by some editor who
But, was the acrostic as
duction to
Nahum?
failed to appreciate its acrostic
form ? f
These questions cannot
be answered with any high degree of assurance; but the
mentioned hypothesis seems the more
last
for the introduction
likely;
have been made
does not
fit
From
of w. ^-
the remainder of ch.
polation,
which balances the foregoing judgment upon the heathen
sufl&ciently well to
^^- ^^
is
i, viz.
w.
to be joined with chap. 2
""^^,
and
to order.
a portion consisting
set aside
as an inter-
The
with an announcement of deliverance for the people of God.
Nahum
genuine
first
appears in i"- "
2^- '.
This, however,
scarcely to be accepted as the original opening of the prophecy.

is
altogether too abrupt
acrostic has displaced
and broken. The probability is

some material which formed the
is
It
that the
original
beginning of the prophecy.
The
only other extraneous matter in the book
very end,
viz. 3^^-
the rest by We.;
*^.
and the
fact that they
seem
One
makes
it
foimd at the
later
than
to reflect the fall of
Nineveh, together with their variation from the

context,
is
These verses were suspected as

str.
norm
of their
probable that We. suspected the truth.
other portion, viz. 2^-3^, has been suspected of having been
subjected to a thorough working over. J The grounds alleged for

this suspicion were (i) the probability that the original metre was
elegiac, (2) the theological colouring
the style of Ezekiel.
sage
is
But
the statement that Nineveh's dovmfall
indignation against her sins.

* So We..
t Viz.
which was thought
to recall
the only theological element in the pas-
The
is
due
to
Yahweh's
fact that elsewhere
Nahum
t So Now., Dr., van H., Kennedy.

by Bu. EB. (1902); but the passage remains unchallenged in his Gesch. (1906).
NAHUM
270
Yahweh's part in the punishment

him from speaking of it here, especially
says nothing directly about

surely does not prohibit
in view of the fact that the idea is
one characteristic of
all
genu-
ine prophecy.
Attempts
Nahum
to dissolve
into its original elements
and
to
new and radically differhave been made by Hap, and Hpt..
reconstruct these in combinations wholly
ent from that found in
The former
regards ch.
ent sections, viz.
i^^*^
cemented together by i"independent of ch.
as having been constituted of two differi^^b-is^
and
^^^.
These were worked over and
Chs. 2 and 3 Hap. declares to be
and each independent
of the other, the three
chapters having been written by three different hands.
no adequate support
finds
in the text
and
is cited
This view
merely as a curi-
osity of interpretation.
Hpt. designates the book as a liturgical collection of four poems,

the
first
two belonging
Maccabaean age and the last two to

fall of Nineveh in 606 B.C..
the four poems are: (i) i^'^"; (2) 3^''
to the
the days immediately preceding the
The
jU.
materials belonging to
14
2I 1I2.
15
22.
(3)
32. 3 23a-5. 8b. 6-8a. 7. 9-12^
38-15.
(^)
J^^
SUppOrt
of this extraordinary bouleversement, not a shred of argument
Something more than a mere ipse
proffered.
dixit is
needed
is
to
render such a proposal worthy of serious consideration.
Its Poetic
For the
Form.
last thirty years, the poetic
subject of repeated consideration.
has received relatively

construction of ch.
little
form of
attention.
showing
its
ch. i
has been the
The remainder
Bick.
first
of the
book
presented a re-
acrostic character.*
By an
in-
genious but fanciful method, he found the acrostic completed

within
i^***
{v.
Gunk.f abandoned the
following commentary).
attempt to discover the complete alphabet in the

the lines in
w. ^^ and, on
as an interpolation, blazed a
through ch.
* In
(1882),
t In
and
ZDMG. XXXIV
initial letters
the basis of We.'s elimination of
new path by
of
2^
carrying the acrostic on
into the beginning of ch.
(1880), 559 #.; similarly also in
i^^-^^
2, its
Carmina
constituent ele-
Veleris Teslamenli metrice
and on
vv. '-"' in Zeitschrijl jiir Kathol. Theologie for 1886, pp. 550
ZAW.
XIII (1893).
jj..
POETIC FORM
"
raents being i^*"- "
2^-
in his latest publication
ferent
This new
'.
271
was followed by Bick.
trail
on the subject,* but with a somewhat
arrangement of the materials,
w.
**
^*'-
dif-
^ being placed be-
w. and ^^ and some new readings being proposed. Gunk,

tumf accepted some of Bick.'s modifications and supplied the
missing i and p lines of which he had despaired in 1893. Now.
tween
in
in his
edition (1897) accepted in essence the conclusions of
first
Dav. (1896) and Dr. both assumed a
Gunk, and Bick. J

cal attitude
scepti-
GASm.
toward the existence of an acrostic; while
(1898) recognised the traces of an alphabetical arrangement as far
as
i^,
though questioning the success of the preceding
efforts to
^"*,
(1898) granted the alphabetic structure of w.
but denied any further trace of it.** Grayf f admitted the exist-
restore
it.
We.
ence of the acrostic throughout ch.

attempts to restore
beyond
it
and on into
i* as
whoUy
ch. 2, but regarded
conjectural. J J
Siev.
abandoned the effort to restore the acrostic beyond i^, but

declared that the rhythm showed that the acrostic was not conlikewise
tinued in ch. 2.
Am.
ence of the acrostic
is
(1901) presented the view that the pres-
due
to the
from memory but forgot the

inal order
and the
fact that
be recovered only in
change of
text
w.
work
of a redactor,
latter part of
it
^*"-
it
who
together with
cited
its
it
orig-
was an acrostic; consequently it can

"^ and there only by dint of much
and transposition of words and clauses. Marti

w. ^^^ and declares it to be a torso,
which is irrecoverable.*** Van H. renews the at-
(1904) too limits the acrostic to

the balance of
tempt
to
complete the acrostic within
but the
1^-2^,
many
violent
emendations and transpositions involved in his reconstruction of

the latter part
mark
his effort as only
an academic
In the following commentary, the acrostic
is
exercise.
carried only through
* Beitrdge zur semit. Metrik (1894).

t Schopjung und Chaos (1895), pp. 102 /..
t So also Hap. Psalm Na. (1900) and Das Buck
In Expos. T. 1897.
Na.
(1902).
** So also N0W.2 (1903); Lohr. ZAW. XXV (1905), 174 /..

tt Exp. for 1898, pp. 207-220.
XX So also Kennedy in DB. art. Nahum (1900). Dr. (1906) follows Gray's reconstruction
of w. ^', but questions the acrostic character of w. '" ^^
Metrische Studien (1901).
*** So also
(19 10).
Hpt JBL. XXVI
(1907) and
ZDMG. LXI
(1907), 275-97; Stk. (1908);
Du.
NAHUM
272
substantially that of Giink. as emended

Hexameter rhythm prevails throughout
this poem, with the caesura after the third beat, except in 1. i where
The poem was perhaps organised origit follows the fourth beat.
i^
by
and
the reconstruction
Bick., Marti,
is
et al..
inally into strs. of six lines each, but nothing certain
can be gath-
ered from the fragment before us.
The
and
poetic form of chs. 2
Greve (1793) was one of the first

Eich. (1816) arranged it in strs..
also
remains to be considered.
to treat the
prophecy as poetry.
Poetical versions were offered
by Justi (1820), New. (1836), A. G. Hoelemannus (1842), Um.

and Ew. (1867). But none of these
(1844), Bretschneider (1861)
had any inkling of the nature of Heb. metre.
In recent times, Bu.
2 and 3.*
Rub. contributed a study of the oracle in i^^- " 2^- *"",t concerning
the poetic form of which he said, "the whole prophecy is written
in lines or <TTtôt, every crri')(p<i consisting of two or three KooXa."
Accordingly he fovmd twenty ariôL, of which fourteen were com-
has pointed out the existence of elegiac rhythm in chs.
posed of two KcoXa each,
one KcoXov.
But
five of three
KwXa each, and one
of only
the unevenness of the KOiXa, which range from
three beats to six in length, robs this arrangement of any real value.
In 1901, Siev. arranged
2^"^
in pentameters, following Bu.'s hint.
Hap. (1902) was the

in recent times to arrange the whole book
as poetry.
His str. arrangement in part coincides with that presented in this commentary; e. g. the number of strs. in chs. 2 and
3 is the same in both arrangements and the first and second strs. of
first
ch. 3 include the
same materials
in both.
But Hap.'s reconstruc-
tion is subject to serious criticism at several points;
made
hardly be
to yield
two
lines,
nor
2^" four;
g. 2
e.
nor can
can
yott'"' i^h'l
"JDX^D b^p ^^y (2") be divided into two lines; nor is it easy to
justify the presence of dimeter (t,^) and tetrameter (3^") lines in
the
same
str.
in
immediate juxtaposition
(1904) finds one seven-line
organises i"-
"
2^- ^-3^^ into
rule exhibit the

to the four-line
* First in
str.
PSBA.
same
str.
ZAW.
XX
is
in elegiac
in
a series of four-line
elegiac
Marti
(so also in 3^^).
rhythm
movement.
But
i^^-
^^-
"
2^
and
strs.,
which as a
this
adherence
possible only at the cost of disregarding
II (1882), 35; also in
(1898), 173-85.
EB. 326a and Gesch.
p. 90.
POETIC FORM
The study by Hpt. (1907) is valuable not for

and arrangement which are arbitrary in the exbut for the many lexicographical and grammat-
logical continuity.
poetic analysis
its
treme
(v. p.
ical hints
270),
Stk. (1908) attempts
contains.
it
273
and indicates
under no compulsion
prints his text in metrical lines
In this task, he
ter.
is
no
analysis, but
str.
their metrical characto
produce lines con-
forming to a uniform metrical standard; but, on the contrary, in

3^'^^,
for
example, permits the appearance of heptameter, dimeter,
and octameter lines. This is to

and introduce chaos.
recognises the elegiac metre throughout chs. 2 and
trimeter, hexameter, tetrameter
disregard
all
Du. (1910)
known laws
of poetic form
3 and, like Marti, applies the standard of the four-line
con-
str.
He, however, secures four
throughout the prophecy.
sistently
from 2^"' where Marti finds only three, two from

2" to Marti's one, and three from 3^- ^ to Marti's two. His ar-
four-line strs.
rangement also involves transposing
3^** to follow 3^^*.
In the reconstruction of the poetical form of i"-3* presented in

this
commentary, the
ji2. 13. 15
ju.
22^ (2)
a single eight-line
second comprises
the
jii ^2. 7. 8. 9. 12. 13.
ameter
text is divided into three sections, viz. (i)

2I. 3-13^
î-ia^
three.
Here
elegiac
rhythm reveals
variants from this are tetrameter

strs.
ing 8.6.6.6.8.4 lines each, though the final

accretion
u.
12.
u.
{v. p.
|.j^g
and
itself in
and hex-
str.
may
be a later
^'
**
remaining lines are chiefly tetrameters and
hexameters as in ch.
throughout chs.
The
are contained, hav-
Elegiac rhythm recurs here in 3*^-
269).
15. 18, 19.
composed of
rhythm.
four having six lines each
In the third section, six
lines.
j.st is
in almost perfect elegiac
str.
^j^g
Tj^g
(^)
five strs., the first
one only
fifth
14
and
2.
To
create elegiac
3 involves
rhythm
consistently
a treatment of the text which
all sound canons of textual criticism.

rhythm and metre of Nahum are not so smooth and
regular as is the case with some Heb. prophets, yet in some respects the poetry of Nahum is imsurpassed in the OT.. His excel-
does despite to
Though
lence
is
the
not in sublimity of thought, depth of feeling, purity of
motive, or insight into truth and

tive
powers.
He
life.
It is rather in his descrip-
has an imexcelled capacity to bring a situation
vividly before the mind's eye.
His constructive imagination lays
NAHUM
274
hold of the central elements of a scene and with realistic imagery
and picturesque phraseology recreates it for his readers. Acciurate

and detailed observation assists in giving his pictures verisimilitude.
Lowth rightly said,* "Ex omnibus minoribus prophetis nemo
videtur aequare sublimitatem, ardorem et audaces spiritus NaApparatus ad excidium Ninivae ejusque excidii dehumi.
.
scriptio et amplificatio ardentissimis coloribus exprimitur et ad-
Through the whole scene

et pondus."
moves a mighty passion and a great joy which lift the narrative out of the commonplace into the majestic and make of it
mirabilem habet evidentiam
there
great literature.
THE TIMES OF NAHUM.
2.
The upper limit for the period of Nahum's activity is established

by 3*. The fall of Thebes is there referred to as already past. But
Thebes suffered more than once at the hands of Assyria. In 670
B.C., Esarhaddon had conquered the whole of lower Egypt, including Memphis, and had organised it into Assyrian dependencies.
The list of the Egyptian princes who swore allegiance to him at
this time includes the name of the Prince of Thebes; but Thebes
was not then attacked by Esarhaddon. Again, about 667 B.C.,
Ashurbanipal forced Taharka to flee from Thebes and take up an
intrenched position farther south; but it is doubtful whether Thebes
fell
into the
hands of Assyria at that time.f
Ashurbanipal captured Thebes and carried

to
Nineveh.
Finally, in 661 B.C.,

off
an enormous booty
This event was the beginning of the end
for the great-
Egypt and the ancient world. There can be little doubt

but that Nahum's reference was to this occasion. So far as we now
est city of
know, there was no other attack upon Thebes prior

Nineveh, which accords with the description of
by 652
B.C.,
Piankhi
3^.
to the fall of
It is true that
had regained Thebes; but she never recov-
ered her former greatness and the tradition of her impregnability
had been irremediably
The
shattered.
lower limit for the period of Nahum's prophetic work
by the date of the

*
fall
De
of Nineveh, to
sacra poesi Hebraeorum- (1770), II, 434.
t^F. Breasted, History
oj
is
fixed
which the prophet looks
Egypt (1905), SS7.
for-
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
ward with
That we
exulting confidence.
vaticinium post eventum
275
are not dealing with a
the hope of the prophet is too
is clear:
genuine and fresh; the details of the siege and conquest are too
minute and would be somewhat superfluous,
any shadow
and
to say the least;
by the knowledge, or even suspicion, that Babylon was a far more severe taskmaster than
Nineveh had ever been would be inexplicable. The date of
Nineveh's fall is determined by the statement of Nabonidus that
he restored the temple of Sin at Harran fifty-four years after its
the total lack of
cast
This destruction of Harran was at the same time as
destruction.*
more than a year
that of Nineveh, or at most not
earlier.
The
restoration of the temple of Sin occurred in the third year of
Hence the fall of Harran was about

i. e. 553 b.c.
607 and that of Nineveh about 607 or 606 B.C..
NaboniduSjf
The
B.C. in
On
is
specific portion of the period
which
Nahum
the one hand,
so vivid that
On
it is
prophesied
is
between 661
more
B.C.
urged that the memory of the
no long time can have elapsed
and 606
determine.
difi&cult to
fall
of
Thebes
since that event.
of as
it is evident that the fall of Nineveh is thought

imminent and that the invasion of Assyria has already begun
(3'').
Hence, some seeking to combine both of these elements in
the other hand,
the picture would place
Nahum
in connection with the revolt of
Babylon imder Shamash-shum-ukin

spread
among and
ecy of
Nahum
work
included a great
seems to picture the
of one great foe (2^).
of
is
rather from an outside foe.
Nineveh at any time during the
But
Nahum 's
is
due to the
no suggestion of
description; the at-
Nor, indeed, was the situation

revolt so precarious as to war-
rant such a confident expectation of her destruction as
Babylon
that revolt
while the proph-
of the city as
fall
Furthermore, there
a schism in the realm of Assyria in

tack
{v. p. 160). J
many peoples,
was not
Nahum
en-
upon destropng
Nineveh and Assyria as upon gaining her own independence from
or even domination over Assyria. Then, too, if Nahum had had
this revolt in mind, he would hardly have anticipated the destructertains.
Stele of
in that revolt
Nabonidus,
col.
X.
t Cylinder of Nabonidus from Abu-habba,

J So
e.
so intent
g. Hi.; Wkl.u-*-, 124/.;
Ko.
col. I,
Einl.; KI.
SK.
I.
28.
1910, pp. 501
fi..
NAHUM
276
tion of
Nineveh so
He would have been much more
vividly.
likely
have conceived of Nineveh as becoming the capital of the new
to
Babylonian power and his threats of destruction would have been

confined to the dynasty reigning in Nineveh.
Another point of connection
is foimd by some
But it is by no means
clear that those barbarians ever troubled Nineveh directly.
Indeed, they seem to have been her salvation from the Medes in
for the
prophecy
in the Scythian invasion of western Asia.*
625 B.C.
(v.
Nor does Nahum's
163)
p.
attack upon Nineveh accord well with
methods of warfare.
The
latter
what
is
description
known
of the
of Scythian
were scarcely adapted
to the
The
Scyth-
capture of mighty strongholds by
direct
assault.
ians hardly possessed the machinery requisite for such an undertaking.
The
by
first
attack
Nahum;f
the city,
B.C.) is
favoured
while the second attack, resulting in the destruction of

is
the
preferred by the majority.
To
these two.
memory
may
both alike objection
of the fall of
long as vivid as
in
upon Nineveh by Cyaxares (525
several writers as furnishing the occasion for the hopes of
is
it
The choice lies between

made on the ground that
Thebes would hardly have remained
presupposed by the question in
be replied that the
Judah, since
is
dealt
3*.
To
this
so
it
Thebes made a profoimd impression

a mortal blow to the hope for deliverance
fall
of
through Egypt so long encouraged by the Egyptian party in Jeru-
Then,
salem.
hum
Nu.
made
it all
the easier for
Na-
he did the agency of Assyria in the downfall of
Examples of even longer memory are furnished by Zc.

Hence, it seems hardly necessary to suppose, with
Thebes.
14^
too, the lapse of time
to ignore as
13^^.
We., that
Nahum
latter part of the
discovered.
referred to
some destruction
of
Thebes
in the
seventh century of which no other record has been
With the elimination of
ch. i as
a later preface to the
prophecy, there disappears the objection to a date near the final

fall of Nineveh that arises from the fact that Nineveh's oppressive
dominance over Judah is presupposed by i^'. The statements of
2^ 3*
* So
t So
apply as well to the city of 626-608 B.C. as to that of any
e.g.
Jnn..
e. g.
Kue. Onderzoek (1889); WUdeboer, Letlerkunde des Ouden Verbondfi (1903); van H..
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
277
Nineveh did not change her character as her power

sufferings of Judah at the hands of Nineveh had
earlier period.
The
diminished.
and been too humiliating and agonising to be forTo a

the hand of the oppressor was lifted.
Semitic people, tenacious of revenge, the downfall of an ancient
tyrant would be an occasion for joyous celebration long after relasted too long
moment
gotten the
from the tyranny had been realised.

There is little to choose between the first and the second
lease
of Cyaxares.
The
actual occurrence of the
called in question;* but without sufficient reason.
only testimony to
actuality
its
hand, the only testimony cited against

denus, quoted by Eusebius;
ercitus locustarum in star
viz.
it is
"Saracus
mari exiens
It is true the
But on the other
that of Hdt..
is
siege
has indeed been
first
the statement of Aby-
certior factus
impetum
quod
ex-
face ret, Busalos-
sorum ducem confestim Babelonera misit." This is interpreted

by We. as applying to an attack of the Scythians from the Black
Sea upon Babylon at the very time when Nineveh, according to
Hdt.,
was undergoing
hindered by her
own
siege at the
necessities
hands of the Medes, thus being
from sending aid
However, waiving the question as
and Abydenus as
from the
latter
historians,
it is
to
any other
to the relative values of
from certain that the
far
citation
has anything to do with the time about 625
Saracus, generally identified with Sin-shar-ishkun,
was not
city.
Hdt.
B.C.,
the im-
mediate successor of Ashurbanipal upon the throne of Assyria,

as would be the case
he had been king in 625
if
independent of Nineveh and imder
its
the interest of the king of Assyria in

over,
why
B.C..
Babylon was
own king from 626
its
defence
is
on; hence
strange.
More-
should a king of Assyria send his army to defend Baby-
lon from a foe advancing from the north, thus leaving his
capital inviting attack
defence ?
in
The datum
some more
The
its
concerning Saracus must be accounted for
satisfactory way.
certain fact
prestige of
own
from the same foe by the weakness of
is
that at the time of
Nineveh was wholly gone.
immediate destruction.
The enemy was
her downfall seemed certain.

*
Nahum's
utterance, the
She was threatened with

already in the land and
This interpretation might have been

E. g. by
We.
NAIIUM
278
placed by
Nahum upon
But
or in 608-606 B.C..
the situation as
it
was
either in 625 B.C.
Nineveh
the degree of animosity toward
accords better, perhaps, with the post-Deuteronomic date, 608-
606
B.C.,
tion of
if
than with the pre-Deuteronomic period.*
Nahum was
the prophet
movements
is
to
certainly not fulfilled
of his day,
and,
we
shall
be forced to interpret his utterance
On
the whole, therefore,
there than at the earlier date, imtil
it is
better
we have more
def-
days and as to the exactness of the information in possession
of the
any
expectaB.C.
information as to the course of events in Assyria during her
inite
last
him
The
about 606
be credited with an adequate knowledge of the
as applying to the final siege.

to place
till
Hebrews regarding
the political
case, the significance of the
movements
prophecy
will
of the time.
In
remain the same,
whichever of the two dates be chosen.
The assignment
by Hap. and Hpt.,
mony
of
is
Nahum
to the
Maccabaean
age, as proposed
put practically out of the question by the
of BS. 48^-^^ 49^-
- ^^
as to the history of the Canon.
testi-
The
mention there of "the twelve prophets" shows that at that time the
Book
of the
Twelve was already known and held
in high esteem.
Book of the Twelve underwent more or less modification after that date, viz. c. 180 B.C.. But
it is scarcely to be conceived that a new name was added to the
twelve already known and that one of the latter was dropped. Yet
this is involved in the proposition to make Nahum a product of
the Maccabaean period. f Nor are the positive arguments brought
forward by Hap. at all convincing. The differences between
Nahum and the rest of the pre-exilic prophets included in the
Canon are certainly striking but it does not follow that Nahum
It
is,
of coiurse, not to be denied that the
is
necessarily postexilic or
differences
is
Maccabaean.
The
character of the
not such as to make them inconsistent with pre-exiHc
origin {v. p. 281).
Nor
is
3^ satisfactorily explained
by the
failure
That failure was

not due to the strength of Alexandria, as would be required by
3*, but to the intervention of the power of Rome.
Nor is 3* exof Antiochus
Epiphanes
to take Alexandria.
V. Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israelilen su den Fremden (1905), 105 /..
t Cf. Francis Brown on The Decline of Prophecy, in Essays in Modern Theology and Related
Subjects Gathered and Published as a Testimonial to Chas. A. Briggs (1911), p. 67.
THE MAN NAHUM
279
plicable only on the basis of the religious intolerance and propagandism of Antiochus {v. note ad loc).
If
Nahum
lived
and prophesied
in the
ceding the downfall of Nineveh, his lot
The good King
days immediately pre-
was cast in desperate
times.
Josiah had but recently fallen in battle at Megiddo.
His successor Jehoahaz had been taken prisoner
to
Egypt, after
a reign of only three months, and Jehoiakim had been imposed
upon Judah as a vassal of Pharaoh Necho. A heavy annual

tribute was laid upon Judah and it was Jehoiakim's ungracious task to collect and transmit it to Egypt.
The practical
freedom that had been enjoyed for some time under Josiah had
given place to a galling servitude. The news of the approaching
end of a former taskmaster was a ray of light amid Egyptian
darkness.
3.
THE MAN AND THE MESSAGE.

The Man.
Beyond the slight information furnished by the book itself, nothis at hand from which to reconstruct the personality and the
environment of Nahum. He must remain little more to us than a
voice. For details regarding his name and residence, v. pp. 285^..
Some interpreters have sought to make him a resident of Assyria
and an eye-witness of the scenes he describes. But his knowledge
of Assyrian words, places and customs is only such as was easily
within the reach of any intelligent Hebrew of his times. Assyrian
matters had been of absorbing interest to the politicians of Judah
for more than a century.
Assyrian armies were no imcommon
sight in Syria, however \m welcome they may have been.
Travel
and commerce between Jerusalem and Nineveh were constant
and continuous. The main facts concerning the structure and
defences of Nineveh were doubtless known to the leading men of
ing
Judah.
Nor does
the vividness of
Nahum's
ments against Nineveh prove anything

in Assyria.
The
scenes of ch.
picture of the
move-
in favour of his residence
are just as vivid as anything in the
book, yet the writer there was evidently drawing upon his imag-
NAHUM
28o
The whole spirit and background of the propheqr are

Hebrew and the burden of proof rests upon him who would seek
ination.
on foreign
to account for its origin
Nahum was
and humiliation endured by
sion
soil.
an enthusiastic, optimistic
The
patriot.
oppres-
had
his people for generations
He is a fair representative of the state

man of his times, whose faith in Yahweh's
long rankled in his soul.

of
mind
of the average
goodness and power had been severely
by the continuous
tried
The
spectacle of the sufferings of Israel.
prospect of the speedy
overthrow of the ancient tyrant who had done the most
to ren-
Yahweh brought with it a

great revulsion of feeling to men like Nahum.
Sorrow and discouragement approximating despair gave way to exuberant joy
der
intolerable for the people of
life
and returning hope.

her
acts;
Assyria was to receive the due reward of
all
Yahweh was to vindicate himself by his righteous

Israel the dawn of a new day was discernible upon
deeds;
evil
and
for
the horizon.
The Message.
The prophecy
itself
/ tion
of
with only one

there
no
is
plation of this
prophet
This
is
Nahum
'consummation devoutly
He
that sets
concerns
It
on the brink of destruc-
is
possibility of escape for her.
wholly absorbed.
it is
simple and unique.
is
themeNineveh
to
In ecstatic contem-
be wished
for,'
the
can, he will see nothing else.
him apart from
all
preceding prophecy.
His
predecessors have been interested primarily, and almost exclusively, in the sin of Israel.
coimtrymen
excellent
to repentance
way
Their task had been that of calling
and
of pointing out to
to assure themselves of the favour of
along which they had been travelling.

precious indeed in the sight of
ment
of
life
disastrous.
all this,
Nahum
make
God
than that
future of Israel
God; but only a
in the present could
Of
The
their
them a much more
was
radical readjust-
that future anything but
has not a word.
In place of
it,
there appears a certain fiery form of indignation against Judah's
ancient foe, which exhibits a degree of animosity for which the

great ethical prophets furnish
no
parallel.
The pent-up
feelings of
generations of suffering patriots here burst forth into flame.
The
THE MESSAGE
whole prophecy
281
a paean of triumph over a prostrate foe and
is
breathes out the spirit of exultant revenge.
The
contrast between the message of
miah, his contemporary,
and deeper
vision
is
striking.
insight, the event
Nahum and that of JereTo the prophet of larger
which
filled
Nahum's entire
The passing
range of vision was of relatively slight importance.

of the Assyrian
does the
name
dominion
of
two men belonged
Nahum was
is
not even mentioned by Jeremiah, nor
Nineveh once appear

to different religious
The
in his utterances.
and
political parties.
If
not in active opposition to Jeremiah, he was at least
Instead of grieving over the sin of Judah

and striving with might and main to warn her of the error of her
ways that she herself might turn and live, Nahum was apparently
indifferent to his efforts.
content to lead her in a jubilant celebration of the approaching
Jeremiah was too overwhelmed by sorrow and
death of Assyria.
alarm for his own people to obtain any solace from the misfortune
of another,
which could bring no
relief to the
desperate situation of
Judah.
Nahum, a
In
prophetism finds
view
place in the
K.
and shallow
His point of
such men as Hananiah (Je. 28),
Canon
of Scripture.
one with that of

hundred prophets in opposition
is essentially
the four
(i
representative of the old, narrow

its
22),
and the
to
Micaiah ben Imlah
so-called "false prophets" in general.
such prophets, the relation between
Yahweh and
For
his nation Israel
Yahweh might become angered at his people

them over temporarily into the power of the foe. But he
could no more wholly abandon them than a mother could desert her
child.
The obligation upon Israel was to be loyal to Yahweh as he
was loyal to her; to eschew all foreign cults; to perform the cultus
was
and
indissoluble.
give
of
Yahweh
with zealous adherence to
to
conform
to the traditional
The
possibility that
new
all
of its requirements;
and
customs and ethics of the community.
occasions might teach
new
duties, that
more complex life might render

the old usages and laws inadequate, and that Yahweh might care
more for full justice and overflowing mercy than for the blood of
bulls and goats had not been realised by them.
The teaching that
for a lack of fundamental, ethical qualities Yahweh was intending
the advancing civilisation with
its
NAHUM
282
upon
and
was branded by them as

Patriotism and religion
combined in requiring the belief that Yahweh was able and willing
to deliver his people out of every danger.
Never could he suffer
to bring destruction
treason both to Israel
his nation
to
Yahweh.
the adherents of other gods to triumph permanently over his
own
Judah and the temple of Yahweh

be desecrated by being abandoned to the possession of the heathen.
Nor could insult and injury to Yahweh and his people be allowed
by him to go unavenged. To men of such a way of thinking, the
Never could the land
people.
of
prospect of the downfall of Nineveh would bring a joy without
The prophecy
alloy.
of
Nahum
is
a faithful transcript of the
thoughts and feelings of a prophet with such a point of view.
overthrow of Nineveh not only brought
mind
it
Nahum and
The
those of like
desire for vengeance, but
God to men. Such obYahweh was essential to the

their theology.
By such vindication of Yahweh and
faith in Yahweh was made possible for them.
Hence,
them
to justify the
ways
of
demonstration of the justice of
validity of
his people,
the joy of
foe,
human
satisfaction of the natural,
also enabled
jective
to
it is
Nahum
is
not only and merely exultation over a fallen
also the glad cry of
an
assiu"ed faith in the
God
of the
fathers.
LITERATURE ON THE BOOK OF NAHUM.
4.
Commentaries.
In addition to the commentaries on the Minor Prophets as a
whole by Ewald (1867), Kleinert (1868), Hitzig-Steiner (1881),

von Orelli (1888; 3d ed. 1908), Wellhausen (1892; 3d ed. 1898),
Nowack
(1897; 2d ed. 1903), G. A. Smith (1898), Marti (1903)
and van Hoonacker (1908), special mention must be made of

Strauss (1853), Davidson (i896),Kolmodin (i898),Happel (1902),
Driver (1906), Haupt (1907), Kautzsch (1909) and Kent (1910).
Introduction.
All the 'Introductions' to the
summarising the main

tions to
facts
OT.
about
as a whole contain sections
Nahum
as do also the introduc-
most of the aforesaid commentaries.
In addition to these,
LITERATURE
283
the following are worthy of special mention:
Jeremias, Der Untergang Nineveh's

des
Nahum
der Fall Nineves,
und
SK. LXXXIII
P. Kleinert,
(1910), 501-533.
Ende und die Ausgdnge des AssyrFestgaben zu Ehren Max Biidinger's (1898), 13Nahum, EB. Ill (1902). A. R. S. Kennedy,
Friedrich, Nineve's
ischen Reiches, in
52.
Billerbeck
die Weissagtingsschrift
von Elkosch, BAS. Ill (1898), 87-188.
Nahiim und
Thomas
und
Budde,
art.
Nahum, DB. Ill (1900). Volck,

W. Staerk, Das Assyrische
(1903).
art.
Propheten (1908),
art.
Nahum, PRE? XIII

im
Weltreich
Urieil
der
1 74-181.
Special studies on ch.
and on the poetic form
of the
book are
cited in i (pp. 270/.).
Miscellaneous.
M.
Adler,
Targum
to
A Specimen
the Prophet
of a
Commentary and
Collated Text of the
Nahum, JQR. VII
(1895),
630-657.
Reinke, Zur Kritik der dlteren Versionen des Propheten
A.
(1867).
W. Greenup, The
Mari on Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah,

[Edited for the
British
Nahum
Yalkut of Rabbi Machir Bar Abba
Nahum
and Habakkuk
time from the unique ms. (Harley 5704) in the

Fr. Buhl, Einige textkritische Bemer(1910).
first
Museum]
kungen zu den Kleinen Propheten,
ZAW. V (1885), 79-84. E.

Nahum auf den Untergang
Mahler, Untersuchung einer in Buche
Ninives bezogenen Finsterniss (1886).

zu den Zwolf Propheten, V,
100-107.
B.
Duhm, Anmerkungen
Buch Nahum, ZAW.
XXXI
(191 1),
A COMMENTARY ON THE BOOK OF

NAHUM.
I.
THE SUPERSCRIPTIONS
(i^.
These inform us as to the name of the author,

and the subject of his preaching.
natiure of his book,
with the superscriptions to Joel, Obadiah, Jonah,
Malachi among the prophetic books,
it
refrains
regarding the time of this prophet's activity.
book
in the
OT.
his clan, the
In common
Habakkuk and
from any statement
Nahum
carrying two superscriptions at
its
is
the only
head and
is
also the only prophecy entitling itself a 'book.'

I.
An oracle on Nineveh] Nahum is pre-eminently a book of one
idea, viz. the
doom
of Nineveh.
contents of the book.
21^"
Isaiah, viz. 13^ 15^ 17^ 19^
veh, V. pp. 163/..
The
This
title
thus exactly
This type of superscription
The book
is
fits
the
common
in
On the fall of Nineof the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite]

22^ 23^ 30".
use of the word 'book' here carries no such special significance
as some older commentators imagined viz. that

;
prophecy of
Nahum was never
in written form.*
The word
occurs only
Nahum,
origin
(v. ^)
here
The
prophecies of Isaiah
are also so designated.

in
the
shows that the
'vision' expressly characterises the
following message as a revelation.
and Obadiah
it
spoken but was originally prepared
OT..
Everything alleged regarding
aside from the statement of the superscription,
and
of
little
(i*)
The name Nahum

is
of late
Other names from the same root and
value.
meaning are Nehemiah, Nehum (Ne. 7^; but cf.

2^=Rehum), Nahamani (Ne. f), Menahem and Tanhumeth
so of similar
Ezr.
(Je. 40^).
The name seems
forting' or 'comforter.'
to
be an appellation meaning 'com-
Its appropriateness to the
author of this
prophecy, which brings the promise of such great comfort to Judah,

raises the suspicion that the
name
is
not a birth
*So Gebhardt, Taraovius,

2S4
Pu., Ke..
name but one
be-
28s
stowed upon this prophet by a later editor because of the character
The term
of his message.
information
The
'Elkoshite' seems to be a gentilic ad-
from a place-name.
jective derived
But no thoroughly
available as to the location of Elkosh
is
essential accuracy of the superscriptions
edged.
The
first,
reliable
(v. .).
generally acknowl-
is
stating the contents of the book, accords perfectly
with the bulk of the subject-matter; while the second, being beyond the
a satisfactory test, and being in no way derivable from the

book itself, must be given the benefit of every doubt and be
held to rest upon sound tradition. Owing to the twofold character of
the heading, however, suspicion has been cast upon its genuineness.
Grimm (1791) was the first to see here the work of a later hand. He has
had many followers, who have declared the superscription in whole or
possibility of
text of the
be of late origin; so Eich. {Einl. Ill, 371), Ew., Hd., Or., Dav.,
Now., Arn., Hap., Bu. (EB.), Marti, Kau., Du., Kent. It is probable
that the two portions of the legend come from different hands, as Ew.,
Or., Bu., et al. suggest; but it is unnecessary to regard each as having
in part to
belonged originally to
maintain.
If
probably only the
The order of
own
its
book as Hpt.
special portion of the
et al.
Nahum himself, it is
Nahum the Elkoshite."
any part of the heading be from

last three
words, "Vision of
would have been exactly the reverse had they both

been due to the prophet and the word "book" would surely not have appeared. In view of the extent of the editorial labour upon the beginning of this book, it is more likely that the older portion of the heading
came from an editor than that it came from the prophet himself. The
addition of superscriptions, as a matter of fact, seems to have been a
favourite form of editorial exercise.
The information furnished by this
editor, however, probably goes back to a relatively early date, for no
source whence it might have been obtained is now known.
1. nbt] d X^/i/xa. Aq. dpiJM. & m'hilthd= 'scourge' or 'afl&iction,'
the only place where & so renders the word (Seb.).
'c is here followed by an objective gen.. The rendering 'burden' was favoured by
early interpreters and explained by the fact that disaster was the prevailing theme of prophecy, hence the term burden came to be applied to
all prophecies.
But 'oracle' or 'utterance' (cf. Sip H2fi) is a better rendering in superscriptions, where burden is sometimes wholly inapproDinj] Of the same measure as S-isb' 'bereaved,' mn-i
priate, e. g. Zc. 12'.
'compassionate,' iiSn 'tame' or 'chief,' jun 'merciful,' iidj; 'pillar';
the parts
'
'
'
'
and with
transitive force;
stantive
comfort'
'
is less
significance of other
cf.
Barth,
NB.
suitable as a
37, 132.
name and
2,
abstract sub-
accord with the
words of the formation; contra BDB..
occurs also in Lk. 3" 2 Esd. i", Jos. Ant. IX,
Bathra
An
less in
Shabb. II
i,
Nazir
4,
Peah
xi, 3,
II 6),
the
The name
Mishnah (Baba
on Jewish ossuaries
NAHUM
286
(Clermont-Ganneau, Revue Archeol. Ser.

Phcenician {CIS.
I,
It
Ins. Grcec. II, 25, 26).
nected with nj (On.

to
is
(Kennedy,
in>Dnj or Sndhj
529); cf.
first
XV,
Hesychius
'EXfcetr^.
is
mani
first
home
Eus.
Four
Elcesaei.
The
Nahum.
of
due
itfpSN.n] {5
Al-Kiish, a village about 25 miles N. of Mosul, where the
box as the tomb of

I, 233).
But Asse-
(Layard, Nineveh and Its Remains [1849],
{Biblioth. Orient. [1719^.], I, 525, III, 352) declares that the tradi-
tion dates
the
as con-
it
treats D as
(g<- i>'EX(ce(rOU.
{vita proph.) 'EX/cetreii'.
natives with one consent regard a certain plaster
Nahum
who
not well attested in Heb..
claim to the honour of having been the
claimant
in
Boeckh, Corp.
a shortened form of
is
514,
CgBôO'EXKecrofou. <S*^* 'EX/cato-û.
iB'ip n''JD.
sites lay
is
3, 7;
Abar. explained
Ill, 473).
Sayce, Exp.T.
mimmation; but such usage
Onom.
name
likely that the
DB.
No. 41) and
Ill, vol. I,
No. 123; Ges., Mon. Phden. Nos.
no
back than the i6th century
fiurther
name seems
to reflect the Ar. period; the
attested in the 8th century a.d.
jamin of Tudela
'Ain Japhata,
No.
ZDMG. XXXI,
Babylon; and the tradition
is
The acceptance
Nahum was
of
165)
is
Ben-
Nahum
at
worth no more than
similar traditions as to the graves of Jonah, Obadiah,
Gilead.
form of
of the place itself
was shown another tomb
in 1165 a.d.
S. of
{cf.
a.d.; the Ar.
name
and Jepthah
of this site usually carries with
it
of
the conclu-
from Samaria or a descendant of

But the whole tone of the
prophecy points to a scion of Judah as its author. This last objection
also holds against the next two applicants.
Jerome in his commentary
on Nahum says, " Quum Elcese usque hodie in Galilea viculus sit, parvus quidem et vix minis veterum aedificiorum indicans vestigia, sed
tamen notus Judaeis et mihi quoque a circumducente monstratus."
This is generally supposed to have been the modern El Kauze, N.E. of
Ramieh and about seven miles W. of Tibnin. But there is no indication of Nahum's Galilaean origin; on the contrary, his utter silence as
to any hope for the northern kingdom and its exiles seems fatal to such
sion that
them,
who had been
a theory.
one of the
settled
N.
exiles
of Nineveh.
His reference to the invasion of Sennacherib in 1" likewise
points to his primary interest in
Judah and Jerusalem.
Hi. identified
Elkosh with Capernaum {(& Ka<papvaoiix; B Kaphar Nahum = 'village

of Nahum') but it is by no means certain that oinj formed the latter part
;
name, for Jos. vsrites KecpapvJjixt] and Jerome on Mt. 11''^, Dipj (&
of Mt. 4" 11=' = Dinj; so also Talmud) and the evidence is insuflQcient
The
to outweigh the improbability of a Galilaean residence for Nahum.
The de vitis prophleast difficult tradition locates Elkosh in S. Judah.
etarum, wrongly ascribed to Epiphanius (a native of Judah who was
of this
Bishop of Salamis in Cyprus in 367 a.d.), in some mss. says "He

(Nahum) came from Elkesei beyond Jordan toward Begabar of the
But the tribe of Simeon was located in S.W. Judah
tribe of Simeon."
and " beyond Jordan"
is
therefore unintelligible in this connection.
The
287
I^*-^"
difficulty IS solved
by two recensions of
vitae proph. published
by Tisch-
endorf in 1855 and based upon older Greek mss., in one of which the
passage runs, "Nahum, son of Elkesaios, was of Jesbe of the tribe of
"Nahum was
Simeon"; and the other reads,
shown
to be a gloss.
Vitae incorporated in
thus
is
by the citations from the

the Syriac translation of the OT. by Paul of Telia
This
also supported
is
(617 A.D.), where the reading
"Nahum was of Elkosh, beyond BethNestle, ZDPV. I, 122/.= Pal. Ex-
is
Gabre, of the tribe of Simeon"

plor.
from Elkese beyond Isbe-
The phrase "beyond Jordan"
gabarin of the tribe of Simeon."
{v.
Fund's Quarterly Statement for 1879, p. 136; Idem, Marginalien

Beth-Gabre is the modern Beit-jibrin,
[1893], 43/.)-
und Materialien
i. e.
About
the ancient Eleutheropolis.
the upper end of the
Wady
six miles
es-Sur, there
is
Kaus, which might be a survival of Elkosh.

able region for the prophet's
from the same

esis is
into
two
section
was
"rs,
the closing one
heading to
to
By
later
an altogether
adopted in
tentatively
Micah.
w.
^-'o.
Nahum come
An ingenious hypoth-
The opening word
An
was vp.
this section the
el-
suit-
the following acrostic originally
sections, the first including
scriptive
tt'p."
viz. that
is
This would make
district as his predecessor
proposed by Hap.,
This
home and may be
a better-accredited claimant.
lieu of
E. of Beit-jibrin, at
an old well named Bir
fell
of this
editor attached as a de-
words, "vision of
Nahum
misunderstanding, the present text arose.
from Sn
Such a
method of designating a portion of a text is not elsewhere used in the

OT. and it is difScult to account for the loss of the connecting prepositions.
THE AVENGING WRATH OF YAHWEH
2.
fragment of an acrostic poem, the
fifteen lines of
(i^-'").
which be-
gin with the successive letters of the Heb. alphabet in their natural
order.
clearly
Owing
marked
to the
formal character of the poem, there
logical progress,
general thought concerns

against his foes.
itself
nor organisation into
is
no
The
strs..
with the terrors of Yahweh's anger
In an ever-changing series of bold and striking
metaphors, the poet seeks to create a vivid impression of this divine wrath
and thus
to quicken the faith
and hope
of those
who
have trusted in and obeyed Yahweh.

(X)
A jealous
(3)
I'^
(J)
He
and avenging God
storm and tempest
is
is
Yahweh, and filled with wrath.

and clouds are the dust of his
his way,
rebukes the sea and dries
it
up, and
all
(^) Bashan and Carmel wither, and the bud of
the streams he
Lebanon
feet.
makes
languishes.
dry.
NAHUM
288
(PI)
(1
(^
The mountains quake at him, and the hills melt.

And the earth is laid waste before him, the world with all its inhabitants.
His anger who can stand fast before it? Who can stand in the heat of his
wrath?
(n) His fury is pouied out like
him.
( ^ )
Yahweh is good
Yahweh knows
(2)
(tS)
flood.
full
end
fire,
and the rocks are burst asunder because

a stronghold in the day of
to those waiting for him,
those that seek refuge in him,
of
distress.
and with an overflowing
will
make
he
of his adversaries,
and
his
enemies he
will
pursue
into darkness.
(
7 ) He
not take vengeance twice upon his foes, for unto complete destruc-
will
tion he is
about to work.
What do you devise against Yahweh?

(2) Yahweh takes vengeance on his adversaries and lays up wrath for
(Q) Thorns cut down and dried out they will be consumed like dry
(D)
2.
"The
and avenging God
jealous
truth that
ten by
no
Yahweh through
God,
is
brought forward
Yahweh, cf
briefly
For the
very beginning."*
can ever as a crime be forgot-
the flight of time, but
by the
either sooner or later, be punished
Jos. 24*^ Ex. 20^
stubble.
Yahweh, and full of wrath]
is
historical crime
his foes.
living
and with
must in all cases,

and aU-observing
dignified repose at the
attribute of jealousy as applied to
34" Dt.
Yahweh
4^^ 6*^.
is
here pre-
sented as the originator and guardian of the law of righteousness,
who
self
regards every violation of that law as an offence against him-
which must be
fitly
The
punished.
evidently the wrongs
particular form of offence
done
to Israel by the great

Yahweh's vengeance upon his foes was
a favourite one from the time of Jeremiah on to the end; e. g.
Je. iiô 51" Ez. 25"- " Dt. 32^ Is. 61' 63' Ps. 94^; cf Rom. 12'^
here resented
powers.
is
The thought
of
In M there appear at
shown not
to
lines
break the continuity of the

presence here
may
The
acrostic.
^,
where
first
it
^^- ^^)
which are
be accounted for as due to the fact that
word vengeful or avenging

'
of these lines in all
belongs alphabetically.
expresses essentially the same thought as line

'
(w.
have been originally placed here by the fact that they
probability originally followed v.

Its
two
this point
'
that occurs also there.
Some
editor,
not recognising the alphabetic structure, placed the line where
seemed
to belong logically.
The second added

*Ew..
it
and begins with the

it
line (v. ^^) reads,
.2-4
Yahweh
is
slow
to
289
anger and great in mercy, hut
no means leave unpunished] This seems
modify the absolute statement of
line
to
unless with Bick.

line, in
we drop
which case the
and phraseology
will by
by presenting another and
complementary phase of the divine character.

depart from the alphabetic order, but
Yahweh
be a gloss* intended to
it is
Not only does
an abnormally long
it
line,
the last clause as a later appendix to the
becomes too short. For the thought

Êx. 34* ^- Jo. 2*^. After
cf. Nu. 14"
line
of this line,
Yahweh's wrath in v. ^^, the glossator felt

and mercy of God, but was
careful to add that even so, Yahweh was not one to let the wicked
go scot-free.
has "great in strength," an idiom nowhere else
occurring, which is here changed to "great in mercy" as in Ps.
us'; cf- also Ex. 34 Nu. 14^^ Ne. g" Ps. 103* Jo. 2" Jon. 4^. If
the strong statement of
the need of a reference to the patience
M be
spoken of must be moral strength, and
original, the strength
the thought probably
Yahweh's
that
is
self-control
is
too great to
permit him to act upon the impulse of sudden outbursts of wrath.
3b. In storm and tempest
is his way and clouds are the dust oj

The acrostic structure is resumed here. The theophanies
of the OT, are usually set to the accompaniment of convulsions of
nature, particularly so when the deity is represented as manifest-
his feet]
ing himself in wrath;

3^'*'
Is.
50^
^.
cf.
Mi.
The storm
i^
^-
Ju. 5*
Jb. 38^ 40^ Zc. 9"
sented as the fine dust stirred up by the feet of
There
along in his wrath.
Hb.
clouds are by a beautiful figure repre-
is
Yahweh as he passes
much lost, by
nothing gained, but
and dust are at his feet" {v. i.). Dav.

words
like the others 'the earth is his
the emendation "clouds

well says, "the splendid
footstool'
the sea
need
and
to be conceived,
dries
it
50^ 51^ Ps. 66* 77^^
up, and
Io6^
not explained."
all the
Yahweh
4.
He
rebukes
streams he makes dry] Cf.

is
Is.
absolute lord of creation and /
Under other conditions, Yahweh is reprewhat he does here (Is. 35^" * 0Bashan withers away and Carmel, and the bud of Lebanon languishes] Bashan was one of the most fertile of the regions east
does with
it
as he will.
sented as doing the exact opposite of
* So Gunk., We., Now., Gray, Or., Hap., Dr., van H..

excerpt the last clause and use
with
V. *
complete the D line in

and completes the D line with v. '.
it
to
and Kent who

Du. begins the poetu
C/. Marti, Hpt., Stk.

v. ';
while
NAHUM
290
and seems to have been famous for its flocks (Am.

With it, the wooded heights of Carmel and
trees.
the snow-clad summits of Lebanon are mentioned as representatives of the regions least likely to show the effects of an ordinary
drought. It is forcing the language to argue from the mention of
these particular regions, as Hap. does, that the poem must have
of the Jordan
i^ 4^
Mi. 7") and
come from
is
the period of the Syrian dominion
and
that destruction
threatened upon regions belonging to the Syrians, the foes of
Yahweh. Against another view,
viz. that these three
regions repre-
and north and so comprise

the whole land, it is sufficient to say that nowhere else is the land
5. Mountains quake before him and the
as a whole so indicated.
sent three extreme points in east, west
hills melt]
The
very pillars of the earth, as the ancients considered
the mountains (Jb.
9^- ),
tremble and dissolve before the wrath of
Yahweh. For similar representations, cf. Mi. i* Zc. 14* Ex. 19^
Dt. 4" Ju. 5' Jb. 28^ Ps. 114^ Is. 64'- ^ Hb. 3'". Earthquakes or
volcanic distiurbances were apparently familiar phenomena to
the
Hebrews and furnished
the materials in large part for their
And
descriptions of theophanies.
him, the world with
all those
RV., "and the earth
is
rendering.
far,
the earth is laid waste before
dwelling therein]
upheaved, etc."; but
Having taken up
this is
is
rendered by
a very doubtful
particular aspects of nature thus
the writer here includes the whole world, animate
mate.
The Hebrews, knowing
and
inani-
practically nothing of natural
law
or secondary causes, conceived of both the physical and the moral

imiverse as governed directly and immediately by
Yahweh him-
There was for them but one world and that was God's
world. Hence when disorder and disobedience were rife in the
moral realm, it was inevitable that the physical realm should share
in the shock occasioned by the divine visitation upon sin.
With the seventh line, the writer takes a fresh start. Having
self.
devoted the
Yahweh
last four lines to illustrations of the terrible
again brings the wrath
can stand fast before
For
wrath of
as manifested in the physical world, he now, as in line
text, v.
Am. f Mai.
i..
3^
it
itself to
Who
the forefront.
6.
His anger
i,
who
can stand hi the heat of his wrath ?]
For similar formulations of the same thought, v.

This is a direct and personal
Je. 10"; cf. Ps. 24^.
291
I"-"
by the preceding
application of the lesson taught
No nation
can stand before such a God, for he
His fury
(Dt. 4^).
is
poured out
like fire]
express the divine anger (Je. f^ 42*^ 44^
and
destructive
The
And
this.
Persian
fit
symbol of divine wrath and
fire-v^ôrship is
51^-
^.
Whether
the notable illustration of

Cf. Mi.
this effect is conceived of as
to the heat already mentioned, or to
some other aspect
is
not certain but in any case,
God which
produces such catastrophic
vine power,
The
34^^- ^).
the rocks are hurst asunder because of him]
i^ Je. 4^" 23^^
fire
favourite figure to
Ch. 12'
illustrations.
a consuming
purificatory effects of fire have alviâys appealed
to the religious imagination as
holiness.
is
it is
due
of the di-
the awful presence
7. Yahweh is
who wait for him] Another side of the divine nature is
now emphasised. The wrath of Yahweh is vented upon those who
hate him; but for those who put their trust in him he has lovingkindness (Dt. 5 ') The whole history of Israel from the Assyrian period to the end was one long agony of waiting.
The fulfilment of her hopes was constantly deferred. The history of no
of
good
results.
to those
other people can furnish a parallel to the strength and persistence

of Israel's faith
her,
let
go her
faith in
most frequently upon the
tations
was
the
64'
Hb.
3^.
The odds were
and hope.
but she refused to
summons
2^
to patience
Zp. 38 Ps. 25^-
21
lips of
and hope;
27"
37^-
^-
apparently
God.
all
against
of the exhor-
prophets and psalmists

e.
'
One
g.
3"
Gn.
49^^ Is.
8"
30^^
"
La.
397 52 ii8'-
Disappointed in one expectation, Israel did but transform
it
and continue to "expect great things from God."

A refuge in the day of distress] A place whither to flee from the
storm; this is a common way of speaking of Yahweh; e. g. Je. 16^^
Ps. 27* 31^- 5 37^^ 52^ Is. 17* 25^ 32^ Jo. ^^'^. Yahweh knows those
into another
that take refuge in him] Cf. Ps.
i.
The 'knowledge'
here spoken
and watchcare which inhere

in a father's love (Am. 3^).
When they flee to him for aid, they
will not be received as strangers, but with open arms as Yahweh's
children; cf. Ps. 2^^ 5" 46, 144^.
8. And with an overflowing
flood
.] This sentence is evidently incomplete.
Most interpreters
make it refer to the pious followers of Yahweh and so supply either
"he will deliver them" or "he will guard them" (v. i). But in
of is inclusive of that tender interest
292
NAHUM
view of the fact that 'flood'
is
always used in connection with de-
38^
structive activities (Ps. 32^ Pr. 27^ Jb.

is
not at
all
Dn.
54^
Is.
9^^ ii^^)^ j^
improbable that the sentence refers to the foes of Yah-
weh and should
therefore be completed after this fashion
definite allusion to the

{cf. Is. 8^) ;*
but
"he
will
Some have seen in the 'overflowing flood' a

invading army that was to destroy Nineveh
destroy the wicked."
rather a general characterisation of the over-
it is
whelming destruction which Yahweh
Von
will bring
upon
when
his foes
by omitting a conjunction, secures the following line, "he knows those who trust in him
when the flood overflows." But such a line is too short for the
he asserts his divine majesty.
Orelli,
metre and involves the use of the phrase in flood as the equivalent
'
'
of a temporal clause.
M, reads
posed to
for the last phrase,
far in the
the suggestion of (^ .
to
will
the
is
mention of the
first specific
been
lines have, of course,
Here, Yahweh's treatment of
them.
brought into immediate and striking contrast with his
titude toward the pious.

ness]
his adversaries]
this is usually sup-
interpreters, therefore, prefer to follow
This
Yahweh, though the previous
spoken with reference

is
"of her place";
But there has been no mention of

poem; hence the suffix "her" is without
Modern
any antecedent.
them
make of
Nineveh.
refer to
Nineveh thus
foes of
full end will he
And his enemies
figure suggestive of the hopelessness
and desolation
way
overtake the foes of Yahweh; there will be no
The
for them.
at-
he will pursue into darkthat
of escape
syntax permits equally well the rendering, "dark-
ness will pursue his enemies," f and the sense is almost equally
good. But in the parallel clauses, Yahweh is the subject and it is
more natural
that the overthrow of
ferred directly to
him
The change from

necessary
upon
{y. i.)
cf.
Yahweh's
foes should be re-
himself, rather than to one of his agencies.
'pursue' to 'thrust out' (Jb. 18'^) seems unPr. 1^^.
The
his adversaries]
9c.
He will not take vengeance twice
exigiencies of the acrostic structure
require the placing of this line here rather than where
M. reads, "not twice
will affliction arise."
ble reading than that suggested

* So
\
So
e. g.
e.
by
(g
This
because
is
(i)
Cal.,
Mau., Hd.,
Stei.,
New., Dav.,
Hap
M-
proba-
Yahweh
Sanctius, Rosenra., Hi., Hd..
g. <& "B
in
it is
less
is
the
I*
293
no
subject of the action in the parallel clause, (2)

Hi's phrase
is
known,
thought
(3) fE's
is
and colour-
has been sought

The specific meaning of
two main directions. Some find a promise to Judah to the efifect
less for this context.
in
close analogy for
too abstract
that Assyria shall not again
her as she did under Sennacherib
aflflict
or as she had done to Samaria.*
Others take
it
as a threat against
no second disaster will be needed to accomplish her overthrow.f This is essentially the same thought as
that conveyed by the reading here followed, viz. no second stroke
Nineveh
to the effect that
of chastisement will be necessary
punish once for
will
3*^
(cf. i S.
None
all.
will
26^ 2 S. 20^")
Yahweh
dare to oppose him again.
This meaning
is strongly supported by the remainder of the line.

For unto complete destruction he is about to work] This is an
exact parallel to v. ^^ and fits here better than after ^^.J It reaf-
9b.
made in ^ and
about to make" {cf. Ez.
firms the proposition

full
end he
is
clinches
11*')
it.
iM has here "a

good sense,
this yields
but lacks any formal connective with the preceding half of the
By
using the
first
v. ^^ here,
two words of
smoother connection, but also account
words which
bafHed
tion,"
at the beginning of v.
Dn.
9^'
Ez.
13^^ 2
verb 'work' (nt'j;), cf

3^^
Mai.
Dn.
Not "what
9^^.
9a.
line.
not only secure a
two
and have
satisfactorily for the
are unintelligible
For the idiom "imto complete destruc-
all interpreters.
cf.
^^
we
Ch.
K.
12^^;
S'^*-
What
are you thinking of
and
for the absolute use of the
Je. 14^ Ez. 20* Ps. 22^^ 37^ 52^
are you devising against
Yahweh ? "
Yahweh?]
The verb ityn
in the
^K or ^J? always means "to plot" or "plan against"

(Ho. f^ Dn. 11^^). The writer here addresses himself directly to
the foes of Yahweh and seeks by this pointed question to bring out
the futility of all human devices aimed against the great God; cf.
Pi'el
with
The answer to this question, or whatever else it may have

this line, is now lost.
Yahweh takes vengeance on his adversaries and lays up wrath
Ps. 33*.
been that formed the original conclusion of

2b.
So
e. g.
t So
e. g.
The
Jer., Sanctius,
Hd., Pu., Or..
Theodoret., Ra., Ki., Rosenm., Hi., Um., Ew., We., Hal..

order S"- b. a jg that adopted by Bick., Gunk., Gray, Marti, Now.^, Hpt.,Stk., Du.,
Kent.
Contra Rosenm., Ew., Strauss, Ke., We., Dav.,
"Against
Yahweh"
is
adopted by (g
&,
Hi.,
GASm., Now., Am., Hap.,
Marti, Kent.
Gray, Hal., Dr., Hpt., van H., Kau..
NAHUM
294
The right of this line to stand here is shown by its near-
for his foes]
ness in thought to the preceding line, by
and by the
at this point,
in
m.*
fact that
Others treat the
it is
into the acrostic
its fitting
superfluous where
a part of the gloss on
line as
tended to limit the absolute statement there

suggestion that Yahweh's vengeance
is
made by
it
stands
v. ^^f in-
the additional
reserved only for his ene-
For the phrase 'lays up wrath,' cf. Je. 3^- ^^ Ps. 103^, where
Yahweh's attitude toward his own people is declared to be just
mies.
the opposite of that which he
The
his foes.
Lv.
Israel in
ites
same
19^^ recognises the
and non-Israehtes
Am.
cf.
they will be devoured
dried out
this verse is
here credited with holding toward
is
mind which
prohibition of this state of
i".
like
wholly unintelligible.
the most part abandoned
it
10.
Thorns
Modem
cut
As
dry stubble]
laid
upon
it
down and
My
stands in
interpreters
have for
and many declare the
as hopeless
covery of the original text impossible.!
would
is
difference between Israel-
literal
re-
rendering of
"for unto thorns entangled and like their drink soaked,

they will be devoured like dry stubble full," or possibly, " fully dry."
yield,
This has usually been interpreted

foes of
Yahweh
approach and be hard

to
bum,
to destroy
that even though the
dijGferent
and dangerous
to
even as drenched thorns are hard
consumes the stubble.
second clause a slightly

fall into
mean
Yahweh's might they
yet before
easily as the fire
to
be, like tangled thorns, difficult
will
be made to
fall
as
Others have found in the
thought, viz. 'like drunkards
who
the flames as though desiring so to do, they will be con-
sumed, etc' **
But no
translation affording
any connected sense
possible within the limits of ordinary grammatical interpreta-
is
tion.
The
translation here given rests
upon a
text
which
is
con-
fessedly largely conjectural and, as with all guesses, the chances
are against
it.
Recent interpreters have cut the Gordian knot by
dropping the more
diflacult
this leaves the line with
are required.
The
words as due
poet's
* So placed also by Bick., Now.', Or.

places the whole of v.
t So
e. g.
So
So
e. g.
e. g.
to dittography (v.
i.),
but
only five beats instead of the six that
imagination pictures the enemies of

(?), Arn., Marti, Hpt., Stk.,
Kau., Kent; while Du.
here,
Gunk., We., Now .2, Gray, Hap., Dr., van H..

We., Dav., G.\Sm., Dr., Kau..
Ew., Hi., Hd., Or..
** So
g. g.
Ki.,
Mau..
I-Yahweh
the
thoms
as a patch of
The same
fire.
stubble appears in
Ez. 2" Ec.
The
laid
likening of
Is.
33"- ";
cf.
295
low by the sickle and ready for
Yahweh 's
foes to
also 2 S. 23^
Mi.
thoms and
7* Is. 10'^
27*
7.
acrostic structure of this section
was
first
noticed
in
modern
times at least, by Pastor G. Frohnmeyer of Lienzingen in Wiirtemberg.
His suggestion was called to the attention of scholars by De. in his commentary on Ps. 9. The discovery was taken up by Bick. who sought
to reconstruct vv. 2-10 on this basis in ZDMG. XXXIV (1880), 559/. and
later in his
Carmine V. T.
metrice (1882), 212/..
Bick.'s
scheme was
peculiar in that he sought the whole alphabet in the successive lines of
by making the alphabetic arrangement apply not only to the

but also to the second and third letters of the lines. In
his own words, "exquisito artificio alphabetico struitur hoc carmen.
Unicuique disticho litera ex ordine alphabeti usque ad mem inclusive
praemittitur, sed ea lege, ut Aleph iteretur, et prima ultimaque stropha
unicam tantum literam initialem recipiant. Hoc modo in initio secundi
distichi literae Nun locus reservatur.
Ceterae literae a Samekh usque ad
vv.
'
><>,
initial letters,
Tav
(e
quibus Pa, ut saepius,
literae 'Ajin praemittitur) literas initiales
Vav ita sequuntur, ut alternatim binae et singulae

ponantur; ergo Samekh et Pa post Bet, 'Ajin post Gimel, âde et Qoph
post Dalet, Re post He, Sin et Tav post Vav." The artificiality of this
Bet, Gimel, Dalet, He,
hypothesis, which
the text which
is
is
wholly without analogy in Heb., and the violence to
necessary to give
it
any shade of
plausibility kept schol-
from adopting it; and Bick. (though he had presented the last str.
in revised form [i^-'"] in Zeitschrift fur Kathol. Theologie for 1886), in
his last publication on the subject, viz. Beitrdge z. sem. Metrik (1894)
abandoned the scheme himself. The next contribution was from Gunk,
in ZA W. XIII (1893), 223 ff. and also some further suggestions in Schopfung und Chaos (1895), 102/.. He, observing that elsewhere alphabetic
poems are carried through the whole alphabet and that i'o-2' was of approximately the same length as i*-', proceeded to reconstruct 1^2' so as
ars
to
make
it
yield twenty-two lines, each opening in turn with the letters
of the alphabet in their proper order.

tions
and
iio_2i.
This involved radical emenda-
several transpositions of lines or parts of lines, especially in
The
first full
statement of the case for English readers was
furnished by Gray, Exp. 1898, pp. 207-220,
who
did not attempt to
fol-
low Gunk, in the reconstruction of the latter half of the acrostic, concerning which he rightly says, "any particular suggestion can be regarded as little more than a possibility"; but satisfied himself with marshalling the evidence for the acrostic character of the piece as a whole
and with contributing a textual suggestion or two of much value. Hap.
(1900 and 1902) regards the acrostic form as original rather than as due
NAHUM
296
an editor as some have suggested and carries it through 2', but conpoem in its present form to be in reality a composite of two
poems (viz. i^-'o and I'^-a'), which have been independently wrought
out of the original acrostic which he undertakes to restore. Am. (1901)
subjected the work of his predecessors to a keen criticism and mainto
siders the
had been incorpoIn the restoration of this, he

Hpt, (1907)
proffers some new textual readings and transpositions.
likewise makes no attempt to restore the acrostic beyond i'" and adds
but little on the acrostic form to the work of his predecessors. Du.
(1910) begins the acrostic with i', tr. i^ to foil. i', and combines i'*
tained that only a fragment of the original acrostic
rated in ch. I
with
i'" to
The
and
that
it is
form the D and
desired initial
letter,
i^-'o.
y lines with
acrostic structure of
of reasonable doubt.
found in
i'-'" is
which he
stops.
too clearly apparent to be a subject
Eight of the lines as they stand in
M offer the
while four or five more are easily recovered by slight
emendations and transpositions, some of which are necessary apart from

all
requirements of the acrostic.
This fact is recognised and a reconstrucabove (pp. 287/.) is adopted

g. We., Now., Marti, Dr., Stk., van H.,
tion substantially identical with that given
by nearly all recent scholars; e.

Kau., and Kent. The only doubters are Dav. and GASm.. The
former entertains the possibility that the traces of an acrostic are due
solely to unconscious and accidental causes; but the recurrence of so
many successive letters at regular intervals seems to reduce the possibilchance or accident to the vanishing-point. The latter scholar
wonders how a poem originally clearly indicated as acrostic could have
failed of recognition and have suffered mutilation to such an extent as to
have lost the semblance of an acrostic. But the fact that Ps. 9 and 10
underwent a somewhat similar transformation is sufficient answer to
such an objection.
In the section beginning with i", not only are there no sure traces of
the acrostic, but the character of the contents undergoes a change. The
acrostic concerns itself primarily and almost exclusively with Yahweh and
ity of
w. " ^ are clearly addressed to a party of the second part who

have been guilty of a great crime against Yahweh and his peo-
his doings;
seems
ple.
It
to
Hence, these two parts of ch. i must be treated separately.

Gunk.'s merit to have pointed out the distinction in style and tone
is
i and chs. 2, 3.
In the latter, the writer is dealing with a
and concrete political situation but in the former we have only
The language and ideas here are not those
theological abstractions.
between ch.
definite
of the prophets, but those of the post-prophetic, eschatological psalmists.
The
ous and
artificial acrostic
vital style of
was common;
La. 1-4.
e.
form
Nahum.
is
also out of keeping with the vigor-
g. Pr. 3110-31 Ps. 9, 10, 25, 34, 37,
This section
is,
when such usage

in, 112, 119, 145.
It points to later times,
therefore,
now
generally held to be of late
r
origin; so
e.
g. Bick.,
Gray, We., Now., Hap., Lohr (ThLZ. 1901,
Dr., Bu.G<:h.^ Cor., Hpt., Kau., Du., Kent.
Am., Marti,
that the later addition
at the end, as
comes
at the beginning of the
more customary,
is
is
p. 37),
The
fact
book rather than
not altogether without parallel; sim-
and some would place Mi.

same category.
2. NIJ1I] Only Jos. 24"; a variation from the more usual form k:p_.
Du. om. both words.
op:^] Marti om. 'ji; so Hpt., Stk., Kau., Kent.
ilar
introductions are Gn. i'-2<, Dt. 1-5;
1 2-5 in
''
297
the
Om.
nin> apj]
Marti om. only
Hap., Now., Du..
so Gunk.,
with 05 as a dittog.;
'"<,
The
so Hpt., Stk., Ka..
greatly exercised the older exegetes; Ra.,
threefold occurrence of
e. g.,
saw
in
it
'j
a reflection of
the threefold vengeance of '\ viz. in the beginning of Israel's history,
own
in the prophet's
time,
deported to Babylon.
and
in the
days to come when Israel
Abar. interpreted
it
is
to
be
as occasioned by the fact that
Assy, had invaded and devastated Israel three times; while Tarnovius,
Mich., Geb. and Pu. referred it to the three persons of the Trinity. The
om. of 'i here suggested is much simpler than the proposition to drop
'ji and the second '% even though it does bring the cffisiu-a after the
'
fourth beat instead of the third; such variations in hexameter are not
uncommon.
ncn Syai] (S /oierA Ovfwv om. i; so &; so also Gunk., Hap.,

Now.. On this usage of '2, cf. Pr. 2224 2922 and Ges. î^s s. u. go also
Ar. dhu = 'possessor of,' 'characterised by.'
naui] di xaJ ^â/pwj', nowhere else used to render 'j, but = Stsj in Dn. y*. H et irascens. For
the
same usage
Lv. 19' 8;
Am.
IN expressed
of
1^2,
{v.
'j,
with the object in understood,
in its original form,
HA^,
32).
v. Je. 3^-
probably presented
Hpt. would assign
'i
'2
Ps. 103'
this vb.
with
in all these passages
to a 'j II = be embittered and = Assy, natdru, generally read naddru,

and connected with Ar. mutirr (|/ 110) = 'bursting out (of wrath).'
New. traced it to an Ar. vb. = 'see' and rendered it 'observeth with an
'
angry eye';
'
cf. n-j-oo
'mark,' 'target'
(i S. 202").
All who recognise
2b. sa
the acrostic character of this passage concede vv.
^ be out of place
some treating
and placing 2b after
here; but opinions vary as to the best disposition of them;
both
lines as glosses, others finding
only
'
to
be
late
the D line, while others make both lines original, putting ' 2b^ in reverse
order, after the D line (Bick.), or 3^- 2b after the n line (Hpt.), or s* after
and
2b after
the B line
(v.
with
dropping the
V.
tempt
make
',
'')
n (Am.).
initial
'1
Du., however, begins the acrostic
and placing
v.
after v.
'.
Every
to use ' as a part of the acrostic involves serious difficulty.
at-
To
it supply the shortage in the c line, demands the arbitrary omission

more than half of ' in order to bring the completed line within the
compass of a hexameter. To place it after the o line, likewise calls for
some pruning of 3 which is, as it stands, too long for a line, and it also
involves the omission of 'x ova from v. ' which has to be crowded into a
single line.
Du.'s proposition involves an irregular order of words for
of
NAHUM
298
,
after the initial
nominal sentence
end.
3. no]
Rd.
Ps. 103* 145'.
has been dropped for the purpose of the acrostic; the

beginning rather than at the
'1
calls for its subject at the
ipn, with
n|")j>
nh
Gunk
Kau.
so Now.,
2'^
Jo.
cf.
npji] (6 kaI ddtôv oiiK ddtfiilxrei.
Jon. 4' Ex. 34*

TH et
mundans
non faciei innocentem. The phrase is found also in Ex. 34' Nu. 14'*; cf.
Ex. 20' Je. 30". Hpt. supplies an obj. ji;;, in place of M's nini; but 'j
an abstraction.
requires a personal obj., not
r\pi\
Gunk., Hap., Marti, and Kau. om. as a
TeKelq..
would
mjju'ji] Jb. 9".
occurs in
Is.
dialectic variation
The same
substitute.
296 Ps. 83".
j:jJi]
which Gunk,
^'^"O,
that the reference
Some
and myo
vSjt piK] Gunk. vSjiS paN>;
06 If pi..
The prtc. shows
ijju]
hdidd] (g iv avv-
from
alliterative conjunction of nijiD
so Bick., van H..
4.
nin^] (g treats as subj. of
gloss.
mss. of Kenn. ny^; so We., Now., Hal..
is not to any single act, but to the regand continuous activity of '> along these lines. As the continuation
of the prtc. by the impf shows, the prtc. here describes a permanent charintya^]
acteristic of ', one demonstrated by long-established experience.
Gunk. B-^'i; so Stk.. We. inB'ay.i; so Marti, Now.'', van H., Kau..
But this was probably a recognised and legitimate contraction of the
being elided just as is the n of Niph., Hiph. and
full form, the weak
Hoph. impfs.. For other cases, v. La. 3"- ^^; cf. Ges. " ". '^^f ^'] Rd.
ular
Gray, Dr., Du..
SSi, with
has
The
acrostic calls for
an
both the beginning and the end of the
' at
initial n here,
but the Vrss.
line;
without exception seem to point to different vbs. in the two places; at

least,
they have different renderings,
nx
has
SXiyibdrj
nnj;
& i^]
i^4\nrev;
....
4n.
might be
explained as due to a desire for variation. But against such an explanation here is (i) the fact that the translators here were not zealinfirntatus est
elanguit; (3
In accordance with not infrequent usage elsewhere,
ous for variety, for in
by both
(5 (0/3717)
i' oyr
and #;
(2)
and
p"\n are
rendered by the same word
the variety exists in all the Vrss.;
the acrostic calls for i; (4) the use of words for 'n by
occur elsewhere as
its
>
this
Among
equivalents.
the
(3)
^ & which never
many Heb.
originals of
(S's
frequent rendering iKXenreiv, the one that best suits this situation
is
hh-\
which
38X and
in
the Niph.
is
is
represented by this vb. in d's rendering of
rendered by the noun
gives us 'i at the
needed.
When
the opening
end
in Is. 17*.
This, however,
of the line instead of the beginning
the oldest Vrss. ((S
word
e/cXeti/'is
Is.
of the line
was
B) were made,
S'?dn',
bear indisputable testimony to that
it is
where
for the renderings of these
fact.
But,
if
it is
quite clear that
two
a scribe depended
upon his memory, not slavishly eyeing his copy, the resemblance
form and meaning between 'n and 'i might easily have occasioned
their interchange; cf. the similar transpositions in Mi. i^ (g and Na. i*
&. That SSt might fittingly be applied to Bashan and Carmel, fertile
regions, would appear from Is. 19' where it is parallel to M^n and is used
largely
in both
299
l3-6
of streams, Is. 17* where
Heb. where
it
it is
used of the glory of Jacob, and the later
cellent statement of these facts.
Buhl, S^N.
Bick.' pxi.
CB.
so Bick.3, We., Or., Hap., Now., Hpt., van H..
CB.
IN37.
Kau.
so
hence Marti, onnn; so Now.*^, Kent, Du..
QI;
Cf. Gray's exGunk. 2NT;
denotes the thinning out of vine-leaves.
JN-j.
ja'a]
pnc; so &.
vvy\_.
onn]
But the
Am.
Si.
'?t<Dn->'
5.
t4
tfpi;;
not
art. is
necessary even though the parallel noun has
it;
the use of art. with one
noun when a co-ordinate noun
is
not
i4.
33 41-
member
'0.
anarthrous
is
of the alphabetic series, viz. La.
Gray, Kol., Now..
s;r.-ii]
furnishes good sense
Rd.
and occurs
4^
van H.. Gr.

Du. nrni (cf. Hb.
&. Bick.'
so
NB'jni.
niyajni]
nsir
{cf.
Gunk, 'jn Vdi; so

n^nm), which
Now.k
Dr.,
HWB.^', Hpt.,
Aq. e<f)piê. 2.
Now.. BDB.
05 kuI iveffTdX-rj.
Bick.*Nu'-ii; so
nu'i.
Kau.
ryjoi.
3*).
is
corrupt
Oort^- Nrn\
t<u'].
an
calls for
{v.
Ps. 24' should be corrected after 24',
We
not necessary.
Hap.
intransitive rendering of
impf. of
(3
xirj;
^B
Aq.,
connected
it
ad loc), Hb.
H.'^",
and
i^
probably
so,
in Ps. Sg'o the intransitive sense
should also expect
lowed by vnnna rather than vjdd.

but
Mi,
Passages commonly cited in support of this are Ho. 13' Hb.
nv:.
Ps. 24' 89'"; but Ho. 13'
is
cf.
in a similar context in Is. 6"; so also
nxBTii (so Nev/.).
"& contremuit; so
iKivfidi).
Kt^ni;
Houb.
cf.
Niph.
nb'hi,
Capellus, Gunk., Gray, Or. (?), Marti,
Kau.;
uncommon;
Further, the art. occurs only once in an acrostic as a
(S S.
':,
be folhave read the Niph,
intransitive, to
if
seem
to
perhaps gave a free rendering of the same form;
with
'be waste.'
nvxsr,
S2.n1]
Om.
with (S &; so
We., Gunk., Gray, Hap., Now., Marti, Hal., Hpt., Kau..
For similar
asyndetic construction, v. Je. 34' Ps. 24' 98^ (& ij fftj/xvaffa. 't >jdS
>ai '> >t] Rd. >D vjdS '1 >a idjjj; so Bick., Gunk., We., Gray, Or., Hap.,
Now., Marti, Dr., Hpt., Stk., van H., Kent, Du.. The relation between
this line and the n line is so close that it is evident that this line stood in
immediate proximity to the latter. The key- word in the acrostic is 't;
hence '"> must be transposed. Arn.'s objection to this transposition is not
well taken, viz. that vjdS
thus leaving
masc.
for
of
iJijS
is
in
'>
unrelated.
refers to
sf.
id;?i is
here
'r
it
<d
would mean "who can stand before him ?",
'?
is
grammatically masc.
(Is.
10")
hence the
In any case, Arn.'s substitution of
naturally.
S'sj
But Arn.'s explanation of the position

that the writer was quoting from memory
too violent a change.
M as due to the fact
probably correct;
duplicate, Mi.
4'.
''Ci]
cf.
the place of pDj in Is. 2^ with
The detachment
of
its
place in the
to complete "jdS leaves
''D
as a proclitic to be pronounced with aipi and thus improves the metre.

nanj] (B Ti^Ket,
and
Aq.
ffvvex<'>''e^0V-
fffraêv.
reading them nnsj and
^fluerefacit. We., with
so Hal..
Kenn. 225
reads inxj; so Mich., Gunk., Bick., Gray, Now., Marti, Hpt., Kau.,
9,
tr.
'j
HWB.^^.
ixnj,
13p:;
But We.'s objection that n^nj is not suitable before i:'N3 is

where the ideas of 'pouring' and burning'
ill-founded, in view of Je. 7^"
'
NAHUM
300
are conjoined in reference to Yahweh's wrath; so also in Je. 44" 2 Ch.
Nor
34".
Is
the difficulty with ixpj] serious; the vb.
of the breaking
down
herent difficulty in applying
it
to rocks;
idiom
no example of
JD yn:, cf. Je. 426.
&=
udd]
is
is
a>ND]
&
stay themselves;
so
dpxdi;
Now.
Tiyn vipV; cf. (6 rois VTrofi4vov<xiv aiirSv;
may
it is
in-
of the 'burning' of
OT.. For the

Hence Gr. tPNi.
1C.
The
(?).
reference of the
sf.
7. h^dS]
Rd.
H et confortans; 21 to Israel that
they
occurs both as masc. and as
a'N
no
this latter idea in the
<S5
so Gunk., Bick.,
njDT?;
ambiguous, for
is
surely as easy to think of the
it is
'breaking down' or 'pulling down' of rocks as
them; indeed, there
commonly used
is
of walls, doors, cities, towns, etc.; there
fern..
This insertion
to strengthen.
supported by
is
(i) C5, which has one of the more frequent equivalents of nip; (2) til,
which probably had 'pS as a basis for its Israel and 'd as the original
'
of
its
This reading
(or 'cS vip'^)
GASm., Gray,
Or.,
phrase 'pS
'1
Hap. nynS
Nin
is accepted by Bick., Gunk., We., Dav.,

Now., Hal., Marti, Dr., Hpt., Stk., Kau., Kent. The
jia occurs also in La. 3^5;
Oort^- substitutes
4923.
Tij?D
13 mj*?
Du.
13 n;'
when
c- g-
y'y
The doubled
pose an y'y root, since
vowel
(e.
g.
B'j'?3
it
and
zio''
vyS;
cf.
Van H.
n;?
(cf Ges. ^^sk^j but the lat-
This
is
the only example of a
root which retains a under the preformative
inflectional additions are
'.'.>!?
t^V
usage of the noun better.
c formation from an
iiij?D3
Hpt. would derive nyc from
with the Massoretes, rather than from

ter root suits the
Ps. 25' 37^ 69' 86^ Is.
Bick. (1894)
does not occur elsewhere.
ijpc';'.
\^^srh
cf.
for n>'cS.
vip"?
but the idiom
D'-ipcS.
I*?
'
(3) the need of another beat in the line.
'stay themselves';
made and
also doubles the last radical,
radical, of course, does not necessarily presup-
may be only an
e^jS'-s).
equivalent for the naturally long
vacillates
on
this point;
cf.
''lU'^J,
2 S. 22"; M-ipD, Ps. 316 438; IMPD, Is. 17' Ps. 52'; DJIPD, Ps. 37";
\T1J;D,
Dn. II"-
".
The a
is
just as
abnormal
furnishing the only example of

Cf. Brockelmann, Vergl.
Syr. Gram.
Rd.
nin>
j,n;,
126 G.
its
in the
one case as the other, ]m
retention in the case of
an
p*;?
noun.
pp. 103, 375; Barth, NB. 158 b; No.

ara] Arn. om. as gloss.
Du. ini 'x '3. ^>'tii]
Gramm.
ms
'>
with Bick., Gunk., We., Hap., Now., Marti, Hpt., Stk.,
van H., Kau., Kent. Gray, Or., Dr., Du., om. 1, but do not add '\
Dn] (8 ToDs eiXaôv/jiipovi. 8. lay f|i3SOi] (S ical iu KaTaK\v<riJ,ip iropelas.
& apparently tr. 'y and the foil. na>y>; though this appearance is probably
due to an inner Syr. corruption. Bick. originally (1880) added nSs; but
later
dide'''.;
so van H..
Hap. om.
'y.
Gunk, adds oaSai or 0^,^'iy, so

Du. changes 'y to D^^jyi.
We., Gray, Now., Marti, Hpt., Kau., Kent.
nmpD]
Rd.
vippa; so
Buhl {ZAW. V), Gunk., Oort, Or., Now., Hap.,
Marti, Dr., Hpt., Stk., van H., Kau., Kent. Du..
The
sf.
of
M lacks
any antecedent here. Parallels for a second ace. after hSd ncy are
furnished by Je. 30" Ne. 9". But the similarity of vDp2 to ncipD is very
close; for other interchanges of 3 and c, cf. insia for itid in 2 K. 2o'2;
7-10
20I
njDN and njax in Qr. and Kt. of 2 K. 5"

15'
Is.
which
is
by
clearly attested
6'
tffn-)2,
Gram.
(S
Ko.
44;
tibus
illi.
treat
it
Ho. io 31%
(&, e. g.
tPNiD;
II,
i,
Toi>s iire-yeipofiivovs;
pnn and
Mi. 7"
'JDDD,
459.
For nSa
p.
Aq.
similarly 9.
& io i/5 /)/ace.
<S ^lapelfi; 139
<S
lo'i
with
ntt*];
^2,(&^=
3, cf. Je.
dird avKTrafiivuiv.
21 icpT n^ddj? So*?.
Aq
(S
-D;
Houb.
(so
VD|"5
New.
VD'ip3.
Dathe,
VDD1P3.
Hap.) or voDipno (so Gr., We.;
Ace. of end of motion as in
30"
46"
<J6
a consurgen-
E'.
and
G. E'.
St all
Gre.
so Bauer, Br..
rD-'pp'?;
cf.
Am.
C/- also Dl. Assy.
'jpna.
as a designation of persons rather than place or things.
vDDipD.
Jus.
& JE);
<g
(c/.
B), Jos 15" Ne. II"; and the local pronunciation of Baalbek,
Such confusion is also
scarcely distinguishable from Maalbek.
{cf.
Hal. ny^j?.
Hpt.).
We.' 'n tiir or it.

Gunk, 'n fyv^y, so We.', Gray, Now., Marti, Stk., van H., Kau., Du.;
Hpt. 'n Sn tiin\ 9. p3a'nn] Gunk, adds n>n; similarly
cf. Jb. i8>8.
'n ITT']
23".
i S.
Now.K.Sn]
<g iirl; so i&
has the force of S; in Ho.

the
n-ify Nin,
tonSr;
first
c/.
S;; so Hpt., Du..
7'5 Je. 49'<' 5045.
niyjj
two words of which are from v.
so Marti, Or.
telligible;
( ?),
But Sn
Rd. rh^ i>i >?
H; hence Gunk.
Now.'', Hpt., Stk.
(all
Nin n^^]
i"
where they are uninwhom also change '3
of
K. i3i7'9Ezr. 92Ch.3i>BS. io>3),andDu.. Theattempt
meaning 'even though' for ^3; and so make ^J; '3 inin M, rests upon Nu. 8^ i S. 2^ Hg. 2" Jb. 25^, all of
which present a questionable text and in none is the meaning though'
satisfactory even if it were permissible.
The change to n'7^ is quite unof Dav. to find the
telligible
where
it is
'
necessary, even though
it
for 'y Nin, treating Nin as
Rd.
Dipn]
Dr.
(?),
with <&
Bipi,
makes excellent sense. Now. substitutes rivy

due to dittog. of n in '3 and corruption of \
eKSiK-qa-iL;
Ti]v iirav6,ffTa<ri.v.
ms
so Gunk., Gray, Hap., Now., Marti,
Van H.
Hpt., Stk., Kau., Kent.
Rd. ins3
d^'D^d]
ly]
V. on.
Gunk. tr. to foil, nu-y

(accepted by Gunk, in Schopfung
ij;iD3
gloss.
Hpt. v;xd.
the om. of the similarly sounding 3
'3,
v.
'.
O'lNOD DN3D31
D''33D 0''-\^D]
Rd.
avBvvoffT'fia-ovTai.
so Gunk., Gray, Now., Hap.,
Marti, Dr. (?), van H., Stk., Kau., Kent.
n of
S. ovx
oip\
'd;
was easy
in
u.
0''Nns-i
9'';
{v.
After the final
on
v.
*).
10.
'3
so Bick., but reading
Chaos, 102).
D>np3 D'TD.
Arn. om. as
seems to
be due to corruption and conflation. It embodies two efforts to restore

a corrupt text. One interpreting Dn''D as 'thorns' restored D''33D; the
other, taking it as 'pots,' restored D'xsdi dn3D31, on the basis of Ho. 4".
The reference later in the context to stubble and burning makes the
interpretation
we can
'
thorns
restore a''nD3,
'
much
on the
33"; so Gunk., Marti, Dr.
the
more probable.
Starting with this
basis of (g, the remnants of
(?),
Stk.
The
further correction d^ncxi presupposes a confusion of d
V.
and of
8)
and d
(cf.
to a gloss or to dittog.
pnu'''
and
(for the
prî>),
om.,
M, and
Is.
(though Marti, Stk., add nS^).
cf.
and 3
and drops DN303 as due
Gunk., Gr.,
Oort^""-,
(:;.
on
either
Hap.,
NAHUM
302
ndx
Marti, Hpt., Kent),
may be
Dt. 29", hence
HP.
is
-^s, (6^'-
228) avTov{-Qv, C6^;
^^ HP
applied to land in
Is.
44'
and
used appropriately of thorns.

"
to foliage in
(6 6efjie\lov{-wv,
g(H) ^p(riad'^(rTat{-ovTai,
>.
22, 36, 51, 62, 86, 95, 97, 147, 153, 185) Kal ws aij.i\a^ TrcpiirXe-
KOfi^vi] ==
D^nDa onD.
'31
S. onoius
otrus
irviivewXeyfiivrf
(ttoi^-q
H sicut spinae se invicem

complectuntur sic cojivivium eorum pariter potantium. & = cnn^D oni^
Kal rb
ffvfjLirScriov
DS3D31;
'd
airCJv
similarly
a gloss and reads

^N
is
it
DtoD3i
Hpt. T^m >3
be read nSd d^noS
to
and
and DN3D3 as another gloss
D'NiaD on^D
==
'
tr.
even
if
on^D as
who
Hal.
Dn.iDi..
end of verse
'd 'D31 to the
misinterpreted
Du.
D''Dnp.
Hpt. takes on^D as
'^30 in.
here and treats aôao as a gloss by one
âb? D>3aD
Van H. Dn;D3
D'>N13D 'd.
foil. iS^n,
Am. om.
o-iNiaD Dnif.
Oort^-
pi c^??-
oniD, using the
D''32p
where
Gr.
21.
D'>NiaD
D''N1jp D>NJt?D1 DiTJJ-lJ??'

1*7
<7vy.iri.vbvT03v dXXi^Xots.
'pots'
as 'thorns'
it
they drink,' the original text being
This
'jars filled with wine.'
treated as a figurative
is
and his nephew,

But aside from the improbability of a Maccabaean date for
material and the inappropriateness of burning as a method of de-
characterisation of the drunkards Antiochus Epiphanes
Demetrius
this
I.
stroying jars, the pi. of T'D 'pot'

CS ffpu3d-n<yeTai{-ovTai,
Gunk.
Tot.
1S3S
-[Jib
-\y_
HP.
(i) the
represented by (& ws
use of
in the
elsewhere nn>p.
-ij;
presents
(T/xl\a^ k.t.X.,
and
that
is
so We.,
at the right place
Gr.
hho.
GASm.,
Gunk.
in
M.
Arn., Marti, Dr.,
iSaj
(cf.
Ps.
37').
Comp.,
tt'3"']
nSd] Rd. nSh
Now.^
eight-line str. declaring that the
broken and the period of her
ance and restoration
now
Thus
saith
V'ERILY,
on-D
seems
when on'D
^7]pavd-^(reTai.
and
join with
-inSi;.
Hal. as an abbreviation
yoke of
affliction is
(i"-
"
2^-
of
').
Israel's
oppressor
complete.
Deliver-
await the people of God.
constitutes a later addition to the
(2) it
Hpt.(?).
WORDS OF COMFORT TO JUDAH
An
without any paral-
Ch. 4" certainly not being such a case;
Marti, tyN3; so Hpt., Stk..
V. ";
3.
is
itself
vi'3\
15'.
S. dvaXwîJo-e-
rather reckless to eliminate the D line, leaving a blank,
Hap.
Ex.
1S3N] Cf.
beset by two serious difficulties; viz.
is
as a particle denoting comparison
OT.,
Hap.'s suggestion that the original text thus far was
iSdv
13,
'3D '3D3 are variants or glosses,
lel
is
22, 36, 51, 95, 97, 153, 185).
This section
prophecy of Nahum.
Yahweh:
the days of
my
contention are completed; yea, indeed, they are over
and gone.
I have afflicted thee, but I will
afflict
thee no more.
303
And now I will break his rod from upon thee, and
thy bonds I will burst asunder.
Behold, upon the mountains the feet of a herald, of one proclaiming peace!
Celebrate thy feasts,
Judah,
fulfil
thy vows;
For not again will the destroyer pass through thee; he will be destroyed, cut ofF.
For Yahweh will restore the vine of Jacob, likewise the vine of Israel;
Though the despoilers have despoiled them, and their branches they have
destroyed.
Thus
12.
but
It
saith
Yahweh] This phrase
not on that account necessarily a
is
is
extraneous to the
furnishes the necessary antecedent of the pronouns in the
person which follow.
and he
shall
CD^C'
they
e.
first
contention are com-
text, v. i..
IH is
"though they be in
and likewise many, even so shall they be cut down,
pass away." The manifest defects of this are, (i)
difficult, if
full strength,
my
and gone] For
pleted ; yea, indeed, they are over
very
days of
Verily, the
str.
later, editorial addition.*
RV.
not impossible.
renders,
'whole,' 'perfect,' 'sound,' etc., and 'in full strength' is

somewhat forced; (2) jDI can hardly be rendered "and likewise,"
which would be better expressed by Dil; (3) the pronouns 'they'
and 'he' are loosely related to the context, the former in particular
finding no satisfactory antecedent.
Most of the older interpreters
found here an allusion to the invasion of Sennacherib, e. g. "if
(i.
were so
But the
the Assyrians) were once intact
mown down and
he
(i.
allusions are too indefinite
e.
they will yet

else
come
to
e.
g.
"may
it
'tides'
and as a matter
insignificant; " they will
text largely conjectural,

slight.
Ho.
For the
4* 12^
Mi.
The
but
figure of
6^ Je. 25^*.
its
Sennacherib
Q^tl' is
full,
nowhere
"how high the tide was soOT. knows nothing of

on the coast of Palestine
like the great
is
waters,"** but this
and the
violent
translation given here rests
upon a
involves the arbitrary omission of several words

transposition of others.
yet
but the
of fact the tide
be divided
to
the great waters be ever so
naught and pass away," % but
has ebbed and subsided,"
many and
Renderings involving textual
used of the overflowing of waters;
ever,
so
and the transition
too abrupt to render this plausible.
changes are numerous,
and
Sennacherib) passed away."t
departure from
is
comparatively
Yahweh 's controversy with Israel, cj.

The thought is that the period during
* Contra Gunk., Hap., Now., Hpt..

t Ew.; similarly Mau., Ke., Hi., Hd., Or., GASm.,
X We..
Hpt..
** Hap..
NAHUM
304
which Yahweh has constantly been under the necessity of punishing
Judah
may now
upon a
for
its
sins has
now come
slightly different text,
have been completed, they are come
away";
though
an end; a new dispensation
to
An alternative rendering, resting

may be suggested, viz. "many days
be expected from him.
it
but I will
would never end,

thee
afflict
is
now
no more] This
finished.
is
is
to
stands in
Judah,*
M,
the
if
this translation
more natural rendering
Nineveh or Assyriaf and the meaning
destroy Nineveh utterly, once for

his rod
from upon
'yoke' for 'rod,'
work;
all.
is,
"and
The
ad-
as the text
I will afflict thee
is
is
Yahweh is about to
And now I will break
that
13.
and thy bonds I will burst asunder]

has
but the form is difficult. The figure is that of a
thee,
9^ lo^-
cf. Is.
But
which case the address
taskmaster standing over the slave with uplifted

to
afflicted thee,
figurative words.
be adopted.
so that I need not afflict thee again"; in

to
/ have
a plain prose statement of the
meaning of the preceding, somewhat

dress
an end and have passed
to
the long-drawn-out time of affliction, which seemed as
i. e.
^*
Ps. 2^ Rev. 2^^ 12^ 19*^.
stick, forcing
him
The oppressor re-
power that happened to be in dominion over Judah

was written; perhaps it was Persia. If the reading
'yoke' be correct, the 'bonds' will be the thongs holding the two
sides of the yoke together; cf. Ps. 2^ Je. 30^ Ez. 30^^ 34^^ Is. 28^^.
2^ Behold, upon the mountains the feet of a herald, one proclaiming
ferred to
the
is
at the time this
peace] Cf. Is. 40
In striking fashion, the prophet pictures
52''.
deliverance and safety as at the very doors.
mountains probably finds
from one
ling tidings
thy feasts,
is
prosperity
Judah,
The
words of the messenger.
reference to the
custom of
cf. Is. 5^"
signal-
13^ ^' 49^^.
The
a comprehensive term, including that
viz.
The
significance in the
hill-top to another;
word rendered 'peace'

which goes with peace,
Celebrate
its
and freedom from anxiety.

vows] These are the
fulfil thy
joyous festal occasions thus far in-
may
The many vows that have been made
favour of God for the afflicted people are
termittently observed because of the inroads of the invader,
now be
regularly resumed.
in the effort to
now due.
win the
It is characteristic that
* So
t So
e. g.
e. g.
Ki.,
Hi.,
the religious duties of the nation
Mau., Ke., Hd., Or., Gunk., Marti, Kent,

We., GASm., Dr..
et al..
2'-
30S
'
are the
The
thought in the writer's mind.
first
wrought by God; the
For not again will the destroyer pass through

3"
The
Zc. 9^.
abstract "ruin"
The
crete "destroyer."
On
ruin incarnate.
stroyed, cut off]
self to
meet the
For Yahweh
is
will
The
i..
He
oflF."
will be de-
In either case,
oppressor
now him-
is
he has dealt out so freely to others.
fate that
thus represented as
is
be wholly cut
intended.
is
to him.
used in the text for the con-
oppressive tyrant
has "he
is
thee] Cf. Jo. 2^^- ^
the rendering "Belial," v.
a complete destruction
deliverance will be
obligation of the rescued people
first
3.
will restore the vine of Jacob, likewise the vine of Israel]
iM has "pride" in both instances for "vine"; but the following line
demands the mention of a vine here as the antecedent of its thought.
The words
and
'vine'
'pride' in
Hebrew vary
cf Gn. 49-2 Ho. 10'
Is. 5=^-^ Je. 2"'
48^ Ps.
only in one conso-
For the same
nant; hence confusion in copying was easy.
figure,
Some would
8o- ".
treat
the references to Israel as a variant of the preceding Jacob; but the
hope of the restoration of both branches of the people was vivid in

postexilic Israel
g. Is. ii^^*^- Zc. 10^ ^-
{e.
For 'Jacob'
have found expression here.

44^ 46^
Ob.
The
^^.
verb
is
Ob.
^^^)
and may well
'Judah,'
lating to the future than as a historical perfect stating
ready taken place.*

used in
its
good
If the
junction
is
Jacob and
dubious;
it
may
and
Israel.
The
way
of the exercise of
al-
will
be
Though
laid waste their branches]
The
force of the opening con-
be concessive, as here taken, and indi-
cate that the present desolate condition of Israel
the
it
sense, viz. honour, self-respect, glory.
refer to
43*
Is.
what has
reading "pride" be retained,
devastators have devastated them
pronouns
cf.
better taken as a prophetic perfect re-
Yahweh 's
favour; or
it
is
no obstacle
may
in
be causal or
explanatory, giving the reason for the necessity of the promised

restoration.
less
The
calamities of the past are likened to the ruth-
devastation of a luxuriant vine, as in
terpret the figure
on
all-fours
branches designate the
fair
Is. i6'-
* Contra
t Ew..
members
GASm. who
renders,
Efforts to in-
community;! or the vineyard
of Canaan, the vines are the families of Israel
the individual
^.
have not been wanting,
e.
is
g.
the
the land
and the branches are
of the various families.
"has turned the pride
of
Jacob
like to the pride of Israel."
X Hi..
NAHUM
3o6
The rela'ion of these verses to their context has been thus stated by
We.: "In the verses with even numbers, Assy, or Nineveh is addressed;
This change in the address
in those with odd numbers, Judah or Zion.
The connection which is represented by
verse by verse is intolerable.
lit. u 22. * B. is interrupted by i" 2'- '; these verses have been inserted."
drawn by We., though the interchange of
had long been recognised, has been accepted by
nearly all succeeding interpreters; so e. g. Dav., Now., GASm., Rub.,
Arn., Marti, Lohr {ThLZ. 1901, p. 37), Hpt., van H., Ka., Kent. Some
would include v. '^ in the interpolation, as is done above; a decision upon
The
this point is dependent upon the text adopted for the verse {v. i.).
This conclusion,
first
clearly
the parties addressed
incompatibility of this material with
its
context has been recognised also
by Gunk, and Gray; while Stk. eliminates i"

least misplaced,
and Hal. seeks
to secure
On the other hand,

'P^îy)
the prophecy of Nahum in i'- "
I" and
before
2'
2'.
'*
The
unity of this group of verses
is
2',
Dr. concedes
harmony by placing
Du.
2'-
open
2' as at
i'^
before
finds the real beginning of
'.
to question.
They
all,
in-
same general tone and point of view. They are full of

expectation and hope for Judah; they seem to presuppose the exile; and
they concern themselves with the upbuilding of Zion, while Nahum's
But though occupying this common
interest is in the fall of Nineveh.
ground, their inner connection is not as close as would be expected in a
The connection between i'^ and 2', as also between 2'
unified poem.
and 2', is loose. The possibility that this is a group of more or less independent glosses added by one or more editors must be allowed.
deed, reflect the
Gunk., Hap.,
going acrostic.
et al.
argue for the inclusion of
But the tone
trast to that of the acrostic.
rate
them
in the acrostic
this material in the fore-
of the verses as they stand
Not only
so,
but
all
is
in sharp con-
attempts to incorpo-
have involved such radical emendations and

and discredit are thrown upon them and
transpositions of text that doubt
that Dav.'s dictum regarding the acrostic as a whole, viz. " the attempt
to restore
been
it
can never be more than an academic exercise," has certainly
justified for i"-2'.
The time when i''- "2'- originated can be only vaguely conjectured.
They look back upon a long period of suffering and forward to the dawn
of a new era. They anticipate the immediate cessation of Judah's
afflictions
with the concomitant entrance of the Messianic era of peace
and power. It is questionable whether any portion of the postexilic

age was wholly devoid of such hopes. Suffering was the common lot of
As the vassal of one or another of the
Israel all through this period.
great world-powers, her pride was continually humbled and she was as
At times, the Messianic
continually looking and longing for deliverance.
hope burned brightly, e. g. in the days of Zerubbabel. These verses
probably reflect some such period as that when the world-power of the
day seemed
to
and the hopes
of Nineveh, to virhich
tain confidence of
immediate
at that time Assy,
power
1".
ca-i
'>
1DX
had long come
an end and Judah
to
to
is
order to obtain a
dnj, in
'>
lahf
^D^_
with Gunk. (=
r\H,
For a similar idiom,
we might remain a little
either case pi
con-
relief for Israel as these verses reflect; for
in Syria
Van H.
no]
Marti; so Now."^, Kent.

variation,
Nahum
heel of Egypt.
Rd. ijn
]3^]
fail
can hardly have occasioned such vivid and cer-
fidently looked forward,
was under the
of faithful Israel were
to its fall
The
be tottering
kindled to fresh vigour.
With a
cf. Is. 60'".
closer to iM, viz.
D''3"i
be om. as due to dittog. from the
d'^dSii'-dn
line.
as modified by
id'^b'''.)
D^pj
foil,
idW
slight
In
in.
& and
pi; so (5
Rub. (PSBA. XX, 173/.), Hap., Marti, Hpt.. M's =.x is

and d (v. on v. *). To om. ax (so Marti, Now.*^,
Kent), makes it difficult to explain its presence in the text. C& testifies
ic'^w* and the two foil. vbs. are in the presto its presence in some form,
ent pf.; cf. Ges. ^ '"^k. (B Kardpxt^v vddrwv iroWQv, which Schleus. would
Gr., Gunk.,
due
to confusion of D
emend
dpx^v
to kot'
Gr. 'ui
waters.
renders "I shall cause
onn
Stt'D,
many
For
for the succession
Hpt.
px
px and
.
C^)
Pi]
middle of a sentence,
^n,
o^^-
o^D
which he
Van H.
h'ifa.
Du., om. everything
013 on.
a''x'73
o^p Se'cn,
Hap.
waters to flow."
'n in the
.
the heads {or tops) of the
Rub. a^^T
dn.
'a*
'y;\ reads ir'^X O' oV'f'
severative particle.
and
a>2T D^c
as an attribute of '\
between 'v and
& concerning
k.t.X.; cf.
We.
aj.
Rd. ]W, the
as-
40' Je.
3^';
cf. Is.
For a somewhat an-
cf. Is. 45'*- ".
Rub. jbi = 'quickon the basis of Ar. wakana, 'run quickly.'

Gunk, treats p as a noun and the subj. of the foil. vb.. ituj] Rd. iiJ,
being due to dittog. of final in pi; so Gr., Marti, Now.^, Kent.
alogous confusion of
ly,'
a word
made
K.
i;jj.
11* (S.
to order
Many
mss. of Kenn. and de R.
'which carry
Hap.
M's
Ps. QO'O;
(We.).
it
(taking
'j is
is
&
pi.;
GASm., Marti,
Tr.
a Niph.
dir.,
of
lu:.
Nu.
gloss
We.
For
ttj.
^.
Siaa-raX-îrovTai.
transitively as in
better as pf. (prophetic pf.,
must be read as
'^^y ^jy^]
it
Not improbably a
"*3>'i]
so Hap..
Or.,
off'
Gunk. {Schopfung, 102)
nijj.
Now.).
it
cf.
ffl,
if
i?iJ;,
-irj
pi..
'pass away,'
to precede nS.
cf.
necessary) than as impf.
upon the
rare
word i?J.
OortE"
van H., Kau., Kent., Du..
On waw
Stj,
or ntj; (so CB.,
so Buhl, Gr., We., Rub., Dav.,

Hal., Hpt.,
Ot-^^,
New.
ii")-
conjunctive, v. Dr.
(S
,
om.;
Now.,
If retained,
^
'".
nS
"inj>)
Kal iKoi^ffov o{>k ivaKovcrd-fifferai. eri.
TS
om. 1; so Buhl, Oort, Or., Now., GASm., Gray, Am., Marti, Hpt., Stk..
Rub. tiy nj^ri nh injyi = 'and the sound of thy name will no longer
resound.' Hap. my OJi'K ah or^r;. Hal. ^1:^1:5? = 'thine affliction I will
bring upon thee now.' Arn. seeks the
line of the acrostic in this
verse and secures it by om. on.
But while "Intact and ever so many"
may be good English, it is poor Heb,; and the idea of indefinite number
ti*
NAHUM
3o8
would not be expressed by '"< ]s\ Hap. secures the : line here, but only
by the arbitrary om. of vv. " in order that 'jj may be brought to the
beginning of the line. 13. mob] Rd. ihbc, with (Srr;>'pd/35o;'a^ToO; soH
virgam ejus and some mss. of Kenn. and de R.; so also Now., Or., Arn.,
Hap., Hpt., Kau., HWB.^K M's pointing is a mixed form, combining
taiD, in the sense of 'yoke' occurs nowhere else, the
liOiD and inao.
regular form being naiD, which with the
ph.
iriBD suits
object of
the
-iJB'N (c/.
forms of ab
foil,
y^ô
Zc. ii'"
) and
nnoia, which
is.
sf .
gives inc)iD in sg.
just as well as oid does,

is
is
and vnbiD
in
an appropriate
M than either of the normal
nearer
frequently connected with noic to desig-
is
nate the thongs which hold the two bars of the yoke together,
is
not
al-
ways so used (e. g. Jb. 121^ Ps. 116"); hence it constitutes no convincing
argument for the presence of tob or ntoiD here. We. iejid. Or. moin.
Gunk. iinviaD. Marti, vniQiD; so Kau. (?). Van H. 'hbd. Stk. niab;
so van H..
Stk.
T)'??;
Reinke,
IS de torso tuo.
T^}!^] C6 dirb aov.
so Du..
so Du..
T'Didid]
om.
(g
Hpt. om.;
'^00.
sf..
Hap.
Dni__.
This verse, with om. of initial t, is taken as the V line of the acrostic
by Gunk., Hap., and van H.; while Hpt. confidently relegates it to the
margin. 2'. njn] Gunk. tr. to precede yncD; so Hap.. Oort^"-,
Van H.
joining with i.
7\ir\,
and
D:n,
'n-Sj? ojn to foil. DiSif,
tr.
icac] Hpt. om. as "scribal expansion," while van H. om.
V'DV^d.
om. y-\-\: 'tt*. map'?]

& = ^3;;'7, probably an inner-Syr. error (Seb.). Gunk. i3jfn. Hap.
-[^y.
SySa] Has here almost the force of a proper name, as in 2 S.
23' Jb. 34'8. & by dissimilation gets beli'ar; so also in 2 Cor. 6'5. It is
used as a proper name to designate Satan in Testimony of the Twelve
Patriarchs, The Ascension of Isaiah, and Jubilees; and in Sybilline OraIf compounded of ^Sa and hy^, it is the only
cles, it is applied to Nero.
dVc']
Gunk, adds
DSa'-c as subj.; so
(^^
Hap..
case in Heb. of a
compound common noun such formations are frequent

;
Other explanations
names.
in proper
which) one comes not up,'

Belili,
e.
i.
are,
the Babylonian goddess of vegetation
name having been
(a)
and
name
is
the
'(from
name
of
of the underworld, the
given a popular etymology in Heb..
connection with some proper
nSy^ 'Sa
the underworld; (b)
In favour of
its
the later tradition which so re-
a common noun in any

and possibly nD'Sa will not permit
us to throw the theory of composite origin summarily out of court. In
any case, it is probably a loan-word in Heb., the origin of which is no
garded
and the
it
formation.
difficulty of classifying it as
The analogy
longer discoverable.
(S's
ordinary renderings are

treats
afj.apT(i}\6s;
it
in Ju. 19".
Cf. Che.
ICC; H.
it
of I3i nS
rendering here,
as a proper
EB.
eZs -iraXalucriv, is
unique;
its
ivSfirjua, dvofila, dirocrTaala, \oifi6s, irapdvofjuos,
525/.;
P. Smith on i S. i'%
name
in Pr.
KA T.\ 464;
in/CC;
16" Ju.
2o'3,
as does
G. F. Moore on Ju.
192s in
Ch^xlts, Ascension oflsaiahtpp.
Iv-lvii,
6-7.
nSs] Rd.
Now., Marti.
cede
it
Hpt.
nSr, with (8 ffwreTiXeffTai; so
rh-;.
S:)
with
sf.
usually
as here; hence the preference for
obtains the
"\,
v and n
transposing nin, the
!:>
(8.
by
tr.
We., Gunk., Hap.,

vb. rather than pre-
Gunk,
the 1
nnaj] (8 iîjpTai.
from
lines of the acrostic

line
foil, its
this verse
line by-
the two halves of the second line
and the n
and
in-
by ruthlessly inserting
an before I'Dii nS. Hap. approves this, with the substitution of nnn for
on,
Bick., with greater arbitrariness, om. all of 2' except 'dj '3 'Sa 'n >jn,
before which he puts n n. to form the n line. Van H. tr. 'i '3 hy'hs to the
serting 'Jerusalem' as a subject,
end of
I", begins the i line with ^Vji,
By
j;Ttt'D.
an
acrostic.
Gr.
3T\
3.
'>
ni^ to precede 'nn
tr.
proceedings like these, any
is
?]?,
and om.
poem might be transformed
yif](Bdir^ffTpe\l/viajptos.
The Qal
line
& I am about lo turn.
into
New.,
used here with the force of a Hiph. as in the idiom
aside from which the usage
is found only in Ps. 85^ Jb. 39'*

where the text is extremely uncertain. Hpt. secures the usual
intrans. force here by om. nM nin'' as a gloss (so Du.), leaving '> pxj as the
pxj] Rd. ip.J, with
subj., The trans, rendering is supported by (S & .
nuB'
Nu.
31;:',
10'',
Gunk., Now., Marti, van H., Kau., Kent.

Marti,
Kau., Kent.
Hpt, Du.
\Di\
(& ii^pis.
Van H.
as a variant of the preceding phrase;
pNJa]
jinji.
so Now., Dr..
Rd. fpj?; so
Gunk. om. '1 'jo
a'>pp3Dipp3] (8
^ they will trample upon the tramplers.
Gunk,
om. Dippa as a variant. Du. 'J nipiâ. onncn] Gunk, ni-inr; so
Du.. If there were any reason to suppose that the acrostic was to be
found in these verses, the proposal of Bick. to secure the c line here
by om. ^3 from before 3 a* would be attractive; for 13 is not essential to the
thought and it opens one of three successive lines beginning with ^3;
hence, it might easily be accounted for as due to dittog.. But there is no
warrant for the insertion by Bick. and van H. of nnn before 'p3 o to
form the n line. Gunk. om. '3 from before 3C, but regards the resulting
iKTiv&ffffovres iêrlvaâv.
in
line as a later addition to the acrostic, since
he has already found a v
2'.
4.
THE FALL OF NINEVEH
A series of five strs.
(i"-
"
2^- ^-").
portraying the destruction of Assyria's capi-
announces Yahweh's punitive purpose and ironically

urges Nineveh to her own defence (i"- " 2'). Str. II presents a
tal.
Str. I
upon Nineveh
vivid picture of the attack
the distress within the city

ness of Assyria
(2""'^).
(2^-^*').
Str.
in
Str.
(2^"^).
IV
Yahweh's own words declares

and complete (2"). This is
that the destruction will be thorough

the
first
of the genuine oracles of
Str. Ill describes
sets forth the helpless-
Nahum.
NAHUM
3IO
T)ID
not one come forth from thee devising evil against Yahweh, counselling
wickedness ?
Yahweh
commanded
has
concerning thee, "There shall be sown of thy
name
no longer.
From
the house of thy gods, I will cut off the graven
I will
make
and the molten image.
thy grave a dishonour."
shatterer has come up against thee: keep the rampart;

Watch the road; brace your loins; strengthen your might to the utmost.
'T'HE shield of his warriors is reddened; the mighty men are clothed in scarlet.
They will prepare the chariots on that day; the chargers will tremble.
In the fields, the chariots rage to and fro; they run about in the open places.
Their appearance resembles torches; they dart about like lightning.
He summons
They hasten
command
his nobles; they take
of their divisions (?);
and the battering-ram ( ?) is set up.

HTHE gates of the rivers are opened and the palace melts away.
And
., and her maidens are moaning,
Like the voice of doves, beating upon their breasts.
And Nineveh like a pool of water are her defenders, and as they flee,
"Stand fast, stand fast" (one cries), but no one turns back.
"Plunder silver, plunder gold; for there is no end to the supplies."
'T'HERE is emptiness and void and waste, and a melting heart and staggering
.
to the wall
of
knees.
And
in all loins and the faces of all of them become livid.

den of the lions and the cave of the young lions.
Whither the lion went to enter, the lion's cub, with none to disturb;
Where the lion tore prey sufficient for his cubs and rended for his lionesses.
And filled his dens with prey and his lair with booty ?
anguish
Where
is
REHOLD,
And
is
the
I will
am
against thee;
it is
the oracle of
Yahweh
burn up chariots with smoke, and the sword
of hosts;
will
devour thy young
lions.
And
I will
cut off thy booty from the land,
and the voice
of thy messengers will
be heard no more.
Str. I is addressed to
Nineveh
directly,
the fate she once purposed for Jerusalem
announcing
is
now
to her that
to overtake her
1".
Did not one come forth from thee who devised evil
who counselled wickedness ?] With a slight change
of form, the last word of v. ^ is placed at the opening of v. ".
This
causes no essential change in the sense here, but relieves a serious
herself.
against Yahweh,
difficulty in v.
^''.
The
reference
is
probably to Sennacherib's
having gone forth from Nineveh to attack Jerusalem.
When
he
fought against Israel, he was in reality fighting against Yahweh,
thought
Nahum.
Yet Micah
certainly,
and Isaiah probably,
thought of the Assyrians as Yahweh's agents or tools in the work

of punishing sinful Israel.
Some
interpreters
have seen here an
I"
311
allusion rather to Sennacherib's departure
from Jerusalem ;* while
others apply the statement to the whole series of Assyrian oppres-
But the
sors.!
allusion to Sennacherib
more
is
telling, since
here denotes primarily not moral
'evil'
evil,
it
in-
The word
evitably recalls the ill-starred fate of his expedition.
but positive injury,
14.
Yahweh has commanded regarding thee : there shall

be sown of thy name no more] i. e. Yahweh has decreed the total exThe prophet evidently conceives of Yahweh
tinction of Assyria.
damage.
as
God
of gods
On
hands.
and King
of kings; the destiny of nations
the basis of the masculine suffix of
M,
an As-
terpreters sought to identify the person here addressed with
syrian king, viz. SennacheribJ or Ashurbanipal,
nasty; nothing less than the

'
whose dynasty
fall
The
of the nation suits the case.
sowing here has its natural sense, referring to the perpet'
uation and increase of the Assyrian people, as in
Ho. 2'\
is
But the passionate exultation of Nahum rejustification than the mere cessation of a dy-
come to an end.
quires more for its
to
figure of
in his
is
the older in-
For similar
threats,
cf. Is.
14^'
40^
Is.
Dt. f* zp^"
1^^
Je. 3
The
i S. 24"'.
commonly accepted change from 'sow' to 'remember' (v. i.) is

gratuitous; the figure as in i^ is much more suggestive and in keeping with the poetic feeling of
involved in the phrase
make
as
this verse a
meaning
is
not
Nahum, while the grammatical usage

uncommon (y. i.). The proposal to
promise addressed to Judah, interpreting 'sow'
'scatter' as in Zc. 10^, fails to take
that the latter half of this verse
is
account of the fact
evidently a threat
harmonised with a promise in the
first half.
and cannot be
From
the house of
thy gods, I will cut off graven image and molten image] 'House'
'temple' or 'sanctuary,' as in phrases like 'house of Yahweh,'
'house of Rimmon' (i K. f^ Ju. 9^ i S. 5^ 31^*' 2 K. 5''), and is

used collectively here, including all the shrines of Assyria or, at
least, of
Nineveh.
The
destruction or deportation of images
the desecration of temples
was the customary procedure
and
of the
Assyrians and Babylonians toward the gods of conquered peoples

(2
K. 18^
and the
So
t
e. g.
^- 25;
cf.
letter
Struensce.
So Pu., Hd..
Taylor Cylinder of Sennacherib,
from the Jews of Elephantine
to
col.
V, 59;
Bagoas, line
t So New., Rosenm., Hi., Kl..

So Ra., Mich..
14,
NAHUM
312
which
testifies to
on the part of the Persians).
similar conduct
This was the most convincing evidence of the powerlessness of

the gods thus insulted.
Assyria
is
now
to suffer in her
own
per-
son the humiliation she has so often inflicted upon others.
For an
enumeration and description of the gods of Assyria,
Morris
v.
Jastrow's Religion of Babylonia and Assyria^ pp. 188-234.*

will
make thy grave a dishonour] For "dishonour,"
m reads "thou
art worthless"; but a charge of lightness, triviality or worthlessness
seems hardly to do
"put
justice to the
"make
the expression
once mighty Assyria.
Nor
is
thy grave" used elsewhere as the equiva-
death" or "bury thee"
f^ Ez. 32-' 39"-"').

As emended, the text marks the climax of misfortune for Assyria,
lent of
to
{cf.
Je.
honour after she has ceased to

become an occasion for insult and
2^. A shatterer comes up against thee;
reproach {cf. Is. 14^- "")!
guard the rampart] For text, v. i..
has "a scatterer"; a slight
change in the vowels yields this better word; cf Je. 51^. Nineveh
is evidently addressed herej and called to defend herself against
one who approaches to break down her mighty towers and walls.
The prophet has some foe clearly in mind; the identification of him
in that instead of being held in
live,
the
memory
of her
is
.
to
has varied with different interpreters.
It is
unnecessary to sup-
pose that he had any individual leader specifically in mind; his
language can easily be referred to the destroying army as a whole;

nothing certain can be alleged beyond this as to his meaning.
campaign of
is
that he spoke
already been instituted; v. Introduction, pp. 277/..
he
*
may have
Or
The
upon the verge of the final

the Medes against Nineveh, if indeed it had not
probability, however,
In that case,
intended to characterise Cyaxares as "the hammer,"
better, in the revised
and enlarged German
edition, Vol. I, 201-243.
t For an illustration of the sort of thing Nahum has in mind, cf. Annals of Ashurbanipal,
VI, 70 /.: "The mausoleums of their kings, the earlier and later ones, who had not feared
Ashur and Ishtar, my lords, but had been hostile to the kings my fathers, I destroyed and laid
waste and exposed them to the sun.
and deprived them

t
Many
took their bones to Assy.; I gave their shades no repose
and drink-offerings."
make Judah the addressee; so AE.,
of their food-
earlier interpreters
Ki., Ra., Abar., Sanctius,
Dathe, Mich., Hd..
Nebuchadrezzar
is
the choice of Jer., AE., Cal., New., Bauer, Kl., Or.; Cyril prefers Cyrus;
upon Sennacherib; while Arbaces is selected by Mich., Cyaxares by Grc. and Mau.,
Phraortes by Ew., and others are satisfied with the Medo-Chaldean army; e. g. Eich., Jus.,
Tliciner, Struensee, Hi., and Br..
lid. decides
2'-*
or "shatterer";
cf.
road; brace the loins;
313
Judas "Maccabaeus." Watch the

strengthen might to the utmost] Ironically, the
the
title
prophet urges Nineveh to take every precaution and make the most
thorough preparation for an effective resistance in the approaching
The
siege.
ing
up
call is
not so
much
for outer preparations as for a key-
of the spirits of the besieged to the highest pitch; they
must
exhibit both "bodily prowess and mental intrepidity";* cf. Am.

2" Na. 2", where a state of mind exactly the opposite of this is
depicted.
impetuous attack upon the
Str. I! describes the foes'
The
shield of his warriors is reddened]
The pronoun
city.
2\
refers to the
invading foe previously personified as "the shatterer," rather than
Yahwehf or the Assyrian king.| The language of the verse as a

is much better suited to the actions of the besiegers than to
those of the besieged. The redness of the shields has been varito
whole
ously accounted for;
made
g.
e.
as due to the fact that the shields were
of gold, a fact which
only hypothesis, however, and ex-
is
tremely unlikely at that; or to the blood that dripped from them,**
which would probably be described with more precision

63^ Rev. 9")
the shields
(cf. Is. 9'
or to the anointing or dying of the leather facings of
(Is.
21^ 2 S.
i^')
;tt or,
perhaps
better, to the reflection of
the sunshine from the reddish copper surface of the shields
The men
6^; Jos. ^w/.xiii, 12, 5).tt
(i
of might are clothed in
Mac.
scarlet]
This seems to have been the characteristic colour of the Babylonians

(Ez. 23")
2^23 i.y
and Medes;
that of the Assyrians
was blue
(Ez. 23^
Purple and reddish garments were very costly; hence an
objection to this interpretation of the
ments would scarcely be worn by an

obviating this difficulty
may
word
Three ways of
The
possibility of va-
be considered.
rious cheaper grades of goods
arises in that such gar-
entire army.
must be reckoned with ;*** the view
that blood-stained garments are
meantftf
is
not consistent with the
interpretation of the passage as describing the appearance of the foe

* Dr..
t Contra Cyril, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Hap., et al..

t Hi..
** Grotius, Abar., Jrm., Hal., Hpt..
%% Hi., Or..
ft Hd., Dav..
Pollux, Bk. I, 13, says: 'S.apa.yt]':, MrjSwi' ti ifiopriiia, nopjivpoi, fiecroAevKOs X'!'. Cf.
the statement (cited by Dr.) from Xenophon's Cyropadia, VI, iv, i, that the Persian army of
KI..
the younger Cyrus "flashed with bronze
and gleamed with crimson military cloaks," which
they had obtained from the Medes.
*** Van H..
ttt Grotius, Abar., Jrm., Hal., Hpt..
NAHUM
314
before the battle; while there is
"men
of
might"
arrayed in costly raiment*
men" seem both
no warrant
for supposing the
term
army as being
terms "warriors" and "mighty
to designate only the leaders of the
the
alike to be general in scope
diers" or "fighters."
The
and equivalent
to "sol-
correctness of the rendering "clothed
with scarlet" seems estabHshed by the parallelism with "red-
dened," notwithstanding the difficulty
it offers,
the fact that
it is
the
only occurrence of this verb and the variant reading of (^ ^, which,
however, hardly furnishes satisfactory sense here.

of torches] These words are apparently a gloss
Like the flame
upon the
rare and
word which precedes, viz. "clothed in scarlet." f This is
indicated both by the difficulty of connecting them naturally with
the following words and by the fact that when they are removed,
the line becomes of normal length.
Of the various attempts to
explain them in conjunction with the following words, none can
meet with general approval. They are equally burdensome when
difficult
joined with the preceding words.
RV.
ble. J
tvh^
But
M,
with an Arabic and Syriac word
it is
sian ;
doubtful
and
practically untranslata-
if
this is
is
fire
of steel" connects
= 'steel,' from a similar root.
not a loan-word in Arabic from the Perits currency in the Hebrew of Nareading " steel " be correct, the easiest
of Persian origin,
if
hum's time is unlikely.

rendering
is
"flash with steel" or "are with
"like
If the
fire is
the steel (of the chariot)."
This
is
not,
however, to be understood as implying scythed chariots,** for such

are not represented anywhere on Assyrian monuments, nor certainly
known
till
the time of Cyrus, the Younger.
Armoured
char-
would
the description. The war-chariots of the Assyrian
king and his nobles were covered with plates of highly polished
metal,tt the flash of which in the sunlight might well be likened
iots
to
fit
fire.
The chariots of the attacking Medes are, of course, referred
* Ke.,
et al..
X It
given
t So Hap..
by We., Dav., GASm., Marti, Dr., Kau..
So Stei.; Lagarde, GesammeUe Abhandlungen, 75; cf. No. ZDMG. XXX, 769; Now..
** Contra Hi.. Jrm. (p. 167) calls attention to the fact that Xenophon in several passages
of the Cyroposdia names Cyrus as the inventor of apuara uirAicfi^^'a, but that the first reference to the actual use of scythe-bearing chariots is in connection with the battle of Cunaxa
(401 B.C.) in Anabasis, I, 7, and I, 8.
tt V. Kleinman's Assyrian Sculptures in the British Museum, Plates ci-cii, where a relief of
Sennacherib shows a war-chariot with an embossed metal covering. Cf. Jrm., pp. 167 /..
is
up
as hopeless
to;
but
probable that they closely resembled those of the Assyr-
it is
They
ians.
will
make ready
the chariots
on that day]
calls for the
day of its preparation," which must

in some way be connected with the preceding phrase.
But whatever may be said of the relationship of the two preceding words to
this phrase as it is in JM, certainly "on the day of its preparation"
rendering, "the chariot on the
is
a rather lame conclusion for a sentence that starts out with so
much
vigour.
of j13
is
Moreover, the infinitive construct of the Hiph'il stem
nowhere else given the intransitive or passive force involved
in the rendering "preparation,"
word
so,
'
whether the
suffix 'its' refer to the
Not only
chariot ' or go further back to the shatterer ' of v. ^.
but
'
if
this infinitive construct
occupies the same place in
its
be pointed as a
sentence and
is
pf.,
3d
pers. pi.,
The
parallel to the verb of the co-ordinate clause.
difficulty in-
volved in rendering U\^2 by "in that day" exists also in Ju.

in both cases, either the article
which it sometimes has or, with

must be supposed to have dropped out of the
And
13^;
must be given the strong demon-
strative force
date.*
the chargers will tremble]
i.
e.
less likelihood, i<in
text at a very early
the high-spirited war-
This
horses will quiver with excitement, eager for the fray.
rendering
is
based upon
"chargers"; this
(^.
has "cypresses" in place of
usually taken in a figurative sense as indicative
is
of lances or spears, so called because of their
pro /oto.f
i'
in every other respect
wooden
shafts, pars
Against this are the lack of any parallel instance of such
usage in Hebrew and the unlikelihood of a reference to spears in

the midst of a sentence otherwise wholly concerned with chariots
and
their
The Greeks and Romans employed this

unknovm to Semitic literature. 5. The chariots
equipment.
figure,J but
will rage to
it is
and fro in
rush hither and thither in

The words here rendered " fields "
the fields, they will
the spacious places] Cf. Je. 46.
and "spacious places" are frequently applied

squares within the walls of
{cf.
Jb. 5' 18'^ Pr.
92"^^^
cities;
24").
but this
is
to the streets
Regions outside of the
required here by the context; the language of this verse

naturally characterises the conduct of those
* Cj. G. F. Moore on Ju.
X E.
g. Iliad,
13' in
ICC.
XIX, 387-390; .neid, XI, 667; Hesiod,
and
not always the case
who
city
itself
seem
more
are on the outside
t So Cal., Hi.,
Scut. Here. 188.
Ste.,
Hd.,
el
d..
NAHUM
3i6
The comparison
of the walls,* than that of those within. f
torches
and lightning made
anything rather than the terror of the defeated
movements
to characterise the
it
is
with
in the following line is suggestive of

it
must be intended
of the conquering army.
Hence,
can hardly be said that while a contest before the walls of the
city
here represented, yet the details of the description apply to the
movements
Some
of the vanquished, J rather than to those of the victors.
interpreters
would place the struggle
one of the suburbs
in
main
of Nineveh, outside of the fortifications of the
"streets" and "squares" of a suburb are
little
city;
cavalry manoeuvres than are those of the city itself.**
pearance
is like that
pronouns refer
and open
but the
better adapted to
Their ap-
of torches; they dart about like lightning]
The
to the chariots of the previous verse, not to the fields
places,f f notwithstanding the fact that the grammatical
gender of the
sufl&x in
places";
The armoured
v.
i..
iK brings
it
into agreement with
"open
and
thither
chariots dashing hither
in the blazing sunlight are suggestive of lightning flashes both
and
their speed
command
take
their brilliance.
of their companies (?)]
to require that this verse
and the
Many
6.
He
summons
The
course of thought seems
be interpreted as applying to the invader
forces he urges forward to the attack
scholars, however,
by
his nobles; they
have preferred
upon Nineveh. J J
to interpret
it
as descrip-
king of Assyria and his army; while others refer the
tive of the
part of the verse to the Assyrians and the second to the in-
first
vaders.***
The
any subject
for "i^V in the
l^ti'3''.
The
cause of this uncertainty
is
twofold; (a) the lack of
immediate context;
(b) the
meaning of
objection to the Assyrian king as the subject
fact that there has
been no previous allusion
to
him
here,
is
the
and he
could scarcely be brought upon the scene without being definitely
On
pointed out in some way.

T'"1''1X, 'his
that of liT'l^X 'his warriors' (v.

* So
e.
t E.
g.
**
g. Hi.,
the other hand, the sufl5x of
back
nobles,' naturally goes
*),
tt Struensee.
So e. g. Jer.,
e. g.
same antecedent as
v. ^
the "shatterer" of
Hd., Or., We., Jrm., Dav., Now., Marti, Dr..
Ew., Um., Kl..
So Hap..
Cf. Billerbeck's description of the approaches to
*** So
to the
viz.
tt So
Cal.,
Nineveh
e.
So Struensee, Dav., Jrm..

in
BAS.
g. Os., Sanctius,
Ill,
27-131.
We., Hpt., Kent.
Man., Um., Ke., Ew., Rosenm., Hd., Or., Dav., Jrm., Kau..
Marti, Hal., Dr., van H..
2*
317
The leader of the attacking army thus seems to be the subject of the
The phrase '2 ^b^^'*, however, presents difficulty. Its
action.
ordinary meaning, "they stumble in their going,"
movements
cable to the
overthrow of a
It
city.
of a
body
of
men
more naturally
is
hardly appli-
eagerly advancing to the
applies to the defenders,
overwhelmed by weariness and fear. If the text be correct, it is

probable that the stumbling must be accounted for by the haste and
eagerness of the advancing host.
But a
slight
change of
text en-
The commanding officers after a

each of his own division of the army,
ables us to render as above.
war take charge,

and lead on the attack upon Nineveh. This rendering involves
giving to DnD*'^n a shade of meaning not elsewhere found, viz. "company of soldiers " but the closely allied meaning "caravan" occouncil of
and the verb ']^n is used of the marching of soldiers

K. 22*- ^^. They hasten to the wall and the protector{ ?)
curs in Jb. 6^^

in Ju. 1^ 9* I
is set
The
up]
preliminary skirmishes are
sets in.
batter
now
over; the outposts
upon the walls of the city itself now

The siege-machines are brought up and set to work to
have been driven
down
in
the attack
The
the walls.
precise character of the Tj^D cannot
be adequately determined, since the word occurs only here.

renderings of (S
point to
besiegers in their assaults
some kind
upon the
The
walls.
The
employed by the
of a shelter
corresponding
means "intertwine," "weave," "protect," thus suggesting

some sort of woven protection against the missiles of the defenders.
verb
The
rendering testudo
far as
we know such
is
in keeping with this general idea, but so
was
as yet
down
walls
a military formation
Perhaps, the covered rams used to batter

representations of which appear
on the
reliefs of
unknown.
and
gates,
Ashurnagirpal,
Sargon, Sennacherib, and other Assyrian kings,* are here meant.
Those who
see in this verse
an account of the movements of the
defenders are divided in opinion regarding the ^^b, some considering
it
as
some
sort of device to protect the defenders of the walls
from the weapons of the
foe, others believing
it
to
have been some
kind of destructive engine used by the besiegers which the defenders discover already placed in position,
* V. the reproductions in Layard, Nineveh and
und Jnn. BAS.
Ill, 179-184.
when they rush
Us Remains
to the walls
(1849), II, 274, 283; Billerbeck
NAHUM
3l8
to prepare to repel the foe of
But
it is
whose approach they have just heard.
scarcely probable that so abrupt a change as this latter
view involves would lack every distinguishing mark of

ence as
in
(^'s reading,
this does,
its exist-
which places the verb "set up"
an active plural form having the same subject as the preceding
"hasten,"
is
attractive
and
is
preferred by some.
Str. Ill describes the fall of the city, the rout of the defenders
and the looting by the captors. 7. The gates of the rivers are
opened and the palace melts away] There is no warrant for the interpretation of this language as figurative,
e.
the rivers represent
g.
the streets of the town along which the streams of people flow,* or
the rivers are the streams of the onrushing enemy.f
But even
so,
the precise character and location of these literal gates are open to
Are they gates located on the banks
question.
of the streams,| or
the fortified bridges across the streams over which entrance

to the city ("gates" being figurative, like the
in Zc. ii^), or "the points in the walls
enter the city,"** or the
dams
is
had
"doors" of Lebanon
where the
rivers or canals
that helped to control the flood-
waters of the turbulent Khusur,f f or the sluice-gates of the moats

that protected the city, or the breaches
opened
in the city walls
by
In this
the swollen river-torrent which thus flooded the cityPJJ
attention
has
been
called
part
played
by
the
connection,
to the
river in the fall of
Nineveh according
of Zeus according to
acter of the 'gates'
with his
would
Xenophon.***
is
to
improbable; for when
activity
view as to the char-
Yahweh
co-operates
involve, instead of leaving his part in the victory to be in-
ferred, as
would be the case

Then,
large place.
last
people against the enemy in storm and flood, as this view
if
too, the
Yahweh 's
verb 'are opened'
t Rosenm., Um..
** Dav., Hpt..
Jer., Hi..
were
this interpretation
prophets always emphasise the fact of
* So
Diodorus and the
This
correct, the
is
and give it a
hardly the one to
aid
t Ra., Ki., Ew., Ke., Stei.,
Now..
tt C. H.
W.
Johns, EB. 3421.
^v B'avTiu Adyio;' irapaSeSof/êvov eK vpoyoviov
on
Trjv Jiivov ouSeis At
Hap..
tt So Kl., Or..
Kara
11,
26, 27:
icpaTO? eav
<t>p6iTriv
;nr)
TTporepoi' 6 TroTa/io^ T>} ffoAtt yevrjTai jroAc/uio?
(XvvePr)
TOC Eu-
lieyav yeô/aEvoi' KaraxAua'ai t fiepoi t^s iroAcu; Kai Kara/SaAcic to reixo;
iiri
trraSiov; flKoiriv.
*** Anabasis,
III, IV, 12: ravrriy & Trjv
OUT* xpovio i\eiv OUTS
|3ia.
noKiv TroAtopKuiv 6 TlepaSiv /SacriAeus ovk iSvvaTO
Zeus 5^ ^po^^V
tiTtTi'Aijfe Toi/f
ivoiKOvvra^ koX
oiJTioi
cdAu.
2'
be expected
down
ing
if
the act in question
of the city walls
3^9
was the undermining and break-
by the violence of the waters.
Still
on the ancient site of Nineveh thus far

have furnished no evidence that any portion of the walls was
washed away by floods, though proof of the destructive activity of
fire is abundant.
It is impossible to decide with assurance upon
further, the excavations
any one of the remaining alternatives because the nature of Nine-
and defences* aflfords so many equally plausible exNineveh lay on the east of the Tigris,
a distance of about two and a half miles, covering an area of
veh's location
planations of the terms.

for
about
1, 800
acres, or two-thirds of the area of
The
Aurelian wall.
Rome
inside of the
NW.
comer and
away from Nineveh, so that

of the bow made by the river.
the wall of
river strikes the city at its
then makes a great curve

the city forms the string
ble,
according to
Commander
Tigris closely followed the line of the city wall.
a torrent pouring
It is possi-
Jones, that the original course of the
down from
The Khusur,
the mountains on the NE., cut
through the city at right angles to empty into the Tigris.f
tem
of
moats protected the
city
on the north and
sys-
Water for
which was de-
east.
was furnished by the Khusur, the course of

by means of a great dam at its entrance into the city.
Other dams, higher up on its course, aided in storing up its floodwaters against a time of need. The Tigris too was confined to its
proper course by a series of dykes or dams. In addition to the
great inner wall of the city with its moat and its outworks protecting its gates, there were also two outer walls on the east side, each
about fifty feet in height, between which was a moat about fifty-five
these
flected at will
This complex of
yards wide.
bridges, walls
and gates
offers
rivers,
dams, dykes, moats,
a large
field for
sluices,
conjecture as to the
meaning of the phrase "gates of the rivers." The most

from which to attack the city was in the NE.,
across the Khusur at low water.
Here special precautions were
precise
accessible quarter
*V.F.
118
/.;
Jones, Topography of Nineveh,
C. H.
W.
Johns, EB. 3420
JRAS.
1855, pp. 297-397; Billerbeck,
BAS.
Ill,
ff..
t Friederich {Ninive's Ende u.s.w., p. 31) seeks to prove that the Khusur in the days of
Sennacherib flowed around the city and not through it, and that the tinal destruction of the city
was hastened by the fact that the flood-waters

city walls and inundated the town.
of the rivers carried
away
large sections of the
NAHUM
320
taken for the
city's defence, in the
making
nals to store the flood-waters of the stream
dependent not only for
its
of dams, moats and caupon which the city was
defence, but also for
its
drinking-water,
And
that of the Tigris being said to have been undrinkable.
palace melts away] It

is
used
is
and describes the
literally
result of the action of the rushing
waters upon the foundations of the royal palace.*
keepmg with
word
the usage of the
Je. 49^^ Ez. 21^"
^^^
the
not necessary to suppose that this language
"^''')
to take
it
more
It is
in
Ex.
15*^
as descriptive of the dismay
and
'melt' elsewhere
(cf.
Whatever or wherever
the "gates of the rivers" may have been, the opening of them betokens the fall of the city. 8a. And
.;sJieis
.] The meaning of this line is hopelessly obscured.
The first word presents an
terror that befall the inmates of the palace.
Among
apparently insoluble problem.

derive sense from the text as
RV.
mentioned.
reads,
carried away."
is
on the
first
it
"And
the various attempts to
stands, only the following

it is
This leaves the
decreed;! she
real subject
verb a meaning 'decreed' which
is
may
be
uncovered, she
ambiguous, forces
nowhere
it
else has,
new meaning for the last verb. RVm.

offers the alternative, "Huzzab is uncovered, etc."; but Huzzab is
an entirely unknown person and, moreover, her name is not of a
and
creates
also
Many
formation elsewhere found in feminine proper names.
have made the
first
Queen, J who
funeral pyre.
Others regard the language as a figurative descrip-
is
word some
sort of a designation of the Assyrian
either carried into captivity or
tion of the state of the Assyrian
kingdom or
made
to ascend the
Nineveh
of
herself,
Huzzab, perhaps, being a symbolic or cryptic name for the

like
Rahab
nect the
for
first
Egypt and Sheshach
word with
v.
for Babylon.
Still
rendering either, "the palace
^,
is dis-
solved, though firmly established,"** or "the palace is dissolved
made
to flow
(v. i.),
away."tt
Of
* Kl., Or., Hpt..

t E.
g. Ki.,
and made
"and
the queen
t Similarly Hi., Mau., Um., Ke., Pu., Strauss, Kl., Or..
Cal., Theodoret. Cyril, Jer.. Mich.
tt Che. JBL. 1896.
is
to ascend (the pyre)";tJ
Ra., Kalinsky, Ew., We..
** Hd..
and
the various emendations of the text
the following are especially noteworthy;
stripped naked, uncovered
city,
others con-
Bauer, Pu., KI., Or., Schegg, Ke..
tt So Ges. (Thesaurus), connecting with Ar.
"brought out, a captive, deported

"the goddess (Zib)
name
being the
321
is
the king's fair consort";*
uncovered and brought to the
is
of the planet
Venus with which
The
Nineveh, was identified.
light, "f
was Dilbat,
star of Ishtar, however,
while Zib was the constellation of the Fish 4
Zib
Ishtar, goddess of
Closely allied to this
rendering in sense, though resting upon a quite different
latter
text (y.
i.), is
the last reading forthcoming,
consort of the god Ashur)
probability that the goddess of Nineveh

tainly greater than that
it is
viz.
"Belit
{i.
e.
the queen.
is
the
The
driven forth into captivity."
is
referred to here** is cer-
The
latter plays
no con-
spicuous part in Assyrian history, while the goddess occupied a

very large place in the minds of the Assyrian monarchs.f f
were the meaning of the passage,
more
as Nineveh's
own
fate that
Nahum was
which she had
If
such
announcing once
time and
inflicted
again upon vanquished peoples, whose gods she had delighted in

carrying away;
also Is. 46'
cf.
^.
And her maidens are moaning,
saund of doves, beating upon their breasts] If the goddess of

Nineveh is spoken of in the previous clause, the "maidens" are
like the
probably the female devotees of Ishtar, the
up wholly
selves
Kadishtu
{i.
Ishtar').J|
e.
to her
'holy
women who gave themname
temple service and were given the
women') or Ishtaritum
If the reference
(i.
e.
'dedicated to
be to the queen, the 'maidens'
are, of
and 'ladies in waiting.' Those interpreting the reference as to Nineveh herself make the 'maidens'
to be either the outlying towns and villages dependent upon Nincourse, her personal attendants
eveh
there
(cf.
Ez. i6^), or the inhabitants of the capital.***
no parallel for the representation
is
the
city;
common
4^).
68-^),
cf.
The women
(cf.
Ju. 21^^ Ct. 2"
But
maidens of
'
usage as to such figures of speech
nation 'sons' or 'daughters'
La.
of citizens as
'
is
the desig-
Is. 3^^ 51^ Je.
49^
beat their breasts as timbrels or cymbals (Ps.
thereby giving physical outlet to their overwhelming grief;
Lk.
18^^ 23^^.
The
cooing plaint of the dove
is
* Hpt..
t Kiigler, Slernkunde,
I,
30.
** Abar. and Geb. endeavoured to secure this sense on the basis of

tt Cj. Jastrow, Religion oj Babylonia and Assyria, 202-206.
used to suggest
Van
Gry, RB. VII.
&.
660.
tt Cj.
ibid.,
So
Jer., Pu., Kl., Or., et al..
*** Ke..
H..
NAHUM
322
mourning
the grief of
veh
33" 59" Ez.
also in Is.
7*^.*
9.
And Nine-
ble.
a pool of water are her defenders] HJ is here untranslataRV. renders, "But Nineveh hath been from of old {cf. 2^)
like
a pool of water," offering as a marginal variant, "But Nine-
like
veh hath been, from the days that she hath been, like a pool of
v(rater."f
But neither "from
of old" nor
"from the days
hath been" could have been expressed by such

offers.
Another rendering, which follows
(^
H,
and
and robs the comparison
On
of all force.
as
"Nineveh
is
like a pool of water, her waters, etc.";J but this requires
of text
that she
Hebrew
i8l
is
a change
the basis of these
similar renderings, the point of the figure has been for the
most
was overflowing with populawith waters.

Calvin, however, saw a
part found in the fact that Nineveh

tion even as a pool
is filled
reference here to Nineveh's state of quietness, imbroken for generations even as the
clared
it
to
calm surface of a pool while others have de;
be an announcement of the inundation of Nineveh
caused by the rising river and consequent bursting of the dams.**
Another method of treatment for the
difficult
words of
omit them as a corrupt repetition of the context ;tt but

line too short
and deprives the following " they"
of
iJI is to
this leaves the
any antecedent,
thus necessitating the hypothesis that a part of the original line has
been
The emendation
lost at this point. JJ
here proposed obviates
and furnishes a good sense for the line as a whole.

For the use of the word "peoples" as equivalent to "defenders,"
3^^^- ^^ Is. 36" Nu. 20^ 21^^.
The point of the comparison, with
cf.
this text, is found in the rapidity with which the defenders of Ninthese difficulties
eveh disappear just at the time of greatest need.
Just as the
arti-
ponds and moats, having so much to do with Nineveh's defences, dry up when the dams are broken through and leave the
ficial
city
open
to the invader, so the defenders
proach of danger.
And
on the inside
as they flee, {one cries)
fasti" but none turns back]
No
fly at
the ap-
Stand fast, stand
efforts to rally the fugitives are suc-
cessful; they are panic-stricken
their officers (Je. 46^ 48').
^'
10.
and heed not the commands of

Make spoil of silver; make spoil of
* Hpt. calls attention to the use of the same figure in both Assy, and Ar..
t So Hap. et al..
t So Da v..
** So e. g. Kl..
So e. g. Tamovius, Hesselberg, Ew., Hd., Ke., Or..
tt So We.. Now..
tt So We. el al..
2'-"
The prophet now
gold]
who
on
3^3
rhetorically addresses the pursuing foe,
and urges them

For there is no end to the stores] Literally,
prepared." The wealth of Nineveh is unlimited.
are hard on the heels of the fleeing Ninevites,
to their rich plunder.
"to that which
is
She has heaped up

her victims
(cf.
3*)
now
The
Nineveh
in the Assyrian inscriptions are
many campaigns,
booty acquired in the
rich
The
she herself must endure plunder.
allusions to the wealth of
numerous.
product of the plunder of
ill-gotten gains, the

;
to-
upon the subject peoples

the treasury of the king, must
gether with the enormous tribute levied
which was constantly pouring into

have
filled
dance of
the capital city with riches to overflowing.*
all sorts
explaining the preceding

is
This
of precious articles]
word HjISn,
its
abun-
The
phrase
and superfluous
context
Some attempt
An
apparently a gloss
'preparation.'
wholly unrelated grammatically to
also in the strophic form.
is
to create a connection
by supplying some words, such as "and take ye" or "and spoil

ye," at the beginning of the phrase.f For the word "abundance"
or "riches" cf
Is. 22^*
61^ 66*^ Ps. 49*^
better here than "vessels."
is
wide range,
The
English "things" (cf Je. 46^^ Lv. 15^ Dt. 22^).
like the
The same phrase occurs in Ho. 13^^.

Str. IV emphasises the panic that befalls
city that
rendering "articles"
a general term covering a
It is
the inhabitants of the
once preyed upon the entire world.
ness and void and waste] Cf.
Is.
24^
11.
There
The Hebrew
is
yields
empti-
an
as-
sonance here that cannot be carried over into English. {

similar use of paronomasia,
make
cf.
Zp.
i^^ Is.
22^ 29^.
the fact that each of the second and third
increases a syllable in length over
its
For a
Some would
Hebrew nouns
predecessor signify a corre-
* E. g. Tiglath-pUeser I after a campaign in Asia Minor says, "Herds of fine chargers, swift
mules and the cattle of their pastures, I brought home in countless numbers. ... I imposed
on them as a tribute 1,200 horses and 2,000 head of cattle." Shalmaneser II says of the king
of Patina,
"3
talents of gold, 100 talents of silver,
300 talents of copper, 300 talents of
iron,
x.ooo vessels of copper, 1,000 pieces of variegated cloth, linen, his daughter with her large dowry,
20 talents of purple cloth, 500 oxen, 5,000 sheep, I received from him. One talent of silver,
two
talents of purple cloth,
my dty Asshur I
received
it."
hundred beams
of cedar as tribute, I laid
Ashurbanipal, in particular, gives long
lists
on him.
Yearly in
of the almost count-
Thebes and Susa, with which he filled Nineveh (v. his Annals).
t So Marti, Now., Hpt..
t It is fairly well represented by the German, Leerung und Entkerung und Verheerung
less spoil of
(Or.).
NAHUM
324
But
spending increase in the intensity of the thought.*
somewhat fanciful.
Je. 48^ Jo. 2^ Jb.
And
once proud mistress of the world.

bling knees] Cj. Jos.
now from
mind
Is.
13^ 35^ Jb.
cf.
a melting heart and trem-
The
4*.
description passes
the general desolation throughout the city to the state of
of the citizens themselves.
nation of Belshazzar occurs in Dn.
The
this is
For a similar multiplication of synonyms, cj.

10^^.
Ruin and desolation have befallen the
figure is derived
Is. 21^.
The
similar picture of the conster5.
And
anguish in
from the agonies of women
all loins]
in child-birth;
loins are regarded as pre-eminently the seat of

is now
And the faces
strength (Jb. 40^^ Pr. 31'^), but the very citadel of strength
assaulted by weakness and pain;
of
all
cf.
Ps.
69^ Dn.
The
of them become livid] Cf. Jo. 2^ Je. 30*.
of the last two words
is
5^.
literal
probably "gather redness."
meaning
This has
been taken as meaning "become flushed "f and, in view of Is. 13^,
But fear usually produces the conthis may be the right view.
trary effect.
blood as
all
paleness;
cf.
Hence
more
others, with
withdrawn from the

Jo.
2^**
3^^.|
The
likelihood, conceive of the
face, thus leaving
reading, think of the blackening of the face.

slightest
ground for eliminating
"clothed in scarlet" in
it
of an ashy
Versions, with a slightly different
this clause as
2^; it is
There
is
not the
a misplaced gloss on
needed here to complete the bal-
ance of thought and give the finishing touch to the picture of despair.
12.
lions]
By
Where
is the
den of the lions and the cave of the young

prophet makes it clear that
this rhetorical question, the
he anticipates a destruction of Nineveh so complete that not even

a vestige will remain to mark
lion's
its site.
To
represent Nineveh as a
den does not imply that the prophet regarded her rulers as
having degenerated to the level of ferocious wild beasts,** but rather

suggests the supreme place of
the oriental world.
The
and decorative purposes

fitting.
lion
in Assyria; hence the figure is peculiarly
Billerbeckft sees here
nected with the royal palace.
*
t
power to which Assyria had arisen in

was the favourite animal for artistic
an allusion to zoological gardens conBut, even
So Tarnovius, Hd..
e. g. AE., Cal., ROsenm., Dav., Hal., Dr..
So
**Cal..
the royal parks were
if
t So Hap., Marti, Kau., Kent.

Contra Hpt..
^-f
BAS.
II.T.
2-"
zoological gardens, which
less forceful sense.
much
the
more
likely,
is
325
very doubtful, this view yields a far
figurative use of the terms
is,
any
in
case,
because of the frequency with which enemies
of Israel are represented as lions in the
Ez. 19" Zp. 3^ Ps. 35^^.
fH
OT.;
Je. 4' 49' 50'^
cj.
offers a different text for the
"and a feeding-place
second
yoimg
word "feeding-place" everywhere else means a
" grazing-ground " and is thus wholly inappropriate as a name for
half of the question, viz.
is it
for the
lions"; but the
a lion's feeding-place.
of the parallelism,
securing the
This
makes
it
word "cave";
fact, together
with the requirements
advisable to transpose one

v.
i..
letter,
Whither
went
M reads, "Whither the
the lion
the lion's cub, with none to terrify]

lioness went, the
cub of the Hon, with,
etc.."
The
thus
to enter,
lion,
the
rough, asyndetic
structure of this sentence, coupled with the doubt whether K*3S

'lioness' or is only a variant of JT'li^
ters to follow (g, as here.
M;
This
is
'lion,'
certainly
leads
most
interpre-
an improvement upon
may be only a margiThe expression "went to
but yet, the suspicion arises that S''^^
nal note that has crept into the text.
enter"
is
rather
weak and
the
first
half of the line is too long
by one
beat as compared with the second half and with the other lines of
Dropping
the context.
H'^zb, the line reads smoothly,
went the lion, the lion's cub, with,

(v. i.), viz.
"Whither
Another proposed reading
" whither the lion went to bring in, the lion's cub, with,
etc.," yields
13.
etc.."
an awkward arrangement and an unsatisfactory sense.
Where
the lion tore prey sufficient for his cubs
and rendedfor
The booty of war was brought back to Nineveh and

apportioned among the palaces and the temples. The lion here
represents the king of Assyria, and the cubs his nobles.
And
filled his lairs with prey and his dens with booty] The enormous
spoils of many campaigns must have rendered Nineveh one of the
his lionesses]
wealthiest cities in the world.
Under
this figure, the
prophet has
presented in vivid and effective fashion a picture of the ferocity
and rapacity which characterised the Assyrian conqueror

treatment of defeated peoples.
The
royal inscriptions
in his
abound
with facts warranting the impression here produced.

Str.
fall
of
announces the fact that Yahweh has decreed the down-
Nineveh and the complete destruction of
all
her wealth and
NAHUM
326
her munitions of war.
14.
Behold, I
am
A common way
against thee,
the
it is
Jeremiah and Eze-
oracle of Yahweh
^
kiel of annoimcing a pimishment from Yahweh; e. g. Je. 21^^ 23^"
^q3i ^j25
20 21^ 28^^.
13^5^
Assyria
powerless
The
hosts
of
are
2.
of hosts]
Yahweh.
up thy lair
when confronted by
the hosts of
awaits her.
shall burn
And I
will devour thy
young
for
"thy
M has "her chariot"
will.
lair"; but this does not suit the figure of the lion
continues here, as
(g
Certain and total ruin

in smoke and the sword
Fire and sword are the
lions] Cf. Ps. 37^".
agents chosen to execute Yahweh's
in
reflect
is
clear
from the
a different text from
latter part of the line;
and open the door
for
which
while
emen-
prey from the land] The prey

already
in Assyria's possession; a
booty
must
be
the
referred to
and
defenceless
nations that have hiththe
weak
destroy
threat to
erto been her prey would be wholly out of keeping with the spirit
And
dations.
I shall cut
And
of the passage.
more]
The
off thy
the voice of thy messengers will be heard
veh to exact tribute or compel submission.

the
memory
kiah's time
no
'messengers' are the emissaries sent forth from Nine-
of the insulting
lies
demand
behind these words;
cf. 2
not unUkely that
It is
of the
Rabshakeh
K. i8"-
^^
19^-
in
Heze-
Is.
33'^
The metre of this section is rough and irregular. Hexameters are

more frequent than any other measure; tetrameters are also common;
while a few pentameters appear.
Uniformity of metre in the successive
lines
can be attained only by taking unwarranted
The
lines are easily
six lines each,
grouped into
liberties
with the
text.
five logical units, constituting strs. of
which
is
reduced to
part of the genuine prophecy of
Nahum as
except in the case of the closing
str.,
three lines.
This section forms the
first
however, that this constituted the original beginning of the prophecy (contra Arn.). V. " is too
it
has been transmitted.
It is not probable,
abrupt to have been the opening of Nahum's discourse; some direct mention of Assyria or
Nineveh must have preceded
cedent of the pronoun "thee."
The
displaced the original beginning; so Bu.

Or..
The
first str.
as organised above
section of the prophecy;
it
The
and furnished the ante-
EB. 3261;
may contain
Dr.; Kau.; contra
fragments of this
seems hardly probable that these
originally belonged so closely together as to
of a single
it
preceding acrostic has probably
have
lost
six lines
fallen within the limits
str..
section has received no important additions aside
fixed acrostic already considered
and
from the preA few
the verses treated in 3.
'*
I"-
and
elevated and
is
the clear
and
The
logical progress of the thought.
The
vigorous.
327
but these do not affect the close unity of
slight glosses are discoverable,
the passage
2'
The
the description serve to bring the scene actually before our eyes.
participants in the struggle rush to
upon the
the anguish written
Of
which forms the
part of ch.
first
(1893) obtained his
fl,
nnaN yrhn
[nxa
He
and
nân
our presence and we see
fro in
to incorporate i"
i,
p lines
hp
2- in the acrostic
'^
none can command

from i", viz.
Gunk.
assent.
hoddi Sdd
^>DB'^<
n-\r\T2]
and
faces of the vanquished.
made
the various attempts
style
imaginative and pictorial qualities of
['<
ov]
2^^\p
from
also secured the D line in part
v.
" by emendation and
transposition, viz.
D"'dSb'd hy (12a) 'rjj^Sa
Bick accepted the
up from
i"-
hy iiacnn nc (9a).
'1
but proposed the following
p line,
by emendation, transposition and omission;
<*
Hap. agreed
ixpn (iib) nyn
x line,
made
viz.
essentially with Bick., viz.
nnDN
n33ci Sd3
]^^p:)
dicn nnap
Van H. uses v. " for the d line, which others find in v. ', offers v, '<
in a new arrangement for the
line, and creates the p line out of a com-
<>
fl
bination of
i'< e
and
2'; viz.
njDD tihSn ni3D
maj
Now., who
(1903)
1*73
hph2
nnss laipD Sdb
p':'|^^7
rightly said of v. " that
an
14^.
14 2"-
complete the acrostic, in the 2d. ed.

go further than the 3 line in v. and
in his first ed. sought to
abandoned the attempt
sition of
csfx t^sp
it
offered insuperable difficulties to the suppo-
The
acrostic structure.
changes involved in each of the

pletion of the acrostic
to
makes
it
arbitrary character of the
efforts to use these verses for the
many
com-
necessary to agree with the opinion of the
majority of scholars that while these attempts do credit to the ingenuity

of their authors, they cannot be regarded as demonstrating the presence
of
an
Stk.,
1".
time.'
acrostic structure in these verses; so
e. g.
Now., Marti, Dr., Hpt.,
Kau., Du..
inn] Du. qnn.
tractans.
Nx^]
^ IS =
'^ySa]
Gunk, adds
certain derivation for '3
as fem. with
&;
Gunk. (Schopfung,
nx>; so Gr..
is
yet
3!^]
102), ijn
(g \oyiaix6s.
B''??';"fD Sj?,
based upon 'c
known;
on
so Gr., Marti,
v.
Now.^,
2'.
14.
Stk., et al,.
'thy appointed
f}.'>]
Rd.
metUe per-
w of
i'^.
No
all sf. in
verse
mxi]
Om.
conj.
NAHUM
328
grammatical subj. of
'c is the
|3i;'c]
y^v] Hap. an^Sy.
Gunk., Hap., Now., Dr., Du..
We.,
with
Gr. loy.n nnr.
partitive sense.
Hap.
(?).
yii'
the prep, being used in the
'v,
Now.
actfa -\y\
ddb' 13p.
Du. 'd y>v. Hpt.

ynhn n^3D] ^ joins with preceding vb. and seems to read
T'dSb* nnr.
B as 3. Marti, 'n ^ri3D. Now. and Hap. om. as gloss. Du. I''3n 'ac ( ?).
Marti,
aiii'N]
so Now.'^, Kau.,
idp;
]r:f
^ =
nvK.
pSii
and om.
Dr.,
Now. '^,
Gunk, and Hap. T'D'^'n. Oort^mSp 13] Rd.

^snpD. Hap. onsp.
Gr. I'DX.
uDitt'Ni.
Gr.
ii3|i]
^3"i|5n;
Oort,
cf.
Kent.
Stk.,
as due to dittog. of preceding
'>3
Hpt., Stk., Kau.;
Hap.
c/".
3,
with We.; so Marti,
This gives
|''S|-i3.
a-'a'N
two ace,
a common usage with this vb. being thus exchanged for the difficult
idiom of M. <6 &ri raxf^s; similarly & ul. Gr. npij-op. Bick. r\^p'p,
an Aram, word = dungheaps

nhy '3, to be tr. to beginning
'
Now.(?) and van H.

after v. "
after
broken as i"- "

is
Some
2^
not improved by either change.
XX,
Bibl.
2^. V's;;]
Hap. nsbn
'
immediately
'ui Zi'^vn
sort in
">
of v.
Vi'i''
a context as
Certainly, the sense
Rd. V3D, with Mich. {Or.
Now., Rub., GASm., Marti, Dr.,
&
by
}j^,.iiO, corrected
the rescuer.'
so Hi., Buhl, Dav., Now., Du..
q\js;
Rub.
103).
crepitus ventris.
and hyh^
cs.
(6 in<pv(rCiv.
Seb. to pjâio.
Ew.
ni*?!-;?
would place
189); so We., Jrm., Dav.,
Hpt., Stk., Kent, Kau., Du..

P P
Arn.
2^.
But transpositions of this

seem hardly worth while.
in v. "".
ns''
t''Syi?-
of
Marti, Hpt., Stk.) mtr.
g.
(e.
Gnnk. (Schopfung,
so
'
'
.
Gr.
7y]
Perles, yis.
?pc.
y:s]
Rub.
qM.s.
HP.
n-\isD mxj] Inf. abs. as imv. Ges. ^ '" ''''.

22, 51, 95, 185, VJD.
n-jxc ix'j; so Hap..
(S does not
(S iâipo^/jLcvos ((gY 4- (xe) iK 9\l\f'(i)i
(B^',
necessarily indicate the lack of
no account of
in iixj,
in the original of niixn, for
which there
no reason
is
it
also took
to change.
TS qui
Some Heb. mss. misj 'j; others, miSD 'j. Gr.

Oort^m- nn^xD ':. We. n-vxn -\Vj; so Now., GASm.. Rub.
custodial obsidionem.
'SD 1X1.
r\-yiT2
nixj;
M's
'd is
so
Marti,
Now.^,
Stk.,
Kau., Du..
a well-established word and there
words
consistent in the idiom 'n isj;
of similar
roots are not infrequently associated in
nance.
pn]
4.
whole body
(cf. i
174-6, 185;
cf.
'they mocked.'
avrdv.
dixd]
Hap.
"St
iK.
CS
6' 3i< I
has
But
':.
in-
sound but of different
for the sake of the asso-
Both types may be seen
ioi- '')
ini-\;3a]
Normally vii3J;
ejus.
&=
for __, as in
Hap.
10^ Is. 3^
been derived
less
oniîsj;
h-j-tb',
did.
01 itnraLôvTa^
Ch.
'"iiisn
smaller shield than the ni^ which protected the
"B Ignitus.
yVn, 'scarlet.'
Heb.
Hpt.
nothing inherently
cf.
Ges.
^'''.
so Gr., Hap..
3'; C5 i^ avOpthiruv
oiySnc]
DiSSkho
in
cLtt.;
{cf.
BAS. IH,
^ pi..
Benzinger, Heb. Archdologie,'^ ^00.
fortium
With -
(?).
K.
is
(B
Rub.
169,
ijjc,
Swaarelas
Stk. Dn;3J.
d-jno; so
Rub.,
a denominative from
Ex. lo^ Nu. 22" Jd.
1926
Marg. JAOS. XXX, 306); so , Rub..

well from njjS (so Vol., We., Now., et al.)
66^
v.
2^
and
Hap.
(Hpt.).
2]!^
329
O'x'^nn or S>'jj(?).
rxa]
some Heb.
Rd., with
Now., GASm.,
Hap., Marti, Gressmann {Esch. 177), Hpt., Kau.(?), Kent, Du.. Rub,
are
B>iN3.
nnSs] Being in the abs., the only possible treatments of
(i) the connection of 'd !t'N3 with a^ySnn as a modifier, which makes too
mss., iTND; so Houb., Mich., Gr., We., Jrm., Or., Oort,
long a line; (2) the disposal of
words, in which case the a
it
as the predicate of the
handled with great
is
foil,
group of
The
difficulty.
best
&; so Ra., Dru., Cal., New., Hap., Hal.,

Nestle {ZAW. XXIX, 154), Gressmann (/. c), Kau.. Against this may be
urged the fact that elsewhere ' makes its pi. in o>__; but examples of nouns
making the pi. in both ways are not wanting; e. g. nnxc, but ''Tnd (Ez.
solution
32'); QijE*
and mjr; D'pSs and hidSn;
'the reins';
iivlai,
Rub.
'axles.'
{cf.
to read niT'sS, with
is
cf.
Du. ninns.
ij'onj
so
lirireh;
&
31^3]
Rd.
Rd.
and Mich.,
Kent, Du..
H et
are found in
Is.
'doltish';
agitatores.
3" 51"-
like
to the charge,
ns'sn,
Rd.
cf.
Ges.
(g koI ol
iS;;in]
S.ir..
Dav. (?), Jrm., Rub.,

van H., Stk., Kau.,
Nouns formed from this -^
Dr.,
Zc. 12' Ps. 60*; all exhibit
'*
is
some form
i. e.
of the
they run
with Ar. rd'ila, 'to be stupid,'
it
scarcely a suitable predicate of horses rushing
and horses 'running amuck' are more
characteristic of
Furthermore, the noun-formations are more
Van H.
easily connected with the root-idea of 'trembling.'
and rail
metal plates
D''!f-i3ni
Hpt. renders, "they are frenzied,
panic-stricken retreat.
in Ar. rdlat
'
Gre. nuSij,
a word not elsewhere found.
D>->ri3ni]
Marti., Hpt.,
mad," connecting
but stupidity
rrjo'?,
(6 al
'!"<i.
3oin.
Gre., New., Gr., We.,
Hal.,
idea 'quiver,' 'tremble.'
amuck, run
Hpt.
Gr. ar^n.
GASm., Now., Hap.,
niD^N; Ges.
foil.
for demonstrative force of art.,
oi3;
-irpn.
and
with
it
Che. {EB. 2174),
nisna, 'terror.'
Assy, halluptu, 'covering').
128.,
a'p'N
habenae, joining
IB
"a troop
of horses";
notes that
but the usage of these
words suggests nothing of trembling or prancing, since they indicate a

group of horses (or, indeed, cows!) going in single file, or the leader of
such a
line,
the root-idea seeming to be 'project' or 'thrust.'
sense would accord well with
could be rendered probable.
pnSann.
Rub. iS;n\
Billerbeck
and Jrm.
Gr.,
if
distinction
latter
consopiti sunt.
&
here; but the introduction of the
2d
(& dopv^-qd-rjffovrai.
it is
3'2-'5
wholly in place after 3"; and the interrufH
tion of the vivid description of the attack
make a sharp
This
the interpretation of 'a as 'spears'
Du. icyin.
insert
pers. here is abrupt, while
M,
between
2<
is
and
unwelcome. Kl. also would

2', by treating the latter as
bringing the conduct of the besieged into sharp contrast with that of the
besiegers described in v.
*.
But the language
application to the attacking party

5, iSSinn^] (& Kal <Tvyxv6-^<TovTai.
mss..
{v. s.)
of v.
'
seems to require
its
rather than to the attacked.
& they glory = iSSnp'; so some Heb.

& and they boast. noma] &
pps'pnij'i] <S Kal <rvvir\aK-f)ffovTai.
includes this in the rendering of nixina.
Struensee, Dav.
and Jrm.
in-
NAHUM
330
terpret 't as
nnm
nv
Nina.
the Assy, ribii
(Gn. lo"), which in turn
But neither
is
to
be identified with
and
of these propositions is proven
the term 'i alone seems altogether too indefinite as a designation of the
Nina. This latter phrase is used by Esarhaddon (I 53, 54) and

Sargon (Cylinder, 44) with the general signification "precincts of Nineveh" and does not indicate a special outpost or fort. It is a general
ribit
term and used also of other cities than Nineveh; e. g. Dur-ilu. Hence
any attempt to locate it, either NE. (Dl. Parodies, 260/.; Jrm.) or W.
(Billerbeck) of Nineveh, or to identify it with any specific suburb of
Nineveh, whether Mosul (Billerbeck) or Khorsabad (Johns, EB. 4029),
seems fruitless. p-'snc] Rd. Dnixin, with Houb., Gre., Kre., New.,
We., Now., BDB., Marti, van H.,

is
masc. everywhere
else.
ixsn'']
Stk.,
citt.
Kau., Du.; the antecedent
usual rendering 'run hither and thither' in favour of 'run
a better interpretation of the intensive form.
The meaning 'summon,'
6. iDfi]
'call for' is
2:>-\
Hpt. rightly rejects the
in Polel.
fast,'
which
Gr. isn\
Hal. issir.
found for
this vb.
is
only
here and probably in Jb. 14"; but some such sense seems demanded by
this context.
The lack of any indication as to the identity of the subj.
adds
to the difficulty
To om.
on
j?nTi
'r''
and awakens a suspicion
(i'<),
05 Ul
nnD\
Oort^'"'
Van H.
zu-ku).
None
leaves the line too short.
can be considered satisfactory,

i'\zv\.
that the text
is in error.
with Marti as an insertion, or with Hpt. as a misplaced gloss
3 pi.
sf.;
n3t>.
Rub.
of the
emendations offered
Kal fivrja-d-^crovTai.
q3n
Hap. anca'3
so Rub., Hap..
Du.
npii..
"B
& are seized.
'and thy infantry'

nqi';,
fortium suorum
as in
{cf.
32,
Gr.
Assy.
innN]
vnoN.
Van
H. nnnx. onîSna iSari] Rd. '2 iSs'd\ For interchange of n and D,

The Kt. aniJ^Sn goes better with 'd than the sg. of
V. note on Mi. i^.
Qr..
For the interpretation of this reading, v. s,. (^ Kal (petjôvrai
Kal acrdevfjaovcLv iv r^ iroplq. olvtQiv. &" places Kal (p' 17' under obebut in marg. declares " this obelus was not present in the Hexapla."
Tiixipa.^
lus,
The
plus of (5
is
probably due to a reader
who sought
that the verse applied to the actions of the besieged.

for regarding
is
it
Gr.
Hap.
Dp'i\
nnnin, with
any
foil.
'n
ij^DHi;
is
it
clear
no reason
it.
Reinke treats it as a variant rendering of nnD>

ora idji; Rub. nra idiji; and van H. noijp
05, inserts
Din '2\
Kent, 'na ^S^:u\
some Heb. mss.
05 iirl to.
reixv
so Rub., Hap.;
cf.
Du.
& 21 and Now.,
specific antecedent for the sf.
suitable.
make
as representing an original element in the text; the line
complete without
nnnin.
to
There
'na
pni]
Kent
iJ^?n.
nncin] Rd.
directive
The lack of
much more
C5 Kal eToi/jLdffovcrip;
so^lS;i.e.
makes the n
O'VTtjs.
'\-\z'ii\.
Hap., Du..
Hal.
isni.
l3Dn]
05 rds irpo(f>v-
1& umbraculum.
Rub. D>3Dn; c/". Assy. SM^ê, used of the
bed of a canal. 7. nnnjn n;;!^] Sennacherib's Bavian Ins., I. 30, says,
bdbndri
u narpasu ana ramaniiu ippitima = " the river-gate
and the narpasu opened of itself." This bdb 7idri is generally taken as a
Xa/cAs aiiTiiv.
2"-'
sluice-gate through
which the
331
river waters
were
a canal;
let into
v.
Meiss-
ner unci Rost, Bauinschriften Sanlicribs (1893), 84; Muss-Arnolt, Assy.
BAS.
Dictionary;
is
due
Ill,
in the speaker's
mind was the Khusur.

cf. (^* tuv TroTanCiv.
ably due to error;

is
probably an inner Syr. corruption of
narily
ing of which
shaken.
is
'palace.'
its
(so Seb.).
|l>oiJj
Jicj]
sense would attach to
from which
it
might come,
it if
(g dUireaev.
3?nJ As Hoph. from
8.
K.
Ordi-
Sovi]
21' Ps. 45'
Assy, prototype ekallu, the usual
3ij,
"is placed in position," "established";

ilar
''(>'',
'temple'; but here and in such contexts as
evidently the exact equivalent of
is
nnnj
and the only river
C6 for 'j has tQv jr6\eu}v, prob& has of Judah; but ]9oai-k7
Possibly, as Hpt. suggests, the pi.
126.
to the influence of the preceding pi.
this
Gn.
cf.
ad solum dirutum.
not
&
would naturally mean,
somewhat sim-
The
only other vb.
28'2.
derived from ax\
viz. aax, is
"
mean-
known
in Heb.,
nor does the
Ar. N,..A^) 'cleave to the ground,' or the Heb. noun 3X, 'lizard,' sug-
any suitable sense. 05 Kal i] vir6(TTa<ns. ^ and she raised up. B

and the queen who sat furthering the captivities went forth,
which represents the first three words of M. Hi. 3^n, 'the lizard.'
gest
et miles.
New.
3XC1,
'and the
3JD, or naxc,
be joined
fortress,' to
'foundation';
so Hap..
to v.
GASm.
?,
Gr.
Vol.
N2xrii.
'the
''3xri,
beauty.'
Rub. (PSBA. XX, 174/.) makes 3s a name parallel to h^n (v. ') and
'.
Che. {JBL. 1896, p. 198) naSn ncrni, 'and the queen
is stripped naked.'
Bu. {EB. 3262) adds Sjc', 'queen.' Marti substi-
joins with v.
Hpt. ^xxni; so Du.;
tutes Sj^ni for 3sni.

HNSin.
nnSj]
galatu
Du.
&
her horsemen.
and renders
nnSj.
nnSyn]
'is
cf.
captivus.
frightened.'
Gry {RB.
Hpt. nnSjn.
05 Kal avrr) d.viBai.vev.
VII, 398-403)
Rub. derives from Assy.
Gry
abductus
Hap. nn':'>'ni.
Gr. nnV;^ n-'h.
Hpt. ^nS>;ri.
Rub. (The Academy, March, 1896; PSBA. XX,
went up.
nSjnn.
(I.
est.
c.)
n-iSja.
^ and she
Gry
(/.
c),
175), nVnyni
and the Heb.

This is attractive as furnishing a suitable
epithet for the goddess or queen presumably indicated by the first word
nunjD] % ijyovTo; hence Gr. mnnjc; so CB., Hal..
of the verse.
Hap. mijnn uqj. Marti adds, mjn; so Now.i^(?), Gry (I.e.). 'jd is
(so Du.);
cf.
Assy,
queen Athaliah
etellu (fem. etellitu), 'great,' 'exalted'
(n>'?nj?).
but well known in Syr. and Ar.;
emendations seem gratuitous.

Qal act. prtc. in Ps. 68=5 and impf. in i S. 21"' <S.
Probably a denominative from in, 'cymbal.' 05 (pdeyydfievai, perhaps =
n^fixflxc; so Sta., Now., Hap..
Du. moon, d being due to dittog..
&ir.,
niDDn::]
]\}22^]
363.^
ciTr.
in Po'el;
After the analogy of DjaaS,
Hap., Marti,
Now.^ Du.);
maaV
in i
is
expect
]i}22^ (so Hi., Sta.
the normal pi. form (de-
sf. and the pi. is called for here by the

K6. II, 78; Hpt.). The solitary- occurrence of the pi. form
Ch. 28^ is insufficient to require a change in the form here.
fectively written) before the grave

pi. subj. (so
we should
yet this
NAHUM
332
Gr. inâS; so Gry
c); but
{I.
13".9.
Ez.
jna'7,
cf.
De
nirji]
R. 545,
which Rub. believes to be a misplaced variant of asm (v. ) cf.

Ps. 45i.
Rub. also adds r\r\-'n, foil. (6^ ^k. N^n >d^d] Rd. ri>Dj?, 'her denaxji,
fenders'
s.).
(i/.
an unparalleled construction; one common
offers
13I
rendering of it, "from of old," is regularly represented by a^^yc; another

" from the day that she was," would naturally be ^'^cji?; while " her
waters" would be
Houb.
old.
of
ninni n^cD; so Hpt.
Hal.
(gA
pmn
'j?
connected with Ar.
is
'waters'
But
and so bold a
improbable.
is
M in the basis
'to defend.'
this last proposal ignores the fact that the

it
must be a cry
to the flee-
figure as the identification of the soldiers with
Ende
Friedrich (Ninive's
N>n n>n, 'since the days of disaster.'
'the waters of the river'
hmy
nnni being a corrupt variant; so Marti,
d^dj,
could scarcely be addressed to waters;
ing soldiers
the Tigris).
{i. e.
w. p. 34), >d<d
u. s.
Kl. (SK. 1910, p. 521), ix'n 'd^d,
a^Dj ncni]
Probably a de-
main clause; Ges.

ea-Trja-av, om. one word.
scriptive circumstantial clause preceding the
On
nnj; noy]
M.
ira
V31
...
Jb.
271s.
113]
".
aggravata
and
113.
nct<'; so Marti, Du..

.
up'p
n*:-.
i3o]
so &.
Rd.
so
dii^piraôv,
For meaning
njianS]
Hpt. adds
&
and
'storage,' cf.
Some Heb.
12^, with We.,
^''".
It
The
not
(or of)
all, etc.,"
On force of S3,
^,r^p v.;
it,
V'^c*
sense must be,
foil. 3.
(S
&H
Hpt.
Gr..
cnSn p3\
mss. njnnS.
Now..
Gr.
(6 jSe^dpvvrat.
HP.
iSri.
"a
Du.
'3in.
Sod]
Rd.
Sj,
pi..
with
glory (or abundance) consisting in
"an abundance out of"; hence c is dittog. of the

QJb ^^j Trdvra; so HP. 48, 86, 233.
v. Ges. ^ '"b.
22,
7re/)2 tt..
Hap.
S3S;
Migne's note on Je-
cf.
rome, "Reginae ms. cum Palatinis : pro omnibus vasis." Du. Ssa.
21
i|i''r>.
est.
21 consume ye.
& = am33; so Hap., who om. it
Marti and Now."^ ( ?) insert ddS mp before '2. Hpt. reads
inserts before
We., Now..
(gsAQY
(& oi/K
<S rod KdfffMv airijs;
as a gloss.
n33
Ges.
(B^ dii^piraffav
Du.
'3.
Du.
njianS.
Iff
'i^b];.
Bu. {EB. 3262) adds
10.
days
variants; 'n
Hap. n''n''C, as subj. of

Now.^, Stk., Kent, Du..
foil,
includes nnni of
niDini,
ai-g
airrrjs
21 is from
ejus.
Bu. (EB. 3262) om. both words as a gloss. Or.

'and her defenders,' of which
nnni N^n idid and
^''J''?..
Rub.
N\n D>D.
who
aquae
Gr. om. 'cd as dittog.; so We., Now., Dr., van H.,
of this reading.
Kau..
(^ Telxv ddara
i^^p^n; cf. <& to. iidara aiiTTJs.
^ and among waters is she. B
nin^D nnin.
nicn]
C5
tA
iiri9vp.r}rk airrj^
= mnn
Ss]
or nmipn (so
&); but six cursives om. ainrjs. 11. npnni n|ii3] Two synonyms nowhere else occurring; but evidently related to np3, 'pour out,' 'empty.'
(& iKTivayfjibs Kal dvarivayndi.
dtshta washifta. Hpt. nppnDi npip3.
&
n|'5'^3c]
Only here and
Is. 24';
indication of the meaning.

stract
noun
but Assy, balaku, 'destroy,' gives clear

fem. prtc. has here the force of an ab-
not unlikely that the pointing
is influenced by a desire
two preceding nouns. Dcj] 05 0pav(rn6s. &
Hpt. and HWB.^^ would connect ddd with noD and render
;
it is
for assonance with the
broken.
The
2'-"
333
becomes watery," i. e. his courage fails; cf. Ar. masHs,

and note aS nx vDcn, Jos. 14'. P's]
dir.; but vb. is used of the tottering of an idol (Je. io<) and the staggering
inNo ixap] 'd = nnss, Barth, TVS. ^'"; cf.
of a drunkard (Is. 28').
here, "his heart
'water' (either pure or impure)
^Jiii'F
& B
D''l'io>i3
>
was due
01,
perhaps M's pointing,
yîiii',
like the readings of CS
so
to confusion with "ins, 'pot';
&
irpdffKavfxa, xi^Tpas.
Z blacken like the soot of the pot.
HWB.^K
(T is
C5 ws
covered with
black like a pot.
1^23 which 05 retained though losing isap, the two
have
to
lost
Hap.
sicut nigredo ollae.
words being similar
in their initial syllables.
supposing
'd ix3|1 ijJao,
12.
Rd.
ny-iDi]
n-jrip,
with We.; so Or., Rub., Now., Hal., Marti, Dr., Hpt., van H., Stk.,
Kau., Kent;
or to om.
foil,
clause 'n
and We.,
In
of lions?
after n>N (with Hpt.;
it
'n
con-
na] Hpt.
strangling the
t)
cf. wsin
with (& rod haekdeiv; so
Am.
Hal. NuSi.
13.
is
'n
Du. om. S, but such rigid

iSn na-N] Du. om. as variant
N13';',
'strangle'; so possibly the
DDia
M,
does in
Now., GASm., Marti, Dr.(?), Hpt.,
has the same sense; but

istic
no^] Rd.
Gr, NânS.
it
ans^S]
not necessary.
^lya is
mj orCx].
and Hap., van H..
2 S. 1723
Standing where
xin]
better either to place
Or., Rub.,
Kent, Du..
so <&^
succeeding clauses into prosaic statements of
(with Marti, Kau., Du.).
it
conformity to 'in
of
nnjJD.
series of
much
It is
fact.
Du.
cf.
whole
verts the
N^^S
'^s.
'to bring'
vmj]
&U
Kau.,
Stk.,
(c/. 21);
Du. vnu.
pjnc]
noun in Jb. 7"; Assy, hanaku

method of slaughter character-
ITJ] Different forms either for the sake of
variety or rhythm; hardly in order to indicate different kinds of prey (Hd).
inn]
(6 voffffLav avroO.
14.
Many
scholars
would place
all
the
sfs.
of
2d pers. masc. sg.; so e. g. Buhl, We., Dav., Now., Hap.,

Du. but the thought of the city underlies the whole verse and comes to
clear expression in the last word; hence the fem. sf. is suitable throughout.
Tnyam] Hal. ^^l3;'^l. Du. ''ni';:;ni. p-ya] Some Heb. mss. pya.
this verse in the
;
CB.
tyxa;
so Marti (?), Now.''(?).
naan]
Rd.
1\^2-\,
with
Gr.;
so
Dav.(?)i Hal., Marti, Now.k(?), Hpt, Stk., Kau., Kent. <S 7rX^6'6s
<rov =r\2-\ov naai; so
and Buhl, Arn., Hap.. "B quadrigas tuas;
&
so
Houb.
51.
so
naziaD;
We.
{EB. 3262),
Dn;fl3n.
Om.
"laain;
Du.
"])!.
Saxn]
'nap.
'in
Gr., Marti, Ges. ^"', Stk.

al..
(S Tct
pya
<rov
naa nSd; so Jus..

tinasSc;
cf.
(&
&.
in
mind
Dathe
Du.
there
et
foil,
sf.
Some Heb.
Hal. "wo-p.
as fem.
sg.,
Bu.
den.'
Du.
njaNSc]
^âsSc:
mss. naaxSo; so
We.
Marti
fits
e/
and Now.'^ would om. ""as
phrase shows that the figure of the lion
and the clause
so
nunciorum tuorum. Mich,

so New.. Van H. n^^N'^'a. Hap.
so &.
l''nbN'?D;
Sm.
136) âp..
Tina?, 'thy villages.'
"ôjs.
and point
al..
riinxaSp.
New.
Arn.
iotj]
in 3'
I,
Rub. naaiN, 'thy
T]?"!.
"ji-Cijai]
^^naNSc;
a gloss; but the itj of the

still
Oort
Du. lâsn.
n as dittog. from
Gr. (Psalmen
so Dathe.
Now..
(?),
well into the structure of the
is
str..
NAHUM
334
THE IMMINENT AND INEVITABLE END
S.
In six strophes addressed to Nineveh,

over her approaching ruin.
Nahum
(s*-'").
once more exults
Str. I characterises the city, gives a
glimpse of the coming attack upon her and states the reason for
her
^"^.
fall; vv.
Str. II represents the fallen city as exposed to the

^''^.
taunts of the nations; vv.

fate of her ancient rival
Str.
IV
Str.
Ill reminds
Nineveh of the
Thebes, the queen of the Nile; vv.
declares that a similar fate awaits Nineveh, notwithstand-
ing her strength;
w.
forth every
on her own
efifort
her forces will
fail
""'^.
Str.
ironically urges the city to put
behalf, assuring her, however, that
her in her time of need
""".
w.
Str. VI, in
dirge measure, states the hopelessness of Nineveh's case

universal joy that will greet the tidings of her
QH
city, bloody throughout,

Prey ceases not
.
The
^^*'.
full of lies
fall;
and the
^^"^^.
vv.
and booty!
crack of the whip and the noise of the rumbling wheel and the galloping
horse,
And
And
And
and the rearing horseman;

sword and the glitter of the spear, and a multitude of slain;
a mass of bodies, and no end to the carcasses;
Because of the many harlotries of a harlot of goodly favour and possessing
the jolting chariot
the flash of the
charms,
Who
sells
"DEHOLD,
nations by her harlotry and clans by her charms.

I
am
against thee,
it is
the oracle of
Yahweh
of hosts,
and
I will
un-
cover thy skirts upon thy face.
And
And
nakedness and kingdoms thy shame.

loathsome things upon thee and treat thee with contempt and
I will let nations see thy

I will hurl
make
thee a gazing-stock,
So that every one who sees thee will flee from thee and
"Nineveh is destroyed; who will mourn for her?
Whence can I seek comforters for her?"
RT
say,
thou better than No-Amon, that sat by the great Nile,
Whose rampart was
the sea,
whose wall was water?
Ethiopia was her strength; Put and the Libyans were her help.
Yet even she was for exile and went into captivity.
Even her children were dashed in pieces at the head
And upon her honoured ones did they cast lots, and
bound in fetters.
'T'HOU
Thou
of every street;
all
her great ones were
too shalt be drunken, thou shalt be faint;

shalt seek refuge
from the enemy.
All thy forts are fig trees;
thy defenders are first-ripe
figs;
3'-"
335
be shaken, then they fall into the mouth of the eater.

women are in the midst of thee; fire has devoured thy bars;
thine enemies the gates of thy land are opened wide.
If they
Behold,
To
r)RAW
thee waters for the siege; strengthen thy forts.

Enter into the mire and trample the clay; lay hold of the brick-mould.
There fire will devour thee; the sword will cut thee off.
Multiply thyself like the locust; multiply thyself like the locust-swarm.
Increase thy merchants more than the stars of heaven;

like the locust-swarm, and thy scribes
Thy sacred officials ( ?)

That encamp
The sun
TJOW
in the walls in the cool of the
and they
arises
flee;
their place
the locusts.
?) like
day;
not known.
is
thy shepherds slumber, thy nobles sleep!
Thy people are scattered upon the mountains with none to gather them.
There is no healing for thy wound; thy hurt is incurable.
Every one who hears the report of thee claps his hands.
Nineveh as she has been, then
Str. I first describes
made upon
the attack to be
crael fate.
1.
Oh
city,
her and closes
wholly bloody,
This chapter marks the opening of a

as appears from the direct address
fact that in the
main
difference in poetical
it
form which
Similar charges are
which were as
quired.
'
freely
The
term bloody
but
booty]
which
begins,
it
exhibits.
from the
and from the

There can be no
2,
made
against her in
made
to the
2^^- ^^-
The
^^.
weaker nations
broken when national aggrandisement so
re-
'
charge of excessive cruelty implied in the use of the
it is
is
undoubtedly
justifiable
from the
modem
point of
doubtful whether the cruelty of Nineveh exceeded
that of other oriental peoples

It is
it
and
addressed here and throughout the
is
are doubtless promises freely
'lies'
view
viîth
lies
section of the prophecy,
repeats the thought of ch.
question but that Nineveh

chapter.
with
filled
nevi^
visualises
the reason for her
vsîth
who had
like
power and opportunity.
hardly fair to charge the Assyrians with having been "thp most
ruthless people of antiquity."*
none too merciful;
cf.
Ju.
The Hebrews
8'^"-^ g'"'- '^
18"
themselves were
S. 15'"=^ 2 S.
8l
deed, the prophets use almost identical language regarding
In-
Judah
and Jerusalem; cf. Ez. 222- ^^ 24" 45^ Je. 6' Ho. ii'l The kind of
procedure which furnished the basis for such charges against Assyria, may be discovered in abundance by reference to her own
* Dav..
prisoners
But Hdt. (Ill, 159) reports, e. g., that when Darius took Babylon, he impaled 3,000
and that the Scythians (IV, 64) scalped and flayed their prisoners and used the skins
for horse-trappings.
NAHUM
33^
records.*
Prey ceases
literally true;
not] Cf. Je.
This statement was almost
1 7^.
the whole of the later history of Assyria
practically continuous warfare
and
rapine.
is
a story of
Conformity
to the po-
measure here requires the addition of a phrase in parallelism

with this clause. Marti suggests, "and there is no end to the booty."
etical
Unless something be supplied,

clause as a gloss.f
2.
The
seems necessary
it
rumbling wheel and the rushing
steed]
to treat this
whip and
the noise of the
The prophet
suddenly trans-
crack of the
ports himself in imagination to the scene of the final attack
Nineveh, which he awaits with so
As an imaginary
upon
eagerness and confidence.
spectator, he calls attention to the outstanding
His method of description pro-
by one.
features of the scene one
duces a
much
lively effect, bringing the
dash and clash of the situation
vividly before us. J
horseman]
certain.
And the jolting chariot (3) and the rearing

The meaning of the last two words is somewhat un-
Other renderings of them are: "the horseman making
i. e. urging him on"; "the horse is brought

up " ;** " a horseman carrying himself erect " ;tt " a horseman going
up";JJ "assaulting horsemen "; "a horseman bringing to the
flame, etc."***; "he shall bring up cavalry ";ftf "horses which
foam," literally "bringing up (saliva)." J JJ But some of these
yield too tame an element for so stirring a picture; others are without any support in the use of these words or in the context; and
his horse to ascend,
those employing the idiom "bring
* .
g.
up"
of the
movements
of cav-
Shalmaneser Monolith, I, i6 #.: "A pyramid of heads in front of his city I erected.
men and women 1 burned in a bonfire " and II, 53 /., " Pyramids of heads in front
Their young
Some
of his city gate I erected.
the pyramids I impaled
in the
on stakes."
I enclosed;
others round about
Or, the Taylor Cylinder of Sennacherib,
besieged and captured their large walled

horses, mules, asses, cattle
midst of the pyramids
I,
70-77,
"I
brought forth from the midst of them people,

and sheep, and reckoned them as spoil; and their smaller cities,
cities.
which were without number, I destroyed, devastated and reduced to plough-land.

The
tents, their dwelling-places, I burned with fire, and let them go up in flames."
C]. also Taylor
Cylinder, III, 11-41; Annals of Ashurbanipal (Rassam Cylinder), V, 130- VI, 26. See Rogers,
History of Babylonia and Assyria, II, 268. The method of impalement is shown on a bas-relief
from the central palace at Nimroud; v. Layard, Nineveh and Its Remains (New York, 1849), p.
283; Guthe, Kurzes Bibelworterbuch, p. 79.
t Cj. Hpt., Du..
t Jer. says of this passage:
"Tam
pulchra juxta Hebraicum
se praeparantis exercitus descriptio est, ut
sage
is
unrivalled by
any
omnis mens sermo
et
pictura similis ad proelium
sit vilior."
Hd.
says,
"The
pas-
other, either in sacred or profane literature."
Cal., Br..
** Kre..
tt Mau..
JJ Hi..
Ew..
***
ttt Os..
Ut
Ki..
Hal..
3'"*
airy are carrying over into
337
Hebrew a modem
phrase; in
"bring up" always retains a large measure of
This same verb
its
Hebrew
original sense.
used in Je. 46^ to describe the rearing of horses,
is
and probably also in Je. 51^^ and 2 K. 9^.* And the flash of the
sword and the glitter of the spear and a multitude of slain] The struggle is hardly begun until it is all over; the defenders of Nineveh fall
before the blows of the invading
And a mass of
carnage
bodies,
army
like grain before the sickle.
with no end
to the carcasses]
fearful
was father to
Nineveh has as yet
thus plainly foretold; evidently, the wish
is
No
the thought.
account of the actual
Hence,
been discovered.
Nahum's
it is
fall
of
impossible to say whether or not
anticipations were realised.
But, judging from the
character of the enemy's dealings throughout the country as a
probable that the capital city received the
full measure
They stumble over the carcasses] It is probable that
these words are a marginal note which has foimd its way into the
whole,
of
its
may
they
text;
they
it is
deserts.f
may
have been intended as a cross-reference
do not belong here appears not only from the
to 2^, or
That they
be only a variant of the preceding clause. J
fact that they are
superfluous in the poetic form, but also from the additional fact
that they introduce a verb for the
of phrases thrown
oflf
like a series of stereopticon views.

lotries
is
first
and only time
in ejaculatory fashion
4.
one
into a series
after the other,
Because of the
many
har-
of a harlot of goodly grace and mistress of enchantments] This
the reason for the terrible catastrophe that has just been de-
scribed.
lured
Just as the harlot entices
many
nations to destruction.
men
Using
to ruin, so Assyria has

all
of her manifold
and
multiform attractions, she has succeeded in bringing nations into

subjection, only to use
ends.
It is
seeking to
them
for the furtherance of her
not necessary to interpret this figure 'on
make
Assyria's lying
'harlotries'
and treachery.
own
selfish
all fours,'
and 'charms' specific references to

The words simply fill out the pic-
* In
2 K. cp 'on Sni should probably be changed to Sy*! 'Dn.

t The Stele of Nabuna'id, says of the downfall of Assyria: "Above and below, right and left,
like a cyclone he laid waste; he avenged Babylon; he multiplied vengeance.
The king of the
Ummanmanda,
all the temples of the gods of Assyria; and he ruined the

Akkad, which were hostile to the king of Akkad and had not come to his
help; and he did not leave one of their sanctuaries.
He laid waste their cities above measure,
like a cyclone."
t So Stk..
cities
the fearless one, ruined
on the border
of
NAHUM
338
and her equipment. 'Enchantments' as part of a

must have been soijiething after the fashion of lovecharms, love-filters, spells, and the like, which were believed to be
very effective upon the hearts of men; cj. 2 K. 9^^. She that beture of a harlot
harlot's wiles
trays nations by her harlotries

figure of the harlot is
now
and clans by her enchantments] The
expressly applied to Assyria,
most unlimited resources led the smaller nations

as
Ahaz had caused Judah

While
invasion.
to rely
whose alupon her
do in the time of the Syro-Ephraimite
to
'harlotries'
and 'enchantments' are commonly
designations of idolatrous practices, there
is
evidently nothing of
Nahum's use of the terms here. Assyria, so far as is

known, made no attempt to force her religion upon subject peoples.
The word 'clans' is used, as in Am. 3^ Mi. 2^ Je. i^^, in the
that kind in
sense of 'peoples' and
word
is
equivalent therefore to 'nations.'
'betray' elsewhere always
so rendered here.
But
means
it is difficult
'sell'
to interpret 'sell' with refer-
ence to Assyria's relations to the weaker nations.
were more
like
bu)dng than
of the nations into her
power of a third
equivalent to 'rob them of
into the
i.
e.
selling, for
own power,
nation.
Assyria's actions
the result
was the
The
explanations of
do not obviate
commend
itself;
for the prophet
is
apparently, about this phase of Assyrian influence.
them
'sell'
as
bondage,
this difficulty.
the view that the peoples were sold to idols,
of Assyria, t
getting
rather than the delivery of
their freedom,' * or 'sell into
deliver over to destruction,'!
Nor does
The
and it has usually been
i. e.
the gods
not concerned,
In any case,
the nations as a whole were already idolatrous from Israel's point
coming under the influence of Assyria. It is better

word here the meaning 'deceive,' 'cheat,' which it
carries in Arabic.
Selling and cheating were somewhat closely
related and may easily have been denoted by the same root.
Str. II introduces Yahweh as addressing Nineveh and passing
sentence upon her. 5. Behold, I am against thee, it is the oracle
And I will uncover thy skirts upon
of Yahweh of hosts] Cf. i".
of view, before
to give the
thy face] This seems to have been a part of the punishment for
fornication
* Or..
t Hap..
and adultery;
cf.
^^
Je. 13^^-
^-
Ez. 16^"
^-
Ho.
2^-
Ac-
t Dav., Dr..
So Hi., We., Now., Hpt., van H., HWB.^', Du..
3'"
339
cording to Billerbeck and Jeremias,
it
was
an Assyrian method
also
upon the
of treating female captives; since the scenes depicted
bronze gates of Balawat,
now in
Museum, show women
Karkar as holding their skirts high

male companions are without any
captives after the battle of
above
the British
their knees, while their
i.)"^; cf. Is. 20^"^
clothing (but v.
seems preferable
to the
47^-
This
^.
literal interpretation
commonly accepted rendering
of the last
phrase, viz. "in thy sight," f a statement which seems superfluous
when
applied to such an action as
difficulty inheres in
And
Is. 65^.1
thy shame]
is
"to thy face,"
I will
let
The same
being described.
i. e.
as
an
i"
insult, as in Jb.
nations see thy nakedness and kingdoms
Those who have been betrayed by Assyria
will thus
be
compensated and avenged by seeing her undergo the humiliation

she has so ruthlessly inflicted upon others.
6.
And
I will throw
loathsome things at thee and treat thee with contempt and
make
thee
The figure of the harlot is still maintained. This is probably the way in which such unfortunate women were treated by
the bystanders.
Yahweh speaks as though he himself were in-
sight]
tending to participate in heaping insult and disgrace upon the of-
This
fender.
weh
is
but the prophet's vivid
way
Yahupon
means 'idols' and
of representing
as the one responsible for the bringing of this retribution
Nineveh.
The view
that the sense
The word
this the
is,
is,
that 'loathsome things'
" I will bury thee under thy idols," ** seems forced.
indeed, frequently used to indicate idols, but were
usage here
we should
attached to the word.
As
more
is
fitting.
pelted with
Nineveh
filth
at least expect to find the suffix
it
stands, the primary sense
a captive
and made a spectacle
woman
is
'
thy
much
exposed to shame,
for all beholders.
For
this
and Pinches, The Bronze Ornaments of the Palace Gates front Balawat, C 2 and 3,
und Delitzsch, Die Palastlore Salmanassars II von Balav.'at[BAS. VI, i; Scenes
D 6, 1, 3]. The action of these women, however, is more likely to have been for the purpos2 of
facilitating their own movements in walking, for the elevation of the clothing is not extreme and
unseemly as Nahum's words would imply. It is characteristic of only a few of the women captives and a similar conventional exposure of the limbs is seen on many seals in the case of men
who are certainly not captives, when represented as stepping over some obstacle. V. the many
reproductions of Assyrian and Babylonian seals in W. H. Ward's Seal Cylinders of Western Asia
(ipio) and note the representation of nude male captives in the seal reproduced on pp. 58 and
* V. Birch
6.
Billerbeck
IS7 of that work.

t So We., Now., Marti, Dr., Kau., Du..
CotUra Now..
J Hpt..
** So Kl.;
cj.
Hap..
NAHUM
340
latter thought, cf. Ez. 28'^
Ob.
*^^-
and
especially line 12 of the in-
Mesha, king of Moab, where he says of an Israelite

town, "I fought against the town and took it and slew all the town,
as a spectacle for Chemosh and for Moab." 7. So that every one
scription of
that sees thee will flee from thee
veh
will
and
say]
be so ghastly that passers-by
Whence can I
place he proposes,
her?"
this translation
any
"Whence can
funeral-oflferings for
idea of a funeral sacrifice
such a practice in Israel
last
16'' is
is
is
seek those
is
who
will
Is.
66^^, etc.,
The
out of the question.

not at
all
In
used in
is
where the
existence of
improbable, but neither this
estabhsh
it
as one of the meanings
here reverting to the scenes attending the
days of Nineveh and pictures her as passing through the
final
any attendant sympathisers and supporters.
As
struggle without
a matter of
fact,
the term applied to Nineveh's overthrow (mitS')
does not necessarily imply death but only ruin and desolation
{cf.
Mi.
its
provide the
But the word 'comforter'
sufficient to
The prophet
on the ground
service to the dead.
connection with living persons in Jb. 2"
on J.
will
seek comforters for her?] Cf. Je.
that comforters could not be of
of
in fright,
Who
regret the ruin of the oppressive city; she is abso-
Wildeboer* objects to
passage nor Je.
away
is destroyed.
A rhetorical question implying that there are none
lutely friendless.
15^ Is. 51^^.
sight of fallen Nine-
will hasten
Nineveh
deeming the spot accursed.
mourn for her?]

left who would
The
2').
Str. Ill
reminds the reader that even so great a
city
and
fortress
as Thebes, the rival of Nineveh, had been unable to defy destruction
and that Nineveh
better
than
No-Amon,
at various times
is
no stronger than Thebes.
that sitteth by the great Nile?]
8.
Art thou
No-Amon
been identified with Alexandria,! with some
the Delta,J and with Thebes.
Even
has
city of
greater uncertainty has pre-
vailed regarding the time of the fall of the city,
some holding
it
to
have been under Sargon ;** others under Sennacherib,tf or EsarZAW. XXII, 318 /.; cf. Schw. ZAW. XI, 253 #..
t So TJ ai, Ra., Cal., Hap. et al..
t So Kalinsky, Kre., Brugsch {Diet. Geogr. 291), Spiegelberg {Mgypt. Randglossen zum A.
T. 31
ff.).
So Bochart (Geogr. sacra, 1681, vol. I, i, 6 f}.), Dathe, Mich., Eich., Rosenm., Mau, Hi,
Ew., Or., and practically all recent interpreters.
** Hi, Um., Pu., Ke. el al..
tt Gre., Kre..
3'"'
341
haddon,* or Ashurbanipal,t or Nebuchadrezzar,t or in the time of
Some
the Scythian invasion.
commentators inThebes as a prediction of that
of the earliest
terpret the allusion to the fall of
event,** rather than a record of
made
its
actual occurrence.
The
ob-
Thebes of Upper
Egypt lies in the content of the following description, Whose rampart was a sea, whose wall was water] This is further explained by
jection that is
to the identification with
the gloss, tt Waters were around her] Spiegelberg (/. c.) says, "One
can scarcely imagine a more perverted picture of ancient Thebes
than
is
here presented.
Whoever
familiarises himself with the to-
pography of Thebes as represented by the
Kamak
and Luxor of
own day must acknowledge that Nahum's description

no way fitting. The famous capital lay on the Nile, like all
our
Egyptian towns, but
it is
simply unthinkable that
strategically protected either
by the
Nahum's
river or
by
it
is
in
great
could have been
canals.
Spiegel-
Thebes in the
Delta.
In reply to this, it must be said that Nahum would scarcely
have compared Nineveh with any but the most powerful city of
Egypt and that the Thebes of lower Egypt was by no means such
a city. It played no conspicuous part in the long history of Egypt.
Nor is the application to Thebes proper so unthinkable as is
berg, therefore, applies
maintained.
When
the Nile
At such
overflows the site of Thebes,
rises, it
the waters ascending several feet
Karnak.
description to a
times, the city
on the walls of the Temple at

might well have been described
as protected by a sea, or surrounded by waters.
such a situation
(c.
721 B.C.).
river, the
is
furnished in the capture of
Though Memphis
illustration of
more than a mile from the

it was
lay
inundation had raised the level of the river until
almost to the top of the eastern wall of the
water for protection on that
side, the
strengthen their fortifications there.

that fact, brought his fleet right
soldiers
An
Memphis by Piankhi
upon the top of
it,
up
city.
Trusting to the
defenders had neglected to
Piankhi, taking advantage of

to the city wall
and landed
* Kalinsky, Br..
t Or..
% Bochart.
Ges..
**
Jer.,
his
thus mastering the town.JJ Then, too,
Theodoret, Cjril.
tt So also Bu. {EB. 3262), Marti, Hpt., Now.k, Kau..

XX V. Breasted, Ancient Records
of
Egypl^
IV 411
/.,
434
/.,
and History
oj
Egypt (1905), 543.
NAHUM
342
may have been great moats about the city which were filled
by the flood-waters and remained as a permanent defence when
the river subsided.* If so, the defences of Thebes must have been
remarkably similar to those of Nineveh herself and the prophet's
comparison of the two would be very forceful. The existence of
moats at Thebes is rendered more than probable by the fact that
there
as early as the nineteenth century B.C. the Egyptians were employing this
means
of defence.
The
city fortress of
Semneh
in lower
Nubia, situated on the west bank of the Nile about forty miles
Furthermore, allowance must
above Halfeh, was so protected.f

be made for the fact that
Nahum
had almost
Thebes and consequently was dependent

the reports of merchants and travellers.
certainly never seen
for his information
Under such
a certain degree of exaggeration in the description

to
is
upon
conditions,
excusable and
be expected, finding a parallel in the exaggeration of Nineveh's
own
For other instances of the word
size as given in Jon. 3^.
as applied to a river,
cf. Is. 19^
'sea'
i8^(?) Jb. 14", in which the Nile
and Je. 51^^ where it denotes the Euphrates.

Thebes was spread throughout the ancient world.
It was the first great city of the orient and even to-day the remnants
so designated,
is
The fame
of
of
greatness are described as "the mightiest ruins of ancient
its
be found anywhere in the world."**
civilisation to
prominence about 2100
B.C.
and from that time
It
came
into
to its fall held
leading place in Egypt, though with varying fortunes, attaining

its
greatest glory
under the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties
and entering upon its decline with the twenty205

first djmasty (1090-945 B.C.) whose rulers removed the seat of government to the Delta. Its location was about 440 miles south of
(i 580-1
B.C.)
Memphis and 140

where the
* C/.
W. M.
river
miles north of the
comes
Miiller,
closest to the
first
cataract of the Nile,
Red Sea and
its
narrow
val-
EB. 3427.
t A vast moat, constructed of stone, appears distinctly upon photograph 1024 of this site
taken by the Egyptian Expedition of the University of Chicago (1905-1907) under the direction of Professor J.
The
to the sea;
e.
g.
H. Breasted, who
may
be found.
my attention
to this fact.
is
C/. eKardfiTTvAoc
** Breasted,
iiindly called
used in the same way; while, conversely, in Assy, the term 'river'
ndru marratu = 'the bitter river,' viz. the Persian Gulf.
Ar. bahr
0^âl
History
oj
{Iliad,
is
applied
of
Thebes
IX, 381-383).
Egypt (1905),
149,
where a
full
story of the rise
and fall
343
3
opens out into a wide and
ley
a half-mile wide, but
which
lie
is
opposite the
Here the
fertile plain.
river is
about
divided into smaller streams by three islands
Thebes proper
city.
lay
on the east bank of
the Nile, the west bank being given over almost wholly to the ne-
and the mortuary temples. The old Egyptian names of

Thebes were "the city," "the southern city," and "the city of
Amon" as here. Amon was the patron god of the city and the
temple of Kamak was erected for his worship. For the date of the
overthrow of Thebes and its bearing upon the question of the date
9. Ethiopiawas
of Nahura's prophecy, v. Introduction, pp. 274/..
her strength; Put and the Libyans were her help] At the time when
cropolis
Thebes
fell, -the
land of Egypt was under the dominion of the Ethi-
opian, or twenty-fifth dynasty (712-663 B.C.).
All the resources
Added
of Nubia, therefore, were joined to those of Egypt proper.

to these helpers
from the south were the Libyans, neighbours of
Egypt on the west.

seems here
Ez.
to
27*", it is
66^*^,
Je. 46^",
Egypt; in Ez.
where Pul
sociated with
moved from
precise location of
mentioned with
Tyre; in 30^ and

ally of
The
This
is
uncertain.
is
38^,
Persia as
Israel.
among
It
it is
among
the forces of
also Tarshish as
It is
commonly
is
In
the allies of
coupled with Ethiopia and
probably an error for Put
Lud and
may
Lud and
it is
Egyptian inscriptions, which

Sea.
Put
be thought of as closely associated with Libya.
Lud
Gog; while
(cf. (g), it is
as
again as-
one of the lands far
identified with the
an
in Is.
Punt
re-
of the
the present Somali coast of the
be correct; but, as Dillmann pointed out with
Red
ref-
no evidence that Egypt ever made use of

mercenaries or allies from Punt. It was known to Egypt chiefly as
erence to Gn. 10^, there
is
a source of trade in rare products.
It
may be
this connection, that the abstract 'help' is
of significance, in
used here by
Nahum
rather than the concrete 'helper'; the former might, of course, inall kinds of resources.
But whatever may be thought of
Pimt as likely to have aided Thebes, it is almost inconceivable that
Tyre should have drawn aid from so distant a point (Ez. 27^").
clude
(H
sometimes renders Put as Libya or Libyans,* but the fact that
the Lydians are listed here with Put seems to preclude that identification.
Winckler would equate Put with the Assyrian Putu* So also Josephus.
NAHUM
344
Yamen,*
name
the
of the isle of
Samos or some part
of Asia Minor, such as Caria near Samos-f

to look so far
away
Put, for the other
but
as either Asia
named
allies
It
of the coast
seems imnecessary
Minor or the Somali
coast for
are immediate neighbours of Egypt;
exact localisation must await further discoveries.
its
Unfor-
tunately Ashurbanipal's account of the campaigns against Egypt
Thebes does not enumerate the foreign

and Egypt.
reads here, "Ethiopia was her strength and Egypt, and there
was no end; Put, etc." But the inclusion of Egypt among the resources of Thebes, the capital of Egypt, seems gratuitous and the
and
of the capture of
auxiliaries in the
army
of Taharka, king of Ethiopia
seems designed
list
to give the external helpers
In any case,
with Egypt.
we should have expected some word

predicate. J
seems safe
It
to
was no end"** as due
there
exile; she
went into
Ashur and
my
text,
omit "and Egypt " as well as "and

to a glossator.
10. Yet she was for
captivity] In Ashurbanipal's
Ishtar,
co-operated
parallel to 'strength' as its
capture of Thebes, he says, "that entire

of
who
'Egypt' were originally in the
if
city,
hands captured
account of the
under the protection

silver, gold,
precious
stones, the contents of his palace, all that there was: parti-coloured
and female. Two tall

and took to Assyria.
oflf from Thebes."
This
raiment, cloth, horses, and people, male
...
obelisks
Heavy
removed from
spoils without
number
their place
I carried
does not imply a general deportation of the populace of Thebes;
but
if
it
furnishes sufficient basis for
made
Nahum's
statement, especially
after the lapse of approximately half a century,
recollection of the precise course of events
when
the
had become hazy and
Even her infants were dashed in

Such barbaric cruelty seems to
have been commonly practised in Semitic warfare; c/". 2 K. 8'^ Is.
imagination had done
its
work.
pieces at the head of every street]

jîe.
18
jjq
atrocities (2
jq14 jî
israehtes themselves were capable of such
K.
though there were not wanting those who
15^^),
protested against such doings (Am. i").

ones, they cast lots
and
AOF.
So Rub. JQR. XI, 4S9.
**
.So
I,
sii
/..
Hpt., Stk..
all
And upon
her honoured
her great ones were bound in fetters] In
t So Che. EB. art. Pui.

So Marti, Hpt..
3"-"
345
the record of the activities immediately preceding Ashurbanipal's
second campaign, of which the capture of Thebes was the crowning triumph,
stated that the petty kings
it is
with Tirhaka to
who had
conspired
the Assyrian advance were taken captive
resist
Nineveh, where mercy was shown to none but Necho, king of
to
being
Sais, the fate of the rest
left to
be inferred.
Details are not
furnished by this narrative of the conqueror, but the custom of

putting noble prisoners in bonds
is
well attested elsewhere in As-
*
2 K. 25^ Ju. 16^^ Ps.
and the distribution of prominent captives by lot among the
princes and captains of Assyria is likely to have been a not unusual
proceeding {cf. Jo. 3^ Ob. ").*
Str. IV declares that Nineveh will in turn suffer the fate which
she herself executed upon Thebes. 11. Thou, too, wilt be drunken;
syrian inscriptions
and
reliefs {cf. Je. 40^-
149)
The figure of drunkenness as representative

of the helplessness of those who have drtmk of the cup of Yahweh's
wrath is a common one in the Old Testament; cf. Hb. 2^ Je. 25^^^^
Ob. *^ Ez. 23^ Is. 51""^ Ps. 60^ La. 4^^ The precise meaning of
the second verb here is somewhat vmcertain. The root regularly
means 'cover,' conceal.' The meaning 'faint,' 'be powerless' for
thou wilt become faint]
^-
this
passagef rests upon two facts;
idiom, using 'be covered' as
a similar primary meaning, J

4^
Am.
8'^
Ez. 3i^^.
may have
panies fainting
'covering'
The
and
'fainting.'
Arabic has exactly the same
(i)
= 'be powerless';
is
(2) the
verb
used in this same way in
D^J?, with
Is. 51^"
Jon.
blackness before the eyes that accom-
furnished the connecting link between
Another interpretation of the word
is,
* For representations of prisoners,
v. the reliefs from Kouyunjik and Khorsabad in Botta et

Monuments de Ninive (1849), vol. II, plates 100, 119; cf. Layard, Nineveh and lis
Remains, II, 261; and Assyrian Sculptures in the British Museum (published by Klcinman
Flandin,
& Co.,
London), plate
93.
"Dunanu and Samgunu

I
bound hand and
Ashurbanipal, in his Annals, speaking of his
who had
foot in bonds, iron fetters
paign, against Arabian princes, of
and along with
Elam),
(allies of
whom
campaign, says,
my
sovereignty,
and iron manacles."
he says,
the spoil of their land, I took
the Taylor Prism, after his sixth campaign.
fifth
obstructed the exercise of
"On
them
their
So also in his ninth camhands and feet I put iron chains
to Assyria."
Similarly Sennacherib, in
Tiglath-pileser III also, in the
Nimrud Ins.
says,
" I captured him (a hostile king) together with his great men, put iron chains on them and took
them
to Assyria."
t So
e. g. Stei.,
f)t3J.'
In Ez.
We., Or., Dav., Now., Hpt..
'to cover'
3i'5 np'^JJ
and
P|toy
'be weak' are also probably one and the same.
should be read.
NAHUM
346
from
'wilt hide thyself
fear,
'
* which anticipates the thought of the
Nowack reminds us, drunkards as

The Versions offer 'will be de-
In any case, as
following line.
a rule do not hide themselves.
which
spised,'
supported by some scholarsf on the basis of
is
meaning 'covers,' i. e. obscures

and renders imnecessary so unsup-
Jb. 42^; but there the ordinary

counsel, satisfies the context
ported an interpretation.
The
Assyrian armies.
12.
m
too, wilt seek
Against this
reads,
the fact that
is
is
"are
it is
The
yields too short a line.
iE which
with
fig trees
first-ripe figs."
but, in view of v.
^^,
Nineveh
it is
it
corrected text presupposes an error
itself, J
The
in the copying of texts.
fortresses referred to are probably those strengthening
tecting the walls of
role for
lacking in parallelism and that
common occurrence
of
refuge from the foe]
an unaccustomed
All thy fortresses are fig trees; thy defenders
are first-ripe figs]
in
Thou,
pursuer will become the pursued,
as
is
and pro-
evidently the case in
on the
also possible that forts
v.
frontier
";
and
others intended to block progress toward the capital are meant.
For the use of the word 'people' as the equivalent

cf.
note on
eater]
To
2^.
urge that
and
later figs
If they be shaken, they fall into

first-ripe figs
do not
fall
that, therefore, the point of the
speed and eagerness with which
of 'defenders,'
mouth of the
more easily than
tJie
comparison
first-ripe figs are
than in the ease and certainty of the capture of Nineveh,

too
much
upon the use
stress
falls
with as
little
in the
is
to lay
Both ideas
as eagerly pounced
of this particular word.
are probably present in the figure; Nineveh
upon and
is
plucked,** rather
is
resistance as does the first-ripe fig;
cf.
Haupt would transfer vv. ^- '^ to follow

f
But nothing is gained
V. ^^*, while Staerk places v. ^ after v. "*.
by either of these changes. 13a. Behold, wom^n are in the midst
of thee!] Such terror will lay hold upon the defenders of Nineveh
Mi.
Is.
28* Je. 24^.
that they will be unable to act the part of men.

terly fail
* Hal..
% So e.
So e.
them;
cf. Is.
19*^ Je. 49^^ 50'^
Courage
will ut-
As a matter of
51^^*. ft
fact,
t Hap, van H..

g.
g.
We., Now., Hap., Marti, Kau..

Dav., van H..
** Hap..
tt Similar language is used by Ashur-nirari, king of Assyria, in a veish he utters vrith reference to a certain Mali'ilu of Harran, viz. "may he become a hierodule; may his warriors be-
come women,
etc."; v.
E. T. Harper,
BAS.
II,
434.
3"-"
the defence of Nineveh
seem
clear that
This
begun.
was prolonged and
Nahum
Thus
heroic.
would
it
prophesied before the siege had actually
no vaticiniwn
is
thy defenders are
347
women
m reads, "Behold,
post eventum.
The
in the midst of thee."
but the order of words
sense
is
the
easier in the
same
emended text and the phrase "in the midst of thee" in M, is somewhat superfluous. 13c. Fire has devoured thy bars] The bars are
either the forts which obstruct the advance of an invader into the
in both readings;
is
country, or the literal bars which fasten the gates of such fortresses;
cf.
Am.
eveh
They can hardly be
I^
itself,
for this
and the following instructions
The
surd.
here.*
use of
the fastenings of the gates of Nin-
would leave the

fire in
city at the
mercy of the enemy

would be ab-
to prepare for a siege
attacks
upon
fortresses
seems implied
In any case, one of the constantly recurring statements in
the accounts of the capture of cities by Assyrian kings

stroyed, I devastated, I
tingly follows V.
'^^
than
burned with
v.
"'^
as in fH.
It
this
and
defiles affording
i. e.
fit-
to
Moreover, the metre
is
13b. The gates of thy land
arrangement.
are opened wide to thine enemies]
"I de-
would be unnecessary
burn the bars after the gates were opened.
much improved by
is,
This clause more
fire."t
the forts protecting the passes
entrance into the country are surrendered
without a struggle by their cowardly garrisons.
Driver aptly
calls
word 'gates' in such titles

as the "Caucasian Gates," the "Caspian Gates," the "Cilician
Gates," etc.. It may be that Nahum was writing at a time when
these strongholds had already fallen, so that it only remained to
conquer Nineveh. J But it is just as probable that with prophetic
attention to the parallel usage of the
certainty he represents as already accomplished that

to
which he sees
be inevitable.
Str.
ironically urges
Nineveh
to
put forth her most strenuous
efforts in self-defence, assuring her in
that complete destruction awaits her.
draw for
thyself]
of Nineveh's
This ironical advice
one and the same breath
14.
may
Waters for the siege
refer either to the filling
moats for the purpose of better defence,** or
* Cf. Billerbeck, BAS. Ill, i6i.

t So e. g. We., Now., Kau., et ah.
** Hpt.'s categorical rejection of
to the
t Soe. g. in Ashurbanipal's /Iwwa/i.

So e. g. Hap., van H..
this interpretation
proves nothing.
NAHUM
348
procuring of a water supply for
enemy renders
of the
it
its
inhabitants before the presence
impossible.*
by Ahaz
CJ. the steps taken
to secure the water supply of Jerusalem at the time of the Syro-
Ephraimite invasion
(Is.
7^).
copious water supply had been
provided for Nineveh by Sennacherib.

tion,!
he relates
how he had conveyed
tain torrents into the city
In the Bavian Inscrip-
moun-
the water of eighteen
by an aqueduct, thus furnishing
it
with
an abundant supply. Not only so, but he also constructed a system of water- works by which the storage and distribution could be
and a
controlled
Nahum
plentiful supply
guaranteed in time of
siege.
probably refers to the perfecting and protecting of this
Apart from
system.
it,
according to Sennacherib, the city was

rainfall. J
dependent solely upon the
made probably
Strengthen thy fortresses]
Nineveh proper,
and the outlying bulwarks
designed to protect her gates. The same verb is used in 2 K. 12^'^^
of the repairing of the breaches in the walls of the temple.
Constant repairs upon the walls of the city and its forts would be needed
during the progress of the siege, because of the damage wrought by
the rams of the besiegers; lacking such repairs, the walls must
soon fall. Enter into the mire and trample the clay] i. e. so as to
prepare the clay for the moulding of the bricks. An enormous
supply of bricks would be requisite to keep up repairs upon the
huge walls of Nineveh during a siege.** Their height was estimated
at one hundred feet by Diodorus and their width, as revealed by the
Reference
is
and
the towers
bas-relief
turrets
to the defences of
upon her
walls
from the N^V. palace at Nimroud shows a warrior outside the walls
sieged to obtain water from a well outside the walls of the fort;
mains,
upon
II,
of
a bucket from a rope passed through a pulley, which was apparently used by the be-
city cutting
31
/..
Billerbeck suggests that
Nahum
v.
La yard, Nineveh and Its Re-
refers to boiling
water which
is to
be poured
the besiegers.
t Bezold's translation in KB. II, 117.

X Testimony varies regarding the waters of the Khusur and Tigris.
Its Remains, II, 96) states that the
ble,
while that of the Tigris
Layard {Nineveh and

water of the Khusur was considered heavy and undrinka-
was constantly
used.
Commander Jones
(.JRAS, 1855,
p.
310)
evidently considered the waters of both streams usable; while Friedrich (Ninive's Ende), ap-
parently without having been on the spot, declares the water of the
of the Tigris undrinkable; so Billerbeck,
sidered the
Khusur
works (Bavian
be found;
v.
Ill, 120.
1.
Khusur
it
be good and that

to
have con-
as a part of his system of water-
11).
BAS.
also idem,
to
Sennacherib also seems
available for a water supply, for he used
Ins.,
Cj. Billerbeck,
BAS.
Ill, 161, where an excellent account of the defences

Der Feslungsbau im Alien Orient (2d ed. 1903).
** Xenophon, Anabasis,
III, 4, 11,
mentions the vKivei-vov Terôs
of
of
Nineveh may
Nineveh.
3"
excavations, was about
fifty feet,
349
except alongside of the gates where
was over one hundred feet. Sennacherib himself says* that he

made the wall and the rampart of Nineveh "mountain high."
But limestone also was used in the construction of the walls and
earth in the erection of ramparts. Lay hold of the brick-mould]
it
Sun-dried and burnt brick was the chief building material of As-
This picture shows the population of Nine-
and Babylonia.
syria
veh engaged in the most wearisome drudgery and
all in
vain.
"There"
probably indicates in a general way the scenes of labour just mentioned.
Even in the midst of their toil, destruction will come upon
them. Fire and sword are commonly combined in the destruction
15. There fire will devour thee; the sword will cut thee
of towns;
34^
Am.
cf.
Dt. 2?P Ju.
I* ^-
Ho. 8".
i- ^^ 2o"-'' i S. so*-
According
by Berossus, the
tradition preserved
ing of the advance of the

ished in the flames.
enemy
to
"
K.
off]
9'* Is. i^ Je.
one form of the Babylonian
last
king of Assyria upon learn-
set fire to his
own
capital
and per-
According to another form, the king resisted
the besiegers for three years and committed himself to the flames
only after the Tigris had washed
The
away a
portion of the city's walls.
excavations at Kouyunjik have revealed the fact that most of
had suffered from fire. // will devour thee like

These words are best treated as a gloss or as due
to dittography.f
The error was an easy one. The words are
hard to understand in M,- Most naturally, the subject of the verb
would be the 'sword' just mentioned;! but locusts are not destroyed
by the sword. If the comparison with the locust applies to the
subject, i. e. "the sword will devour thee as the locust devours/'
the buildings there
the
young
the figure
locust]
is
a weak one.
Moreover, in the following clause, the
'locust' is applied figuratively to
Nineveh, the devoured.
If the
thought be, "will devour thee though thou art numerous like the
locust,**
it
preceding
and renders forceless the following phrase.

must go back for a subject to the
"fire will devour thee like the locust"; this was
anticipates
words be
If the
original here, they
'fire,' viz.
* V. Bavian Inscription.
t So
e. g.
We., Rub. (JQR. XI, 439), Oort^""-, Now.',
GASm., Hap.,
Hpt., Stk., Kent.
The
Vrss., Strauss,
** Or., Dav..
Marti, Dr. (?),

t Hi..
Knabenbaiier, Dr.
(?),
and most
earlier
commentators.
Now.K
NAHUM
350
one of the means of exterminating

to save the phrase
by making
it
this
pest*
mean,
against thee as furiously as they are
But
fiood of locusts. "t
this is to
"fire
made
One interpreter seeks

and sword
shall rage
to destroy the baneful
crowd too much
two words.
into
Another, by emendation, reads, "the battle-axe will destroy thee."
But
this, in turn,
new word
introduces a
adds a superfluous
into the
Hebrew
lexicon,
detail since 'sword' naturally represents all
weapons of warfare, and
reckon with the fact that these words
fails to
Multiply thyself like the young
render this line unduly long.
locust;
The prophet now
turns from
the forts and walls toward the almost innumerable
mass
of the pop-
ulation within Nineveh, bidding the city increase
its
multiply thyself like the locust-swarm]
yond measure only
16.
to find
them as
futile as the
defenders be-
broken-down
walls.
Increase thy traders more than the stars of the heavens]
The
merchants of Nineveh were an important source of her wealth and,

;
commerce regularly "followed the flag." It may be that

is of the same sort as that mentioned in 3^ t but this does not appear on the face of the statement
and the additional classes mentioned in v. " render such a meaning
somewhat improbable. The young locust strips and flies away] This
in her case,
the merchandise alluded to here

;
probably refers to the

stage, at
which time
final
it
have thus far confined
emergence of the locust from the pupa-
casts
its
ofif
the
membraneous sheaths which
wings, rises into the air and
Another possible rendering
is,
flies
away.
"the young locust plunders and
flies
But it is hardly legitimate to apply this to the departure

"
of the enemy from Nineveh after her destruction ;** since in vv. ^^*
the locusts evidently represent the Assyrians themselves. Another interpretationff gives the first verb the meaning 'go forth' or
'set themselves in motion,' and cites Ju. 9^- ^* in support of this.
But so weak and colourless a meaning is not to be expected of
this verb, nor is it made necessary by Ju. 9^- **, where the rendering
"make a raid" is more suitable. Still another interpretation is
"the locusts deposit their larvae, etc." ;|J but this meaning must be
away."
* V. Thomson, The Land and the Book, II (1886), 297; and the "excursus on locusts" in
Dr. Joel and Amos, 82-91.
So Hap.; c/. Is. 23" '.

** So Strauss, Kl., Ke., Knabenbauer
t
Xt
Van
H..
So Dr. Joel and Amos, 85

c/.
Marti, Hal..
Shipley,
Van
H..
EB. 2808.
ft Hap..
3''-''
forced
351
upon the verb and even then furnishes no
The
com par adonis.
crowds of Nineveh
locust-swarms
close connection with v. ^^^
no
fluous in the poetical structure.
note either on
v.
^^
or on
that the
But the phrase anticipates

and is super-
their time comes.
the thought of v. ", has
is
disappear as quickly and completely as
will
when
suitable tertium
point of the comparison evidently
".*
v.
locust-swarm] These words
It is best
17.
may be
Thy
handled as a marginal
sacred officials
( ?)
like the
taken either as an independent
sentence, "thy sacred officials are like, etc.," or as dependent
the imperative of v.
*^,
"increase thy sacred
upon
The
officials, etc.."
seems preferable, since the merchants with the other two
latter
orders mentioned are apparently correlated as representing three
The word
leading classes in Nineveh.

officials
?)
" occurs nowhere else and
has been interpreted in
many ways;
ones;t thy consecrated ones,
i. e.
is
here rendered "sacred
of uncertain meaning.
e. g.
It
thy princes, or crowned
those set aside to
thy mercenaries ; thy bastards, allusion being
war
made
(cf.
TiriD) ;t
to the large
admixture of foreign blood in Nineveh ;** thy tax-collectors ;f f thy

or conjurers;|J thy watchmen, or guards.
exorcists,
ence can hardly be
made
to
any high
officials,
since at
Refer-
any given
time these were relatively few and the comparison with locusts
would thus be unsuitable.*** Some class including large numbers
is
apparently intended, perhaps the priests and attendant ministers
many shrines. The term is probably an Assyrian loan-word,

meaning of which we can only conjecture. Thy scribes ( ?) like
locusts] Another word of uncertain significance appears here.
at the
the
the
The
earlier
tains,'
commentators conjectured such meanings as 'cap-
fff marshals,J|J princes or leaders.
The same word,
with a slight variation in vocalisation, occurs in Je. 5 1^^ but that pas;
sage sheds
little
designation of
tuplarru
is
light
upon
some kind
its
meaning, beyond showing that
of an official.
t Ke..
tt Du..
t Ra., Ki., Hd., Or., AV.
p. 507),
et al..
** Hi., We.,
Ew..
Rub. {JQR. XI, 460), Bu. (EB.).

651), Knabenbauer, Hal., Kent.
JtJ RV..
ttt AV., Ew., Or..
tt Hpt.;
So Jensen (ThLZ. 1905,

*** So Mau., We..
Ki..
it is
cl.
Zimmern (KAT.^,
Assyrian dupSarru or
almost certainly the original of this Hebrew form.
* So Marti, Hpt., Stk., Kent.
AE.,
The
In
NAHUM
352
Assyrian, the ordinary meaning
" tablet- writer " or "scribe,"
is
but the scribe served also at times as an
The Hebrew
a military
officer (Ju.
similar development
these facts,
'scribe'
meaning
it is
and
official
of the government.
"ISD, 'scribe' or 'secretary' is also used to designate
5"
is
Ch. 26"
K.
25'';
cf.
Mac.
5'^).
In view of
probable that *lD2t5 too had both meanings,
'officer.'
The
for this place,*
is
objection that this
of force,
constituting a very small class.

dant, especially in
suggestion! that
exhibited by the root IIDU'.
and after the
Nahum
is
if
But
we must
is
think of either as
scribes, at least,
literary
viz.
too special a
were abun-
The
age of Ashurbanipal.f
deriding Nineveh by implying that the
power have given place to merand the like, may be near the mark, being wholly in
keeping with the spirit and tone of this prophecy. That encamp
stalwart warriors of her days of
chants, scribes,
in the walls in cold weather]
So Nineveh
the sun shines forth

similarity
A well-known characteristic of locusts.
crammed with a huddled mass
is
and they flee and
The
7^
details of the figure evidently
Rev.
known] The
between the people of Nineveh and the locusts
speed with which they both alike depart and are

ple of Nineveh.
18^*;
but the thought here
is
that
cf.
is
in the
lost to sight.**
must not be applied
For the closing words,
But
of population.
their place is not
to the peo-
Ps. 103^^ Is. 17" Jb.
none knows whither the
fH adds a word here,

making the phrase read, "their place is not known where they are."
This is a correct interpretation of Nahum's words, but it is generally recognised as weak and tautological and as not belonging
locust has gone, not
here.f t
of V.
where he has been.
It is better placed,
with a slight change, at the beginning
''.
* Now..
t They were highly regarded by that ling, who himself acquired their art (Annals,
of them in copying ancient tablets and collecting his great library.
and employed many
I,
32
/.)
In the
Tel-el-Amarna period, the dup'sarru at the Egyptian court was credited with great influence
V. Knudtzon's El-Amarna Tajeln, Nos. 286, 1. 61; 287, 11. 64 /.; 289, 1. 47, where Abdihiba,
king of Jerusalem, entreats the favour of his influence with the Pharaoh.
t
Van
H..
ad he; Thomson, The Land and the Book, II (1886), 299.

cit. p. 297: "thousands upon thousands, with most fatal industry, deposit
their innumerable eggs in the field, the plain, and the desert.
This done, they vanish like
morning mist."
tt So Arn., Hap., Marti, Hpt., Stk., Kent, Du..
V. Jer.
** V. Thomson, op.
3""'
Str.
VI which
and the book does not carry the

up a dirge over
no more, and tells of the joy with which the
closes this oracle
thought of the preceding

the
city, fallen to rise
whole world receives the

tinues to the
end
tidings.
of the
str..
spoils the dirge
personality at the very
18.
The
rulers;
is
who
is
probably a
It is
much more
a phrase
naturally ad-
himself the shepherd of his
"shepherd" was a favourite one with Semitic
title
The slumber and
Je. 3^^ Ez. 37^^t
cf.
How thy shepherds slumber,
M, inserts here O King of Assyria]

rhythm, but also introduces a new
dressed to a city than to a king,

people.
further, but takes
end of the prophecy.
"Thy shepherds"
gloss.*
any
str.
The so-called dirge rhythm appears here and con-
thy nobles sleep!]
which not only
353
tures of the slothfulness
and weakness
sleep are not pic-
The
of Assyria's rulers. J
vigour and obstinacy of the city's defence, which withstood the

attacks of the foe for at least two long years, protects the
of her defenders against such a charge.
Sleep
phemism
"
prophet
for death
is
{cf. Is.
14'^ Je. 51^^-
describing the situation after the
down"
has "settle
is
Ps. 13^ 76^fall
memory
here rather a eu^),
and the
of the capital.
or "dwell" for the second verb;
if
correct, this
must be understood as meaning "are at ease" or "secure," which

would be a very free rendering. But a closer parallelism with
"slumber"
is
expected and (& points to a
upon
ple are scattered
the
dififerent text.
mountains with none
"people" are the defenders of the
city,
as in v.
to gather
Zc. 13' Nu. 27".

incurable]
19. There
is
cf.
though
18'^).
All
it is
who
for-
K. 22" Ez. 34^
Je. 10'^ 14^^ 30^^ 46".
threatened Israel with the same fate
8^^),
c/. i
peo-
The
no healing for thy wound; thy hurt
For similar language,
commonly applied
They have
*^.
saken her and are like sheep without a shepherd;
Thy
them]
(5^).
to the crash of states
{e.
is
Amos
The word 'wound' is

g. Am. 6^ Is. 30^ Je.
occasionally used of individuals
{e. g.
Pr. 16^^ 17'^
hear the report of thee clap their hands] For this
action as expressive of joy,
So Arn., Marti, Hap., Now.^, Hpt.,
cf. Is.
Stk.,
55*^ Ez. 25 Ps. 47^ 98^.
Kau., Kent
Du. om. only
the
The
word "king" and
leaves "Assyria" as the one addressed.
tSoe.
g. Tiglath-pile.ser I
(Prism Ins.
I,
i8),
Sennacherib (Taylor Cyl.
shum-ukin.
many commentators e. g. Mich., Kre., We., van

So Or., Dav., GASm., Jrm., Hap., Marti, Hal., Dr..
% Contra
H..
I,
3)
and Shamasb-
NAHUM
354
prophet here states even more positively what he has already suggested in
He
3^,
own
only of his
is
conscious that he expresses the feelings not
nation, but of all the peoples
But
the otherwise perfect elegiac rhythm.
For upon
glossator.*
whom
has
is
form
this closing str.
to the
metre of
It is
at thee]
probably the work of a

passed over con-
best considered as a gloss.f
an attempt
and
it
It fails to
con-
weakens the prophet's
to justify the universal joy of the previous
no such prosaic apology
statement, which needed
The
It is
evil from thee not
tinually?] This, too,
Nahum.
suffered at
adds here,
unnecessary to the sense and constitutes a blemish upon
this is
climax.
who have
the hands of the world-oppressing tyrant.
in the days of
oppression of Nineveh was notorious enough to
be taken for granted everywhere.
"Evil" here
is
equivalent to
"calamity," "disaster" or "wrong."
The logical divisions of this piece are so clearly marked as to have

produced practical unanimity among its interpreters regarding its analysis.
Organising strs. on the basis of this logical grouping alone, and
trusting to the parallelism for
six strs.,
having
8, 6, 6, 6,
few changes from M.

In V. ', two words, 'J3
rh 313D
CD
(v. 8),
In
v.
iSs'di,
icj?
gmdance as to the length of lines, we secure
8 and 4 lines respectively.

-,
This involves a
one-half of the second line
must be om. as a
gloss.
p^^2 nSaxn (v. '0, qvi
(v. "),
is
missing.
Other glosses
tssi's
pSi
are,
(v. 6),
and probably nxp pxi onxm (v. ) and nS >d Sy 'o T''?^
(v. 's).
In addition to these omissions, the phrase
'a tTN nSjN (v. ") is tr. to foil, i^-ipa in the same verse.
This strophic
arrangement gives a sharper point to We.'s question as to whether
w. '8- 19 constitute an original element in the poem or not. Strophic
symmetry demands the closing of the poem with v. '', where an eightline str. ends, thus balancing the eight-line str. with which the poem began. These verses also seem to look back upon the overthrow of Nineveh
as an accomplished fact; whereas all that precedes has looked forward
to the fall of the city as a thing hoped for and confidently expected at no
iia-K
n':'D
(v. '8)^
i-DD iny-)
may
distant date.
It
cannot be said with certainty, of course, that
Nahum is
not here in imagination placing himself at some point in the future,
whence he looks back upon Nineveh's ruin. This is a common enough

method of procedure with the prophets. Hence, the question of the date
of w. '8 " must remain open, with the probability upon the side of the
later origin.
The
metres of this piece, like
very uneven; lines of four,

* So Bu. (EB.), Marti, Now.k.
the rest of the book of Nahum, are

and seven beats are all found here, but
all
five, six
t So Marti, Hpt., Kent.
3""
355
The qina-rhythm
with a preference for the line of six beats.

here and there throughout the poem, but
in
w.
'"
mtr.
nSo]
Ob.".
cf.
(JQR. XI, 458)

But
i"">o
meaning
in
&.
Aq.
P"io\
Heb.
similarly
&.
the addition
gests
Ex.
in Jos. i^
ii'io
1322 Ps. 55'' Zc.
dStdXetTrroj.
2) (Sttoh)
Rub.
(/.
so
nontpS nsp-l''^"';
it is
Now.'^.
i"*^]
Prob-
The
corre-
Gr. ^yp-
inf..
Marti sug-
adds T\^yq.
c.)
difficult to refer it
itself.
2. aitf] <g
The metre would be improved by the om. of 'p as a dittog..

used for 'earthquake,'
also of
Assy.) and thus possesses no

For inverted position within
regularly used for the
is
Ps. 55'^.
cf.
and
dTro-
Rub.
ni'pu'.
{cf.
nN'?D]
c^c] Intrans. as
sponding nominal form in Ar.

^:i^-^r^;
Gr.
as the original of this
ably here the act of plunder rather than the plunder
Hal. adds
iâvxevifffJôv.
'booty.'
(5 Nra,
to nSa
in this
dir.
pnfl]
he considers a misplaced marginal note on pis.
Du.
^ri\a(j>'t]d-f)(TeTai;
05
I'la, 'lies,'
'lies' is dir. in
p-\D.
cf. Is. 222.
the phrase,
14^.
n'?yD
Du. nOTs.
a'nD]
TB dilaceraiione.
proffers
advantage over
sf..
CS ddidas; similarly
which with
',
Du. adds nirj.D\pi] Tr. _
Dr..
cf.
ignore
or Mf'ôfOTâs.
To/it/as
in V.
'27;
(S
appears
consistently adhered to only
the natural measure for the sentiment.
it is
V. H.A"-
cs..
sense;
where
",
1. 'in]
is
pi..
Vipi]
Though
'î-yn]
here to the trembling of the
ground as the chariots dash by (BDB.) it is rather the noise made by the
wheels themselves. in-i] iiir. but cf. nnm, Ju. 522. Barth (Wurzeluntersucliungen) and Hpt. connect with Ar. hdr by metathesis and render
;
'neighing.'
Cf.
dvappda-a-ovTos.
snorting; "B frementis.

n'^yn]
3.
Qal
is
dubKovros.
05
Hiph. of the rider causing his horse to rear as here in

âivovTos, treating
V.
on
v.
'.
iT'u'^]
with Kt. (so S>
Du.
<S To?s edvea-iv aiiTrjs.

SI),
'hfT,.
This
is
nM.jS.
{cf
DJij;.?
to V.
'.
Ho.
njiT]
is
Du. om. as due
Rub.,
Rd. in impf.
with Marti, Now.'^, Stk.,
from foil. word.

Du. om. as a variant of
dittog.
142).
($ dva-
nSjj.
only a slight detail, not a
Kent.
tStt'o^]
(g
g'sC);
better than the Qr. iS^î (so (g,
many Heb. mss., H), for this vb. contributes

new element in the scene. Dn''U3] Rd. niJ5,
Kau.,
K.
Je. 512'.
Oort^"-
Gr. SSnnn.
as Qal; so B.
it
mpio]
Je. 46' 2
used of the steed in
to dittog..
]r\
Oort^- nn^jD.
'jS.
naia] 05
Hal.
'r
3id] (B joins
/caXr?
Kal iirixap'ni.
i.
noun to denote a charmocn] Cf. Fraenkel,

acteristic; cf. i2 Is. 4115; Ges. ^ '28 = ".
05 TiyovfjiivTj.
Aram. Fremdworter, 127. 'd never means "get control over," but always
"sell" or "deliver over to another " Est. 7^ Is. 50' 52^ are no exceptions
speciosae
et
gratae.
nSj73]
In
cstr.
with
foil,
to the regular usage.
&
who
nourishes.
2^.
Marti, Now.'^^(?), Stk., Kau., Kent.
5.
Bu. (on Ct.

niN2X
'>]
1^), n-ipu'gn;
05 inserts 'hSn.
so
Du.
niSii] & and I will throw hack.

pudenda tua; so &. y:D
Du. om. as
i"ipc] Syn. with nny.
Apocopated from
gloss derived from Je. 132s.
myn; cf. jyo, from njyc. 6. o^xpa-] (^ g> sg.. Hap. om. as gloss upon
^>^'?3J.
"I'nSjji] (6 Kara ras aKadapalas ffov; hence Du. "inSaj, which he
om.
'x
TiSitf]
as due to influence of
(5 Tot
6irl(xa} <rov.
'"?';]
NAHUM
356
treats as a variant of the foregoing
Hap.
cf.
T'O'^pJ,
di
(5
'thy carcasses.'
irapdSeiyiJLa (so g* 3S).
for niNj)
c/. ni>(->,
Cf.
who om.
Cf. Hpt.
"iii'D,
Om.
'nio]
MeSa
Ins.,
nn
12,
1.
as gloss.
preceding
3 as dittog. of
d;
pin-; (c/. nij
{ZDMG. LX, 402) would correct
Ez. 28". Praetorius
Mela's nn to nnpa, explaining the loss of p2 as due to the preceding

word ipnn and translating, "I destroyed all the people from the city, in
Qeryyoth, for Chemosh and for Moab." But Qeryyoth is out of place
here, the idiom S jin
harsh,
is
and the ordinary
interpretation
is
easy
For the same thought, v. Sachau's Assuan Papyri, 1, 15/..

(S
niT'] On form, Ges.^ "="=.
7. T'Ni] Note assonance with isn.
n-jic'] For nn-iC'; cf. 01>f;:, 2*.
Kara^riaeTai. S dvax'^P'^cei. "& resiliet.
and
natural.
Ges. ^ "
(& SeiXaia.
<i.
^ H SI =
nh]
so
-^S;
"B consolatorem ; so
D''onjc] 05 irapdKX-qffiv.
a similar parallelism with ^1J^ nS] Rd.

{JQR. XI, 459), Oort^'"-, Marti, Now.k
pnN
Njc]
nS,
mss. and Gr..
Cf. Jb. 2" Is.
&.
with <&
for
8. ^3a>nn
Kau., Du..
Stk.,
51"
so Rub.
avrri;
confusion in the vb. of Qal and Hiph. forms; best pointed
as Qal, '^jvnn
Ges.
{cf.
'").
and apparently transposed

C5 in
aiTTJs).
many Heb.
30'*-'^ identifies nj
Ez.
Assy, reproduces
'dx nj
it
abbreviated to nj in Ez. 30'^-'%
is
pCN
in Je. 46", njd
(05
rbv
riv uWc
''A/xfidiv
The
as Thebes, viz. Ai6a-jro\ii.
as al Ni'i (cf Dl. Parodies, 3i8jf.); this
and the Heb.
Nj represent the Egyptian nt (with the t elided as is common) = 'town,'

which was probably vocalised as ne(t). Hence, the name means "the
town of Amon." In contemporary Egyptian records, Thebes was commonly designated as "the town," par excellence ; v. Steindorff, BAS. I,
Other cases where Assy, 'e' or 'i' cor597; W. Max Miiller, EB. 3427.
responds to Heb. 'o' are listed by Hpt., viz. rsi = resu; innnDN =
Aur-aha-iddina; jsx
senu;
Son''
ekul; pjiD
The
Sarru-kenu.
(S eroifiaaai fiepida, &pfx,0(rai xopSiji', erolfiaffai fxeplda
Vrss. vary.
Afj.fj.(i)p;
a composite rendering combining two variants, in which the vb. is read

as a Hiph. imv. and n:d as 'JD = n:D. Some mss. of (& dp/Mxrai (or
dpfioffov) xopSi^" fiepU Â/JLfjL(iv.
^ Art thou better than J av an of Amman?
' }d; so
B numquid es melior Alexandria populorum ; so. Aq. 2
0=
Hap..
Dnx'']
PL
majest., like nnnj, Ps. 137" (so Hpt.); this
than "Nile-streams" as ordinarily taken.

S^n]
Rd.
n^>n; so
We., Or., Now.. Rub.
nrx]
{I.
Du. om., as
Du. ^''^;rf. a;??] Rd. D^j?i,

some Heb. mss., and We., Gr., Rub. {I. c),
Dav., Now., Bu., Hal., Hap., Marti, Hpt., Dr., Stk.,
(idup; so
OortE-, Or.,
Kau., Du..
r^-oy^,
with
nnnin]
&
"B,
05
ninbin.
(g io-x^s oi5t^s; so
(Schleus.) or ^ho (Reinke, Stek.).
with
Du.
'p
LJifii.
]''
as in
a-'DiS]
(&.
Hap.
One ms.
9.
b'id]
($ Kal AWioirla.
^ H QI and Stei.,
Now., Hal., Marti, van H., Kau.,
it
better
c), Bu. {EB. 3262), Hal.,
Hap., Marti, van H., Stk., Kau., Kent.

with (& Kal
is
also a\
Stk.,
Kent.
'H Africa.
ntDiSs'^,
Or.,
Rub.
t^s
oid] (S
Marti,
om. nsp as a
of de R., a>iiS.
imr>'3]
(/.
4>vyT}^
'Câ^,
later
Rd.
Rd.
nnxj;]
c), Oort^-,
1*13
connecting
correction.
^'^X-l'l'
'^^^^
3'-"
&
so
oiJt^j;
poyidol
(6
and
357
We.,
Gr.,
Stei.,
in Ex. i8< Dt. 33",
lacj]
where
likewise used with
it is
& om.. iroi^]
<& alxiJ-dy>'ros.
3 is
'ty.
Beth essentiae as
10.
unnecessary; a vivid impf. lends variety to the description.
adds
in n
&.
n> __; so
Ges.
cf.
"
n J
^'73?J
05
'?;?i]
Accent probably due to rhythm.
Hpt.
Du. suggests the
where
text
but afford
is
Pi., y'
4?.
n\
Gr.
insertion of OJ.
<S
On
f.
d.
11% a by-form of
ni>.
Marti om. Sa; so

Only in Qr. of Ec. I2,
i K. 6*' Ez. 7'' Is. 4o'%
'j-Ssi]
^P^^^^]
Noun-forms occur
doubtful.
in
The
help, partly because of textual corruption.
little
n^n.
msin]
'j-Sa-Spi; so Stk., Du..
Also Ob. " Jo.
pp.
Du.
N\n]
Ho. io'<. Gr.

But the change is
(S idatpioOtriv; cf.
so We., Now., Marti, Hpt., van H., Stk., Du..
itTD-i;
Now.,
Or.,
Oort^"'-,
Marti, Dr., Hpt., van H., Stk., Kau., Kent, Du..
foil,
word here points clearly to the desired meaning. aîpi] Connected with
Assy, sinku from sanaku, bind fast' (Zimmem, KA T.^, 650).
is, perhaps, due to influence of : in o^por = oi;?:, like jcr, 'time' = Assy.
simdnu (Hpt.). 11. bj] Twice in this verse, apparently to balance the
r
double occurrence in
bly an error for
".
v.
ôhZ
nae'o]
&
ao^Z
Du.
('be drunken').
There
plicable jussive ;c/".
Dr.^'"
ing "mayest thou
be" (BDB.
s.
scarcely
is
('unhappy'), proba'"i^rn.
inn]
An
inex-
any basis for the render-
For the use of the impf. plus
v. aSj;).
the prtc. to express a continuing condition, v. Dr. ^"'-
^.
nnSyj]
An
from Ar. by Hpt., viz. guHya alayhi,

"a cover was put upon him," i. e. he swooned. <J6 vvepeoipanivi);
exact parallel of this idiom

lit.
Gr.
H.
so
rived either
^- S- 'li'?.
Dr.
nsSy;. (so
from ny or
except in 2 S.
cited
is
(?),
Du.) or noSyPD.
iijjd]
May
be de-
taken by the Massoretes from the
rry;
sa's,
Miyn.
latter,
Probably M. confuses two words
from these two roots; cf. Sta. "' and Brockelmann, Vergl. Gram. 195.
Here and in 1% it is better connected with ny, 'seek refuge'; contra Hpt..
(g ffriaiv.
H auxilium. Gr. Due (?). 2inc] <S pL. & 9 = ^3'>ND.
12. DijNP] & = 'n?.
ay] Rd. \'oy_, following Bu.'s suggestion of aoj
^
(on Ct. 4") ; so Marti, Now.'^, Hpt., Kent.

in
form was dropped by haplography;
some mss.
Kapwovs.
cum
so Hap..
Hpt.
initri,
on Mi.
grossis suis.
as a misplaced correction of ay in
'j3;
v.
v. ";
being very close to D
i^.
anisa]
13. ^Dy]
so Now.'^(?).
'they will destroy.'
mnc]
05 o-koxoiJs;
Om., with Marti,
aîrj]
(S
&
QP
Du. om. as a
cor-
IXin] 'x may be applied to the region under the

town {cf. i S. 9<- ^) as Hap. maintains here; but even so
the whole land might well be spoken of as belonging to Nineveh, the capi^niia] Mich, lini-ja, thy fugitives.'
ital.
14. ts'oa iNa] Cf. Assy. tUa
rupt variant of
's:.
control of a single
'
erebu (Hpt.), an exact equivalent in meaning. Gr. ^pn; so Now., van H.,
Stk.;
cf.
Je. 43',
Zc. io5.
if
ZAW. n,
text
-\cn2] <S iv
is
correct,
'::
dx^poa.
jaSn]
Only
in 2 S. i23> (Qr.); in
has a wholly different sense.
Hoffmann,
53-72 {cf. Dr. Heb. Text of Books of Samuel, 226 jf.), has made
the meaning 'brick-mould' almost certain, showing (i) that in post-Bib.
NAHUM
358
Heb. it designates primarily a brick-mould and then things of the

same rectangular shape, e. g. door-frames; (2) that the same twofold
usage characterises the Ar. and Syr. milban. The secondary meaning
The
applies in Je. 43'.
rendering
(though
sible in Je. 43'
usable here only

the wall.'
05
if
so Seb.,
vrip irXlvdov
note on Zp.
n^nxD to take
Hpt. 'annn.
nji.
is
posis
)l
nNVi
&
laterem.
('brick-mould');
15. oiy] Against temporal sense,
Gre. om. 'o and tr,

and connect 'n with pre-
pS-ia "]SoNn]
'^3
Kau.
so Now.',
some mss.
thy building.
Riedel {SK. 1903, pp. 166

of Kenn.;
<S Kal âpwd-fjaei; (^^^^
Gre. n33nni,
'lipn.
njaSa.
or
dj
'battle-axe');
Marti, van H., Stk..
Now.i
21
Du. and Kent om.
i33nn] Rd. 'lasrin, with
increased.
njaSn.
Hap.
place.
ceding 3in as subj..

Assy, kallaptu,
probably an error for
Hpt.
i'^.
its
which
wall,'
than 'court' or 'square'), but

'
Bernstein.
foil.
less suitable
the Hiph. of 'n be changed to a Pi'el, yielding repair
JT >^V/1V^ ('promise'),
V.
brick-kiln' of the earlier transla-
Hap. suggests 'brick
tors is out of the question.
/.),
n2S\i) t^Srn
Hal.
(?).
nSzi
{cf.
'nh.
so We., Now.', Oort^-,
-6-fi<T7j,
Gr. rrjajnn; so Hap..
# because thou hast

Riedel
(/.
c), napn.
Rub. (JQR. XI, 459) om. as variant. Van H. ''lasnn.

naann] (g om. this and foil, word (so Now., Hal.); but
&" and J have ir\7]6vv6r}T twy ^povxoi. &

and hast become numerous. Gre. om. as variant. Gr. nunn. Rub.
Hap. nânnn. Du. ''l^j.-in. naiN] To be taken, with
(/. c.) n3?nri.
HP.
23, 62, 87, 91, 147, 310,
]31_HWB.
from 3ivS (c/. Assy, dribu, iribu, eribH, 'a swarm of locusts')
with nominal affix, rather than from nan, with n prosthetic. Du. joins 'n3
with first word of v. '. 16. nâ-in] Rd, la-jn, with We., Now., GASm.,
126^
Marti, Hal., Dr., Stk., Kau.;
Du. main.
^rfain.
Kre.
T!:'73i.,
Gr.
pS']
lick';
cf.
Du.
'thy mercenaries.'
pSi3.
New. pn
u-jn.
yh2-\] C5 ras i/Miroplas aov.

âpi..
Ges. (Thesaurus)
but Hpt.'s proposal to
ally
it
et al.
'irn
Some
mss. of Kenn.
negotiationes tuas.
'aauc] Du. ncEn nu3.
connect with ppS, 'to lap,
with Ar. walaqa, which denotes a
'> thus becomes 'the leaper.'

Rub. (JQR. XI, 459), rts*?, 'anointer.' Gr. ro, 'fly iêTrerdadi]. Rub. (I. c), I^m, 'and conjurer.' Van H.
T?V^] D. f. dirimens; Ges. ^''''. We. connects with itdc,
'leaping gait' of the camel, seems better;

OB'd] (S up/Mtfo-ev.
ing.'
*!''>',]
ny']
^'^'
is no basis in the parallel terms San

any contemptuous epithet here. Nor is there any
Heb. for the interchange of d and I, even though Eth. does
'bastard,' as a by-form; but there
and
for supposing
IDS"::
analogy in
yield manzer.
Hpt
explains
execrate,' viz. Tlip.'J,
massaru
= manzaru,
lonian spelling in
'
'
it
as prtc. Pi'el of Assy, nazdru,
thy exorcists.'
guard
Nahum.
'
Zimmern connects
it
'
to curse,
with Assy.
but we should not expect such a Babyrendering given above makes no at-
The
to be specific, but is based upon the general sense of the Heb.

and upon the well-known predominance of the temple hierarchies
tempt
1TJ
in Assy..
custodes tui.
&
thy Nazirites (or consecrated ones).
(&'s
3""'
/fiJXaro
359
seems to be a second rendering of

unknown (Stek.). Rub.
n^'^ (v. '), 'd
in silence as
clerks
c.)
being passed over
Tini^Pj
(an Assy. loan- word, otherwise unknown).
'
Hap. laiyn
princes.'
K6.
(I.
II,
i,
90
i:"!;^!?;
mixed multitude
inj, 'thy
so Dr.(?).
incaji]
The
'
thy measuring-
Gr.
Assy. dupSarru, would be 'do.
ZDMG. XL,
No.
is
certainly justifiable,
sense of 'scribe'; but this
and
This
latter
word must be confined to the narrow

unnecessary in view of the Heb. analogies
the
if
is
related to
if
732, declares the rela-
tion to dupSarru suitable here, but wholly unsuited to Je. 51".
view
in terror.'
pointing 'aa in Je. 51"
only a dialectal variation; the more normal pointing,
is
'thy
^lôrn,
up
starts
of the influential position of the dupiarru in the
ters {v. s.)

't',
cf.
Dl.
cf.
Hebrew Language,
Tel-el-Amarna letFor the interchange of d and

*
it,.
the Sabaean n^> 'tablet,' in Glaser, 1053
und Abhandlungen, 141 Zimmern,

;
haps, like H's
parvuli
tui,
mainder being unknown.

as gloss. Hpt. "T'-^Ds-Ji.
et
ou
KA T.*, 400).
(& 6 ffvfifiiKTds <rov, per-
based upon the
and
syllable ô, the re-
first
those that strive for thee.
3ij3]
Rd.
''2ijd,
'
Hommel, Aufsdtze
{v.
om. 3U as
Hap. om.
with
dittog.
&
and Ore., New., We., Dav.(?), Rub., Now., Hap.,

Marti, Hal., Dr., van H., Stk., Kau.. Hpt. om. uu.
Gr. oua 3U.
3U is St.; taken by the earlier comm. as an intensive genitive, meaning
'the great locust'; so Or..
On root-meaning of "'au, v. H.^h. lezj cf.
wi
(g,
Earth,
6.Kpls;
so
NB. ^^^.
Brockelmann, Vergl. Gram. I,

with the nominal affix V-
the related root
Gr. Hj^nn; so Du..

is
mp dio]
nSi nni:i]
Kau.;
Hpt. om. as
We..
cf.
The change
'"*.
n-ijinn]
piij]
(5 iyvu.
with Du., and
Mi.
For
2'.
n"? itiiji;
gloss.
25"',
But this change

means not merely
It
so Hap., Marti, van H., Stk.,
The form
is
Po. pf. active;
to pi. is unnecessary; the sg. of
>Mi;
ic^pn]
Now.
DOipc;
to beginning of v.
>'.
T'N with the pf., v. 2 S. i''
<g oiiai airoh.
Marti, iS
tr.
from
np3(?); so Hpt..
pS''
nanx
Sta.
cf.
>aij,
the
which is not in close proximity.

so Hap. et al.. d^n] Rd. tj^n,
collective nouns, prevails over the pi. prtc.
it
(g iiriê^rjKvia.
but 'on a cold day' or 'in cold weather.'
Now.
nn-ija] (6 sg..
We. D"n
unnecessary; the phrase recurs in Pr.
'in the cool of the day,'
p. 412, derives
3ij,
For confusion of a and D, v. on

9I8;
Je. 2
cf. na^x. La. i 2' 4'- '.
Am. om. as gloss; so Hap., Hpt. Gr. in.s; so Hal..

soNow.^, Stk., Kent. 18. icj] (5 iiniffraâv. CB. iDJ.
yy^] Rd. this and the foil, suffixes in the fem., since the address thus far
has been to the city of Nineveh; so Am., Marti, Hap., Now.k Hpt., Stk.,
Kau., Kent. uas"] Rd. lac*;; so We., Oort, GASm., Hal., Dr., Hpt.,
Stk.,
so
Kent, Du..
awkward here
(& iKolfudep, wiih 'king of Assy.' as its subj..
that
inserted later into
its text,
'
the original rendering having been something
like iKoiii-fidr](Tav ol dwdo-rai aou.
some form
of aaa',
related vb. Komiu.
(Sis
Hap. shrewdly surmises that king of Assy.' was
which
is
In Ju.
Koiixlû) is usually the
also rendered
i6',
much more
equivalent of
frequently bv the
however, Koindû represents the Pi 'el of
NAHUM
360
]Z'-<
and
Koi/xdo)
renders the
same
erence here must be given to

in
any case unusual.
BDB.,
Stt.;
The impf
connection with ns, 'skip about,'

Syr.
K. 221^19.
Hpt., Kau..
133^'^
& thy neighbours.
Hal., Dr., Now.'^, Hpt., Stk., Kau..
this context.
I
T"mt<]
On
vb. several times.
jc".
is
the whole, pref-
between the two pfs. is

wdj] Rd. ixsj; soGr.,
(6 diTTjpev.
possible,
H lalilavit.
and Aram, ciij, 'remain behind,* is little better. Cf.

Rd. r^7î, with (&, ta<n^ so We., Dr., Now.k
n7\-:]
& one who grieves ;
meanings obtainable from

ther of which
is
17" and, as a
vb.,
applicable to a
Ho. 5".
so
21.
this root are
wound
ohscura.
'2 is
" " "'
'^''-
''
"
{contra
n'^nj] (& i(f>\i'yiMvev.
'* *^"
Stk. " "
Slit. ;
the only
'dimness' and 'quenching,' nei-
van H.).
For
^''-
'j,
v. Pr.
"iinn] ($ bikiravrbs.
Attempts have been made to improve upon the order of

jjpt.
m'fij is
but hardly suitable in
" " " "
w.
i'-'9*
'-"; e
g.
while Du.
would place " between " and '^' and drop " as a gloss. The improvement is hard to discover. For example, " follows " no better than
" does, while the fact that both mention Tinxan is a very insufficient
reason for bringing " and " into juxtaposition. iM's position for "
could not well be improved, constituting as
it
does a proper climax.
INDEXES TO MICAH, ZEPHANIAH
AND NAHUM.
INDEX
362
II.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
Elkoshite, 286/.
ACHZIB, 48.
Acrostic, 295
306, 309, 327.
_^.,
Adullam, 49.
Apocalypse of Zephaniah, 166.
Ashdod, 216.
Asherim, 114/.
Ashurbanipal, 159 JTm 344.
Assonance, 113, 210, 215, 224, 298,
328, 332.
Assuan Papyri,
51, 68, 84, 86, 93,
96, 189, 192, 245, 356.
Ethiopia, 232, 343/.
Excavations, 205, 319, 348/.
Faith, 68,
Gates,
of Jerusalem, 198/.; of the
land, 347; of the rivers, 318/.,
330 /
Gath, 45, 50, 216.
Genealogy, 182 /.
Assyria, 107, 108, 159/., 277,
337/
Gilgal, 123.
Assyrian inscriptions, 115, 184, 192,

201, 205. 215, 245, 312, 317, 323,
Hammurabi, code
330. 336, 339, 344 /, 347. 349,
Haplography,
352/.
Atheism, 202.
5,
of, 52,
143.
108, 357.
xlendiadys, 63.
Herodotus, 162/., 170/., 206, 216,

277, 335Holiness Code, 125.
Baalism, 186/.
Babylon, 92.
Huldah, 169.
Babylonian inscriptions, 337.

Baca, 45.
Human
Beth Ephrathah, 102.

Bethlehem, 103.
Jackals, 38.
sacrifice, 126.
Jericho, 205.
Jerusalem, destruction
Captives, treatment
of, 38,
339,
of, 25.
Josephus, 200, 313.
Coinage, 200/.
Crete,
Lachish, 46.
216/.
Criticism, of Micah, 9-16; of

26?) ff.; of
Nahum,
Locust, 350, 352.
Zephaniah, 172/.
Cruelty, 335/.
Manasseh,
Cyaxares, 163, 170, 276.
Mareshah, 49, 52.

Maroth, 46, 51.
Day
of
Yahweh,
24, 142, 169, 179,
194/
124, 126, 161/.
Masseboth, 114, 115.
Messiah, 104, 108.
Diaspora, no, 150.
Milcom, 189/.
Dirge, 41, 58, 64.
Moab, 225/.
Moabite Stone, 95, 96, 215, 356.
Monotheism, 179/.
Dittography,
5,
42, 43, 44, 51, 54, 55,
65, 66, 67, 102, 119, 130, 149, 192,
210, 2x8, 236, 254, 294, 307, 328,
Moresheth,
355, 356, 359-
Mourning customs,
17, 48.
100.
INDEX
Nabonidus,
Salt-pits, 237.
164.
Name, power
363
Samaria,
of divine, 248.
Necho, 165.
fall of,
20, 37, 39.
Scythians, 162 /., 169
Niinrod, 109.
ff.,
178, 230,
232, 276.
Nineveh, 163/., 274/., 318/.
Shamash-shum-ukin, 160/., 275.
No-Amon, 340/.
Shaphir, 45.
Shear Jashub, 105.
Ophrah,
Sinjirli, inscriptions of,
50.
215.
Sun-worship, 188.
Phaestos Disk,
Philistines,
Superscriptions, 19, 30/., 284/.
217.
216/.
Poetic form, of Micah, t
hum, 270
ff.;
of
ff.;
of
Na-
Zephaniah,
174/.
Taharka,
159.
Thebes, i59#., 274, 276, 340/., 356.
Thomas
of Celano, 204.
Political parties, 21.
Threshold, 197 /.
Priestly Code, 125.
Umman-manda,
Puns, 42.
164.
Urartu, 194, 220.
Put, 249, 343 /.

Q'lna, 53, 145, 151, 229, 235.
Remnant, hi.
Righteousness, 214,
Water supply of Nineveh, 348.

Weights and measures, 133.
Xenophon,
Zaanan, 46
165, 23s, 348.
COMMENTARY
ON
HABAKKUK
BY
WILLIAM HAYES WARD,
D.D., LL.D.
INTRODUCTION.
AUTHORSHIP AND DATE.
History and tradition give us no reliable facts as to the personality or
we
age of Habakkuk, so that
evidence for our conclusions.

nects his
name with
Peiser,
are left entirely to internal
MVAG.,
name
Assyrian hambakuku,
viii,
p. 5 sq.,
con-
of a garden plant,
and finds in his use of words in 2^ evidence that he was trained at

Nineveh in Assyrian learning, perhaps a captive prince; but this
is
as
We
pure imagination.
we have
part of
it,
the
third chapter
as by
its
know
that the book, substantially

early
enough
to
form a
The
second collection of sacred writings, called
Prophets, and that
The
only
was composed or compiled
antedated the editing of the Hagiographa.
it
is
indicated by
its title
and
its
colophon, as well
character and by a passage duplicated in Ps. 77, to be a
psalm, perhaps taken from a psalm-book, and does not appear to
be genetically connected with the
first
two chapters, although
3^
and of JTi^D
article, are
for Israel in 3",
as-
The
use of m'^N in
and the almost
total loss of the
signed by the editor to the same author.
The
Habakkuk is found in the question,
"wrong-doers," the Cl^l^ against whom the proph-
mentioned by Budde as proofs of a
late origin.
chief diflSculty in the study of
Who
ecy
are the
is
directed?
ans will be
It is distinctly stated in i^"" that the
summoned
Chalde-
as Yahweh's ministers of correction.
This
puts the date of this passage at a time shortly before the capture of
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and in the reign of Jehoiakim.
No
other date can be given to these verses, imless i^"" be regarded
as a dramatic representation of an earlier divine interposition for
punishment.
But
just as plainly i^^-z^^
eign oppressor.
In
i^
was written
after the cap-
Jews were under the yoke of a forj

the D'"l3'!i were to be pimished by the
ture of Jerusalem, while the
HABAKKUK
coming of the Chaldeans;
in
they are the foreign and idola-
i^^
trous oppressors themselves.
This inconsistency has led some scholars, as Giesebrecht and

Wellhausen, to throw out
i^"" as
an
earlier prophetic
which has been intruded here; while Budde puts
it
fragment
Ewald
up to 2*.
Habakkuk's
after
2*.
regards the present order as correct and the text genuine
Budde
a curious explanation, supposing that
offers
prophecy
is
who
directed against the Assyrians of Josiah's time,
are about to be punished by the Babylonians.
The language
foreign invader.
wrong, ^DJ?
As a
result
It is in this
of complaint in
i^"^
There are people
makes no mention
of a
guilty of DDPI violence,
JIS
and pID contention.

the HIIH Law is paralysed and tSStl'D justice fails.
way that native oppression and not a foreign invader
trouble, Tt^ pillage, î"! strife,
would be described. Then follows in w. ^'^ a description of the

Chaldeans whose invasion would be a pimishment for such sins.
The transition from the complaint of the prophet to Yahweh's
answer is not unusually abrupt, although the latter has no such
formal introduction as in 2^. Yahweh's answer is addressed to
the Clil^ (D''1i;3) who will not believe it, an expression naturally applicable to those who have some faith in Yahweh.
In
v. ^ the
Chaldeans are about to be raised up; but they are well
known and
They have been
well characterised.
in the habit of
gathering captives (v.) and conquering cities (v.").

internal reason for separating vv. ^'^
no
^- ^)
wicked Jews (w.
of the
attack of the Chaldeans
Carchemish, 605
about 600
we
B.C.,
B.C.,
from
w. ^'*.
are to be punished
(v.).
and the
The time
first
is
There
The
is
crimes
by the impending
between the
battle of
Captivity, 597 B.C.,
and so
or during the reign of Jehoiakim, unless (Kuenen)
take vv. ^'^ as written after the event dramatically described
as future.
In
Thus
i^^'" the
far nothing implies a condition of captivity.
condition changes.
The
oppressions of the wicked
and the complaint is against the invader, who

gathers captives Hke fishes in a net. This must have been written after the first Captivity. Were the last half of v. ^^ genuine it
would closely connect the second complaint with the preceding
Jews are
forgotten,
v."; but
it is
out of place, answering a question asked in the next
AUTHORSHIP AND DATE

The
verse.
(^^^<
my God
back
of v."', however, seems to refer
by way of contrast; and

and 'Q>^T\'2 evil-doers oi \.^^
corresponding words in w. ^"^; and the sacri-
his god of v."
the ^DJ?
to the
iri^N
wrong,
yti'l wicked, p'^^ righteous,
seem an echo of
fices of V. ^ seem to refer to the sacrifices which an emendation
finds in v. ".
But the wicked one of vv. ^*'" is a foreign invader,
different
person
from the wicked one of vv. ^"*.
a
In the reply of
Yahweh
(2^^) a foreign foe
the Assyrian power, or the Babylonian
nezzar.
described, such as
is
kingdom
of
Nebuchad-
single clause, "All the rest of the peoples shall spoil
thee," brings a slight support to Budde's theory that
we have here
it was
a prophecy of the overthrow of the Assyrians, inasmuch as
by such a league that the Assyrian power was destroyed.

have not a poetic form; the vision written on a
began with
v. *
and seems
first
malediction.
tion
(w.
^-
'')
to continue
The "parable"
of the Babylonian
The data
is
v.
*,
power under the
was
found in v.^ as a
to
first
embracing the
figure of
a usurer;
be inexpHcable to him,
definite
prophecy of
given above strictly interpreted would
that i^'", containing the
^' ^
of v. is found in the descrip-
the "interpretation" nX''^D, which
niTTI "a riddle,"
through
Vv.
tablet, therefore,
make
it
ruin.
appear
complaint and Yahweh's answer,
belongs to the period of Jehoiakim.
With v." begins a second
complaint, with Yahweh's answer, modelled on or closely related

to the earher prophecy,
and copying
its
expressions, but referring
Babylonian power
to a later period during the Captivity, while the
was approaching
There
its fall.
the order of the verses
is
thus no need of dislocating
by dropping i^", and uniting the two com-
plaints into one.

It is possible to
we have
escape the conclusion that
here a
composite by two authors of different dates, by assuming a dramatic form to these chapters.
considering the evils of his
them
not impossible that the prophet,

day, discovers the occasion for
in the divine retribution for the sins of
thus defends the justice of

ity,
It is
own
God
in bringing the
because of the oppression and disregard of the
cestors;
sors.
but
now he
appeals to
Yahweh
He
the people.
Jews
into captiv-
Law
by
his an-
new oppresthe drama the
against the
This possible view gives us two scenes
in
HABAKKUK
one (i"0 retrospective and introductory, while the other
(i^'-2')
pleads against the continuance of the present distress.
So long as the word Chaldean

compelled to refer
by a very
is
Chaldeans to
and
*l]2iD
and
eastward,
CTlS
translates,
makes
Greeks,
To do
and
From Gomer
Duhm may
While
It
the prophet
he has
this
in i^ he changes
their direction is
an absolute proof that
finds thus
Chaldean invasion.
one
Duhm
coming invasion of Alexander.
D"'"rti'D
to
ni2JlI3
remains unchallenged we are
fr^pjprtnrp that
IjaiPiarr'""''
refer to the
changed
(v. ")
this section to the period of the Captivity.
was no
this
be right in assuming but
writer, his textual evidence is inconclusive as to date.
The
of the five maledictions of ch. 2
first
closely connected
is
with Yahweh's preceding answer.
The second
no
but
logical connection with the
first,
is
malediction has
closely connected with
the third, which contains the utterance of the j^X stone and the
D''SD brace (v.").
them
direct,
brings
down
But the
third contains three quotations,
8*
from Mi.
Je. 51^^
and
11^.
Is.
two of
This probably
and third maledictions

Maccabean period; and to a similar date we
fourth and fifth maledictions.
the date of both the second
nearly or quite to the
may
assign the
The
third chapter
worship, and
we owe
may
I ^^-2^.
is
It
a separate production, arranged for temple
may
or
not be by one of the authors to
whom
belongs to a troubled period following the
Captivity but contains no definite indications of

It takes v.
quotations.
22^
(Ps. 18^^,
which in turn
is
have a close relation with Ps.

later production.
In
Habakkuk
Ps. 77 a third line has been
ment
its age beyond its

and v. ^ is based on 2 S.
taken from Dt. t,^^. Vv. Ô- " ^^
77"'^"; but here the psalm is the
from Dt.
Habakkuk
these lines are in couplets; in
added
differs in this triple structure
33^;
to
each couplet, and the frag-
from the
rest of the
psalm.
In
they belong to a song of vengeance; in Ps. 77 to a song
of reminiscent triumph.
In
Habakkuk
there
is
no reference
to
past history; while in Ps. 77 these verses are inserted in the midst
of an account of the victories of the Exodus.
Logically
lows
V.
^^.
cede them.
3^^
should follow
Either vv.
^"
v. ", precisely
as in Ps. 77
are a later insertion, or v.
'^
v. ' fol-
should pre-
TOPICAL ANALYSIS
TOPICAL ANALYSIS.
Oracle begins with the complaint of Israel personated by
i^"*; followed by the response of Yah weh,
The
the^
prophet, occupying
embracing
w.
*"".
In these eleven /Verses the wrong-doer
is
to
be punished by the invasion of the Chaldeans, and therefore he

This puts the date
is the viicked Jewish court and princes.
about 600
With
the reign of Jehoiakim.
B.C., in
v.
" begins a
second complaint against the foreign heathen oppressor, here necThis

essarily the Babylonians themselves, concluding with 2^
must be
have
v. ^;
later
than the time of Jehoiakim, as the Babylonians
now made
and
period.
this
Yahweh's response begins with
their invasion.
and
It is to
v. '
announce the vision
to
be
fulfilled at
a later
be preserved legibly written on clay tablets of
the Babylonian style,
and
consists of
two
parts,
one about the
preservation of the righteous, and the other the overthrow of the
The prophet has not made it quite clear

where the inscribed vision ends. Indeed he seems to have continued the last part, that about the wrong-doer, into the first
wicked oppressor.
malediction.
The second and
third maledictions are too closely
connected together to be separated; but the third contains three

quotations from as
later
to
than the
first
many
other prophets, and must therefore be
malediction; and the fourth and
fifth also
seem
belong to a period considerably later than the Babylonian
Captivity.
The
third chapter
temple worship, and

the second chapter.
sume
that
intended for musical recitation in the
is
may
well be of the period of the last part of
may
pre-
editor of the
first
Being assigned to Habakkuk, we
Habakkuk was
two chapters, and may
the last compiler
and
have been the author of the last part of
the second chapter.

It is impossible in translation to
reproduce the abounding
allit-
erations of the original, or the prevailing poetic measure, consist-
ing of three principal words in a
line.
COMMENTARY.
THE ORACLE.
V. The Oracle which Habakkuk
verse
is
probably a later editorial
the prophet did see.
THE COMPLAINT.
.
*.
*.
This
title.
How
long,
Must
I cry to thee, "Violence"!
!<.
and thou hearest not,

and thou savest not?
Why dost thou show me wretchedness and trouble?
And pillage and violence are before me;
And there is strife, and contention ariseth.
Therefore the law is benumbed.
And judgment goeth forth no more.
Yahweh, must
I call,
[For the wicked circumventeth the righteous; therefore justice goeth forth
perverted.]
2-4.
The
conditions in these verses are plainly not those of
The law in v.
war, but of domestic oppression.
but
the religious institutions,
line.
of V.
When
* is
coupled with ^QJ?, |"l^s means trouble.

not rhythmic, and is a marginal gloss.
elucidate the
ment
* is
second member
not the Torah,
corresponding to justice in the next
of the couplet, but
The
It is
it is
latter part
meant
to
a weak state-
that the perversion of justice consists in circumventing the
righteous.
THE RESPONSE,
is".
6.
Look, ye wrong-doers, and behold, and be greatly amazed; for I am
about to do a work in your days which ye will not believe though it be told
you. . For,
Behold I raise up the Chaldeans,
'.
That violent and vehement nation.

Which marcheth along the far regions
To hold the homes that are not his.
Dreadful and terrible is he;
From him judgment goeth forth.
8
of the earth
THE ORACLE
/
And swifter than leopards are his horses,

And fiercer than evening wolves.
And his horsemen spread from afar;
And they fly like an eagle eager for food.
AU his host is bent on violence,
[Untranslatable intrusion]
And he gathereth his captives like sand.

And he it is that scoffeth at kings.
And rulers are his derision.
He it is that derideth every fortress,
And he heapeth up earth and taketh it.
Then his purpose changeth and he passeth
And setteth up his altar to his god.
along,
This verse introduces the rhythmical response which
6.
The
lows.
corrupt
doers as in V.
Among the nations is easily corrected
to
fol-
wrong-
Their amazement implies that the oppressive
^^.
rulers in the time of
Jehoiakim depended on Egypt to protect
them against the Chaldeans.
7.
By
omitting the word dignity
The
who pay
(RV.) we keep both the thought and the trimeter measure.
meaning
is
that they are a self-willed, ambitious people,
no respect
please.
8.
to justice, rights ordinarily accepted,
The
third
but do as they
member must be emended by
the repeated horsemen, but even so the translation
9.
is
The second member must be
a corrupt intrusion;
of a lost couplet.
pronoim
in both couplets
11
10.
not clear.
given up as untranslatable.
or, possibly, represents the
member
eliminating
is
The emphatic
must be observed
It
remnant of a
position of the
in translation.
This verse has suffered much in transcription and was not
understood by
(5,
and RV.
The
clause "
gives the reader the choice of several

guilty " is
weak and meaningsecond member, as

we must, the present text of the first member must read, as in
RV., Thus sliall he sweep by as a wind and pass over, which gives a
fair sense.
But we had better follow a number of mss. which are
of great value in ch. 3 and read his spirit in place of ivind. We
translations.
less.
If
we
transfer the
and
is
Hebrew word
to the
then have the statement that the Chaldean, having accomplished
one
siege, turns to
new
purpose, as
judgment goeth forth from himself.

lar use of the verb.
we were
told in v.
"^
that his
Cf. Jb. 9^^ Ct. 2" for the simi-
The second member
gives
no
suitable
mean-
HABAKKXIK
lO
ing and
is
probably past reconstruction.
the original text contained the
word
It is
most probable that
for sacrifice or altar, in place
of this his strength, which requires the change of
two emendations suggested, the
first
Of
to i.
the
retains DK^S, with the sense
he offers a propitiatory sacrifice to his god.

2ji9. 24. 50 j.|jg^|. g^jjgj.
We
Nu.
learn from
^ battle the soldiers were ceremonially un-
clean, through having touched the dead,
The same custom
for purification.
where Saul saves Amalekite
is
and
ofifered sacrifices
referred to in
In
Yah-weh.
cattle to sacrifice to
was ceremonially lawful
rabbinic times everything
to
"
S. i5*^'
an army in
war, and they could even break the Sabbath or eat swine's
flesh,
and the Talmud is puzzled over the need of purification in Nu.

But it is preferable to change Ut*\^ to Dt'' and read he
31.
The altar would not be built, but
setteth up his altar to his god.
set up, as in war the king would use such a portable altar as is
The reading proposed assumes
often figured on the monuments.
a second D after
required for
just as in the first
QB'"',
member a second
is
*1
iriTl.
iinp\îreiv Ta\aiTuplav, reading ^tJ't213^.

and
<j|
So
requires
pradam. & seems to read aoN. The text of
a Hiph. sense which the word never has. It is redundant, suggested
Niy is superfluous, but was a necesperhaps by v. "; cf. Nu. 23^1.
and 9.
sary addition when pin became jna, (J5 KptT'^s, followed by
The third member in this verse suggests that a fourth has been lost. 4.
nxjS.
The desired antithesis to Spyn in the early gloss which completes the verse has compelled Vrss. and com. to give nxj the impossible
meaning of sincerity. So Ra., Ges., de W., Ew. Suggested emenda3.
tsnn
videre
tions are njjS
and mjS,
and
n'D3D; but in Ju. 20"
compassing with purpose
M "itoe.
(8 KaraSwaareiei.
We.
suggests
Ps. 22'' nna has the sense of assaihng, or en-
to destroy.
nn^D would be too strong a word,
as these are domestic enemies.

5.
DMJ3
after v.
is
to
be corrected to onja; so
M
2K
" and 2K
to innnDnm,
cf.
innn innnni to be
For
6.
<S
&
and
critics generally,
corrected after We.,
>3n-\c rd. \"imD, after Is. 8'.
et
M
7.
al.,
in-
which injures the measure and obscures the contrast with

LJDZ'D nx:S NX> nSi, cf. V. *.
The Copt, omits it, probably following an
serts iPNCi,
earlier (8.
8.
it
For
inNiri lOfla'D rd. ntt^y
inserts VB'-ici
to provide
by
dittog. before
a predicate.
dbcd, destruction,
cf.
pimn, and then adds
La.
3*'.
iNa' after
(B kuI iînirdirovTai. ol lirireii Kal Spfi-âotn-at
THE ORACLE
fuLKpSdep,
probably omitting is3\
a gloss.
Rd.
by
clause inserted
fitness
and
translate
1BN1 for
'\Dt<\
Ew. and
St.
omit
inji
pimo
So &.
(8 Kal -ireracrdTâoi'rai.
apparently an untranslatable intrusion.
is
vw-\D^ as
9.
The
riDnp Dn>jD pdjd, interrupts the parallel, lacks
avdeffTtjKdTas Trpoffdiirois
it,
II
avrdv i^ ivavrlai.
11.
(8 could not
iSJ
nn, better
Several important mss. (HP., 62, 86, 147 and others) give TrveO/ta
inn.
airoO.
in3
it
to be corrected
de'ni yields no reasonable sense and is corrupt.

It is
by some form of the 1/ njr such as inS^S nar db'ni or
inSw'? inatD otPM, c/. v. ".
SECOND COMPLAINT.
".
1*.
'.
".
Art not thou, Yahweh, from of old?

Thou, my God, my Holy One, diest not.
[Yahweh, for judgment hast thou appointed him,
And, O Rock, for reproof hast thou established him.]
Why dost thou look on the wrong-doers,
Art silent when the wicked consumeth the righteous?
And thou makest men like the fish of the sea,
Like swarms that have no ruler?
All of them he sweepeth into his net.
And gathereth them into his seine;
[Therefore he rejoiceth and is glad.]
Therefore he sacrificeth to his net,
And
burneth incense to his seine;
For by them
And
'.
12.
The
his
food
is
parallelism requires
We
plaint which
shall not die, of
it
is
fat
dainty.
empty
his net.
spare not to slay nations?
and
trusion quite out of place
Thou diest not, in place of

The second couplet is an
M-
anticipates the answer to the
the
in-
com-
It was added to explain God's provM, has The wicked consumeth him who is
interrupts.
So We.
idence.
his portion
Shall he therefore ever
And
irrelevant
l2-"
13.
more righteous than himself, instead of simply the righteous. It

was an added gloss because it was not thought that one fully
righteous could be swallowed
seems
to
be that God,
up by the wicked.
who has
14.
a providence for
The
men who
sense
serve
him, appears to treat them no better than the lower animals to
which he pays no attention, leaving them

of nature.
The thought
is
to the accidents
the reverse of that of Jesus,
clared the sparrows to be under God's care.
15.
and
fates
who
de-
This verse has
HABAKKUK
12
an extra member, omitted

omission of
lifteth
in
a class of mss. and not needed.
The
with his hook not only corrects the metre but
relieves the figure, as the
Chaldean army could hardly be compared
He
an angler with a hook.
them
swarms (v. ") and

sacrifices to his net and seine
16. It is not meant that the
Chaldeans literally sacrificed and burnt incense to their net and
seine.
This simply carries on the figure. The sacrifice was to
the gods of war such as Marduk and Adad and Ishtar.
to
catches
(v, ^).
in
THE WATCH FOR YAHWEH'S ANSWER.

I will stand
upon
my
post
And station myself on a tower;

And I will look out to see what
And what answer he will return
The
2.
he will say to me,

to
my
complaint.
is more elabmore formally introduced. The first complaint was against native oppression, and
the response threatened their pimishment by the Chaldean conquest.
The second complaint is against these Chaldean conquerors, and so is later, unless we may regard i*'" as a dramatic
response to the prophet's second complaint
orate than that to the
first
complaint, and
is
retrospect, explaining the subject condition of the Jewish people.
One may
prefer the reading rock to tower, following the Vrss.,
but the longer Î^D
is
probably genuine and more musically
matches ""n^lDtyD by the latent paronomasia which the prophet
much
affects.
12.
niDJ noted by Mas. as tikkun sopherim.
21 interprets as nS
men, so Ra., Ew., Kue., No., et al. 13.
udd omitted by (S&. For
m imD'
imDi, koI eirXaa^v
(S rd.
/xe
toO 'eX^yxîv Taidelav dvrov, giving
14.
15.
The
irreg-
ular metre can be restored by the omission of nSyn nana, which
is in-
nis the
Aram, sense
of form, fashion.
Rd. nryn].
appropriate, as the Chaldean captures were wholesale,
no
sacrifice to the hook.
tioned in V. ".
17.
For
belongs to this member.
M
M p hyn Gie.
S^Jî ncif'
p hjj
is
and
there
is
omitted In mss. men-
and We. read nSiyn, but ^^D^

For io-\n they read tain, as does Copt, and
^\^'^2n^
more poetic to continue the figure.
one ms. of <S but it is

S'yrh.
So (6 3, but & divides the members after n>Dn, omitting the
This makes two equal members, and allows Sicn'' nS to denote
conj.
Sisni to h-\n\
continuance, parallel to T'on, We. changes
;
THE ORACLE
2'.
those
et's
who
3''B'N.
But the par^, reading -nx.
would mean, What answer I shall return to
S. 24"; but there is no indication of the proph-
<& irirpav, so
11XC.
requires
allel
13
3''B'\
sent me,
ffl
cf.
&, Brd., We., Oort,
representative character.
YAHWEH'S DIRECTION.
* '.
on
it
and
for
^^v\
2-'.
And Yahweh answered me and said: "Write the vision and engrave
one may read it readily. For the vision is only for a set time,
tablets, that
ripening toward
is
it,
for
The
2.
et al., id.
and were
it
will surely
tablets
to
were
its
conclusion,
come;
it
will
and
it
will not fail.
If
it
linger wait
Behold:"
not delay.
like those of Babylonia, of clay, not of
wax,
be preserved during the years that should elapse
before the overthrow of the Babylonian power.
They were
to
be written distinctly for public knowledge and encouragement.
The
use of tablets imphes that the prophecy was written in Baby-
lonia.
V. *
It
was a
roll
which Isaiah took in 8\
3.
This verse and
are directed to the encouragement of the captive Jews in their
patient assurance of the divine faithfulness.

for, the sign of direct discourse, as in
But
begin here.
this is
*.
Budde makes '2,

and the oracle
^'',
not clear.
THE ORACLE.
The
And
Is. 9^*'
2-.
upright [shall rest] his soul in me;

the righteous shall live in
my
faithfulness.
And abo:
As with wine
He
the wrong-doer vaunteth.
hath more than enough, but
Who
is
not
filled;
enlargeth his desire like Shed,
And
like Death he is not sated;

But gathereth to him all the nations,
And heapeth to him all the peoples.
We
have
in these verses
ful righteous is told that
of Israel
is faithful
a double consolation.
to his covenant; in v.
the oppressing nation which

4. This verse
is
is
Hebrew
text,
v. *
the faith-
God
the thought turns to
to be visited with maledictions.
one of two which Paul depended on for the
doctrine of justification by faith, following the
ent
In
he shall be preserved, because the
meaning of the
which should probably be corrected
pres-
after C.
HABAKKUK
14
The
first
member
no
of the verse gives
but must have g^ven
sense,
a sense like that of the second member.
And
5.
The
also is not part of the poetic measiire.
three
couplets explain the occasion for the maledictions that follow, in
The corrupt first couplet

The word wine, which must be
the greed of the Chaldean ambition.
must be restored
conjecturally.
and the
retained, gives the key to the emendation,

lets
filled
is
The
correspond to each other.

with wine and
Death who
like
There
still
unsatisfied,
and
he
in the next couplet
ever greedy and never has food enough.
is
here a partial quotation from
is
two coup-
first
oppressor boasts like one
Is.
Shed
5", Therefore
en-
largeth her desire.
3.
M.
(& dvareXei,
nisî,
ypn.
Seb.
tains
emends
but reads
nD''i,
Brd.,
for
"ly.
apparebit.
yev.
to
appears to have read n3M
We. and Oort read

"WJ,
and
translates,
Ehr. re-
niQii.
The
vision shall
and no^^ are

and proclaim to the end; as
6" 12" 14^ xg^- % although mispointed
and 40 mss. collated by Kenn.
(B> S> 31 (S
bear witness for time to come,
"yy,,
thus connected in Ps. 27'2Pr.

n^DV in Pr.
M.
'\r\n->
and de R. read
nSi.
nh.
4.
The
member
of this couplet
(& iav i/troffTeiKrjTai ovk eidoKei
past safe reconstruction.

iv airifi, reading ^Sp^ \n
first
and
'tfoj.
is
corrupt
^vx"^
i]
IJ-ov
non erit
from mjiDNJ
Ecce qui incredulus
est,
meaning nSflj;
member. & read (or heard, Sebok) nSiy for nSo]?.
Br. and Bu. emend iVpn for nSay njn, and suppose (& to have read
t]^y ]n.
We. emends S-i3;n for nSsy, The emendation iSyjn is inaprecta
anima
ejus in semetipso, guessing at the
in the corresponding
propriate, as
tatise,
That
in
it
introduces a fainting, discouraged Jew, ready to apos-
neither piix nor ijn, of

is
Heb.
rather a
lo'^
NT.
from
whom
nothing
is
said before or after.
and accordingly this passage is quoted

The parallel demands a statement encouraging
thought,
(S.
the faithful to expect deliverance.
Probably
lE'j is
concealed in nisr^
corresponding to pns in the next member, and the original text had
some such meaning as The upright shall stay his soul or

his soul (Am. 2); or, possibly, by transposition, u vt^Dl nB'>
injiDNJ.
($ iK Trio-red)^ fiov
^njiDN3.
But
5.
(lov
By common
corrupt.
(6
Karoivo'iixevos.
eiiirpayriffei
so
We
or
omitted in
decorahitur.
must
The
critics
by
r''n
first
eiirop'fiaei,
i]hyi
n?.
which gives the probably correct

mss. noted above, and in Gal. 3".
j^T^fferai,
consent of
translates
shall deliver
correct
the
couplet of this
first
probably
verse
is
probably a mistake for
Karoio/x^vas,
nu' to
ni-c,
so
We.
ihpaiudi^crerai, as
corresponding ^2^1 nSi in next
if
<S vepdvn,
from
member
nixj;
certifies
THE MALEDICTIONS
in turn requires ]" to be retained, as in all Vrss., although
and
nn^,
by textual
rejected
We.
12 f|Ki.
]i'<r\
Jin.
second
member
wine (Zech.
9"
and
10')
is
if
concealed in j^n;
we read
^VD (old form nns) as with

For the impossible i^n'> rd.
]>>
vocalise laa.
The two
l^n^ (i>nv) or iin\
couplets ending with
one making the ijn insatiable
parallel,
other in eating.
mh
secured
is
and Bu. conjecture pto ddni for

Houtsma and Oort
required, and a sense better parallel to the
Br., Gie.
critics.
suspects
Less change
suggest
become
15
M
5.
yait"
'?i.
(6 omits conj.,
THE MALEDICTIONS.
6. Shall not they
riddle to him,
all
of
yas'''
which
thus
and
the
better.
is
2^20
them take up a parable against him,
meaning a
its
and say
FIRST MALEDICTION.
Wo
>.
and
r\)-î
in drinking
to
And
him who taketh usury
26b-*.
what
of
not his;
is
how
long!
presseth heavily the yoke of his pledge!
*.
Shall not they arise suddenly that exact usury of thee,
And they awake that shall oppress thee.

And thou shalt be their prey?
For as thou had spoiled many nations,
All the rest of the peoples shall spoil thee.
of
[For the blood of
men and
The
that dwell therein.]
city
6*.
RV. may be
its
interpretation
lated above
it
and
figure
the violence
done
to the land,
right in translating a taunting proverb instead
The meaning
riddle.
means
threats to be serious
what
all
is
not clear.
As
trans-
that the Chaldeans could not believe such
and dangerous. Ql^. This couplet (but not

mouth of the oppressed nations. The
follows) is put in the

is
RV.).
of one
The
who
oppresses with usury
oppression of this usurer
usury on what he has not
may be
right, in
lent.
it
such that he requires
Also in the second
which case the meaning
on himself pledges; but
(literally increaseth, as in
is
seems better
will be,
member
to regard the
burden of the
yoke (for on himself) to be borne by the oppressed.

perfectly evident that this couplet is out of place
way been
inserted
from
^''^,
That maketh heavy
8^. It is
and has
in
some
HABAKKUK
SECOND MALEDICTION.
Wo
to
him
that gaineth an evil gain to his house.
To set his nest in

To escape from
'.
".
9-10.
V.
a high place
the
hand
of evil.
Thou hast devised shame to thine own

Thou hast cut off many peoples,
And brought guilt on thine own self.
For the stone
And
shall cry out of the wall,
It is noticeable that these
One might
thought.
against
Edom
house;
the brace out of the timber shall answer
whose
think from
nest
v.
it
[and say]
have three members, as in
In each case the third member
''.
2-".
is
essential to develop the
that the
was in a high
place,
wo was
but
directed
v. ^"
with
repetition of the multiplied conquests applies the malediction

to the Chaldeans.
11.
The
figure of a stone
the oppressor's house prophesying
come
is
THIRD MALEDICTION.
Wo
And
>'.
".
it
does not
and we may suspect
naturally from the preceding verse;
*.
and a timber from
a violent one, ana
that this verse, with the next malediction,
its
still
is
a later addition.
2"-".
him 'that buildeth' a city 'by blood,'

foundeth a town 'by crime.'
to
Are not these the words of the Lord of hosts:

'And the people shall toil but for the fire,
And the nations weary themselves for nothing.'
'For the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the glory
of
Yahweh,
as the waters cover the sea.'
Here
is
a remarkable succession of quotations, definitely desig-
nated as such and depending on a previous collection of sacred

books.
We
can hardly doubt that
which introduces
this malediction,
the late addition of one
with v."
who was
not himan original and authoritative prophet, but a scribe. 12.

This passage from Mi. 3^" was addressed to the oppressive Jewish
it, is
self
rulers
who were
but
here applied to the Chaldean power under the figure of a
is
house.
13.
The
building Zion and Jerusalem by forced service,
first
sentence in this verse
is to
prose, to introduce a poetic quotation from Je.
be regarded as
5^^.
The
quota-
THE MALEDICTIONS
tion is not literal, but
ad sensum, and arranged for the trimeter
In this case the quotation
measure.
is
apposite, as Jeremiah's
was against Babylon. 14. The quotation from Is. ii^

not metrical, nor has it any particular bearing on the subject,
prediction
is
17
but
merely a pious reflection thrown in at hazard.
is
FOURTH MALEDICTION.
Wo to him that maketh his
".
neighbour drunk from the cup of thy wrath.
Even making them drunken, so as to look on nakedness.

[Thou art sated with shame for glory.]
Drink thou too, and show thy uncircumcision.
The cup of Yahweh's right hand shall come round to thee,
And shame upon thy glory.
For the violence done to Lebanon shall cover thee,
>.
".
And
The
The
The
been
2'6-'7.
the destruction of the cattle shall affright thee.
blood of
city
and
men and the violence done

all who dwell therein.
irregularity of the
metre in vv.
to the land,
*^"^
suggests that lines have
perhaps by the addition of the clauses /rom the cup
inflated,
of thy wrath, Even making them drunken and right hand.
The
wrath disagrees with his neighbour, but the
sufl&x in thy
tion to 2 pers. sg. agrees with v.
^.
For a similar use of the
15.
transi-
figure
shame of uncovered nakedness see Na. 3^. The story of

Noah's drunkenness, and the care to keep his body covered, is
of the
one of many cases in OT.
in which that sense of modesty is illusGreek writers say characterised the Persians, and
appears in Assyrian art, but is absent in Greek and
trated which
which also
Egyptian
as
it
art.
16.
The
omission of the
anticipates the cause of the
and repeats the
last
shame
member.
first
clause
in the next
Literally,
is
required,
two members,
be uncircumcised;
strong expression for show thyself uncircumcised, implying the
double shame of personal exposure and also uncircumcision.
17.
is
We
cannot be certain what particular invasion of an enemy
referred to.
From
the earhest times the conquerors cut the
timber of Lebanon, killed
its
cattle
and hunted its wild
beasts, as is
narrated by various kings both of Babylonia and Assyria.

is
There
progress in the description of ravage from the ruin of the for-
ests to the slaughter of the cities.
HABAKXUK
l8
FIFTH MALEDICTION.
2i8-m.
". [What is the profit of a graven image, that its maker hath graven
molten image and the teacher of lies, that its framer trusted in it to
dumb
1'.
to
To
the
And
him
that saith to the wood, 'Awake, arouse thyself 1'
dumb
it is
there
stone, 'It shall teach!'
overlaid with gold
is
no breath at
But Yahweh
Hush
The
all
and
silver,
within
it.
in his holy temple;
is
before him,
the earth!
all
entire malediction probably
comes from a
wrote long after the time of the Captivity.
and has no
idolatry
the
make
idols.]
Wo
Behold
*".
it,
later editor
It is
who
general against
special pertinency as against the oppressors.
Certainly the prosaic v.
^^
must be expunged.
crudely com-
It is
posed, and appears to be such an outbreak as a scribe might have

hastily jotted in the margin.
18.
The
expression, teacher of
lies,
applied to a molten image, seems to imply a certain residual belief
power
in a real
trusteth in
of heathen gods.
Literally, the framer of hisfram^
an inelegant redtmdancy.
it,
19.
Here
gives us
the true division.
Both wood and stone are given as materials
for idols, but
the
Very small
taken from
it is
wood
44^
Is.
sq.
20.
M nDNM,
6.
The
from the
It is likely that
service.
that
& have pi.
<S
is
overlaid with gold or silver.
The
have been found.
idols of gold
temple
is
expressions are
represented as in
last clause is
drawn Zp.
full
i^.
So We., who omits tid ny, but the vocal

it, as nann corresponds to n03D,
balance of the two members requires

also
iS
nS to
iSy,
Oort emends
Goeje, We.,
and >nD
i'?^.
et al.
It
8.
to BiBap.
nj;
The
last
<S t6v KXoibv
vhp.
couplet in this verse
has been intruded from
v.
',
rejected
is
but
is
a&roO.
by De
inappropriate
here as confusing the thought of an usurer with that of slaughter.

10.
We. remarks
that nixp
form, for M. nixp (5 has

cordingly
critics it
Nam must be
NOin
must be made
reading
corrected to nson.
nii{|-i.
13.
to correspond in
So
M, njn.
J&
2J.
Ac-
By consent of
should be pointed njn, to introduce the following quotations.
15. iMnflDD.
and a good
make
and
(TvveTrip(xva.s,
We. emends iPO
parallelism.
D a prep., but
The
fail to
after Zc. 12*.
This makes better sense
n was intruded by dittog.
understand noD.
Some
A ii iKircfxîus
Vrss.
(or iirip-
THE PSALM
piypiwi)
x^^^,
Tov dvarpoir^s
"'"'^
The
and 01.
and is omitted by <S i&
and represents rapid transition.
Na. 3'. This is suggested by (S's
the
first
ny3B'
pSpip to
read
i^ dTrpojSoKi}-
some difSculty,
S reads iavrov. But sf. is original
Dn>-(i;jD We. emends onn^D after
^nD^
suflBx of
offers
error ffir-^Xaia airuv.
16.
Either
or last clause of this verse should be expunged, perhaps both.
We. removes
ing
Origen's
x^""^*^* dvfiov <rov.
riji dpyiji ffov.
19
the
It
as yaif
]iSp,
words for drinking
and puts
clause,
first
to pattTi.
is
is
it
in place of the last, chang-
better to retain the last clause (changing
hardly the word to follow 013 in
in v. '^
For
'?ij'."i
v.
'
and the
C5 has kxI diaa-aXe^dTjTi,
do many commentajnin' makes no

makes better sense. 17.
tors; but the text of
sense.
^ vro-fiaei <re. So & and 21. Ew., Ols., We., Oort emend ^n1^^
'ma. The last couplet, to be dropped from v. ', seems required
here, with omission of the prep, which the connection required in v.
and was then intruded here. 18. This verse is not rhythmical and is
nij?.
an intruded gloss. St., We., et al., transpose vv. ' ". 19.
<S
and
KaiI)07]Ti.
also probably read Snjjm, as
rQ
t^ Xldcf) i)\p^dy)Ti, Kal

airb iffTiv (pavracrla. This gives a division of the members preferable
to that in M, although <S erroneously read ''on for Don, and hnid
(Read n-nj; for my to corre(as it did in v. 's) for niv (nmn in v. i^).
spond with njipn.) By putting Don and rnr in the same line we
get a fine antithesis, and nnv makes a paronomasia with nniy in the
oial 6 "Kiywv
î^Xy
eKVTjfop, iêyipdTjri, xal
previous line.
CHAPTER
THE PSALM
3.
For emendations of the text of chs. i and 2 we have had to depend mainly on (H, but we have occasionally noted another small
class of mss.
For ch. 3 we fortimately have more help from this
class of mss., chiefly 23, 62, 86 and 147 of HP.
Two of these are
among
the
more ancient
on a text
in being based
value.
ZATW.,
to ^^sehr alte
Ch. 3
and one
quite variant
is
an
from
imcial.
They
M and so of
agree
special
Cornill says in his Ezekiel that 62, 147 are not Lucianic.
So VoUers,
back
mss.,
is
1883, 4, p. 239, says that this group goes
und wertvoUe Vorlagen."
not a recounting of past triumphs, and contains only
Hebrew history. It simply considers the

and seeks and receives a theophany of deliverYahweh comes in the guise of an armed warrior, with
ance.
horses and chariot, bow and quiver, in storm and lightning, to
covert allusions to early
present distress,
HABAKKUK
20
He
overthrow the enemy.
starts
from
Olympus
his
in
Mount
Paran, moves northward to Palestine, and affrights land and sea

with his thunder and tempest.
comes with
help, but there
is
Yahweh
we can decide
It is to Palestine that
nothing by which
what particular exigency required
We
his aid.
are told of the
possible or actual failure of the fruits of the earth, but whether
by drought or by the ravages of war we are not told, but the aid
Very likely this psalm belongs to
of Yahweh implies the latter.
the
Maccabean period.
The Prayer of Habakkuk
1.
This
Instruments.
the
title.
same word
ionoth with the
we may make
is
On
the Prophet.
Inasmuch as
wS?}?
as
it
the Stringed
(g translates Shig-
does Neginoth in
v.
^^,
the correction.
Introductory Prayer for a Theophany, V.
Yahweh, I hear the sound

I see, Yahweh, thy work.
of thee;
In the midst of the years display it;

In the midst of the years make it known;
In wrath remember mercy.
In the
first
part of this verse the psalmist anticipates the desired
theophany, and in the
The change
last part
of I fear of
iE
prays that
it
to 7 see, gives
may
speedily develop.
a much more appropri-
He
ate sense as well as a perfect parallelism.
desires that the
theophany be not long delayed, but that deliverance might come

during the present years.
Theophany in
.
the Storm.
God Cometh from Teman

And the Holy One from Mount
Vv.
-".
Paran.
His glory covereth the heavens,
And
*.
the earth
Before him
Rays he hath
And
*.
is full
it is
of his praise.
like the light;
at his side.
he rejoiceth in the glory of his strength.

Before him goeth Pestilence,
And Plague followeth behind him.
THE PSALM
.
21
He standeth, and the earth trembleth;

He looketh, and the nations melt away;
And the mountains of old are scattered,
The ancient hills bow down.
[Untranslatable, probably two lines.]
'.
The
The
tents of
With
8.
Cushan tremble,
curtains of the land of Midian.

the rivers art thou wroth,
Yahweh?
[Is thy indignation against the rivers?]
Is thine anger against the sea.
That thou
'.
ridest
upon thy
horses.
Thy chariot of salvation?

Thou dost quite uncover thy bow.
Thy quiver is filled with shafts. Selah.
[With rivers thou cleavest the earth.]
<>.
u.
The waters see thee and they writhe;

The clouds pour down their waters.
The depth giveth forth his voice.
The height lifteth his hands.
The sun [is hidden in his chamber].
The moon standeth still in his dwelling.
For light thine arrows go forth,
For brightness the glittering of thy spear.
Thou treadest the sea with thy

The mighty waters foam up.
*.
In rage thou marchest over the earth.

In wrath thou tramplest the nations.
Thou
To
'.
Thou
horses,
goest forth for the salvation of thy people.
save thine anointed ones.
crushest the head of the wicked.
[Thou
piercest with thy shafts
the head of the oppressors; they stormed out to scatter
was
me;
their rejoicing
as to devour the poor secretly.]
It is better to
That which
put this whole theophany in the present tense.
the prophet has prayed for he sees
on the way.
First
Yahweh
is
now
in vision as
described, then his companions
and then follows the description of his march in

and storm. His home is in the Arabian mountains;
his movement is recognised in thimder and rain; the lightnings
are his arrows and spear, the thunder the rattling of his chariot
and horses. There follows a deluge of rain, and the rivers overflow, and the sea dashes with foam.
The storm-cloud hides the
sun and moon, as he marches forth trampling Israel's foes. With
his home on the moimtains, his weapons of thunder, lightning,
storm and war, he is such a god as the Syrian and Babylonian
are designated,
lightning
HABAKKUK
22
We now have, not a recounting of past triumphs, but only
Adad.
covert allusions to the events of Sinai
The prophet
and Canaan.
simply considers the present distress, and seeks and receives a
theophany of deliverance.
3.
The mountain home of Yahweh is based on the memory

The first couplet is imitated from Dt. 33^, 4. The
proceed from his side, not hand, as in RV. The older Baby-
of Sinai.
rays
lonian art often represented solar deities with rays proceeding
from the body. And there is the hiding of his power, iE, is jejune
and has to be conjecturally emended. While that here proposed
5. Pestilence and
is not assured, some such change is necessary.
plague are here personified as

gives to Ares the
attendants, just as
Homer
companions Fear and Terror (ôfio'i and
when he goes
Aei/Lto?)
Yahweh 's
forth to fight the Greeks.
It is also in
accordance with oriental ideas to represent pestilence or a destructive
wind as a demon, or chimera, accompanying a god.

thus accompanied when he fought Tiamat. So an
pestilence appeared after David had numbered the
Marduk was
angel of
2 S. 22^^- ".
people.
6-7. There
is
ured the earth.
no
intelligible
(5 indicates
last clause of this verse
meaning
how
in
M, He stood and meas-
the text must be corrected.
with the beginning of
v.
',
is
The
untranslatable,
and we have not the material for reconstruction. The mss. already quoted had a Hebrew text which gave a full couplet, The
roadways of old shall he changed; on his account the world shall he
shaken.
RV. has His goings were as of old, as if referring to
The margin has His ways are everlasting. Both are
Sinai.
unsatisfactory,
and
<8 gives a
more
satisfactory translation, his
and hills. The last six

words of V. make a good couplet, leaving the first three words
/ saw in affliction (RV.) as material for the couplet which begins
with the last three words of v. ^. The lands of Cushan and
eternal roadways,
i.
e.,
the mountains
"^
Midian
first feel
the terror of the theophany, as nearest to
Mount
Paran.
8.
Here the prophet turns from the thunder and wind which
hills to note the effect of the rain and storm on the rivers
shook the
and
sea.
But he very naturally turns
to
view the God
who
ere-
THE PSALM
23
comes with horses and chariot. An apparent infelicity in representing him as upon horses, and yet with
a chariot, has led (& to translate chariot by lirtraaCa, while our
ates the
commotion
as he
special class of mss. put the chariots, apfiara, in the
and
9.
clause,
first
iTTTraa-M in the second, which avoids the confusion of thought.
only by a bold conjecture, following our special class
It is
any intelligible meaning can be made out of this verse.

The correction thus suggested makes a good parallelism, and the
of mss., that
only difficulty
is
with the translation of mi2I2 as shafts,
arrows
i. e.,
by ySoXtSa?, unless they
Our mss., however, translate it

m:fn for mt2D. The order of thought is then
The rivers and sea were aflfrighted as Yahweh approached
clear.
with the thunder of his chariot and horses. They saw him with
his bow uncovered, taken from the armoury where it was protected
by a covering, and now ready to be drawn. From his quiver he
takes his weapons and hurls his spear and arrows of lightning.
They see, and the next verse tells us that they writhe in terror.
Syrian and Hittite art frequently represents Adad-Ramman, god
of storm, as armed with the same weapons, while the Babylonian
or javelins.
possibly read
god the forked thunderbolt.
art gave this western
balanced clause of this verse

10. Fortunately
dations of
w.
It also
has a different purpose, that of rebut simply presents a theophany of
figure of a storm.
tains to waters, follows the Ps.

tion of thought with v.
The
correction of
and makes a much
moun-
better connec-
Equally the emendation in the second
of this couplet greatly strengthens the thought, for the
passing of the tempest
is
no occasion
for fear.
11.
originally took the place of the single line of four beats
the dark clouds hid the sun
low our
un-
from Egypt, while Habakkuk makes
to Israelite history,
judgment under the
how
last,
we have in Ps. jf-^^ the means for some emenThe Psalm is later, and adds a third mem-
calling the escape of Israel
member
The
be regarded as intruded.
^"^^- ^^.
ber after the couplets.
no reference
may
class of mss.
rabbinic use of the
used indefinitely as
the last couplet in
The
word
is
RV.
and moon.
dwelling,
'7^2'^,
couplet
must here
tells
fol-
has no relation to the
as one of the seven firmaments, but is
tabernacle in Ps. 19*.

is
We
which
The
translation of
jejune, at the ligJU of thine arrows as they
HABAKKUK
24
The meaning
went.
the world.
is that of Ps. yf^, Tlie lightnings enlightened

There is
the
use
of the preposition cf. Is. 60*^.
For
no reference here to Joshua's miracle, but only the statement that

the sun and moon retire behind the black clouds, and that their
place is taken by flashes of lightning, represented as Yahweh's
arrows.
It
It is evident that v. *^ is out of place after vv. ^^^*.
"
",
series
of
exprescontinues
in
order
the
it
with
as
belongs
vv.
12-15.
sions found in Ps.
77""'^".
This corresponds to Ps.

in the
Hebrew than
V. * the
fitly
the resemblance being
an English
in
translation.
it
after v. ".
The
15.
closer
placed before
trampling of the nations of
follows the treading of the sea of v.
of thine anointed applied to Israel
as Ps. 84*.
But as
it
recensions of (S
The
make
sg. is
13.
In a
v.
"
we have
that the
title
proof of a postexilic period,
is
antedates Ps.
77*>"^2o
jj.
^^^^ ^^^ belong to
might well belong to the 5th or
the later postexilic period, but
4th century B.C.
^^.
Kuenen shows
the purpose of all this theophany.
The
If
v. ".
much
connection might seem better, but the parallelism with
Ps. 77 fixes
also
must therefore follow
It
77^'',
probably correct, although the Jewish
anointed
as do the special mss. quoted.
pi.,
latter part of the verse would require
much change
to
make
it
no real help. The house and the

pertinence,
and they have no relation to the
have
no
foundation
unintelhgible, except as to the last
verse
equally
is
rock.
14. This
place,
as it represents a personal and
of
clause, which is quite out
intelligible,
and
the Vrss. give
not a national calamity, in which the pious poor were the sufferers.
As
the text stands
it
cannot be
have not the data for restoring
made
metrical,
Probably the whole
it.
and we
an in-
is
trusion.
THE PROPHET'S MEDITATION ON THE THEOPHANY.

". I have heard,
My
and
my
lips quiver at the
Vv.
belly trembleth;
sound.
Rottenness entereth into my bones,

steps tremble under me.
And my
moan in view of
Of the coming up
the
day
of trouble.
of the people that will assail
me.
".
THE PSALM
>'.
For though the
fig-tree
25
bear no
fruit.
And there be no vintage on the vines;

Though the yield of the olive fail,
And the fields produce no food;
Though the flock be cut off from the fold.
And there be no herd in the stall,
'8.
Yet
I will exult
I will rejoice
"
Yahweh,
the Lord,
is
God of my salvation."
my strength,
he setteth "my feet like those of hinds

he maketh me" tread "on my high places."
And
And
To
"in Yahweh."
"in the
on the stringed instruments.
the chorister
make
16. This verse requires correction to

telligible.
of /
moan
eflfect
The
which
correction of
to
the latter half in-
my steps is assured,
in place of / rest is only suggested.
of the theophany
have been expected, but
is
but that
The immediate
not the faith and courage that might
aFright;
theophany, but of the approaching
and
yet not fear of the terrible
foe.
text avoided this revulsion of fear,
It
may
be that the original
and anticipated
the
rest after
invasion, just as the succeeding verses begin with the anticipation

of evil, but
end with
trust
couplets in this verse
and
exultation.
may properly
Cf.
Dn.
12^^.
17.
The
be translated as conditional,
though the text would allow them to describe the
al-
state of desola-
and famine following the invasion of an enemy. 18. This

is based on Mi. 7', but is not a close quotation.
19. This is
taken almost directly from 2 S. 22^ which is identical with Ps.
18**, and indirectly from Dt. 32^^
^f^. It denotes possession and
tion
verse
rule of the land.
The
quotations in the two last verses, with those
in 2*^'", indicate an authorship at a period later than the
standard collection of the Sacred Books.
The
writer
was
with Deuteronomy, 2 Samuel, Isaiah, Jeremiah and Micah,

is
quoted twice.
We
Ps. yj"'^^, in which
Habakkuk
pecially
we have
ship of chs. 2 and
is
2^"-
"
^^
who
with
preferred, but with reserve, to regard
as the original source.
from Micah,
have also the parallelism of
first
familiar
The
facility of quotation, es-
an argument in favor of a common author-
3.
nuvjc, (g fiera yS^s, reading mrjj as in v.". 2.

1.
'nNi%
which destroys both parallel and measure. Rd. "TT'N-i. The fear is
not appropriate till after the theophany, and not to be expected before
HABAKKUK
26
V. ".
requires
Ps. 19', corresponding to >nin.
c/".
by
art. inserted
dittog.
n being 3 masc.
4. njji as
as in
si.,
next member.
side, in the
M pon
is like light.
db'i.
v.
nt;;,
if
named
D"i''n.
In
3.
Rd.
parallel
riijj,
the final
him it
and was not understood
S. An
reading ar, as do also
n>nn
impersonal, Before
is
corrupt,
is
HP.
related to one of Origen's un-
and representing an independent version
mss.,
The
M yiNn omit
nijj corresponds with nic, at his
The f.
The text
important class of mss. given by
were fem.
njj
(6 Kal idero aydir-qcnv,
by the Vrss.
# read
<S fv'w", as reading nrn.
iniin.
iniin,
of this chapter, read iKei iiricTTripLKrai
of part, at least,
The
dîvajMS ttjs d6^7]s avroO.
i]
most probable emendation is nij; jixja nctyi. For the use of jinj see
dual.
Ez. 2421 3o'8 3323 Mi. 53 Is. aio- " 21. Make D>j-\p pi. for
"noM (B Kal i(ra\etj6r] 17 yij. We. suggests jjd>i, but that destroys
6.
the paronomasia. 05 may have read lynni, but in bibl. use lyD is conOf the earth we would expect Jnnj.
fined to steps, feet or knees.
inii. Kal SierdKi] eOvt], as reading t2n\\
oh^y ntyhn
So also &. 7.
px nnn nS.
^n-'MT
The change
V.
probably the
',
nwSn means
the
says: De/* Vers wird
in v.
an
latter,
as the sense
is
ilberfiilt
The
According to
appropriate.
processions,
caravans of the desert.
durch oh^y niD^Sn.
insertion or corruption for
Yahweh's roadway, but
the mountain ranges which are
word means caravans or
rified
al
We.
of metre indicates either
and should apply
to the ter-
valuable class of mss. referred to
followed a very different text and verse division, reading, al 680I
i^
avroO
aXKoiud-fjaovTai-
0,PXV^
ceicrd-^cTeTaL
<^veKa
rj
olKovixivr].
and connecting
nia^Sn with a succeeding verb, and then adding a new parallel member.
Possibly for }iN nnn we should read pnnnn {the caravans were affrighted),
but there is not material to make a probable reconstruction, and inKaravevSrjKa ras
deed
k.
onnja
which
on,
is
t. X.,
''n''}<"\
The second appearance
or two.
-\BH
AWib-iruv
not certain whether
is
it
CTKrjvas
of
omitting
We
weak.
better.
suspicious, vS;??
is
redundant, following
Bi., et al.
iE
8.
n-in.
M,
(g
iiyn pass, is
Perhaps we should read nnn. 9.
expect 2 sg. m. as 05 ivrelvuv iv^retvas. Rd. <"inj;n, which
tbpyladrjs Kipie.
is
member
represents one
m3'''?n
aSij;
lS
idn
PIKJD
nvair
is
untranslatable and corrupt.
the versions give aid, except those mss. which read
None
ix^P'''ci-o'a'i
of
ô\ldas
This makes an admirable parallel. For niyatt'

^ yasf
and for "idn they read hsb'k. )3oX/s also
translates T'xn in v. ".
& also takes moD as arrows. Probably the
In the older writoriginal read ny2iff (or nj?3E') r^Dîi nitac or nnijirx.
TTjs
(pap^rpas
aiiTijs.
they read a form of
ing
the
v.
resemblance of
The
"ton
and
nsi:'^
words of
is
much
closer than in the
have either
square
letters.
parallel
member, or are intruded. 10. Vv. '" '2- '' must be emended
7717 20^ which is based on Habakkuk, but with a third member
by Ps.
last three
this verse
lost their
THE PSALM
27
onn. (g \aol, reading D'dj;. Both come from

added to the couplet.
D''Dn, which we accept, following Ps. 77" tSin^ CD ^^^^^.
lay d>:d dit
must be corrected after Ps. 77'8. pia;? o>D iDif
ilH an.
<g Df oj
11.
as reading onn, which gives a better parallel.
inserts mi to the
injury of metre and grammar. The Mss. quoted above give a full
couplet,
iffTdOr}.
<pQs t6 'Kafiirpbv roii ijXlov iireiTx^v- rb d^ (piyyos ttj^
The second member must be
filled
ffek-fivris
up, to say that the
moon
dark chamber behind the clouds. Bi. ventures to complete the couplet by inserting np>rnn mix before a'DB'. M.
i^SnijShould be emended idShpi, after Ps. 77'8. The subject is Tixn,as in (8
els <pQs ôXlSes <rov iropevcovrai.
For use of prep, in "(InS and njjS see
was withdrawn
into
its
60".
Is.
12-15. Vv.
''-"
it is
insertion of a difficult
Gumpach, De Goeje and Kue. put
planatory passage.
but
from Ps. 7717-20^

and irrelevant ex-
interrupt the series of quotations
and interrupt the sense by the

better to throw
parallel to Ps. 77i-i9,
w. ""
after v. ".
We
" after
v.
then have
and the corresponding passages
w.
'"
same
in the
v.
',
"
'^
order,
Hb. 3'8 corresponding to Ps. 77'"; v. k"" to '8; "' to '^b; ub ^ istj and '5
and to 20a and
To put v. '^ after v. f would dislocate the parallel.
15. ISI inn.
We. suggests doubtfully nDn; Bi. emends to -icnj. The
mss. already quoted read: irapixOij (ncn) rd iâlcna vdara; C5 rapda-ffovras (^5^) lidup ttoXiJ.
gives no connected sense.
Perhaps icn
>
>'.
should be corrected to ten, following Je. 515s aoi DTa onihi mm, cf.
The corresponding passage in Ps. 77'*
Ps. 46* or nicn, cf. Ps. 46'.
has 131T for t^did na-n, and yh^2a^ for
-icn.
12.
nniCD hn
ysfiS.
CS
The mss. quoted above read p^xTaaOai

Toiis xp"'"'''"^^ <^^Both make yv'h a vb. as required by hn. We.
emends to j???'^ for y>tv^n\ The second couplet is corrupt past recovery.
The Vrss. have made no sense of it. (S seems to have read nin {Bdvarov)
for noD.
Our special mss. make sense, but vary much from fH. They
ToO crQcrai rhv xP'c^^''
read
KaTerhêvcas
<ôv.
to
dvOpdiruu
Ke<pa\ds
rijs 6a\d(r<xrji Ko-Tabiffovrai,
have begun with Dinn
as
if
One of
The
n>'.
reading nn;? in place of nny.

greatly
corrupted
making
it fit
V7rep7]<pdv(i)v
last clause
after the intrusion of
This verse appears
the
first
four of v.
',
to
be prose.
and the
d^6(T(Tov
It
roO
appears
Jerome's mss. gave ornasti, as

piJ in
a house instead of a wicked people,
14.
ews
nxnn were related to Disn.
The
first
seems
to
if
have been
the previous clause,

cf.
Ps. 68^2 iio^ ^
four words correspond to
intrusion seems to be
quite late, as the
devouring of the poor secretly has no relation to the foreign oppressor.

vana. Bi. and We. emend to l>t3S3. The mss. cited read, i^-
eSlKijaai (ncpj) fierd Svvdfieus aov toi/i dpx'tyoi'^ fCiv dfj.apT(o\Qp (aixno)
Toii ireTTOidSras (nj'D')
iirl
t^ avdaSelq, (Prabbinic
ToO KararpayeTv rois vrwxois \ddpa.

eKrdaêi)
/ceâXAs
Svvdaruv,
NflSin)
ainuv iveKev
(6 gives 5i^*co\i'as iv iKffrdffei. (for
aeiffdiâovTai
iv
airr^
(nSnyO',
fori'").
HABAKKUK
28
(from nxc)
Siavolôvffi
The
7rTwxoi>j \d6pa.
an
x*^"'<''''*
airwv (omSxD, Zc. 14") wj HffOuv

^jy SokS may have come from
corruption inDD3
original 'jSjnS.
16.
T^N
TJ1N
responding vb.
emended by
takes a
''^tt'N
f.
and We.
Bi.
vb., see
sg.
to read
irdpaxOv v l M<'. From

unu'' d;?*? niS}''? mx
possible to get any consistent meaning. (S follows
ijnu' oyS it
The
aflSx.
n^N
Ps. 37"
75'.
<8
ov"? m:t< it is
im-
except that for

Xo6p irapoiKias reaching a form of "lu with i p. sg.
mss. quoted read radra tpvXd^ys iv ijixipq, 6\l\l/eus, iwayayetv
has
els
fSvos (or ((pevos) /roKefiovp (or TroX^^tou) t6v "KaSv aov,
iirl
with cor-
44"
variant for this couplet, and
&
is
quite
For
^:\^^''
it appears to have read 1Jû\
3 has ad populum accimtum
nostrum for M, uiu^ nyS, reading a form of ijn. Both (8 and 3 agree
in reading i for n. Perhaps (6*s "lU is correct, but with the meaning, to
fear, instead of, to sojourn.
We should probably read ij*iij% who will
attack me, or something like ^J^1J^<, or mjD, whom I fear.
For the
inappropriate M,
ing I
moan
to
JSI
sf.
it
HB'j; f. pi.
(J.
nSsoD for wSddd.
Kue.
it is
not easy to recover.
might be hazardous
S in place of Sy or
nu, Je. 22"* Jb. 30".
n-iijn.
text
to conjecture njNS,
mean-
in view of the day of trouble, but nothing better occurs.
For use of prep.
and
mm
its
17.
JH niDP
after njKN, cf. use of V after noa

(6 *cap7ro0opi}(r.
P. Peters, Hebraica, 1888, p. in),
18.
M, 'nijuja Ew.,
et
al.,
either thus or rnij''jj3 following <S iv
We. emends
itj. We. "mjj.
emend by omitting
tt)
(fS^ avrou.
COMMENTARY
ON
OBADIAH AND JOEL

BY
JULIUS
A.
BEWER,
Ph.D.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL PHILOLOGY UNION THEOLOGICAL

SEMINARY, NEW YORK.
INTRODUCTION TO OBADIAH.
I.
The
49'
THE COMPOSITION OF THE BOOK.
first literary
^.
problem
in
Ob.
is
These passages are so much
w.
the relation of
*"
alike that they cannot
to Je.
be
in-
Either Ob. quoted from Je., or Je.
dependent of one another.

quoted from Ob., or both quoted from an older oracle.
of these positions has been taken
by
At
scholars.
Every one
present, as a
result of Caspari's investigation, almost all writers believe that Je.
49 quoted from Ob. But a renewed comparison of both texts

shows that the more original text is contained in Je. 49; that Ob.
quoted w. ^'* almost, though not quite, literally; that he com-
mented on
this older oracle in
older prophet, partly in his
been
fulfilled in his
own
own
w.
^'"^
words of the
show that it had
partly in the
words, in order to
day; and that in
w.
* ^
he quoted once
more from the older oracle without any show of

These conclusions involve the originality of vv. ^- *
on pp. ^^ ff.
" Ob. proceeds to state the reasons
literalness.
See the
^.
detailed discussion
In
w.
^*^-
Edom's
for
ca-
lamity, continues with a vivid description of her cruel behaviour

of Jerusalem, thrown into the form of im^^")
and ends by declaring that her prespassioned warnings (w.
toward Judah at the

ent punishment
an attempt
With
fall
is in just
to athetize
V. ^^^
we
enter
requital for her
w.
own deeds
^"* as secondary,
upon a
cf. text.
(v. ^^^).
n.
ad
different range of thought.
On
loc.
The
writer does not describe a present calamity but hopes for the pun-
ishment of
Edom
on the day when Yahweh
will
judge
all
nations.
Ob.
These verses have therefore grown
interpreted events that had just transpired, when Edom had been
dispossessed by her former aUies. This writer expects the day of
Yahweh in the near future and confidently believes that Edom
out of a different situation.
OBADIAH
4
will
be utterly destroyed by
Evidently some time had
Israel.
passed since Ob. had written,
Edom
had, after
not been com-
all,
was living on, a menace and vexation to Judah. No redress seemed possible at present, and so the writer
looks forward to the future, to the day when Yahweh will hold his
judgment on all the nations. Then Edom's turn will also come
and its terrible punishment will be administered by Israel. It is
not likely that Ob. was the writer of these verses, and Wellhausen
was right in regarding w. ^^^- ^^"^ as an appendix. There is also, if
pletely destroyed but
the text
with
such a sudden change of address in
v. ^^
from the
Jews that the same author can hardly be credited
is correct,
Edomites
to the
it.
There are two sections in this appendix, w. ^^^- ^^"^^ and w. ^^"^\
and we may question whether they are by the same author, Vv. ^'^^
are in the nature of a commentary on v\'. ^^^- ^^, and it seems that
v. *
with
its list
of territories understood v. ^^^ as saying that the
house of Jacob would regain
its
Originally v. ^^^ spoke
possessions.
of Judah's conquest over her dispossessors (see
there existed this difference of interpretation of
and
(^ respectively.
w.
conclude that
V.
"^ not as
its
^^"^^
writer
are by a
had meant
and who connected
territories,
geniously with his
ecy will be
comment on
fulfilled
by what
of the house of Joseph,
They
point
If this
his
v.
all
we must probably
author who understood
of such territories very in-
list
^^,
by explaining
that this proph-
of the house of
the Israelitish
will regain the land, the Israelites
the Judeans including
from
but of the recon quest of Israel's
is still left
i. e.,
That
text. n).
^^^ is clear
pressed
is
different
it
v.
Jacob and
and the Judean
exiles.
as far north as Sarephath,
the cities of the Southland.
But the
thoughts of the driving out of the dispossessors and of the regaining

of the territories are closely
may
enough related that the same writer
naturally pass from the one to the other, esp.
ble to express both by the
wonder that
out as in
v.
v. ^^
"
That
V. ^*
all
it is
possi-
thinks not only of the Edomites as to be driven
but of others
writer gives to the
judgment on
when
same Heb. word. And we need not

also,
punishment of
when
Edom
the setting which the

is
the day of Yahweh's
due
to the final formula
the nations.
looks like a conclusion
is
THE COMPOSITION OF THE BOOK

for
Yahweh hath
But
spoken.
this is really a
v. ^^ is
For contents and metre alike show that
which our author incorporated
quotation-formula.
an older prophecy
in order to establish the
hope
which he entertained concerning the future victory of Israel

v
over
Edom.
History of the literary criticism of Obadiah. Eichhorn {Einl.*, 1824,

320 ff., not yet in ', 1803) appears to have been the first to doubt
the unity of Ob.
He dated Ob. after 586 B.C. and regarded w. >'" as
iv,
an appendix from the time of Alexander Jannaeus. He entitled the

whole book, Obadjas. Auf die Unterjochung der Edomiter durch Nehukadnezar zwischen 582-572 vor Chr. nach einer neuen Ausgabe des Cesanges unter Alexander Jannaeus zwischen 106-80 vor Chr. (cf. also
Hebr.
Proph.,
524).
iii,
Eich.'s
view was not adopted.
Ewald
took up the problem afresh and presented an entirely different soluAce. to
tion.
him
the
w. '"i" an
w. '^-'^ also
book was the work
of
an
exilic
prophet
who had
used in
older prophecy by Ob., a contemporary of Isaiah,
and
older material which
in
came from a prophet
like Zc.
9-1 1, who, ace. to Ew., was an older contemporary of Isaiah.
though also older material, was not of the same piece as

the exilic prophet belong vv. "'<
modifications in details,
won
w.
". n.
V.
is.
',
To
This position, though with some
"2'.
Kautzsch and Driver

G. A. Smith to w. i-. Kautzsch
the assent of many.
limited the older oracle to vv. '' (not
'),
was not quite sure "whether remnants of the ancient oracle may not also
15-21."
But Konig, who analysed the second
have been preserved in vv.
part of the oracle, concluded that the older oracle consisted of
^ new phase
w.
"
Ob. began with

Wellhausen, who regards vv. ' '^b (exc. 6. s. o. is) as the work of Ob.,
the remaining verses as a later appendix. This solution was adopted in
substance by Now., Marti, Cor.\ Du. The weak point in it is that it
does not correctly explain the relation between Ob. and Je. Barton
perceived this and presented a combination of Ew.'s and We.'s theories:
w. '' are a pre-exilic oracle of Ob., which was quoted by Je. and readapted with additions (vv. ''5) by another Ob. in the early postexilic
days; w. ** form an appendix probably from Maccabean times.
small minority of scholars, among them Peters, Van H., Hal., still maintain the unity of the book. But even so conservative and careful a scholar
i6. 18. i9aa. 20b,
in the literary criticism of
as Orelli regards vv.
"-''
as a later appendix.
OBADIAH
THE DATE OF THE BOOK.
2.
The
result of the literary criticism of
Ob. necessitates the de-
termination of the time of the various component parts of the book.

In the absence of
all
external data,
we must
on internal
rely
evi-
dence.
The two
points that have always been used for the fixing of the
the description of the
date are also important for us:

in vv. """,
salem
and Ob.'s
Since the date of Je. 49'
year of Jehoiakim
(c/.
25'
fall
of Jeru-
relation to Je. 49.
s- was regarded as definitely fixed in the 4th

^) those who believed in the priority of Ob.
connected the capture of Jerusalem, in spite of
all difficulties,
either with
and Arabians under Jehoram (2 Ch. 21" '),

or with the campaign of Joash of Israel against Amaziah (2 K. 14" ' 2
Ch. 25" '). They could not identify it with the capture by the Chaldeans
in 586 B.C., though this was, as some acknowledged, the most natural
reference.
Those who believed in the priority of Je. referred it, of
For them it was merely a question whether Ob.
course, to 586 B.C.
was exilic or postexilic. Also those who believed that both Je. and Ob.
had quoted from an older oracle could put Ob. in the exilic or postexilic
And when the prophecies against the nations (chs. 46 ff.) came
period.
to be quite generally regarded as non- Jeremian, it was possible also for
those who believed in the priority of Ob. to identify the fall of Jerusalem
with that of 586 B.C. and to place Ob. in or after the exile.
the raid of the Philistines
The most
natural identification of this capture of Jerusalem
the one in 586 B.C. by the Chaldeans,

25^^"" 30^ 35^^' 137^
3
the Judeans.
It is
Esd.
4^^
Edom
when
ace. to La. 4^'
^'
is
Ez.
acted very cruelly toward
true that neither the Chaldeans nor the de-
struction of the temple nor the deportation of the
whole people are
But the situation is well defined, and critical opinion is more and more agreed on the reference to 586 B.C.
Moreover, the fact that a quotation from a Jeremian dirge (Je.
explicitly
38^^),
in V.
mentioned.
which dated from the
''
shows that 586
B.C.
last
days of Jerusalem,
had passed and
is
incorporated
that the fall of Jerusalem
described here cannot refer to a pre-exilic situation.

reference to a later conquest be maintained.
Nor can
Winckler connected
the verses with a postexilic destruction of Jerusalem about 500 B.C.,
THE DATE OF THE BOOK

but such a destruction cannot be proved.
Antiochus IV
is
And
is
the conquest of
excluded, because the book of Joel, which
not as late as the 2d cent, b.c, presupposes Ob.
nus a quo
was
Our termi-
(v. i.)
thus 586 B.C.
The description of the calamity which had befallen Edom is suggestive.

The enemies who had driven them to the border of their
land and who had plundered them, had formerly been good friends
had succeeded.
Nabateans were in possession of Edom's ancient seats, for it wa^ vs. the
Nabateans in Petra that Antigonus fought at that time. These
and
alUes,
and
it
was only by treachery
We know from Diodorus Siculus (19, 94)
that they
that in 312 b.c. the
Nabateans had therefore taken Mt. Seir before the end of the 4th
cent, and had driven Edom northward out of her old territories into
the Negeb. How long before 312 b.c. they had succeeded in conquering
it,
we do
the 5th cent, and which
is
^'
However, Mai.
by the Nabateans.
feat
But there is every reason to believe

had befallen Edom in the first half of
described in Mai. i^ was due to a de-
not know.
that the catastrophe which
i^ ^
does not imply that
Edom had been driven out of its ancient territory. They were still
imdaunted
in Mal.'s
terpretation of
it
time and confidently expected to retrieve their
We., following Vatke, suggests that Ob.'s prophetic
losses.
Edom's
fall
was connected with Mai.
i^
^'
and
in-
that
dealt with one of the stages of the Arabian invasion, though not
necessarily with the
same as Mai.
i.
We have
that these invasions began as early as the
and
first
reason to believe
half of the 6th cent,
Negeb by Edom shortly after 586

was due in some degree to the pressure
that the occupation of the
B.C.
{cf.
Ez. 35^-
^^
36^)
exerted upon
Edom by
Of
the description of Ob.
course,
if
the influx of the Arabians from the desert.

is
regarded as
fairly
if
that
Ob. wrote after Malachi rather than before.

Marti, Cor., Du. put him before Mai.
the driving unto the border
is
accurate
would seem
And so We. and
and
taken seriously,
it
Now. date him.
But does not the
detailed character of the description of the
fall of Jerusalem make the impression

by one who had first-hand knowledge, and
does not the impassioned manner in which it is given betray an
events connected with the
of having been written
actual participant?
If this
objection
is
sustained
we
cannot go
OBADIAH
beyond the
that the
earlier
and we should
to as-
Edomites were able
which they had been driven ace.

in
Mt.
Seir.
This
should have to
enemies in Mt. Seir to one of the
phases, perhaps during the exile,
sume
And we
quarter of the 6th cent.
last
refer the invasion of the
to regain their territory
Ob.
to
have
also
for in
',
Mai.
i*
from
they are
not an easy assumption in view of the char-
is
acter of Mt. Seir, but
The detailed and
not impossible.
it is
im-
passioned character of the description may, however, be accounted

for in
The
another way.
the holy city
fell,
story of those unforgettable days,
must have been
time?
was not a
was
been robbed or betrayed or
As
filled
his heart
the story
with
and
all
was
tradition of ancestors
count thus for
w.
barbarities.
^^",
Ob.
made them so real that

And so when he thought
go through those varied scenes himself
to
Edom's
at that
told the vivid oriental imagination of
those awful scenes, and
he seemed
to witness
who had
by the Edomites
killed
burned with anger and sorrow.
of that day,
when
Jerusalem again and again
Who knows whether in Ob.'s own, or in a related
in all its details.
or befriended family, there

either
told in
and
to assign
quite reasonable to ac-
It is
Ob.'s date after Mai. in the

^'^
5th cent., to which the description in vv.
points so strongly.
This implies that the older oracle from which Ob. quoted antedates the 5th cent.
fastnesses of
safety,
Mt.
and there
reverses.
It
Seir,
no
is
iour toward
hint that
Judah
in 586 B.C.
If
perhaps be able
to
have had the Arabians
In the appendix, vv.
which might help us

is,
as
it
still
living in the
it
rocky
relies for
has already suffered serious
it
would appear that the
we knew which
in
^^*- ^''^^,
fix its
nations attacked
determine the time more
but no hint about their identity

also
Edom
And from the absence of all reference to Edom's behav-
not yet presupposed.
we might
represents
on whose impregnable character
is
given.
mind, but
no
exile is
Edom,
definitely,
The older oracle may

we do not know.
historical situation is indicated
date more exactly.
The terminus a quo
of course, the latter part of the 5th cent, after the completion of
Ob, ^'^*- ^^^. And the terminus ad quem is fixed by the date of the
book Joel, which is dependent on Ob. The likeness of passages
in Jo. to Ob. is limited to certain phrases (cf. Ob.
with Jo. 4^^;
" with 4^; *^ with 4" i^'^ 4*- ^; " with 3= 4"). But the comparison
***

shows that
The
occurs
knew not only
Jo.
fact that
he
literally
And
the older book but also the appendix.
he quotes an older
states in 3' that
thus in Ob. ",
makes
which
oracle,
almost certain that he
it
him also in a
and the infrequent phrase ^lli "IT"*
(4^) is found also in Ob., and since Jo. adds to the phrase riTII
yl'"!!:) (4*^) a comment, the case is decided for the priority of Ob.
If the date of Jo. is correctly placed between 400 and 350 b.c.
used Ob.
since the phrase DDPID occurs with
passage against
this
Edom
(4^^)
appendix must have been added some time before or soon
after the beginning of the 4th cent.
Vv.
^^"^^
point in the
same
direction.
If
the list in vv.
^^-
a description of territory which Judah had already taken,
be
The passage would
diflferent.
ander Jannaeus (103-76

then
all this
was
B.C.),
where Eich. actually placed
practically realised.
Edom had
other reasons, the simple fact that
w.
^^- ^
time,
when
if
been
patriotism flamed
I,
For
it.
definitely
Philistia,
there were no
are an expression of
fact excludes this.
these verses must be later than b.c. 400
Maccabean
But
Gilead by Alexander Jannaeus.
hope and not a description of
wovdd
then belong to the time of Alex-
conquered by John Hyrcanus, Galilee by Aristobulus
Moab and
^''were
it
Knowing
we might
that
think of the
up once more and when
the hope of the reconquest of the old dominion seemed not unjustifiable (We., Marti, Bart., Hpt.).
vourable to so late a date.
And
But Ecclus.
49^** is
not fa-
the mention of the Samaritans
and Ammonites, as well as of the Philistines and Edomites,

points to the age of Nehemiah or soon after.
So does also the
manner in which the hope of the reconquest of the ancient territory is expressed.
As a matter of
historical interest Hi.'s interpretation deserves to
be
re-
He
thought the oracle was written in 312 B.C. in Egypt, when

Antigonus ordered the expedition against Petra and Mt. Seir. The
corded.
author was a Jew who had been carried off to Egypt by Ptolemy Lagi.
difficult nin Snn in v. 20 Hi. referred to the fortress in Egypt to which
The
the exiles
had been carried. But this date is impossible because in 312

Edomites but the Nabateans occupied Petra and Mt. Seir.
B.C. not the
OBADIAH
lO
THE INTERPRETATION OF THE BOOK.
3.
Israel
and
Edom had
From
remember.
been enemies as far back as they could
the earliest time of their history the two nations
had hated and scorned and persecuted each
other.
But they
never forgot that they were brothers, though this seemed only
to
add
to the intensity of their hatred.
When, therefore, one day the news came that
certain nations
allying themselves for the purpose of attacking

in Israel felt his heart
bum with
were
Edom, a prophet
the hope that they would succeed.
But it soon became

more than a hope with him, for he became aware that Yahweh
spoke to him in his innermost being and interpreted to him the
significance of these events.
And with the authority and power of
a divine revelation upon him he spoke to his people of Yahweh's
Doubtless
all his
In
decree.
people shared this hope.
brief, strong
words uttered with true
literary finish
Yahweh Himself was behind this

movement. He Himself would throw Edom down from its height.
We do not know the outcome of this campaign or when it took
place or who the attacking nations were. We do not even know
who the ancient prophet was. But his message must have made
a profound impression, for though his name perished, his words
were not forgotten. They were taken up by two other prophets
and incorporated into their writings. One of them was Obadiah.
It was after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C., how long after we
do not know, it may have been still during the exile though it is
much more probable that it was over a hundred years later, when
a great catastrophe befell Edom, the Nabatean invasion, as a rehe predicted Edom's defeat.
ufL
suit of
which she
What
lost
her land and her possessions.
a tumult of joy the report of this disaster excited in the
hearts of the Jews!
Again there was one among them who gave
He remembered those
words
was as if they
had been spoken but yesterday! Surely they were Yahweh's oracle concerning the events that had just taken place!
Yahweh had
said when some nations were preparing an attack upon Edom that
voice to their emotions.
of the ancient prophet concerning
Edom's
fall.
clear, strong
It
THE INTERPRETATION OF THE BOOK

she would go
adds,
down
in this war, that nothing should save her
her high fortresses were even
If
it.
full
II
of exultation,
if
more
inaccessible
from
yea,
Ob.
they were as high as the very stars in the
sky they would be of no avail, for behind these nations was Yahweh who would bring Edom down to the ground. Ha! Ob. exclaims, the fall has come, and how terrible it has been! True
enough, as the old prophet had said, an ordinary razzia of robbers
would not account for the severity of the visitation, for

had been plundered, and that, to add to her
humiliation, by her own friends and former allies! They have
driven her out of her strong, inaccessible moimtain seats to the
and
thieves
oh,
how
terribly she
borders of her land
enough
to see
Shrewd and wary
Edom had not been shrewd
through their treacherous
vailed over her.
Ah, was not
ecy which had declared that on that day

all
wisdom from Edom

by
their
by which they pre-
Yahweh would
in order that they
And
cape complete destruction ?

this fate
tricks,
this also in fulfilment of the
proph-
take
away
might not be able
to es-
surely, they
have richly deserved
behaviour toward Judah at the time of the cap-
Oh, that awful day! As

Ob. thinks of it, it suddenly stands before his mind with all its
anguish and terror. He lives again through its horrors, sees the
ture of Jerusalem by the barbarians.
Edomites
full of
mahcious joy over Judah's calamity, hears
words of scorn and
and
ridicule, sees
to plunder, sees
roads,
sionate warnings, as
oflf,
As
their
into the city to loot
Jews at the crosshe breaks forth into pas-
fugitive
were even now doing these
things.
recovers himself and with one brief sentence he breaks
thou hast done so
own
his emotion
Edom
if
down
cutting
and overmastered by
Then he
thine
them
them coming
head!
is it
And with
done
this
to thee,
thy reward returns upon
note of satisfaction his words end.
Again the years passed on, how many we do not know, perhaps a
years, perhaps more.
The Nabatean invaders had long
hundred
driven
Edom from Mt.
But still the Edomites lived on as a

Judah than before the exile, for they
ancient Judean territory, in the South country, the
Seir.
nation, closer neighbours of
were
settled in
Negeb, and they

tion.
tary
still
The Jews had
cherished their hatred for their brother nalost their political
power and could no longer expect
independence and
mili-
to punish foreign insolence
OBADIAH
12
But they had not lost their keen sense of justice and
hope that some day Yahweh would set all things right
in this world and restore his nation Israel to her former glory. And
again a man of patriotic heart and prophetic mind arose and gave
utterance to this hope and brought the judgment of Edom into
this larger connection.
Formerly the great movements of history
as they affected the fate of Israel could be interpreted by the prophets as parts of Yahweh's plan.
There were no such movements
now, no nation like the Assyrians or Babylonians, no king like
Cyrus that a prophetic mind could regard as Yahweh's special instrument. Not even the Nabateans were stirring; that peril was
over.
But Yahweh was living still and controlling the affairs of
this world, and He was just, and He was still Israel's God.
This
our prophet knows and believes with all the intensity of his spirit.
And out of the living experience of the reality and truth of these
convictions there grows afresh in his heart the hope, which becomes
an assurance, that the day was near when Yahweh would righten
all the affairs of this world, when He would judge all nations.
It
would be a terrible day. But only for the other nations not for the
Jews, for they had already received their punishment at the hands
Through this coming awful crisis those who were
of Yahweh.
still left would pass unharmed and after the catastrophe they would
dwell once more safely on Mt. Zion never to be driven out again
by foreign invaders. On the contrary, they themselves will then
drive out the nations that had dispossessed them and taken their
property. Then also Edom's turn will come, then that cruel
brother Esau also will receive his reward at the hands of Jacob,
by
force.
their ardent
who
will exterminate
him.
That our author proceeded

^^^- ^^
to give a further explanation of
how
more likely
than that he stopped here at the end of v. ^* and that somebody
else wrote the continuation, when in that great time of the Maccabean uprising the national feeling ran high and the reconquest
of all the territory was hoped for, and when Edom again was be-
vv.
were
to
be understood, has seemed
to us
having cruelly toward Judah, however appropriate then the whole
prophecy might have been.
Doubtless
it
cheered the Jews then!
All the former territory with its ideal limits
would be retaken by
THE PROPHET AND HIS BOOK

That meant,
Israel.
of course, the exiles of Israel
13
and
of Judah.
They will come back and reconquer all of Palestine E. and W. of the
Jordan and in the N. as far as Zarepta and
cities of
And
the Negeb.
they will
march
in the S. including the

to
Mt. Zion
in order to
Edom. And after that

when Yahweh's kingdom will be
help their brethren in their expedition vs.

the glorious day will break,
He
will reign alone.
There are three modes
of interpreting the
and when
established
terprets
as a prediction oi future events.
it
terpretation
up
The second interprets it as a poetic
to recent years.
rative of past events (We.)
nar-
In the preceding paragraphs justice
these interpretations.
all
in-
in-
the third as a prophetic estimate of present,
just transpiring, events (Marti).
has been done to
book of Ob. The first

This has been the usual
The
older prophet
quoted, and the authors of the appendix spoke of the future.
who
is
Ob. gave
a prophetic estimate of events that had taken or were just taking place
in hisôwn time.
4.
It
THE PROPHET AND
seems most reasonable
to identify Ob. with the prophetic

and not with the author of the older oracle
writer of the 5th cent,
whom
from
The
he quoted.
with the officer of Ahab,
law under Joshaphat,

2
Ch.
25^,
HIS BOOK.
34^^,
are
or with the
all
various identifications of Ob.,
K.
Ch, if, or with the overseer under Josiah,

2 Ch.
anonymous prophet under Amaziah,
without historical basis.
aside from his book.
e. g.,
18^ ^, or with the teacher of the
We know
nothing of Ob.
Tradition varies even in regard to the pro-
nunciation of his name.
The Heb. pronounces
it
Obadiah, wor-
shipper of Yahweh, the Gk. Abdiah, servant of Yahweh.
It
has
name for prophet of Yahweh. But its frequent occurrence as a common personal name
makes it unsuitable for such a use. It is obvious that we cannot^
characterise him from the few verses that he wrote.
But we are
even been suggested that
aware that
his strong
it is
way
a symbolic
of putting things, his graphic descrip-
tions, his love for striking pictures, his
quick exclamations, his
impassioned warnings throbbing with anger and sorrow,
made
all
aglow by a wonderfully vivid imagination, reveal a strong, passionate nature uncurbed by prophetic discipline
and experience.
OBADIAH
14
He heard Yahweh
and on the
tice of
in the voice of older
prophecy and of
Yahweh he
own day and
No wonder
his time
justice
Yet
expressed in particularistic form.
feelings of his
days!
.,
jus-
interpreted the stirring events of his time.
His vision was narrow and the conviction that
umph was
history,
and
basis of his profound belief in the consistency
it
must
tri-
voiced the
the passionate hopes of succeeding
book to
scheme
it an ex-
that a later writer readapted the httle
by bringing the judgment
of imiversal judgment,
and
of
Edom
into the larger
that this later writer
saw
in
pression of the great national hope and added his brief interpretation, so that it
became a book
age to age with
for all times
and could pass on from
burning message, ever setting hearts on
fire.
came to be thought worthy of a place in the

canon. And again and again when their enemies oppressed them,
the Jews would turn to it for consolation. After Edom had perished, it became the type of Israel's foes. The name of the enemies
changed; first the Romans, then the Christians became the EdomSmall though
its
ites for
little
it
was,
the Jews!
it
And
ever through the long centuries did this
book, which contained no wonderful vision and no great word,
voice the stifled cry for vengeance as
oppressed people, and, Jewish to
it
rose from the heart of the
its core, it
fed the hungry soul of
the suffering people again and again with the hope that the day of
vengeance was coming and that the day of triumph was at hand!
The
voice
that
it
was
selfish
for
was
so eager, so insistent, so full of throbbing passion
compelled them to
and
many Jews
far
below
listen.
And though
the hope
Israel's highest vision,
it
it
inspired
made it
possible
go on believing in the moral government of the
to
world, in the justice of their God.
Ay, the pathos of the
little
book!
Ob. follows
is not due
tion
directly
upon Amos
in the
to historical considerations
Heb. Canon.
But
this posi-
but to the reference to
Edom
Am. The book of Ob. appeared to theeditor to be

Am. 9" and so he put it after Am. Schnurrer showed
in the conclusion of
an expansion of
this already in
1787 {Dissertatio philologica in Obadiam). It is thereEw. should regard the position in the canon impor-
fore surprising that
Bu. suggests that

canon not only because
tant for fixing the date of the older oracle (Urobadja).
Ob. may have been
inserted into the proph.
Edom could not be passed over but in order to fill up the number twelve.
THE METRE
THE TEXT.
THE TEXT.
5.
The text
of
Ob.
is,
15
on the whole,
textcritical aid of the Vrss.
in
good condition.
About the
nothing special for Ob. need be said.
But in connection with the use of the parall. passage in Je. 49 it

must constantly be kept in mind that our aim is to restore the text
of Ob,; not the text of the orig. oracle from which Ob. quoted, but
the form of the text which Ob. wrote down.
Just as in an OT.
quotation in Paul's letters
we do not restore the reading of (^, if he

we want Paul's way of quoting it,
does not quote exactly, because
so in Ob. we may note his variations from the quoted oracle but
must not substitute such readings unless we are certain that the
variants in Ob. are not due to Ob. himself but to corruption. The
restoration of the original oracle imderlying Ob. and Je. is an entirely different task.
An
though unconvincing, reconstruction of
interesting,
this older
source by the aid of the metre was presented in ThStK., 1907, pp. 315-
by H. Bekel, Ein vorexilisches Orakel uber Edom in der Klageliederdie gemeinsame Quelle von Obadja 1-9 und Jeremia 49, 7-22.
Ein Beitrag zur Losung des Verwandtscha/tsproblems in beiden Texten.
43,
slroplie
THE METRE.
6.
The
prophets wrote their messages in rhythmic form and the
scheme is of great importance for

This holds true of the book of
And we observe that an arrangement of its rhythmic
recognition of their metrical

textual
Ob.
and
also.
structure,
tificial
that
literary criticism.
which suggests
itself
naturally
and which requires no arIt shows
reconstruction, corroborates ovu* literary results.
Ob. did quote from an older oracle
in the first section, that
he
movement and that he used it

boimd to the metrical structure of
himself preferred the pentameter
wherever he did not
feel
the older oracle, as
is
himself
clear
from those verses
w. " ^^".
oracle, w. ^*^- * are
own
interpretation, as in
tion
from the older
''
in
which he gives his
Indeed, even in his quotaa tetrastich of pentameters
OBADIAH
l6
owing
appendix points to
of the
of vv.
Notice also the pentameter which
to his modifications.
introduces the quotation in

^^^^
^^^-
v.
^.
The
different metrical structure
secondariness,
its
and the
irregularity
author has collected several
to the fact that the
originally not connected elements into this section.
The
metrical
and
strophical
ceived close attention.
form
Ob. has only
of
in recent years re-
Eich. had indeed printed his transl. in metre as
early as 1819, being convinced that the addresses of the prophets were
always rhythmic, and Bu. had shown {ZAW., 1882,
p. 34) that
w.
'
and '2", and also {ZAW., 1883, pp. 305 /.) v. "> are in Hno/t-measure.
But Con. was the first to take up the problem as a whole in 1900.
His main interest was to prove the unity of Ob. by the strophical
arrangement of the
oracle.
He
used Zenner's
artificial
chorus-theory
and antistrophes and presented a very regular scheme,

with natural and effective divisions. But that these were intended as
strophes and antistrophes he did not show. And even if it could be
with
its
strophes
shown, how can the strophical arrangement alone be sufiScient to prove

the unity of the book, when other arguments are opposed to it? In
contrast to Con., Siev. (1901) treated not the strophic structure but the
rhythmic form which Con. had neglected.

tribution that the oracle
ity.
is
He showed
in
rhythmic throughout, but with
a careful conlittle
regular-
JMPS. (1906) used both metr. and stroph. considerations as means

and
While Con. had tried to prove the

show by the use of the metr. and stroph. structure
According to him it consists of three elethat the book is composite.
ments which are "not vitally related to one another" and which "differ
They are: A, w.
in form, in thought, in point of view and in spirit."
i-7e. 10. 11. t5b^ composed of five six-line trimeter strophes, B, vv. "", one
for textual
unity.
Smith
literary criticism.
tried to
^^<^- ^"2', composed of

and 8 lines respectively, with broken rhythm, varying between trimeter and tetrameter. And besides these "the fragment,
six-line
kinah or pentameter movement, C, vv.
three strophes of 4, 8
w. '-'," a five-line strophe. Smith's stroph. arrangement is less natural

than Con.'s, and in his endeavour to get strophes of uniform length he
has to reconstruct the text quite
year (1906)
Now. published a
On w. '^-h^
freely.
careful metr.
and
y,
i.
In the same
textcrit. edition
which
forms the best basis for further investigation along these lines. In 1907
Siev. tried to show with the aid of the metre that the book is composed of
four originally unrelated sections:
pentameter form,
vv.
16- 17- 18
meters.
originally
I,
II, vv. ""P^. i. iba.
in heptameters followed
vv.
^^-
10-14. i6b
by
^^- ^'- ' ' "> '
in
heptameter form,
trimeters, IV,
w.
'
in
III,
>" in hepta-
and III were probably two

independent pieces which originated under similar circum-
I is
most
likely the orig. oracle.
II
MODERN LITERATURE
17
a fragment of a larger piece than an apIn the deletion of secondary

elements Siev. follows We., Now. and Marti, but wherever his metr. reconstruction requires it he goes beyond them. Thus he omits, e. g., all
In order to
the negatives in w. '2-", which is textcritically unjustifiable.
get a regular scheme he resorts to transpositions (in I and II) which can-
more
stances, III being
pendix to
IV
II.
likely
a later appendix.
is
not be naturally explained, and ignores the one principle of Heb. metre,
the parall. of the lines, which has so long been regarded as fundamental
(c/"., e.
g.,
w. '-").
Nevertheless, Siev.'s contribution
In 1909 Marti published a
the rhythm.
the textcrit., literary

essentially the
same
and metr.
is
of great value for
which he expressed
commentary. It occupies
transl. in
results of his
position as Now.^, but treats
w.
"-''
also as met-
Kent's metr. translation of 19 10 somewhat marred by the repthat by Du.

resentation of w.
The most recent metr.
rical.
is
'2-K.
transl, is
(1910) in which he represents
w.
'-'^
(without the add. of
w.
" "'^- '
two distichs each, apparendy, in pentameter

16.J
movement. The appendix he prints as prose. The metrical scheme of
Ob. is, however, not as regular as Du. would lead one to believe and in
.
i3^.
in 14 stanzas of
so far his transl. does not represent the metre of the original.
MODERN LITERATURE.
7.
(i)
hom,
Commentators dealing with

1819; Ewald,
*
Steiner,
von
all the
Minor
Prophets.
1868 (Engl., 1875); Hitzig,
Eich-
1843; Hitzig-
1881; Pusey, 1861; KeU,
Orelli,
^
1873 (Engl., 1880),' 1888;
1888 (Engl., 1893),' 1908; Wellhausen, 1892, ^ 1898;
G. A. Smith, 1897-98; Nowack, 1898,
1903; Marti, 1903, van
Hoonacker, 1908.
(2)
Special commentaries on Obadiah.
Prophet Obadja,
(Engl.,
1875).
1842.
Kleinert,
in
Wynkoop, in Abr. Kahana's

Hal^vy, Le Livre d'Obadia, in
last
(3)
Heft
in the
Cambridge Bible,
Biblia Hebraica,
1889.
1906 (Hebrew).
his Recherches Bibliques, IV, 1907,
1909.
Kent, Students^ Old Testament,
III,
1910.
two give a translation and brief notes.
Special
I,
1868
Marti, in Kautzsch's Die Heilige Schrift des Alten
pp. 452-70.
Testaments,
C. Caspari, Der
Norbert Peters, Die Prophetic Obadjahs, 1892.
T. T. Perowne, Obadiah and Jonah,
The
P.
Lange's Bibelwerk,
articles.
Winckler,
1900, pp. 425-32, Heft
2,
.407*',
Zweite Reihe,
1901, p. 455.
Band
Selbie, in
III,
DB.,
OBADIAH
l8
III, 1900.
Cheyne, in EB.,
Ill, 1902.
Bruston, Les plus anciens ProphUes.
B. Gray, in Hastings's one
by Driver,
Budde, Geschichte der
G.
G. A. Peckham, Intro-
vol. ed., 1909.
duction to the Study ofObadiah, 1910.

esp. those
Barton, in JE., IX, 1905.
Etude Critique, 1907.
See also the Introductions,
1909; Konig, 1893; Comill,

althebra'ischen Litteratur,
1906,
and
and Das
1905;
Prophetische Schrifttum, 1906.

(4)
The
exandriner,
text
and
ZAW.,
metre.
VoUers, Das Dodekapropheton der Al-
IV, 1884, pp. 16 jf.
Sebok, Die Syrische
l/ber-
Graetz, Emendationes
setzung der zwolf kleinen Propheten, 1887.
in plerosque sacra Scriptures. Veteris Testamenti libros,
II,
1893.
Mikrd ki-Pheschuto, III, 1901. Cheyne, Critica Biblica,

II, 1903.
Oesterley, Codex Taurinensis (Y), JTS., VII, 1906,
Conpp. 518^. Nowack, in Kittel's Biblia Hebraica, 1906.
Ehrlich,
damin, L'Unite d'Abdias, RB., IX, 1900, pp. 261-68.

Metrische Studien,
cellen,
I,
1901, pp. 479-82,
and
Sievers,
Alttestamentliche
Mis-
VII, pp. 38-49, in Berichte iiber d. Verhandl. d. Kgl. Sachs.
Ges. d. Wissensch., 59 Band, 1907.
J.
M.
P. Smith,
of Obadiah, AJSL., XXII, 1906, pp. 131-38.
Propheten in den Versmassen der Urschrift
The Structure
Duhm, Die Zwolf
iiber setzt,
19 10.
Edom. Buhl, Die Geschichte der Edomiter, 1893. C. C.

Torrey, The Edomites in Southern Judah, JBL., XVII, 1898, pp.
16-20.
F. H. Vincent, Les Nabateens, RB., VII, 1898, pp. 567Baudissin, in PRE.^ V, 1898. Sayce, DB., II, 1899. Nol88.
deke, EB., II, 19 10. Briinnow und v. Domaszewski, Die Provincia Arabia, I, 1904. Libbey and Hoskins, The Jordan Valley and Petra, 2 vols., 1905.
Musil, Arabia Petraea, II, 1908.
Dalman, Petra und seine FelsenheiligtUmer, 1908. G. A. Smith,
The Land of Edom, Exp., beginning Oct., igoZff.
(5)
COMMENTARY ON OBADIAH.
The
the Vision of Obadiah, does not give time,
title,
father's
name
Vision
of the prophet.
is
a technical
home or
name for
prophecy, referring to the divine communication received in the
Later
ecstatic state.
which formed
the
title
cerning
{cf.
its
it
referred esp. to the eschatological
of a book.
The
Edom, with
its
Am. f
may be
8^)
Here, as in
contents.
An
i\ Na. i\
introd., thus saith the
it is
drama
used as
Lord Yahweh con-
emphasis on the sovereignty of Yahweh

intended either for the whole oracle
better, only for the older oracle
Vv. 1-4.
Is.
which
is
quoted in
w.
or,
^.
had declared when certain nations were

war against Edom that the outcome would he
Nothing would save her; even if her impregna-
older oracle
allying themselves for
Edom's downfall.
ble fortresses
were
stronger, they
still
Yahweh Himself would

On
the older oracle
quotes here
we may
bring
would
he of
no
avail, because
Edom down.
and Ob.'s
relation to Je. see Intro.
take the impf in

.
v.
Since Ob.
I will bring her down, as refer-
*,
and the pfs. in vv. 2- 3 as proph. pfs., even though in later

Ob. speaks of the past. Those who do not perceive that Ob. is
ring to the fut.

verses
quoting see in vv.
'-*
a description of past (We.) or of just transpiring
events (Marti).
1. We have heard an audition, or oracle, may also be translated,

We have heard a report or tidings (RV.) But then the phrase/row
.
Yahweh
is
without point, for
it is
not the news of the formation of
an alliance that has been received from Yahweh, but the oracle in
w. ^* which interprets the significance of this historic movement.

And so the foil, sentence, and a messenger was sent among the nagrammatically or logically dependent on we have
marks the circumstance, and should therefore be transby when or while a messenger was being sent among the naOnly thus is v. ^ a natural introduction to v. ^. A messenger,
tions, is neither
heard, but
lated
tions.
or messengers
(coll. sg.), is
going from country to country trying

19
OBADIAH
20
to
persuade the various nations
This
ful
going on
is still
and
to join
an alliance against Edom.

49 gives the more forcesent as a prtc.
when Yah-
for the parall. in Je.
better interpretation
by reading
weh suddenly reveals to his prophet that He is behind the movement (vv. ^'*). Ace. to the better text of Je. 49 this was revealed to
the proph. alone in an audition: I have heard.
and not the people

revelation
and interpretation of
In the Heb. text of Ob.

the people, for
reads
it
It is
the prophets
in general that are the recipients of the divine
it is,
historic events
{cf.
Am.
3^ Is. 5).
however, not the proph. alone but also
we have
Since they cannot
heard.
all
have
had an audition we seem forced to translate hearing by rumor, but

if we do this, v. ^ stands in no immediate connection with v. ^.
The
reading
we liave
also
(jg
in
tion
he did not see
heard
therefore inferior, as not only Je. 49 but
is
When
our text shows.
the proph. received the revela-
in his ecstatic state the messenger,
one of the
who was to go to the nations, nor did he hear the

message which Yahweh commanded him to give. For the messenger was no angel, nor are we told that he was sent by Yahweh,
though eg interprets thus. He was human and sent by some naheavenly beings,
he
tion, for
All this
is
identifies himself with the nations to
when
clear
when a messenger was
which he goes.
the circumstantial character of the clause
among
being sent
Who these nations were is left imsaid.
the nations is recognised.
Cf.
on
v.
which nation was the soul of the confederacy.
'.
Nor do we know
The purport of the
is smnmarised in direct speech.

It is due to the excitement or rather to the rhythmic movement of the sentences in the
orig. that it is not introduced by saying; similarly, e. g., Is. 3^- ".
message
The
messenger's
throwing
call to
Edom, Rise
a military alliance for the purpose of over-
ye,
and
let
us rise up against her for war!
reads somewhat differently and more nearly as the older oracle in

Je. 49",
Gather yourselves together, and come against her, and rise
up for war!
The dramatic
element in
this brief,
graphic descrip-
The name of the nation against

which the alliance is formed is not given. The people to whom the
messenger spoke knew, of course, who was meant. And we know
tion should not
it
be overlooked.
from the heading both
scription of the
in
Ob. and
moimtain people
in Je.,
in the
foil,
and
also
from the de-
verses which can only
1-4
refer to
when
Edom.
all
It is
21
strange that the messenger says against her,
through the rest of the book
(fern.)
Edom
rather than of the people (masc).
giving the
hist,
is
We should
masc.
may have thought
probably restore the masc, but he
So
of the land
far all is introd.,
Now the oracle begins. Yahweh
circumstances.
explains the underlying significance of this alliance.
movement.
The
make
thee small
be translated by the
The
more
Thus
^.
all
But
light of the threatening danger.
emphatic position and the term used
is
The
invincible
time she
this
The
change
(sg. coll.)
Mt. Seir and

ellers.
liance.
esp. of Petra
Nature
itself
No wonder
his heart (for to the
or
it
must
thou
saith
set
justify
has
reads the height

cliffs
Edom's proud
Heb. puts it,
of
trav-
self-re-
says in
seat of the intellect as well
Who shall bring me down to the ground ?

Je.
49 does not have this graphic

be omitted in Ob. 4. What
not, therefore,
an unexpected reply there comes!

eagle, higher
That makest high
or, as the
Heb. the heart is the
proud, defiant question!
sentence, but
it
have been frequently described by
he thinks
as of emotion and volition).
O thou that
strongholds of the high
appeared to
that
an
may be either
may have special
in the vocalisation of the text
The natural
i.
mistaken.
rock (selah)
been adopted on the authority of the Vrss.

of his habitation, v.
and makes
is
subj. stands in
very forcible.
reference to the capital Selah, the later Petra.

slight
among men
is
pride of thy heart has deceived thee.
pf.
It is
added to humiliation,
3. But Edom is full of de-
Scorn
the rocks of Mt. Seir in general
pf.
were already accom-
the parall. in Je. 49^^ reads
orig. exceedingly.
dwellest in the clefts of the rock!
The
the proph.
if it
making the misfortune more bitter.

She thinks her mountain fortresses
thy habitation.
behind the
the nations, not merely the ones
fiance.
The
It is in line
is
the nations.
it is
behold 1 as
nations are here
referred to in v.
for Ob.'s
it,
among
because
fut.,
so certain that he points to

plished.
Himself
nations are but His instruments.
2. Behold, I will
is to
He
Edom.
with his purpose concerning
Though thou mount high as the
than any other bird (Jb. 39" ^- Pr. 23^), yea, though
among the stars, even thence will I bring thee down,
thy nest
Yahweh. Cf Am. 9^ *
yea, though thou set thy nest
Is.
14" ^.
among
The parall.
the stars
in Je. 49 omits
and reads though thou
OBADIAH
22
down
buildest thy nest as high as the eagle, I will bring thee
Ob. makes
more
where the
this
Edom's
forcible.
high
cliffs
seem
inaccessible, but
eagles build their nests,

if
Edom
should soar as high as the eagle and
build her nest in the very sky, where the eagle only
not nest, even there she would not be

thee
down, says Yahweh.
thence.
now on the
and they may well
seats are even
The
flies
but does
even thence will I bring
safe,
additions in
w.
^- *
show the
vivid
imagination and intense feeling of Ob.
The fall from the
5-7. This older oracle has been fulfilled.
Ha! how
has come.
How thoroughly her
Edom
completely
rich treasure-stores have just been rifled!
she herself has been driven from her impregnable seats
Former
of her coimtry.
was
too stupid to see
allies
have done
height
has just been cleaned out!
it
And
to the border
by treachery which
Edom
through!
Clearly a fresh beginning
is
quotation from an older oracle.
made here. This is no longer merely a

The vividness of the exclamations, the
' show that

Ob. describes now with some of the terms of the old oracle its fulfilment
Edom, in
in the ruin of Edom which had taken place in his own time.
vv. '% still proud and defiant in her ancient seats on Mt. Seir, has been
driven from these strongholds and has lost all her great riches (vv. * ')
Grammatically the pfs. in these verses may, of course, be either hist.,
use of the past tenses and esp. the detailed description in v.
describing past or present events, or proph., describing the future with
an assurance as if it were already past. The use of one impf. at the

end of V. ', they lay, or shall lay, snares under thee, might seem to point
to the latter cstr., if it could not just as well be transl. they kept setting
traps (GASm.).
It does, therefore, not decide the question in favour of
the predictive interpretation.
The materia! for a decision is given by the
The comparison
relation of the verses to the orig. oracle.

parall. in Je.
49
{cf.
p. 35/.),
shows that Ob.
oracle but modifies the prediction to a hist, retrospect

scribes the fulfilment in
preserved, in
The
tain.
words of
his
own.
In
Ob. the prediction has become
with the
utilises portions of the old
and
finally de-
Je. the prediction is still
history.
details of the description of the hist, situation are not quite cer-
Who
the enemies are,
we
are not told.
They
are not necessarily
same enemies in w. ^-^ that the older proph., from whom Ob. quoted,
was speaking of in v. ', for Ob. lived, of course, later. We do not know
whom the older proph. referred to, nor are we sure whom Ob. meant,
though he defines them as former friends and allies. This might refer
to Moab and Ammon, but no hist, tradition has been preserved that they
the
defeated
Edom
in postexilic limes.
It
is
much
rather the Arabians, as
5-7
23
We. has shown, who pressed upon the Edomites from the beginning of
the 6th cent, on and who eventually drove them out of their territory
toward the north, so that we find in 312 B.C. the ancient seat of Edom,
Mt.
Seir, in the
hands
Nabateans
of the
while the Edomites were dwellhad demercy of
ing in the Negeb, into which they had poured after the Bab. exile
populated Jerusalem and the Judean
cities
and
left
them
at the
their neighbours.
Note that Ob.,
harmony with the hist, situation just outlined, speaks

and dispossession of Edom, not of its ab-
in
of the thorough plundering
The terms
solute extermination.
49'<"',
5-7.
of the older oracle, preserved in Je.
were too strong for him.
The
thought of
Thieves would
v.
leave gleanings, but
gets its full significance from the
steal only as
how
fearfully
has
Edom
Thieves or robbers can never have done that!

tinuation of the thought
Yahweh was the author
is
foil.
much as they want and vintagers would

been plundered!
The orig.
we read
preserved in Je., where
of the catastrophe.
conthat
Ob.'s continuation in
the nature of a hist, commentary. Not thieves or robbers

by night but the treachery of former friends and alKes has brought
on this calamity. 5. The phrase robbers by night was added by
V. ' is in
Ob.
in his free quotation,
The
text.
exclamation
and should not be omitted from the Ob.

art thou destroyed, however, comes in
how
so abruptly, tearing apart the closely connected clauses of the sentence, that
It is
some have regarded
it
as a gloss, others as misplaced.
not in Je. 49' and forms no part of the older oracle.
Ob.'s
own
strong emotion, as
is
most
likely, it
If it
voices
prob. stood orig.
and was Ob.'s introd. exclamation to his

fall from the height has indeed come.
How art thou destroyed/ or, how art thou thrown down! (H. The
comparison of Edom's spoilers with vintagers must have suggested
itself almost inevitably, because of the many fine vineyards on Mt.
Seir.
Vintagers were not only in the habit of leaving gleanings,
but were even forbidden by law, in the interest of the poor (Dt.
at the beginning of v.
hist,
commentary.
24^*), to
^,
The
go through the vines a second time.
Thus
the glean-
ings are repeatedly used as an apt comparison for the remnant.
How is Esau searched out! Again one of those exclamations

Ob. over the magnitude of the disaster! The Obadian char-
6.
of
acter of
it is
brought out not only
l^y
a reference to the other in
v.
OBADIAH
24
but also by a comparison with
Je. 49,
where the calmer and more
Esau
logical reading of the orig, oracle is preserved.
Edom,
used for
is
The Edomites, who were very wealthy
as Jacob for Israel.
as a result of their trade, had hidden their treasures ace. to the old
custom
safes
(Is.
hewn
are rifled!
45^ Pr.
2^
3^*)
Jb.
in secret
and
inaccessible places, in
in the rocks (Diodorus Siculus 19^-
7.
Ob.
Now all these
^^).
interprets the catastrophe as the fulfilment of
the old oracle and he gives the explanation which complements

vv.
The
^ ^.
catastrophe
probably the Nabateans,
is
due
v. s.
the border of their country,
and
to
former friends and
They have
cast
allies,
most
driven the Edomites
them out
to
of their ancient seats
The allies are called in

who were boimd to the Edomites by
the sacred bonds of a treaty or covenant, also the men of thy peace,
The sentence Thy friends have deceived thee, prei. e., friends.
of which they themselves took possession.*
Heb.
men
the
of thy covenant,
vailed over thee,
is
an almost exact, though not necessarily conscious,
quotation from one of Jeremiah's own dirges (Je. 38^); only a syno-
nym
for deceived is
over thee
is
force as
by
bread,
Heb.
where
used there.
The exact
The
trickery.
AV., RV., and
[the
man
much by
bracketed words in [They that
men
of] thy bread,
If correctly supplied the
the
significance of prevailed
gained from the context, they prevailed not so
of thy covenant
meaning
is parall.
eat]
AV., are not
is clear
thy
in the
from Ps.
41^,
to he that eats thy bread.
Eating bread with a Semite meant entering into fellowship with

him, a custom
stiU
prevalent in the bread and salt covenant.
But
The word translated thy bread is not (^, and

may therefore be a variant of thy peace ; men of thy peace = men of
the text
is
thy breed.
not certain.
But
is
it
The first three words
more probable
of v.
'
that
it
should be emended very
are capable of several interpretations.
Lit., tliey
read unto the
This may mean (i) they have brought thee on thy way, even to the
border, RV., which has been variously explained as meaning either that the allies accompanied
the Edomites to the border to leave them there at the mercy of their enemies, or to attack and
plunder them there; or that they escorted the ambassadors of Edom politely to the border without, however, giving them aid.
Or it may mean (2) they have sent thee away, i. e., the Edoraborder have they sent thee.
itish fugitives
who came
to find refuge with their friends.
Or it may mean
(3) they
have driven
RV., i. e., the Edomites have been driven to the border of their
land by their former friends and allies.
On the whole this last interpretation is the best. It
is true that the Heb. word for driving out is not as strong as we should expect, but the weaker
word was prob. used with intention, because the foil, shows that Edom's fall was not so much
due to force as to treachery.
thee out, ei'en to the border,
8-1
25
slightly so as to read, to discomfit thee they
tripping thee
up and bringing thee to
fall.
continued or reiterated action in the past.
Under
text. n.
is after all
thee is not idiomatic
nants should be differently
mayed, for there was no understanding in

him, but it must have orig. been in
thee,
This clause
throughout the verse.

note,
The tense expresses the

The translation snare
the most probable.

and therefore the consopointed and divided, and thou wast dis-
(RV.), though not altogether certain,
See
have kept laying snares,
and transposed
into v.
is
The
thee.
text reads in
because the 2d pars,
is
used
omitted by some as a marg.
by others.
Details of the trickery
are not given.
Vv. 8-9. Is not

declared that
take
prophecy which had
away Edom's wisdom
in order
her utterly ?
to destroy
this in fulfilment of the
Yahweh would
The last clause, because there was no understanding in thee, has reminded Ob. of the older oracle. Had it not said just this, that Yahweh
would stultify, at the time of the impending catastrophe, all the wise men
of Edom, so that none would be able to devise a means of deliverance
and every single Edomite should perish? Yes, they were to be destroyed completely and, indeed, they ought to be because of their cruel
behaviour toward their brother nation Judah at the time of her
On
tress.
dis-
the authenticity of these verses, see p. 36.
The decree of Yahweh is introduced in a rhetorical fashion,

Was it not in that day? said the old oracle that I would deThe Heb. has wise men but the parall.
stroy wisdom from Edom.
8.
lit.,
and understanding from Mt. Esau suggests the reading wisdom.

slighter change than the alternate sug-
This presupposes a
gestion which changes understanding to
though the meaning

to
Judah
this that
in Is.
is
the same.
29" so that
it is
men
Edom was famous for her wise men.

is
used only in Ob.
9. So that thy heroes,
is
^^,
* ^- ^^- ^^,
Teman, should
That day
is
the 3d pers.,
cf.
Je. 49^.
The
here not
but of Edom's judgment.

usually
it is
he dismayed.
Mt.
If
Seir.
not merely
a scribal error, the sudden change to the direct address

Ob.'s manner of quoting.
applied
not permissible to argue only from
the day of universal judgment, as in v.
Mt. Esau
of understanding,
Similar phraseology
is
due
to
older oracle seems to have used
But Ob. had addressed
Edom
throughout
OBADIAH
26
and
so
he naturally
falls into
the direct address here,
On Teman,
Am.
where he does
was a northern
district of Edom (Ez. 25^^).
But nothing can be deduced from its
northerly situation in regard to the direction from which the attacknot quote very
literally.
ing enemies came, for
it
49^), the heroes of Edom,
cf.
stands here for
and
i".
Edom
It
in general
{cj.
Je.
was contained
in the old oracle {cf. Je. 49')
Nobody will defend the country and
the result will be the total destruction of Edom. This is described
as Yahweh's purpose in robbing them of their wisdom and valour,
is
used here because
it
By slaughter
in order that everybody might he cut offfrom Mt. Esau.

is
joined by
(^, 21
and many scholars
gives an inferior combination, the stronger
weaker.
It
goes well with
10-11. They
v.
But this
word preceding the
to the next verse.
and the metre favours
*,
Jtave richly deserved this terrible
this.
punishment,
(v. ^^) at
the time
when Jerusalem was taken by the barbarians
10. Because of the violence done
to
thy brother Jacob.
be-
Judah
cause of their brutal behaviour toward their brother nation
(v. ^*).
Edom and
Israel
were brother nations and never forgot
their kinship.
23'.
Yet they often fought each other with
hot, relentless hatred.
Cf Am.
The name Jacob
i".
Judah;
terprets, to
it is
Cf. Dt.
refers here, as Jo. 4*^ correctly in-
used to
set into
sharp
relief
the heinous
character of Edom's guilt; he inflicted violence on his brother/

this reason
shame
covers thee
and thou
shalt be cut off forever/
For
All
hope of a final restoration is excluded. 11. Edom's acts of violence were committed at the time of the capture of Jerusalem by the
Chaldeans in 586 B.C., when thou stoodest by, or aloof, without helping thy brother,
when
(so
M reads) strangers carried away his
his brother Jacob's) forces or substance.

either /orce^ (sg. coll.,
The
former
with
it,
(i. e.,
The Heb. word may mean
AV., RV.) or substance, wealth (RV.).
favoured by the usage of the vb. which
is employed
and is used of
living beings, men or animals.
The latter is favoured by v. ". But
the continuation and foreigners entered his gates and cast the lot
over Jerusalem to apportion among themselves the captives and the
booty, makes the clause in either translation appear premature.
for
We read,
down
is
it
means
to take
or carry away, captive,
therefore, with a slight emendation,
his bar,
and
when
strangers broke
so he conXmMes,foreigners entered his gate and
i2-i6
cast lots over
Jerusalem
The
{v. i.).
27
casting of the lot
was a
relig-
ious function, the deity being supposed to direct the outcome.
How
12-14. 15b.
Edom was at that time

now vengeance has come, he has re-
malicious and cruel
A h,
toward his brother I
but
ceived his due recompense/

Ob.'s intense feeling throws the description of Edom's behaviour into
They do not
the form of imvs.
refer to the fut.
but to the past which
the vivid imagination of the prophet conjures up.

it
w.
joined
"-"
perceived
directly to v. " as additional description
this, for
by omitting
But it would be a mistake to infer, as, e. g., Siev. does, that

Heb. did not contain them. There is no explanation for their
later introduction, while their omission can easily be accounted for.
Moreover, while the omission produces an easier text and in general
gives the correct meaning, it does away with the personal, anxious elethe negatives.
the orig.
ment which
12.
so clearly genuine.
is
M reads
gloat not over the
misfortune, but
it is
day of thy
brother, the
This brings
barbarian instead of the day of his misfortune.

direct relation with the preceding (v.
i.).
The
Edom's
own
fall.
Ez. 35^)
They
mouths large with laughter and taunts (Ez.
aster, niade their
and
text, n.)
{cf.
gloated
brother, rejoiced with malicious joy over his dis-
13. They entered

plundering.
and
short warnings give a vivid picture of
behavioiu: at the time of Jerusalem's
over their
{cf.
The
in
it
brief sentences
the slightly varied repetition of the day of his calamity
are very effective.
day 0/ his
better to read with a slight emendation as a
35^^-
^'').
into the gate of Jerusalem, behaved wickedly
stretched out their
14. They
hand
to its wealth, looting
and
stood at the breaches, or, better, at the part-
knew much better than the Babylonidown the fugitives or treacherously to deliver them
merciless enemies. But nobody can do such things
ings of the ways, which they
ans
up
(Cal.), to cut
to their
with impunity, for to the Jewish proph. the world
a righteous God.
it
done
to thee,
thy recompense returns on thine
impf. refers to what has just been happening.

V. "'; Jo. A*-
''
is
controlled
by
15b. The requital has come as thou hast done,
(La. 3^) with v.
The Appendix (w.
'^*-
^^^*)
Cf. Je. 50^^-
is
The
own head!
^
with
^"b^.
brings the message of Ob. into the
larger connection of the day of
Yahweh, which
will
be a day of
OBADIAH
28
judgment
for the nations
and
Edom, but
esp. for
of triumph for
the Jews.
grown out of an entirely different historical situation. Edom,

Judah than ever, had not ceased hating or annoying
Judah. But there was no sign of redress. The Nabatean invasion had
long been a thing of the past, and at the time of the writer there was nowhere a movement that might seem to be directed against Edom. And
so he could only hope for the day of Yahweh's judgment on all nations,
of which the judgment of Edom was to be a part.
And as he longed with
yearning passion the great hope became a certainty in him that Yahweh's
day was near at hand.
It has
closer neighbour to
Vv. 15a 16-18. The day of Yaliweh is at hand when all the namust drink the cup of his fury. The Jews indeed need not he
tions
afraid, for they
have already received their punishment, and those
of them that have escaped shall dwell on Mt. Zion without fear of
On
ever again being driven out by foreign invaders.
the contrary,
they will drive out those nations that had dispossessed them and
more
esp.
Edom, which Jacob and Joseph,
Yahweh's
ace. to
decree,
will completely destroy.
15a. As the text now stands the thought of the nearness

day of Yahweh with its swift requital of wickedness {cf. Jo.
should have restrained
of Jerusalem's
Edom
But
fall.
from
its
this connection is secondary.
^^^
between w.^'"-
i^^ 2^)
cruel behaviour at the time
not belong with the preceding but with
an
of the
and w.
w.
^^
^^^.
^-
V.
^^^
appears
it
does
to
be
16. The
Jews are
now addressed, no longer the Edomites. For as ye have drunk
upon my holy mountain. The speaker is Yahweh. The change
ed. link
by the use
of address is indicated only
abrupt that many, from the
earliest
of the
2d
pers. pi.
and
is
so
times on, have overlooked or
denied the change altogether, cf C|. They interpret the drinking

on Mt. Zion by the carousing and revelling of the Edomites in
Jerusalem after the plimdering of the holy

not be the meaning
tions drink
wrath.
miah
is
clear
from the
foil,
city.
where
But
that this can-
so shall all the na-
can only refer to the drinking of the cup of Yahweh's
It is
the striking figure derived from the vision of Jere-
(ch. 25),
which symbolises the
by Yahweh. Cf. also
Je.
49^.
terrible
punishment
inflicted
The abrupt change of address would
16-19
be obviated,
we
if
29
translated with a very slight change, For as
my
my
But perhaps this is

not necessary. The Jews have already drvmk the cup of Yahweh's
It is
fury, on the great judgment day all the nations shall drink.
strange that they are to drink continually, for there must be an end
people have
drunk upon
when
of the drinking,
holy mountain.
they have fallen into a heavy stupor and
are as though they had not been.
If orig.,
the writer intended prob-
ably to express the continued pimishment of the nations with the

implication "that the turn never passes from the heathen to
(Is. 51^^- ^^)" (Hi.), or, better,
But the word
shall drink (Ehr.).
(5 rea.ds wine,
many
many Heb.
all
is textcritically
mss. read round about
likely that the text
or the cup from
my
hand.
not quite certain,

(cf.
crit. n.
And
4^*),
and they
shall be as
and
But
per-
it is
(cf.
Jb.
they shall be swal-
lowed up, perish or (ace. to We.'s emendation)

La.
Zc. 12^);
my fury
read originally either
See
Judah
the na.tions ivithout exception
scholars have followed the one or the other.
haps more
6^)
that
reel,
stagger
{cf.
though they had not been, disappearing
17.
For Judah the day of Yahweh has no terrors,

judgment as a
of which only a remnant is left who shall dwell in Mt, Zion.
completely.
for she has already passed through the purifying

result
Cf.
This
Is. 4^ 37^^.
tion with the
escaped ones.
i. e.,
is the
escape technically so called in connec-
day of Yahweh, the
And
abstr.
noun
is
inviolable, as Jo. 4^^ correctly interprets,
not again pass through her.
grammatically a
passage like this
used for the concr.
(Mt. Zion) shall be holiness, or a sanctuary,
it
See also
Is. 52^
and strangers
Zc. 9.
which
lead over to v.
^^
is
awkward, but this slight unevenness in a

not enough to justify the rejection of the
is
And
they of the house of Jacob shall possess
(again) their possessions, their former territory.
shall
clause
little
clause as secondary.
ing of
The
is
commented on
as the writer of
v.
This
is
the read-
in
w.
"
evidently intended, for he
*' ^.
But
it
does not
would hardly leave v. ^ imrelated in the context. This is done

by the slightly different vocalisation of the Vrss. which read and
they of the house of Jacob shall dispossess their dispossessors
mean by
the dispossessors esp. the Edomites
after the fall of Jerusalem.
Cf. Ez. 35^,
who
and
took the Negeb
where the Edomites
say.
These two nations and these two countries shall be mine and we
OBADIAH
30
will possess
w.
with
it
same
(the
^- ^^,
^^.
V.
Edom
Then
^18.
it
v.
^^
^^
so
interrupts the connection between v.
^''^
while the reading their possessions leaves
entirely unrelated that
and
This reading connects
vb. as here).
v.
shall Israel, not another, so utterly destroy
that not a single
Edomite
shall escape.
Cf.
w.^-
^.
It
be the avenger. This was also

Ezekiel's hope (25"). That our proph. thought of the N. and S.
kingdoms respectively is certain from w. ^^- ^^, if they are by him,
for there he interprets the house of Jacob and the house of Joseph
seemed only
by the
exiles of
of swift
3*^.
just that Israel should
and
Judah and
The rhythmic
The
same
in the
The
explanation of
Mai.
earlier
Yahweh Jms spoken
points
not only the writer's
is
12
In any case this final clause expresses that
direction.
the prediction
47" Zc.
were adopted from some
quotation-phrase for
Yahweh's own decree, and as such

19-21.
figurative expression
ease and beauty as well as the whole tone of
these lines indicate that they
prophet.
For the
of Israel.
total destruction, see also Is. 5^* 10^^
own
certain to
passionate wish but
be
fulfilled.
second section of the appendix gives a historical
w.
would dispossess
^'- ^^.
all its
V.
" had
said that the house of
dispossessors.
Jacob
This means, so these verses
explain, that all the old territory in its ideal
boundary
lines will
The Negeb, now in the hands of

Shephelah, now occupied by tlie Philistines, Mt.
again come back to Israel.

the Edomites, the
Ephraim, now the
territory of the
now Ammonitish,
all shall
the exiles will come back

exiles will
Samaritans, and Gilead which is
belong once more to Israel
and reconquer
the land.
(v. ^^).
The
For
Israelitish
occupy their territory as far north as Sar^phath and the
tlte Negeb
They will come and march to Mt. Zion to help their brethren punish Edom.
Then the golden time of Yahweh's reign will
Judean
(v. ^)
begin
exiles theirs in the south including the cities of
(v. ^*).
19-20 are a commentary on w.

territories
which
shall
^^^-
".
They
be reconquered by what
give a
is left
list
of the
of the house of
Jacob and the house of Joseph of v. ^*, i. e., the exiles of the N. and
S. kingdoms.
19. Owing to a grammatical peculiarity v. ^^ has
been variously explained.

Seir, the
Shephelah,
As
the text
now
stands the Negeb, Mt.
Philistia, the territory of
Ephraim including
19-21
31
The Edomites had
Samaria and Gilead are mentioned.
taken ad-
vantage of the deportation of the Jews after 586 b.c. to seize the
S. part of
own
Judah, the Negeb (Ez.
territory in the N.,
Hebron was
turies.
still
36^),
which adjoined
to
occupy
their
for cen-
it
Edomitish in Maccabean times
So the writer (others think a
5^).
^^
35^-
and they continued
glossator)
(i Mac.
added the explanaThe Shephelah was
Mount Esau, to the Negeb.

W. and SW. tract of Judah, the low hills between the high
central range and the maritime plain.
The boundary line between
tory statement
the
Judah and PhiHstia was not always

B.C. the PhiHstines
I
Mac.
The writer added
5^^.
planation the Philistines.
unusual.
After 586
clearly defined.
occupied more or less of the Shephelah.
Cf. "Ez. 4^ 36^^.
Cf.
therefore to the Sliephelah the ex-
Such explanatory statements are not

The fields of Ephraim, usually called
Mount Ephraim, represented the heart of the N. kingdom. It

was the northern part of the high central range, of which
Mount Judah was the southern. It extended N. to the plain of
Megiddo; its S. border was not closely defined. Later Moimt
Ephraim became the province of Samaria, and so the writer or the
glossator added the fields of Samaria.
Gilead must stand here for
the whole east Jordan coimtry. That Benjamin should be singled
out as taking Gilead and that he should be in the transjordanic
country where he did not live before the exile is strange. The
reading Benjamin is a corruption of B^ne 'Ammon. The Ammonites had come westward after the fall of Samaria and had occupied
the territory of Gad, extending north to the river Jabbok ( Je. 49^" ^.
The
coimtry of the Ammonites, therefore, which lay between the
Amon
The
and the Jabbok,
text of v.
^^
so
the writer explains,
Mount Esau, and the Shepfielah,

shall possess Mount Ephraim, i.
the
Ammonites,
The
Gilead.
i.
e.,
Gilead.
e.,
i.
fields of
tJie
e.,
20.
the Philistines,
The
text
is
i. e.,
and they
Samaria, and
very uncertain.
general tenor appears to be that the exiles of northern
Israel shall
reconquer the northern and the exiles of Judah the
southern part of the ancient dominion.

is
was
reads thus, and they shall possess the Negeb,
Sar'plmth or Sarepta (Lk.
4^^),
coast of the Mediterranean between
The
northern
limit
the Phoenician town on the
Tyre and Sidon
(i
K. 17^),
OBADIAH
32
modem
the
Sara/end and
The
Babylonians.
either
and
first
the Sariptu of
army or
sometimes been suggested that
it
the relative clause

part, a vb.
(?)
But
Canaanites
this is
to
It
company
not
in
has
of ex-
Then
likely.
Evidently
Sar^phath.
corrupt and the best suggestion reads for the
which
in the
Heb.
This corresponds
shall possess.
And
is
who
can be meant.
this indicates the
which Ob. himself belonged.
goes on of Israelites
rel.
fortress
translated
But nothing
the exiles of this fortress or of this army.
the context explains which
iles to
the Assyrians and
three words are generally
is
graphically very similar, they
to the second part of the verse.
since the second half defines the exUes of Jerusalem as living
in S^pharad,
it
would seem that the name of a place was
tioned with the Israelitish exiles; and
it is
also
men-
most natural and
for
graphic reasons easiest to think of Halah, one of the places in Assyria whither Israel
had been
carried (2
K.
17 18" i Ch.
5^*'),
the
Halahu in Mesopotamia. The text would then read, The exiles of

the Israelites who are in Halah shall possess Phoenicia as far as
Sar^phath, and the exiles of Jerusalem who are in S'pharad shall
possess the cities of the Negeb.
are meant.
The
By
the Canaanites the Phoenicians
author was one of those
who
believed in the re-
was shared, e. g., by Jeremiah and Ezekiel, but which later on became a matter of dispute
among the rabbis. Cf Schiirer,^ ii, 538. That there was still in
his time a well-defined body of Israelitish exiles at Halah is unnecturn of the northern tribes, a belief which
The writer knew from the study of sacred litHalah was one of the places whither the Israelites had
been carried. S^pharad, where the Judean captivity lived, was
most likely either a region in Asia Minor in the vicinity of Bithynia
and Galatia or a name for Asia Minor as a whole {v. i.). The Bab.
exiles had long since returned.
At the time of the writer the province of Judea was occupied by the Jews.
Its reoccupation is not
mentioned because it was an accomplished fact. 21. And they
shall go up as saviours to Mt. Zion to punish Mt. Esau.
It is,
of course, the exiles of v. ^ who will march to Jerusalem to help
essary to assume.
erature that
their brethren in the overthrow of
Edom, which
the Jerusalemites
alone could evidently not accomplish, an indication of their lack

of military strength at the
tiriie
of this writer.
We.,
et al.,
have
COMPARISON WITH
who
33
who came up from the country to help

Edom. It has seemed strange to
on to our own day, that they should go
thought of the Maccabees
Jerusalem and
49
JE.
defeated
some, from the time of (g
up to Mt. Zion, when they intended to punish ML Esau which

was not on Mt. Zion. And so they have preferred to read they
shall go up from Mt. Zion. But the usual combination of going
up instead of down from Mt. Zion, even if the vb. is taken in the
sense of making a military expedition renders the emendation improbable. And was it not, after all, natural for those armies to
march to Jerusalem and join forces with the men of Jerusalem for
a united attack upon Edom? This renders Marti's proposal to
omit either to Mt. Zion or preferably to judge Mt. Esau imnecessary.
The Vrss. read the saved for saviours; and the translation would
be either and those who are saved shall go up to Mt. Zion or, those
who are saved in Mt. Zion shall go up. But this reading which is
connected with v. ^^* is not so good as the other. Then, after the
judgment of nations in general and of Edom in particular, the
golden time of Yahweh's kingdom will come, when He alone
shall reign.
This is the bright side of the day of Yahweh, the
consummation of human history, in glad anticipation of which the
Yahweh
psalmists raised the jubilant shout
reigneth!
DETAILED COMPARISON OF OB. WITH
JE. 49
At the outset we should observe that Je. 49'-" is composed of two different elements (w. " and vv. ' ' "), as difference both in thought and
metre shows. For w. " are addressed to Dedan and have the rhythmic form 4:2; while w. ' ' 10 are addressed to Edom and have the
rhythm (3 :3)-t-(3 '.2). To these latter Ob. is parall. Gie. and Cor.
maintain that there must be a Jeremian nucleus and they regard w.
7. 8. 10. II as such.
For our purpose we may disregard w. " (Gie.) ^^
(Cor.) about
is
which they are not sure.
incomplete without
And
it.
v.
'
But v.
i"*
be regarded as Jeremian because of
its
ites
are exhorted to
flee in
order that they
will
look after them
(v. ")
from the
the sg.
pi. to
'
which
Vv.
*,
In v.
the
" be-
Dedan-
not be involved in the
Edom.
Dedan, not Edom,

is
may
'.
v.
reasoning, not
Let them flee precipiorphans and widows Yahweh will
overtake
tously, without waiting to take their
v.
own
Ob.
relation to
long together and had orig. nothing to do with
awful catastrophe which
belongs with
should, on their
is
addressed in
v. ,
the change
editorial.
It is striking that in the passages
where
Je.
49
is
parall. to
Ob. the
OBADIAH
34
metre
is
quite regular, while in the rest of the prophecy
it is
The
not.
rhythm is a double trimeter followed by a pentameter. Thus

saith Yahweh of Hosts in v. ' belongs to the oracle.
Its use in Ez. 2*
3*' as an equivalent of prophecy shows that it may form a part of an oracle.
And he cannot hide himselfm v, " is an edit, link between w. ' '<>
and V. "b. It interprets v. '" as referring to the detection of fugitives,
while v. ' shows that the plundering of the treasures was in the mind of
the author of the orig. oracle.
Ob. expresses this distinctly. The metre
prevailing
Moreover, the metre is so regular

" must also have had the double trimeter form and
have read/i9r behold I have made thee small, greatly despised among the
nations.
A copyist disregarded the metre and, solely intent on the
is vs.
the originality of the phrase.
throughout that
parall.,
nND
cle
put among the nations into the
greatly,
of
v.
which
Yahweh
still
is
in v.
half of the verse
is
and changed
mN3 among
stands outside of the metre.
'^
In Ob. the metre
first
preserved in Ob., to
It
is
Ora-
men.
omitted by
not so regular, indeed several times
it
(&.
seems to be
But also here the rhythm indicates that the orig. oracle
must have been metrical. This being so, the presumption is that its
metr. form is on the whole more correctly preserved in Je. If the metr.
form of Je. 49 were due to an editor, it would be singular that he did not
cast the whole oracle in this form.
We may now compare the texts in detail:
V. 1 Ob. We have heard, Je. 7 have heard. Since the phrase from
disregarded.
Yahweh has
its full
force only
a proph. audition
if
is
intended, the sg.
Ob. may be due to text, corruption since (&

has the sg. here also. The words of the messenger are metr. better
in Je. The meaning is the same in both.
Though Je.'s being sent (prtc,
pass. Qal) and Ob.'s was sent (pf, Pu.) presuppose no difference in the
cons, text, Je.'s pointing is exegetically preferable, v. i.
V. 2 Je.'s for
which connects vv. ' * was added by one who overlooked that the sentence and a messenger
baUle is a parenthesis.
The connective is
wanting in 05, where, however, behold is also omitted. Ob. changes the
constr. by adding thou after despised; in Je, despised is dependent on I
have made thee, in Ob, it begins a new clause, Ob, exceedingly, Je,
must be
The
orig.
pi. in
among men.
The
parallel
among
but Ob.'s exceedingly was the
who
the nations favours Je.'s
orig. text
among men,
which was changed by a scribe
neglected the metre and only observed the parall., v.
s.
V. 3 Metr.
Ob, lacks a hemistich in the first 1.
Je. has
at the beginning an add, word transl. by RV. as for thy terribleness, but
which orig. read thy folly,* and for the verbal sf, in hath deceived thee
.
Je. is in perfect order, while
The
difficulty of
insScn appears
to
be
satisfactorily solved
by reading with
Pet.
rinSon
and 'H, arrogantia tua. Du.'s ingenious explanation of

"inx^'ijn as a marg. n. on onN3, through Edom D1N3, thine abomination, i. e.,idol (c/. nxScD
1 K. is'' and Obed-Edom for the divine name) destroys the metr. symmetry.
It helps, how(c/.
Je. 23"), following <8,
17
iraiyyia (rov
ever, to explain the origin of the corruption of
^nSon
to ins'?fln.
COMPARISON WITH
he has an independent pron.
49
JE.
35
seems more natural that Ob. omitted
It
thy folly, which had already been expressed by the pride of thy heart,
and joined the sf. to the vb. than that Je. should have added the noun
and made the other necessary changes

metr. line required at this point.
double trimeter,
Je. has the regular
in order to
produce the
strictly
Ob. rock. In the next 1.

while Ob. has a pentameter.
Je,
Je. the rock,
Ob. the height of his habitation. If this

would be easy to show from gram, considerations
{cf. text, n.) that Je.'s is better, but in Ob. the pointing was orig. different,
as the Vrss. show, that maketh high his habitation, Dnn for ana. The
that holdest the height of the hill,
were Ob.'s
orig. text
it
decision rests thus simply
on the metre which favours
has an add. pentameter that saith in his

to the
ground ?
Who shall
Je.
V. 4. Ob.
bring
me down
seems impossible that Je. should

he had quoted from Ob. The same is true of the
It is so expressive that
have omitted
it,
striking add.
and though among
if
heart.
it
were
"hangs altowe should have a conclusive argument for
the stars were
well founded that without this phrase the
gether in the air" (Cor.),
foil,
set.
If the claim
thence in Je.
But thence is altogether in place in Je., for it refers to the

on which Edom dwells. Metr. the add. in Ob. does not fit
into the general scheme which here also is preserved in Je.
The difference of the condit. part, is unimportant
Vv. 5, 6 correspond to Je. 49'- "; they precede, therefore, in Je. the
verses corresponding to Ob. '-^
This diff. of order appears to have no
important bearing on the question of originality. V. 5 In Ob. how art
Ob.'s priority.
high
cliffs
thou destroyed!
is
added.
It interrupts the natural flow of the sentence
and can hardly have belonged to the orig. oracle. The further add. in
Ob. if robbers by night is not necessary to the thought and spoils the metr.
scheme. It also was not a part of the orig. oracle. The order of the
two similes in Je. retains thieves and by night and is therefore preferable.
Besides, the transition from the vintagers to the thieves is better than vice
The metre also favours Je.'s order. However, Ob.'s steal is
versa.
more orig. than Je.'s have destroyed, which, by the way, must have orig.
been in the impf. tense, cf. (&. Je.'s reading originated under the influence of Je. 49""'. Again, the rhetorical question in Ob. is not only more
lively and forcible than Je.'s simple statement of fact, but is required at
least in the first 1. by the sense, for we need the thought that vintagers do
leave gleanings and that thieves steal only as much as they need, while
the disaster of Edom cannot be explained by an ordinary visitation of
thieves and plunderers. This must be the meaning both of Je. and of
Ob. V. 6 Though not strictly like Je. 49"', it is similar enough to show
that they are related. The strong exclamation in Ob. is again more lively
and forcible than the simple statement in Je. But the constr. in Je. with
.
its
explanation of the author of the calamity, setting the I of
against the imaginary thieves
and
vintagers,
Yahweh
not they but II
is
over
clearer
OBADIAH
36
and more logical than the abrupt exclamation in Ob. whose form reminds one of the exclamation in v. ^ Whether the terms in Je. aside
from the constr. are more original than the synonyms in Ob. cannot be determined, unless the orig. be pre-exilic and the Aram, influence seen in
n3?3
(Ob.) be allowed to decide the question in favour of Je. as the earlier
V. 7. The continuation
reading.
is diflf.
from
Not only
that Je. 49i'"> belongs with 49"'.
Je. 4g"">.*
It is evident
the metre but also the round-
49"'b must therefore have been a

it.
Je.
Ob. could not make use of it, he goes his own
way. He does no longer quote a prophecy, but gives a specific description of the events which have taken place in his own day and in which
ing out of the thought require
part of the orig. oracle.
he perceives the fulfilment of the older prophecy.f

Vv. 8, 9 are so much alike in thought to Je. 49' that some kind of
relation
must
exist betw.
them, even though the phraseology
Again
strikingly similar.
metre
Je.'s
is
correct, while Ob.'s
is
is
not so
irregular.
But
if Ob. had quoted this also in his free manner.
and insist that vv. are a later insertion, because
It certainly looks as
We.,
et al.,
object,
they predict the catastrophe of
Edom
ing verses have already described
it
as
still
to
come, while the precedThis
as past or as just taking place.
appears to be a cogent reason for rejecting these verses, not to mention
and the difference of metre. If they clash

But so would the predicWe have here the same literary relation.
tion of the fut. in v. ' clash!
For when the connection with Je. 49 is taken into account it is most
plausible that Ob. himself should revert here once more to the older oracle
from which he had quoted. He sees this oracle fulfilled. Yahweh had
blinded Edom's wise men. Usually so wary, they had not seen the traps
which had been set for them. It was a divinely wrought folly intended
Why should Ob. himself not have seen the approto destroy them all!
priateness of the other part of the oracle from which he was quoting just
the use of the 3d pers. for the 2d
with the rest of the oracle they cannot be orig.
*
this
fiS
in Je. 49'" relates the
two
does not represent the orig.
texts
text.
by reading Sia
more
closely
It is
due partly
xtlpa- JJ_n?3 for
ij?-;t.
But
to the desire to avoid the conflict be-
tween this verse and the next. For v. '" speaks of the utter extinction of the offspring, brothers
and neighbours of Edom, while v. " says, that Yahweh will take care of their widows and orphans.
Partly it is due to the other proph. hope tliat the Judeans will be the agents of Edom's
Du. thinks (g contains the orig., and so reconstructs he is destroyed by

and neighbours, so llial he is no more. Cor. restores Je. 49' so as to
read For I myselj -Csearch out> Edom, Lay bare his secret places. He cannot hide himselj, He
The rest he regards as secondary.
is destroyed and is no more.
t We., Now., Marti regard v. ^ as secondary because it interrupts for them the connection
between v. ^ and v. ', because of the use of the 3d instead of the 2d pers., and because it represents
the catastrophe as a plundering of Edom and not as an expulsion from their land. Now., Marti,
Cor. assume that it was introduced from Je. into Ob., though ace. to them Je. quoted the rest
But v. ^ is really so closely woven into the structure of the passage that
of the oracle from Ob.
In reality the impression of secondariness is caused by Ob.'s
it cannot be om. as secondary.
destruction.
the
arm
C}.
Ob.
'8.
oj his brethren
modification of the orig. oracle which
is still
preserved in Je.
TEXTUAL NOTES I-5

as well as the alleged interpolator?
This favours the retention of there
was no understanding in thee in Ob. ' as orig., v.

Our conclusion is that Ob. quoted in vv. '-' an
which
is better
i.
older oracle, the orig. of
This conclusion does not carry with
preserved in Je. 49.
the further conclusion that Je.
it
37
was the author.
It
is
reasonable to
look for a Jeremian nucleus in the oracle vs. Edom (Gie., Cor., Bu.), and
a priori it is not impossible that either vv. * " or vv. ' ' '" might form
With the latter vv. "-' are held together by the same metre
Ob. But while it is not impossible that Je. gave
such a brief oracle as vv. . n in connection with his announcement of
Nebuchadrezzar's conquest of W. Asia, the danger will come from the
north sweeping on southward to Dedan (cf. Ez. 25), there is nothing in
w. lo- "-16 to warrant our ascribing them to Je., except that they
now form part of his book. The manner in which the nations who are
allied against Edom are spoken of excludes the Babylonians under Nebuchadrezzar. But if the attack on Edom did not fall under the general
sweep of Nebuchadrezzar's conquests, was Je. likely to turn aside to
threaten Edom? It is true the time came when Je., however much absorbed in the affairs of his own country, must have thought of Edom
after 586 B.C.!
But would he then not have referred to Edom's behaviour toward Judah at the time of Jerusalem's fall?
this nucleus.
and by the
parall. in
TEXTUAL NOTES.
1.
Thus
saith the
Lord Yahweh
garded as secondary by Eich.,
et al.,
to
Edom, or concerning Edom,
because
Yahweh
words which immediately follow, and because
it
is
re-
does not speak the
seems superfluous after
the Vision of Obadiah. Besides, the parall. in Je. 49^ has a diff. order, Con-
cerning
Edom: Thus saith Yahweh of Hosts.
of the prophecies vs. the nations

is
{cf.
also placed at the beginning.
to V.
to
If
But this
whom the oracle is addressed, and the pron.
has no antecedent.
Marti
is
due
to the editor
49O, where concerning the A mmonites

the phrase is om., there is no hint up
in against
him
(v.
')
Edom
of Edom
retains, therefore, at least concerning
'
23.
28).
Du. connects it with the oracle itself
But the parall. in Je. 49 is against this. Since Ob.
quotes here from an earlier oracle, the whole introd. phrase comes most
nini ijin <& /ciJptos 6 debs shows the influence of the Jewprob. from him.
(cp. Je. 46248' 49'-
I heard a report.
ish
mode
49".
mni HND
thor.
name. ij>*db' (& iJKovffa "Dyr^v as in Je.

shows that the nymv proceeds from Yahweh as its au-
of reading the divine
nW
D'ua
ject of nyioB'Ges.
11X1
5
2o
may be
f.âs
variously construed, as logically the ob-
an independent clause
or as a circumstantial clause.
nSu' (S
nW
parall. to
iâiria-TeiXe;
^:yc^ff nj?iDB?,
Je.
49"
hiSe'.
Since the oracle was given while the messenger was making his tour,
it is
OBADIAH
38
Ob. the
better to read also in
a later add.
Dîj3 as
dyyeXlav.
"quod
Jer. notes
(Rahmer).
Siev. regards
prtc. pass., so also QI rcSr.
T'X (S irepiox'^",
& &"
but
NÛ'ian IB munitio,
ipse 'legatus'
'munitio'"
et ipse
sit,
Vol. thought (Sread itxc, but the vb. iâirâ-reiKe does not
was orig. iveploxov, one who rides

Gk. corruption in irvpScpopos v. '8. Cappellus,
et al.j already explained irepLoxvv as " a document given to an ambassador,
then the ambassador himself" (Vol.). n^^j? is read vSj; both here and
agree with
around.
More
this.
likely irepi.ox'f)v
Cf. the similar
by many, because the masc.
in Je.
ble,
is
but since the variation occurs also Mai.
The
absolutely necessary.
people as in the oracle.
i'-
may be
land (fem.)
nnipj
This
used throughout.
iDip cf. n^Sji
(idnp) with
(Je. 4^).
v.
^.
wS
Is.
qNiE'n
(5
^H
iiTTJpev,
Ikieu?!,
jn?
all
not
cohort,
command, thus
2. njn with proph.
3.
extulit,
]B
The
2^
from
nil
an expressive word for arrogance which scorns
over,
reasona-
Edom,
referred to here, not the
with the imv. adds an element of encouragement to the
making the summons more urgent

in Nu. 1727.
Du. takes nND with
is
pf. as
to boil, bubble
(Or.).
all limits
mistaking
for
u'.
"J?!?
with the old nominal ending, so called Yodh compaginis, frequent
with
cstr.st.,
n Ges.
Ges. ^^
5^^.
refuge, protection,
il^
pares
onD,
and
Ar.
presupposes DMjn as abs.
49"
L^
St.,
sg.
rpvp-oKiis, Ct. 2>f aKiirri, cf.
conceal,
L^,
3t. place of
Buhl com-
transl. places of concealment, retreats.
the rugged valley side,
orig.,
if
^}m, also Ct. 2",
BDB. compares
cavern.
].,
'.
(&6iraTs, holes, clefts, Je.
and transl. Felsenklufte, Schluchten.
would be an ace, depending on
'ioiff,
which may be con-
But the juxtaposition of both constrs. is

read therefore ansa in accordance with 21 <cn3, &
strued with the ace. or with 3.
Ew.,
harsh.
ôi.o.
which
is
JMPS.
CI?*
<S
inaE'
clauses.
et al.,
Hi., et
al.,
regard the force of 3 in ûn2 as holding over to
apposition to
in
insert
'iJ'ijn
\)\pC)v,
&"
from Je.
>o-.^,
and uSa with

Mi.
i'. Is.
sf.
Nu.
2421.
But the
49.
3d
22 478 541 63'^
Ki.,
Vrss.
show
In
pers. frequently in rel.
Je.
Houb., We.,
2d
4. n'lajn
49
it
et al.,
here abs., soar
has an object
read
oiB'n,
onn
Siev.,
that the orig. read
exaltens, Pet., Du., Con., Marti,
sg. for
in Jb. 39"', ($ p,Teu}pi(Tdiji.

pass.,
Or., Ehr. read anc, Gr. onpn.
it.
r\:\^.
Now.
and
prtc.
aloft,
o^p
as
prtc.
a simple and natural
torrection, 05 Oy^.
dir^f>l<pr]s = nnipnj.
So Wkl. who compares Assyr.
no serious objection that the Ni. of nm does not occur in
Wkl. places the exclamation after -ik':3 v. *. But if orig. it stood
5. nrrinij îx 05
ramH.
OT.
It
is
rather at the beginning of v.
as orig. in
its
present place.
^.
Van H.
Jer.
puts
it
after v.
^.
Du. regards it
^T^'oTi, which
read quomodo conticuisses
was regarded by older commentators as
the orig. reading
{cf.
Pet.)
We.,
5-8
Now., Marti
39
Che. om. nnimj T'n nîV as "an editor's
ora. the phrase.
transformation of a corruptly written ininr^ kSh (cp. Jer. 49')."
interrog., for that
would make the constr. artificial. Pi'^Sj? (6 iirupvWldas,

on (6 rd iKavi, avrois, in Je. x^*/"* axnCiv (a^>).
in
Je. KardXi/xfia.
interprets Di-\X3
though
QJ K''::3nN,
miB*
ok condit. part., not
destroyers, despoilers, here robbers, as D'3:j shows,
by
it'j;.
pDôn robbers like vintagers.
?''Dit3|'j3
may be
coll.,
Ges.
'"
the
',
6.
ii^Dm
prob. a scribal
pi. is
Aram. UkS. Cf. Is. 21 12. (g KaT\rfi(fj.)which sounded alike, seems to have read
ijioxs <J6 ri KKpvfj.fj.iva, Wkl.
parallel c'cn.
error, so also Ehr., Hal. v;zi
and
(pOrj
KaTe\{e)l<f>07j,
''^J.?,?.>
correct,
is
cf.
thinks of mines, but this was hardly intended by Ob., though there were
mines
in
He
Edom.
transl. the
whole,
"How
Edom
is
searched out as
far as Gebal" [transposing Snjn ly thus emended from
^83'
paring
for Gebal],
"how
bring no yield/" [transposing

V.
He
'].
'
and com-
njon pN with emended nîan from
^2
thinks that these are the words of the disappointed thieves.
Che. emends ^'nJi^n nj?^: q'-nhCTp
van H. join Sujn ny to
Wkl.,
How are thy purposes
T'N "
^^\2Vl
broken, thy wise thoughts become foolish!"

^>:.
v.
are his mines sought out, so that they
v.
"
7,
and
Sujn
t;,
Gr.
How
transl.
h'l
for
Edom
is
searched through, his treasures sought out to the very border 1 (van H.) as
far as Gebal t (Wkl.), i. e., the Edomitish territory toward the North, \p 83'
later called Gebalene.
Then they begin a new sentence with iinSi?,
Thine
allies
have sent thee away, given thee over, abandoned thee.
proposal spoils the kinah metre, and though Ob.
this
is
But
not over par-
it is not likely that he should have spoiled this

For ^^^'7B' Che. reads îSrp they have befooled thee.
ticular with the metre,

effective
kinah
\-rhv
^Vin ^S
We.,
etc.,
line.
iSo''
TiNiBTi
Je. 38*!, only Je.
divide the clauses differently from
has iin'on for
M, Unto
^^N'i;^.
the border have
they sent thee. All the men of thy covenant have deceived thee, the men of
thy peace have prevailed over thee. But Je. 38" as well as the metre favour
M.
(6 dvT4<TT7}<rav, ft^*
o^^
here correctly illuserunt
mistook v for
t',
the
same mistake
v. ';
^c^S has been variously explained
tibi.
by taking it with the following thy bread they make a snare under thee;
41'" ('>diSb'b'''K
by supplying or understanding "'K'JN or 'Spx, cf.
(i)
(2)
1/'
parall. DnS hoa), 21 r\yno 1S3X,

<rvve<T6lovT4s ffot{(re);
cp. Ar. Xt-^vJ, Bo.,

associates cp. Syr.
war
by
translating
it
Neue
Ahrenlese,
ii,
(3)
it
with
<J5,
Hi.,
We.,
et al.
^sr^'^ to
of
inn
is
ol
iaOlovres. or ol
thy blood relations
201; or reading TDinV thine
who eat
it
it
l''nriS
they
who
thy bread, Hal.; (5) by

should not be taken as
(6) by emending it
Du. See further below. The meaning
We., Now. leave the whole clause untranslated.
scare, discomfit thee,
disputed.
thy flesh
But then
to dittog. but as a variant of nnStP
to
mss. add
>o m1^, van H.; (4) by pointing
against thee, Cappellus, Seydel; they
omitting
due
many Gk.
{cf.
\f/
41'");
OBADIAH
40
has nothing to do with
iv:?
-\V2
quently been translated thus.
wound, Ho. 5", though
Cal., e. g., transl.
has
it
fre-
they have fixed under
'
wound, as when one hides a dagger between the bed and the sheet
intends to go to sleep.' Also AV., RV.. Similarly
thee a
when a person
Hal. transl. ceux qui mangeaient ton pain t'ont inflige des plaies
domen, cp. Hb.
Aq.
!B insidicB,
iirldeffiv,
Heb.text. Aq.
nn
3'8 for this
The
root
weave, spin, and Aram,
twist,
rope, snare,
is
yo
(TKdvdaKov iv
tQ
niSD
i^-inn
away from
iNitri
should be
to
Mac.
to
make
iSdn''
Âcy
ry
transl.
Xa<?
els
'P^-^^l
"perh.
vaylSa
The various emens^S^> this would ne-
"'''^?
S>2
with iisd
Dn. 422- 29 521); for the

compares
W'V
{cf.
But Heb. idiom usually requires the
]p_^
translation,
QI's
sf.
Dîr.
thy flesh, shall take
5fea/^ eat
one's dwelling, settle down, he
also have referred to
Tinp, of
a";nD or
Marti's emendation might be adopted, for
J;>.
same
Vol. niSD or niis?3 net; Gr. icon or
V.
Ar.
"Aram.
utrem" and
xvi, 1897, P- ^77>
He might
38'2),
cp.
5* ot fjâv
v.*.
*.
BDB.
6.
Marti inc' dwelling
thee thy food.
phrase "rnn a^r
|'^^
bind from which the meaning cord,
W Aq.
Cf. i
icnS iS
V ab-
h,
2 connects it with
compared with NH. njD to
however, the further change of nnn into
cessitate,
&
with iDic.
iveSptieiv airoiis iv rais oSats,
dations of iiTD are unnecessary.
Wkl.
it
cequaliter distendit
163c snare; Prince, JBL.,
Nî^n,
aXKorpldxriv. All presuppose the
Cf.
something extended)."
net (as
ets
"(td
ipo
naturally derived.
stretch oneself, cf. Ar.
Kal
Q decr/xSv, S
C5 eveSpa,
i\-in.-i.
appear to have connected
a stranger.
to be
use of
onn
it is
q.ij7
{cf.
Is.
most
at-
from a hist, point of view, if the usage of nnn did not make
somewhat doubtful. If we retain iiid in the sense of snare, we must
tractive esp.
it
obviate the difBculty of the unhebraic i^nnn with miD
most prob. read
for TTinn orig.
preceding and the
emended
""j
foil. {cf. v. '),
npn'?, to discomfit thee
rnni;
The
ic''t:'\
and the whole clause then
reads, with
they had kept setting traps and thou wast
dismayed {destroyed), because there was no understanding in thee

13
njnn fN the
sf.
must
refer to
Edom,
(6 avroh,
Many
because of the 2d pers. throughout the verse.
and
but
(12).
In
this is strange
refer the
sf.
to -Min
have placed snares under thee which thou didst not

But grammatically this is not probable. Others have regarded
transl. they
notice.
it
text
with the
this connects closely
But the 3d
as an independent sentence.
explained.
Con. transposes
it
pers.
after nin> dnj
is
v.
then not adequately
Now.*^ after ara
But then njnn, unless emended, occurs twice in too close

succession.
We., Marti, Du. cm. the phrase as a marg. comment of a
reader or as a variant of v. 8. The best proposal is Gr.'s who emends 13
Ninn v.
to
"13.
8.
8.
Similarly
BDB.
ijn'^DiD
suggests that
-\2
c'^x
ni^-t:?.
was om. by a
scribal error before njian;
9-1
why
not rather
due
is
It is easier to
Cf. Je. 49'.
to dittog.
make
Others change n:i3n to a^ran to
'mtt ?
closely parall. with oinan.
41
9.
I'li^j,
more
it
change 3''D3n to nson, the

Marti, Now."* i-iuj, but this
hopv by slaughter, not without slaughter ; a late word

Gr.'s interesting conjecture Sx^p^n from Jokteel, i. e., Petra
not necessary,
is
Heb.
in
(cf.
K.
14'),
Amaziah
has found no approval.
was
called Jokteel
It
M.
the metre as well as Jo. 42" favour
is
dub. whether the Selah which
Though
Petra.
(S
Now.,
& !& join

om.
et al.,
Sapn to
it
v.
',
as a variant
of DDHD.
Van
10. Cf. Jo. 4'<'.
Siev., JMPS., Du. om. 3pj7> for metr. reasons.
H. suggests as orig. zpp ddhd "i^nN '?tapD. But this is not likely. 11.
DV3 ^ Bic; Du. appears to om. Dv, reading ^^syI?, but the constr.
M.
favours
Buhl
BDB.
ijjd "^ny to stand aloof,
Cf. 2 S. 18".
Saj^s.
51
stand there as an indifferent, hostile spectator; Wkl., to
transl., to
way; We., Now., Marti, to be present, ^ 38'2. iS'^n QI

wall and emends nna' to t2C', which governs
and nyt:', for he om. also ivS3. Du. has correctly seen that
stand in the
Du.
'niD3o;
both
is
transl. his
iS^n
wrong, for the carrying
But
ture of the city.

It
seems
should not precede the cap-
off into captivity
dub. whether latr can be used with
it is
they broke
should not be om.
9H
Qr. (S
n;?ty,
^1H^'
S-iu ni, the vb. iti occurs only here
v.".
suggests that
it
may be a wrongly
Grammatik
Du.
52a.
counting presumably for

12-14.
JMPS.
w.
He
is
i*-"
also impressed
V. ,
12-14
Peckham
'.
are
is
them as
same text.
and corrects v.
variants of the
v.
" as
orig.
that
it
w.
>2.
in Ob.,
13.
the copula.
Du.
ranges the order,
v.
also;
'^
with
he om.
" " "
its
b^
14
cf., e. g.,
but regards
Vv. 12, 13
" as secondary, while Wkl. regards
Marti combines these two positions,
v.
'">
by
so as to read do not gloat
v. '2
The
connects better with v. " and that
preceding imv. v/hich
is
not regular, and besides, the
over thy brother on the day of his misfortune.

is
in
But the abruptness
by no means the only ones
Now. om.
is
in the tran-
Smith's principal argument
without the negative, as the continuation of v.".
regards
"
and following context
by the abruptness
follows Smith in athetizing
are so similar that We.,
V.
the preceding Siu.
cf.
in these verses.
loc.
because the metr. structure
kinah lines in vv.
Gr.
as secondary, chiefly because they are
from the past to the present

must not be exaggerated. See ad
w.
BDB.
Pi. in all cases.
inserts before nnx-aj tatest gross nS^jn, ac-
sition
ineffective,
sg. also
Jo. 4'.
On the Metheg in T^^J?,
18').
written in kinah metre, "while the preceding
ordinary trimeter."
mi
omission by haplo.,
its
regards
^"^ unnecessary,
and Na. 3"
pointed pf. of
proposed n^, which occurs with Snu (Jos.

cf. Sta.,
S^n, wall.
me more likely that instead of ^h^n the orig. had iV nna, when
for him the gate-bar and entered his gate. Cf. Am. i". wa
to
and
v. '""'.
does.
it
reason for preferring
does not presuppose a
Wkl. prefers
JMPS. om. w.
But though the
v.
">. i3b
similarity
is
12
omitting
and
rear-
close,
it is
OBADIAH
42
really only v. "*> that
can be regarded as a variant of
v. ", for
it
alone
expresses the same thought. And as it stands, it is not in its right place
between v. " and v. "". It would seem to belong with v. ', as also the
nnn
which was taken from
dj,
might indicate.
v. ",
'' and
would seem
Since v.
cannot have stood together in the same sentence,
V. '"'
v. '">
be a variant of v. ". It appears, however, more likely to me that

Kin in V. 1' was orig. ynn, and that ^DJ}^2 was an abbreviated inpi Dva.
to
The
was overlooked and a
abbreviation
Orig. v.
"*
Do
therefore read
ns ova
scribe put
not thou also
{sc.
after
it.
as the barbarians) 6c-
have wickedly in the day of his distress. But v. >' is not quite in order
Now., Marti, et al., read T'nN3 for l^nN ovn in the interest of
a smoother text, but it is preferable to retain ynn oio and to emend
either.
noj Dio to n?^ 103

if
like
a barbarian,
Or, with Ehr,, npj a^p as
cf. 05.
were the day of a stranger. This connects better with the precedmakes it easier to account for the present text and disposes of
it
ing,
noj which in spite of Jb. 31' is not ctr\.a.m\y= misfortune. Wkl., JMPS.
13. Now., Marti
is grammatically impossible.
read n^N for oyx in v. i!'^, and in v. "" n^N for niN to avoid the repeti-
read imsj, but that
C5 apparently supports this, for
tion of TIN.
synonyms and uses

also.
ffvvaywyrjv
injji3 (5 TT]v
impossible,
it
airusKda in v.
may be =
nj
Gr. reads
better, :in\
1^, or,
airuv
and
(!).
22"
nx
In Na.
3'.
3'
The root
here.
it
p-\D
to split, divide.
means plunder,
seems
There
is
mean
to
parall. tt?,
The
Ar.
^yAX
most prob.
diflFerence of
f 18")
for the
et al.,
but
it
p^d only here and
cannot mean
Cf. At.
it
(6 StK/3oX(is,
ipvyadelas
is
oV^
a
B exitibus
non-committal.
who have
already escaped from the city
BDB., Marti, van H.
ijpn
32*',
6'.
16.
The
reading
d 0"
Perhaps we should read
Some,
transl.,
tain
this
refers to
used here abs. in the sense of delivering up, betraying, Dt.
Am.
nWn
and the observation that va^ho
bifurcation (van H.)
favour the transl. parting of the ways ; so

is
14.
opinion whether
(^P^fl) the latter.
refers to persons
(parall.
to tear apart, to rend.
breach in the wall or to the parting of the ways.

favour the former,
pi. in njnSsri is
ova, but this disturbs the
rhythmic balance which was evidently intended.
Na.
The
Cf. Ju. 19" for attaching
''.
read with Ols., Ew.,
for
tii;
words by three
and so presumably here
transl. the
imj73
2 S. 6
Or we may
with nSr.
it
for oiax,
arrhvpi, Ges. 5"
Nj to the vb. instead of to Vn,
omission of
"''
ninr for oninc

'dj; ipb',
if
it
is
in order to
minimise the abruptness
somewhat
as ye,
(i. e.,
artificially,
who
the Judeans) have drunk.
an exegetical emendation.
were necessary.
in the
are, or live,
Du. on
ide'.
change of address,
upon my holy moun-
For tdh many Heb. mss. read
i6-20
43
a>3p, which has been favoured by some ever since de R. (K'*<=**Q"'

Rosenm. emended, therefore, tidd to ipn {cf.
have ohov, 0" Irîo^
Dt. 32'<), and this is still adopted by many, though the NH. ii^ri, Tvine, is
But they shall drink wine, without any qualification
preferred by some.
of the character of the wine, can only
We
of wrath.
emend
or
nc DJn nN
of
latter case we may read either ^ncn, my fury (cf.

we may assume that the reading olvov was a transl.
and that both lion and N3D belonged
At.
o^'ijn-Sa
or piS
>'j?'?
swallow down,
cf.
as referring to the cup
it
in^'^.,
Uu,
not quite certain.
is
ii,
207-10.
The
transl. either swallow,
is
EDB.; or talk wildly,
-*i, make mistakes in talking. Hi., Del.; van H. compares
/"ôl^V and transl.
Syr. ''b^
It
yh ihroat,N'H..,AT3im..: jaw,cheek,
cf.
orig. to the
nations shall drink the cup at
all the
See Bewer, in Harper Memorial Volumes,
hand.
meaning
and
that they shall carouse
should either transl. Tcn, with Ehr., without exception,
of H2D as in Is. i
my
mean
to interpret
In the
it.
Jb.6<),Gr.:nDn, or
text
unwarranted
It is altogether
revel.
The
lick.
readings Karairiovrai (koto-
by a number of Gk. mss., KarairoO-qcrovTaL by Compl., and

absorbebunt by B favour swallow down. The most important Gk. mss.
vliovrai.)
read
&va^-f)(XovTai
read
iSpi
for
132, reads
That
or Karaî^ffovTai.
but
1*?];^
'
transl.
and
It
much
is
KarairLvu,
tion
Pu.
Ho.
-ivV^J (</. Is.
lySa, is,
totter, cf. Is.
me
Jon.
8',
2',
Hb.
29',
it
comparing Ar. (/-C-
mM
an original
i",
(van H.)
is
Usually, however, ySa
is
and
emendavn niS3 vn\
in
view of
'/'
10727.
We.,
et al.,
read
translated
this Gr.'s
28') has force esp. also in connection with
however, preferable.
24"
for
rather a corruption of KaTairo6ri<rovTai, or as Vol.
thought a correction of ava^-fâovTai.
by
lySi,
d. isr. jiid. Eschatologie,
shall drink again,
KaTa^-â-ovTai does not presuppose
obvious.
witnesses to
Ava^-fjffovTai.
Gressmann, Der Ursprung
ij?*?!.
i5?Ji
and they
This gives excellent sense, but
shall reel,
lyVai
seems
Wkl. needlessly reads for the three forms of nnr, three

forms of HNtt', destroy, and interprets lySi by this, and shall be destroyed
and devastated. Siev, om. iySi, JMPS. inE'iformetr. reasons. niS5=
to
better.
^S lE'N?, note the plene writing of
rnp
n-'ni is
Cf. Jo. 4".
fis in.
ni*?,
s.
also in v.
17.
Marti {Com.), Now.,
The
et al.,
subj. in
regard the
But Marti in his transl. of 1909 leaves it in the text.

oWn'' from Jo. 4'^ dhibîid is pointed by the Vrss.
phrase as secondary.
Siev. supplies
JMPS. om.
Dn>u^n;D.
idiomatically
aJ
fore the
Trvp(f>6pos
army with a
for metr. reasons.

{irvpoipopos
wvp
<f)4p(i3v
is
18.
was
n^nu' is transl.
corrupt) 1C ignifer.
custom of the
&"
marching befire.
His person
priest's
torch kindled at the sacred altar
inviolable.
absolute destruction
6
no
by (5^
It has reference to the
was regarded as
irvp<p.
3pj7>
Therefore the proverbial expression for
ovdk Trvp<p6pos iXdcpdrf.
Kol 6 ju6vos Siaffudels iv
Vol. quotes Hesychius,
iroKefitfi.
OBADIAH
44
&" H
take 3Jjn and nSorn as subj.
But v. "> shows that

2py no. The very constr., ajjn and nVoii'n ace.
without HN but ^^y -\n nx and O'DB'Sd nx with pn, indicates that the
latter are explanatory. Cf. the same constr. in Ez. 4> oStt'ii'' nx n'j?, also
Ez. 36'2. The transl. of hn by together with is improbable. Similarly
Orig.
jnDB' n'\v PN is explanatory of aîos, and pox 'ja of lySjn.
19. 05
the subj. of
iB'-T'i
is
the text read paj;
which was corrupted
>i2
to
jordanic region,
i. e.,
But
Gilead.
it
writer himself
onDS
(cf.
\i. e.,
-i3;?i
how
difficult to see
emends
et al.,
think.
6poi.
Or.,
has the usual onoN in rb
anas ns
to
either of
explanatory words are by the
Ez. 4') rather than by a glossator, as We.,
nit? occurs only here, (&
following Ew.,
is
The
these could be corrupted to jd^J3.
So now also
an^ the trans-
piJ3.
Gr. suggests pninn for pija, van H. piin
Du.
inni and (those of) the mountain
the inhabitants of the hill country of Judah, in distinction
from those
Ephraim and
the field of
of the
Negeb and
the Shephelah] shall possess
GASm.
om. nx
mi? before onsN and transl. and Ephraim will possess the field 0/ Samaria
and Benjamin, Gilead. Van H. combining this with We.'s observation,
transl. and they shall possess Ephraim, i. e., the field of Samaria. Ace. to
Hal. the subj. of 'on mty nx iirn^ is Joseph, which holds over from v. '.
But a whole sentence intervenes in which two other parties are the subj.
wy in occurs only in Ob. ' " ". 20. nrn Snn
also ace. to Hal.
So also
Samaria.
Briggs, Mess. Proph., 316/.,
et al.,
C5
17
lipx^ aiiTov, connects Sn with
'?'?n.
&
<-^^.^^
Swd/xecos
Tairris,
\^ '^^^ " ]a
..
Snn has been transl. army or fortress.
Aq.
was
nSy,
orig.
however, adopting
contained in
himself.
it
it.
airuv,
exercitus huius.
S G
ttjs
Usually
Ew.'s reading coast (from Sin
sand) has not been followed by any one.
haps
eiiroplas
Wkl. thinks that a
Che., EB., suggests
The
dijpjd is'x:
I'fnji,
vb., per-
without,
readings of some
Heb. mss. 'd3 icn, 21 nyiN3i, B .^M*) â09 U omnia loca Chananaeorum are interpretations', "iif n is emended by most to itpi"; or yiNi or
Adopting
both.*
with van H.'s
lU'i''.
and combining an
restore wy_ ['^^lf\
eted phrase would be a gloss.

*
If
only
yis
is
and
earlier suggestion of
Che.f
ni^na pSji the
brack-
we may follow more
closely
we may
read, laîM of v. "*
Or still
must hold
\J?'? nr]
better
over.
Briggs,
/.
c, 316
/.,
without chang-
which
But the Heb. of this would be o^jyjsS Ti/H, Stei. emends thus,
but even then the reading is awkward. Kail transl. and the captives oj this army oj the sons
oj Israel {will take possession) oj what Catmanites there are.
t Che., Exp., XXXV, 1897, p. 367, suggested that nrn inn was perhaps a fragment of nSn3
JTU inj 113n31 and the exiles oj the Israelites who are in Halah and by Habor, the river of
ing
transl.,
the captivity of this host 0} the children of Israel (will possess) that
belongelh to the Canaaniles.
Gozan, will conquer Phcenicia as far as Zarephath. Similarly now also Du., the exiles of
Chalach and Chabor will take the land of the Phoenicians. He regards SniK'^ ij3 as a better
variant of oSli'n^
he
Van H.
fills
v. 20b.
reads Sni^'^ îlh nt
7\Sr\r^
d'Israel qui [sont
.,
occuperonl
le
nSjl
(prtc. of Sin),
assumes a lacuna
after 1B>N
which
dans VaUenle' ceux des enfanis

pays des] Cananeens ptsqu' d Sarpaih.
out in part and transl. the whole
et les
captifs 'qui son!
20-2I
the order of v.
T(DD, ($
?a;s
45
and read with a necessary transposition
>
'E^paâ,
S Socâpd,
(gAjd.
Sn^b'' >j3 nSji
'A<papa0. (g's reading originated
So Rahmer, who also mentions a marg. n. of Jer.

on ZapeTTTwj' in exemplario Eusebiano 'T^(ppadd erat, ace. to which ius
'E(ppa6d would not be a transl. of tiodj but another, marg. transl. of tj
prob. from
ei/
nsix, which
ff(f)apad.
came
into the text at the
wrong
place.
Jer.'s translation in
Bosphoro was due to his mistaking the prep, for a part of the word.
21 N'CBDN,
&
tation, Ra.,
îQw]^ Spain
445/. (COT.,
KAT.'^,
ii,
this
became the prevailing Jewish
The Spaniards
AE., Ki., Abar.
are the
145), also in Ri.,
omsD.
HWB.,
s.
interpre-
Schrader,
identified
v.,
Sepharad with Saparda of the inscriptions of Sargon, in SW. Media

toward Babylonia. So also Dl., Lenormant, GASm. But Bart, rightly
was a Jewish colony
observes, "If there
nothing
known
otherwise
is
of
it;
of captives here, however,
nor are any circumstances evident
which would render probable the existence at
this point of
a colony of
importance to be referrred to in the terms used by Obadiah."
sufficient
De Sacy identified it with Qparda of the Persian cuneiform inscriptions,

a region in Asia Minor in the neighbourhood of Bithynia and Galatia.
So also, e. g., Ges., Hi., Kue., WRS., Say., Bart. WRS. and Say. observed
that it is " again mentioned in an inscription of the 32d year of Kings Antiochus and Seleucus, i. e., 275 B.C." Since the Persian period it was used
as a name for Asia Minor as a whole (Wkl., AOF., ii, 430; KAT.*,
See also Che., EB., Marti. Jo. 31^ shows that Jews were sold
301).
to Gk. traders, and WRS. reminds us that " Lydia was a great slavemarket, and Asia Minor was a chief seat of the Diaspora at an early
date." There is a tradition of a Jewish captivity in Asia Minor under
Artaxerxes Ochus (Eus., Chron., ed. Schoene,
35, 4; Orosius,
iii,
6/.), but
7,
some doubt
ii,
112, 113;
its historicity.
Solinus,
Again, ace.
a colony of 2,000 Jewish families was transported

Lydia and Phrygia by Antiochus the Great (224187 B.C.). The historicity of this is denied by Willrich, Juden und Griechen, 39 ff., suspected by Guthe, EB., but accepted by Schiirer.
Wkl.
believes that the Jewish captives of Antiochus Epiphanes (168 B.C.) are
to Jos., Ant., xii, 3, 4,
from Mesopotamia
Hal. suggests
to
nin Snn nSj1 and
pron. this being chosen because

cupy, or people,
(Kt.).
cj.
Ez. 36^.
the capthily of this
Ob. himself
lived there.
He compares
trace of the Isr. exiles in
Ez.
4'*
lei, i. e.,
aox Sn where Ez. lived,
For "MfX he reads
where 3U'ni (Qr.)
Halah has been found in an
is
inscription,
13tl'^^
the
they shall oc-
corrupted to
\C?n^
ADD., II, No. 755
(K. 123), published and commented on by S. Schiffer, Keilinschrijtliche Spuren der in der
8. Jahrh. von den Assyrem nach Mesopotamien deporlierten Samarier (10
sweilen Haljle des
Stamme).
The
passage reads, A-hi-ia-ka-a-mu ina (mdl) Qa-laft-lî
Dp'nx Ahikam) has come
to
Halah
(p. 29).
There
is
no doubt
Ahi-iakimu
was a Hebrew.
e-rib,
that he
(Bib.
II
mentioned with Ra-sa-ap-pa, Biblical Reseph, modern Rusafe between Palmyra and the Euphrates. K. 10922 it is mentioned with Harran (Schiffer), Wkl. places it,
therefore, near Harran, KAT.^, 269.
S3 Ha-lah-hu
is
OBADIAH
46
Bo., Gr.
referred to.
emended ins or
K.
(2
He
reads
mspa
nsD
(niDD), the sg.
form of D^ncD,
i7 i8'<)
Sipar.
Similarly Hal.
in Sippara or Sippar, near Tel Abib where Ez. lived.
act, so
either
St
joitt'D,
QijJii'iD
or
ffdaoves,
D''j;e'ij,
Gr., Du.: inn, but nSy
Zion.
Mont
tagne d'fisaii."
rhy, to
is
not used with

D-'ytû
Sion, partiront
This
is
]d
'ina iu'n
Pour exercer
in
{cf.
Ho.
<S
le
21
Aq.
jvs nna, (S
D'^rÊ'iD,
&
pass.,
&",
Hi.,
connection with Mt.
D''j?tt'ij.
the best interpretation,
make an expedition
But
so also Gr., Now., Hal.
Hal. takes jvx ina
sauves au
"B salvatores.
Van H.
was meant.
Aid. 'A<papd$.
ib'in, cf.
has revived Schrader's older view that D'noD
"Des
(guerriers),
jugement sur
if
the pass,
8" Je. 49*8 50').
nSj?
is
le
mon-
adopted.
with
3, cf.
Ch. 14". tiDc'? (& correctly iKdiKijffai. Ke.,

Perowne, van H. think of government. But such a use of tacB' for
Judah's rule over other nations is quite improbable. Marti om. either
Che. reads min^'? for
jvx nna or preferably wy in PN tsott''? as a gloss.
Ju.
I',
nin^*?.
2 S. 2>,
24', I
Ace. to Zim., KAT.^, 647, bbb'
is
an old Bab. loan word.
COMMENTARY ON
JOEL.
INTRODUCTION TO JOEL.
THE COMPOSITION OF THE BOOK.
I.
The book
author and
been regarded as the work of one
of Joel has usually
by
treated as such
is still
this in spite of the fact that
all
M. Vernes
And
recent commentators.
as early as 1872 maintained
by the author of chs. i,

and in a less dogmatic form
He
that chs. 3, 4 were not written
2.*
restated his position in 1874
in 1880,
when he
did not insist on difference of authorship, though he
still
maintained the difference and irreconcilability of the two sections.

Vernes' thesis remained unnoticed until, independently of him,
J.
W.
chs.
Rothstein in 1896 argued for difference of authorship for
I, 2
and
Then Nowack
chs. 3, 4.
and interpreted
called attention to Vernes
on
abandonment of his position.
G. A. Smith and Marti followed Nowack's lead in opposing Rothstein's position, G. A. Smith not without reserve.
But more recently Ryssel, Sievers, Duhm and P. Haupt have agreed that the
book is no unity. Ryssel adopted Rothstein's literary position, rein his counter-arguments Vernes' non-insistence
duality of authorship as a practical
garding chs.
considers
I, 2
from one author,
2^^-". 19-27
,^1-5
point out insertions in chs.

It is clear that there is
treat of the final
and glory
4 from another.
2i-42i
Chs.
i, 2
treat of
I,
of the nations
2 is also
The Hebrew
s'-';
and
chs. 3,
And
3,
it
more than
to
due to
this fact,
text has four chapters, the English Version only three;
ch. 3 Engl.
ch. 4
Heb.
49
But
4 the locust plague
brought into connection with
it is
of the protection
of the Jews, without mentioning the locust plague.
passages.
brew
a locust plague
punishment of the Jews;
though the day of Yahweh dominates chs.

in chs.
Sievers
and both
i, 2.
disciplinary
judgment
as later
a decided difference of interest and
subject-matter in both sections.
and a drought as
chs. 3,
jy^^^
î-s. 17-21^
in a
number
of
any other, that

English 2^-
He-
JOEL
so
the unity of authorship has Deen maintained so strongly even by

critics like
Yahweh
Nowack and
in chs.
But
Marti.
these references to the
day of
2 turn out to be interpolations.
i,
Nothing whatever in the context indicates that the prophet had

the day of Yahweh, on the contrary vv. ' ' exclude it.
So does
the fact that we have here a quotation from Is. 13^, when all through the
address we have the words of an original poet and writer, i'* is a foreign
element in the context. So also Siev., Du.
2"'
Again the phrases are taken almost verbatim from other prophets, Zp. i'5 !' " Mai. 3^- 23.
Moreover, the day of Yahweh and the day
i'^
in
mind
i'.
of the locusts are connected here in such a
manner
that
not clear
it is
whether they are the same, or whether the locusts are merely the precursors of the day of Yahweh.
The alarm is to be sounded, we are told,
first
Yahweh and then, all of a

swarm is coming. Then the description
continued until we come to w. '" " where we again
because of the approach of the day of
sudden, because a huge locust

of the locust
swarm is
meet most unexpectedly a description of an eschatological army. Duhm

also believes that a'*"- ^ is an interpolation.
210. n_ While the locusts in 2' ^- might perhaps be interpreted as
precursors of the day of Yahweh this is not possible in 2"'- .
"In
ch. ii. 10," says Davidson, "the plague and the day of the Lord seem
brought immediately together
this darkening of the sun and moon
is not to be rationalised into the effects upon daylight produced by
swarms of locusts in the sky, it is a sign of the near approach of the day
of the Lord, though not identical with that day (ii. 31, Engl.)
these hosts of locusts were the army of the Lord
(ii. 25) and He
was at the head of the army giving it command; and thus there was virtually that presence and manifestation of the Lord, at least in its beginnings, in which the day of the Lord was verified " (pp.202/.).
These
verses do not describe an actual locust flight, as the preceding had done,
but the day of Yahweh and the locusts are the agents of His judgment.
And yet in spite of this much more terrible danger of the day of Yahweh
.
the appeal to repentance in vv.
the prayer of the priests
'2-'''
contains as
and Yahweh's answer
reference to
little
in
2"
n-.
It
is
it
as
do
the locust
plague and the drought that constitute the whole of these passages, the
day of Yahweh
2 10.
is
n to the editor
not mentioned at
who combined
chs.
all.
i,
Rothstein already attributed
with chs.
3, 4.
and Du.
Siev.
retain them, strangely enough.

2'.
There are two further
Yahweh who
is
in 2 ^
tried to
day of
traces of this interpolator of the
connect chs.
i,
with chs.
3, 4.
The
first
of these
This verse, though not absolutely incompatible with the context,
interrupts the description of the advance of the locust
more than once been pointed out
swarm.
that D'cy, nations or peoples,
is
It
has
rather

Hi.'s transl. Leuie, people,
peculiar in this connection.
K. 22"
gl
and
his refer-
do not hold good, because lycB'

D^DV, hear ye peoples, in i K. 22" is a gloss by a reader who wrote the
beginning of the book of the prophet Micah, with whom he identified
ence to
in justification of this
Micaiah, in the margin.
Why
should the nations be introduced at this point,
upon
centrates his attention
his
own
people ?
It
is
when
Joel con-
significant that this
(v. *), i. e. with the same chapter from

which the interpolator of the day of Yahweh had drawn his material in
verse shows contact with Is. 13

1I6
(=
Is. 138), 2'" also is similar to Is. i3'"- ".
fore natural that 2" belongs also to the
The
inference
is
there-
day of Yahweh interpolations.
On 2" see com.

2'".
Another trace
is
in
the
name my
northerner in
2'".
This
is
such an unusual and improbable term for a real locust swarm that we
must interpret it as an eschatological term for the enemy from the north
had so long been prophesied. The whole context here again shows
had in mind a real locust swarm, for he describes its destrucThe exprestion in terms which are not applicable to human forces.
sion is therefore due to the interpolator of the day of Yahweh. Rothstein
attributed a'" as a whole to the editor, W. R. Smith also regarded 2"
that
that Joel
as a gloss.
After the removal of these interpolations the difference of interest
chs. i, 2 and chs. 3, 4 becomes even

a locust plague and drought, and con-
and subject-matter between
clearer.
Chs.
i, 2
treat of
tained originally no reference to the day of

treat of the
plague and the drought.
Chs.
3,
Originally they were distinct
i,
to the locust
The series of interpolations has been
liberately inserted in order to connect chs.
But does
Yahweh.
day of Yahweh, and contain no reference
2 with chs.
de-
3, 4.
and not connected.
this conclusion necessarily involve difference of author-
ship for the two sections?
May
not Joel be the author of both,
may write on
if we assume
this, we cannot hold him responsible for the day of Yahweh interpolations in chs. 1,2. For it is most improbable that a man of such
fine literary style, who knows so well how to express his thoughts
different
two
though they are?
Surely, the
same
different subjects at different times!
writer
Yet even
manner all his own, should in every instance have inserted

common, well-known phrases from other prophets into poems of
in a
such high literary beauty and
finish.
that the literary parallels in chs.
i, 2,
For
it
should be noticed
which have been pointed
JOEL
52
out so frequently, are
genuine Joel
is
This is our
be said to be
inferior that
difficulty
with chs.
on a
3,
also.
As a whole they cannot
with chs. 1,2.
Their
style is so
argues against unity of authorship.
From
this
must,
which are equal in strength and
origi-
stylistically
it
however, be excepted
4^'",
level
nality of expression as well as rhythmic beauty
Indeed, as soon as
chs. 1,2.
The
found in these interpolations.
all
original in his expressions.
it is
and
efifectiveness to
admitted that a single author may
write on two such diverse themes as the locust plague with
companying drought and the judgment

of Jehoshaphat there
is
its
ac-
of the nations in the valley
every reason for believing that Joel wrote
^9-i4a
That striking description of the march and attack of the

locust army in ch. 2 has its counterpart in this description of the
summoning of the nations to war. The same style and rhythm,
the staccato movement, are used in both passages with equal
effectiveness.
There is thus no cogent reason for denying the authorship of 4^-"* to Joel.
In regard to the remainder of the chapter the matter
The
author of
4^"^^*
is dififerent.
has such an original manner in describing the
preparations for the final attack of heathendom on Jerusalem that
most improbable that he should have
it is
mon
vv.
^^- ^.
back upon com-
idea, for
force
we
itself in
Indeed, even his dependence on Ezekiel for the general
which see below, makes the
presses this idea
of
fallen
prophetic phraseology for the description of the battle
all
the
more
originality in
impressive.
From a
which he exwriter of such
should have expected a very vivid and striking portrayal
Yahweh's judgment
of the nations
and we can hardly believe

and have
that he should have quoted verbatim from other prophets
produced a passage so general and so lacking in definiteness that
commentators have not been certain whether
Now
of the battle or not.
correspond almost
of the
day
of
conclude that
it is
literally
to
it
was a
description
be noticed that these sentences
to the insertions of the interpolator
" and we may therefore reasonably

who depended so much on other
thoughts and phrases worked over the second
Yahweh
in 2^"-
this interpolator
prophets for his

part of Joel also.
mine the extent
And
with this clue
of his work.
we may undertake
to deter-

4"'>, if
53
shows characteristic traces of the interAnd 3*'' bears his stamp also, cf. 2" and
taken, just as he had taken the phrase in 2"
correctly preserved,
polator's language,
cf. i'^ 2'.
Mai. 3" from which 3*'' is

from Mai. 3*.
4" is also by the editor, for the first half of the verse is composed of
phrases which are characteristic of Ezekiel and the Holiness Code and ye
And in the second half Ob. "
shall know (hat I am Yahweh your God.
is quoted and an interpretation is added which is correct enough as an
interpretation of Obadiah's phrase but out of accord here with the situa-
The author
tion of the preceding.

"
',
of
4'-'* ,
even
if
he had written vv.
could not have continued as 4" does, and barbarians shall not pass
through her again; he would have insisted that at that time, when
all
Holy City would be safe because

of Yahweh's presence.
Our editor, however, had the capture of 586
B.C. in mind, cf. vv. ' ', and explained the phrase of Obadiah accordingly.
The sudden change of address in v. ' also would be strange in
It exhibits the
Joel, but is in line with 2" which is very similar to 4*'.
editor's quoting style and is therefore by him.
In 4' 8-21 we have evidences of the editor's hand in v. ''" which is
quoted from Am. 9". In 4" he had quoted from Am. i'. In v. "b a
significant phrase of Ob. '" is used and commented on.
4" belongs
indissolubly with v. "''; and v. '"> is very much like 4'' and 2" which are
both by the editor. 4*" may have been suggested by Am. 9", cf. also the
editor's hope in 2'"b and Am. 9", though the terms used in v. " are
4'8b is based on Ez. 47' ^. 4'8P seems to
favourite terms of Ezekiel.
look back to 1'"'. The difference between Joel's poetic but accurate
statement of natural fertility in 2^' " and the hyperbolic description of
the heathen stood before Jerusalem, the
the
fertility of
the golden age in 4'8
is
instructive.
All
the whole conclusion (4"-^') comes from the editor
quotations from other prophets
observed that the editor
is
we have
this indicates that
whose fondness
already noted.
not over-particular in his
We
style,
for
have also
and that he
changes occasionally from one person to the other in an abrupt way,

4", so that the sudden appearance of the
2*'
should stand directly after

with his other work.
are
still
Thus
v. ",
need not
But even so
we have seen that 4i<b-2i

how much more he is
4*" is so closely connected in
is
person in
siu-prise
cf.
v.*'",
which
it is
in line
us since
not impossible that
v. ""'^- *'
We
must now
later insertions.
far
investigate for
it
it is
first
are by the editor.

responsible.
thought and expression with vv.
appears to have belonged with
it
from the
outset, although the
repeated in slightly different phraseology in
an appropriate introduction
is different,
but
appropriate for
we
to vv.
'-'<
v.
'*.
That
cannot be denied.
than the staccato rhythm of
w.
*.
that
thought
v. '
forms
The metre
expect that, for the trimeter or hexameter
v. *"
'-'<
is
more
JOEL
54
It
however, not so evident that
is,
and
Israel on)
ble
from
to v.
2a
v.
the
2 a,
v.
v. ^^
They
belong to Joel.
(from on account of my people

are only apparently insepara-
in reality they are not in harrnony with
judgment
as such also in vv.
is
universal,
But
"-.
on
in vv. ^b-
all
3
the scope
is
For according
it.
the nations,
and
described
is
Not
narrower.
all
the nations were guilty of the cruel treatment of the Jews here charged
against them.
As a reason
for the
punishment
of
would
all, this
It is true that in later literature the cruel
fore hardly do.
punishment
Israel is given as a reason for the
there-
treatment of
of the nations, but then
not merely the conquerors and destroyers of Jerusalem are meant but
all those nations among whom the Jews were scattered and by whom they
had been treated with scorn and hatred. And those who had not known
from destruction. Here the reference, however, is
definitely to the conquest of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans in 586 B.C.
Israel are excepted
Moreover, the rarely used phrase they
Ob.
".
diah in
And we remember that

4"- 20. AH this makes
cast lots in v.
the editor
'
reminds us of
had used phrases from Oba-
very probable that vv,
it
^t-
are also
part of the editor's work.
The
observation that the editor used Obadiah suggests that 3* with
its
from Ob. " (to authenticate the statement that every

true Yahweh- worshipper would be safe on that great day) is also from
him. This is made probable also by a comparison with 4" where the
direct quotation
editor's interest
is
also centred in the protection of Israel.
where Yahweh Himself speaks and ^*^- ' which

3'-'' are not by the editor but by Joel.
And this impression is strengthened by the originality of the thought and
the effective manner in which it introduces the final judgment, for which
The
difference of 3'-4
are by the editor suggests that
see the commentary.
Taking
this into
reason for doubting the genuineness of

necessitated a
new
account there
3'-*".
The
introduction (4') by the editor,
responsible for the editorial link in
3',
and
wards, and possibly also for in those days in
it
who
shall
3", cf.
is
no adequate
insertion of $*îs
come
the
'
probably also
to
pass after-
same phrase
in 4*.
We
have come to the conclusion that 3'-'"' 42a- 9-i< are by Joel.
There remains the examination of the digression in 4^-'. Though these
verses are at once recognised as a digression they are not unconnected with
42-
3.
The
had been
sale of Jewish captives
referred to in v.
'.
The
by the victorious Babylonian
slave-traders to
whom
soldiers
they sold them,
supply, were the Phoenicians and the Philistines who had caron slave-trade for centuries, cf. Am. i- ^ Ez. 27", also later i Mac.
3" 2 Mac. 8". So this announcement of retribution seemed to the writer
very appropriate in this place. It seemed to carry on the thought quite
naturally, for these verses do not charge the Phoenicians and Philistines with an actual attack upon the Jews but with taking away their
treasures and valuables and with selling Jews into slavery to the Greeks,
so
we may
ried
55
and slave-traders to whom the soldiers sold

and for whose wares they exchanged their booty. That
they profited immensely by these transactions was a matter of course.
Thus we must interpret, if this section is the direct continuation of vv.
'.
But there is no reference elsewhere to such activity of the Phoenicians and Philistines in 586 B.C. and it is most improbable in the light
They came
as merchants
their captives
of Ezekiel's silence
speaks of
its
on
had a mention
of
in
it
Tyre, although he
this point in his oracle against
We
slave-trade with Greece (27'^).
and in
had
The same holds
where Tyre's joy over Jerusalem's
26'',
28'^ where Sidon's relation to Israel are spoken
made themselves so obnoxious

true of Phoenicia in 25'*.
should doubtless have
to the
Jews
fall,
the Phoenicians
of, if
at that time.
has sometimes been supposed that the
It
^
', but there is no referand Judah to a conquest of
Phoenicia and Philistia and of a dis-
Phoenicians and Philistines were meant in vv.
ence anywhere in
Israel
the history of Israel
all
by the combined forces of

them among the nations or of a parcelling out of the
persing of Israel by
land of Israel
among
The
themselves.
identification of vv.
^-
with the
'
plundering of Jerusalem by the Philistines and Arabians in 2 Ch. 21'^

under Jehoram does not do justice to the words of these verses, even
'
if
the objection that the Phoenicians did not participate in that raid were
The
not conclusive.
direct address, moreover, in 4' mentioning the
Phoenicians and Philistines in addition

especially indicates that they are not
fined in vv.
6.
and according
not the conquerors of vv.

valuables of the Jews
who
to the
singling
them out
Their wrong
^- '.
vv.
de-
is
whole tenor of the passage they are
Since they did not get the treasures and
^- '.
and the
from the Babylonian soldiers

we must conclude that vv. *-^
and that they were not originally
captives
are quite clearly referred to in vv.
refer to
and
(aJi)
meant in
some other time than 586
B.C.,
',
the continuation of v. ' but a later insertion. And the Hterary fact that
w. *' interrupt the connection between vv. '-^ and w. '^ most awkwardly,
much wider horizon,

and vv. ^ are not easily harmonised with it. The universal judgment
in the valley of Jehoshaphat, executed by Yahweh Himself, must embrace
points in the
same
The
direction.
context has a
and
the Phoenicians
But here
Philistines also.
ceive a special punishment.
And
it is
in vv.
^-^
they are to re-
not that they are to be extermi-
nated but that they are to be sold into slavery by Israel!

indication of being aware that the
ing so soon, that
it is
already announced.
out of line with their context.

are not always consistent
and
mind
it
for vv.
the Phoenicians
and
*-^.
In other words,
we do
me
not expect
it.
likely that the
They have grown out
Philistines
no
com-
give
is
w.
<-*
are
It is true, of course, that apocalyptics
does not seem to
was responsible
4^-8
the nations
all
that a reference to their
ation frequently comes in where

clearly in
judgment on
own
historical situ-
But even with

author of vv.
''
of a situation
had but recently done
to the
this
when
Jews the
JOEL
56
And
things charged against them.
perhaps possible to suggest
it is
more definitely. See com.

must turn once more to the composition
this
situation
We
2'2- as
Sievers regards
of ch. 2.
belonging to the secondary material because he finds in them a
mixture of external and religio-ethical views of repentance which he canintellect.

But Sievers
which in religious practice need not exist at all.
Outward form may well be filled with spirit. The verses are really
not attribute to Joel but only to a wholly inferior

sees here contradictions
quite important for the true understanding of
According to
Duhm
gards 2'^-" as secondary.

the prophet not have
This seems
fitted
Who
form of a divine oracle ?
knew nothing
else
me
Sievers also re-
Why should
Compare
of the intercession ?
but Joel should have added
And why
Are we
and
unjustifiable.
only that particular time
other have had for doing this ?

in the
to
added the outcome
the similar case of Haggai.
promise which
i'^. ".
the appendix begins at 2 '8,
to
What
this
reason could an-
should this other have given
of the peculiar circumstances of Joel's time sat
it
who
suppose that a later writer
down and
wrote a promise, which he put into Yahweh's mouth, simply because

he knew that the plague had passed away, since the people were still
Moreover, the song in vv. î" bears the stamp of origiits rhythmic beauty but also its phraseology are Joel's
in existence?
Not only
nality.
And
by the reversal of the circumby nothing else. We would be glad if we knew

the circumstances out of which the Psalms arose as well as we know
own.
origin can be explained
its
stances of chs.
I, 2
as
those that gave rise to this song.
Our
2ib.
conclusion
2. 6. 10.
u.
27)
is
(i)
^j^^ îgQ
that Joel wrote chs.

2i-4a 42a. 9-i4a.
the remainder, connecting chs.

interpolations
i,
with chs.
which are characterised, as
pendence on other prophecies; and
i,
^2) that
3,
all his
(except
i^^
an editor wrote
4 by a series of
work
4^"^ are a
(3) that
by de-
is,
still
later
insertion.
THE DATE OF THE BOOK.
2.
Since the book
is
not a unity
we must
of Joel, of the eschatological editor

I.
No
date
is
of the author of
given in the superscription, nor
ence to Joel in other books which would
mention of foreign nations in

at least the era,
try to determine the date
and
Joel's
fix his
is
4^^
there any refer-
time.
There
own work which would
is
no
suggest
Assyrian or Babylonian, Persian or Greek.
And
57
the position of Joel in the series of the minor prophets "does no

to Kirkpatrick (p. 58),
more," even according

sumption
that, at the
"than create a pre-
time when that collection was made, he was
We must therefore rely
thought to have lived at an early period."
on internal evidence.
solely
It is at
once worth noticing that only Judah and Jerusalem are
He
in Joel's mind.
does not speak of N. Israel a single time.
This would be almost inexplicable
But the land
confined to Judah.
N.
if
Israel
still
existed in
plague and the drought cannot have been
his day, for the locust
only Judah and Jerusalem, and
that he deals with comprises
appears that every single
it
mem-
ber of the people can attend the assembly at the temple so that the
nation can hardly have been at the height of
its
not speak of a king either, or of royal princes, as
power.
Joel does
we might
reasona-
bly have expected in connection with the calling of the assembly
which everybody was
to attend,
if
there
had been a
royal princes in Jerusalem at that time.
(i") and priests as
With
this goes
daily sacrifices
temple services
officials.
And
He
cult
and on the importance of the

which stands in striking contrast
And
all
rusalem, no other sanctuaries are
and
the priests are prominent.
an emphasis on the daily
the pre-exilic prophets.
ruling king
mentions only elders
and the value
to the attitude of
temple of Jeis given that
this centres in the
named and no
of
regularity of the
hint
any of the ancient much combated sanctuaries outside of Jerusastill in existence.

Nor is mention made of idolatry on the
lem are
part of the people.
moral and
It is true that Joel
does not rebuke them for
social sins either, so that this point
may
not count for
But people and congregation are coextensive terms (2^^)

and the priests are called ministers of Yahweh, a name much in
much.
use in the later literature but not in the earlier.

All this points to the postexilic period.
high priest does not argue against
passage in Mac.
7^^,
he
is
The non-mention
this, for in
of the
a late, strictly parallel,
not mentioned either.
The
linguistic
evidence also points to a postexilic date.

mn' 'mi'D
ings.
liD
(i' 2"),
common phrase
in later
but not in pre-exilic writ-
elsewhere only in late books, Chronicles, Nehemiah, Job.

(220), an Aram, word, Dn. 48- i', etc., in Heb. only in Chronicles and
nbar (2'),
JOEL
58
njns (2^"), only here in OT., has the same meaning in Ec.
and NH.
The argument based on the use of n?3T (410), nSs (i^), nnjx: (i"), nnjn
is (4") invalidated by the observation that nai, though used mostly by
Nehemiah and Chronicles, occurs also in Ju. 5' i K. 18", and that the
other three v?ords are most probably due to textual corruption.
Ecclesiastes.
1112,
The
literary relation of Joel to other writers also argues for
postexilic date.
It will
composition of the book that

are due to the editor.
be remembered from our discussion of the

the direct literary dependencies
all
Joel himself
is
only indirectly, unconsciously
influenced by other writers, but this
makes
this
argument quite
valuable.
4'"
this is
by
might be regarded as directly dependent on

hardly likely, even if Is. 2* should be earlier.
while the reversed use by
Is. 2* is
(Mi.
not so natural.
it
But
4').
The phrase
must have been quite common, describing as
Joel
tice,
Is. 2*
as used
did actual prac-
In
Is. 2* it is
due
well-known prophetic habit of painting the ideal future by conNeither Joel nor Isaiah nor Micah
trasting it with the actual present.
to the
need therefore have had
But
in
mind
the phrases turn unto
Me
the other
when
writing their oracle.
with your whole heart and rend your
hearts rather than your garments, in 2 '2, show the influence of Jeremiah's
and Deuteronomy's characteristic teaching. Similarly the phrase Why
should they say among the nations, Where is their God? has exilic and
postexilic affinities (Ps. 79'" 115^ 423-
").
"
The dread
displayed for the
taunting attitude of the nations," says Dr., "is characteristic of the period
which began with the exile of Judah from its land, and its diminished
See
prestige, which continued even after its restoration under Cyrus."
also 2".
The phrase, I will pour out (norN) my Spirit (3i- 2) shows
affinity to Ez. 39^^, the only other instance where the same Heb. phrase
Cp.
/ will pour out occurs with the personal sf. added in My Spirit.
the similar use in Deutero-Isaiah, I will give
pour out (pxx)
My Spirit
(44').
Jo. 2'
may
My
also
Spirit (42'), / will
have been influenced
by Ez. 3635 (cp. Is. 51'). The literary antecedent of the world judgment before Jerusalem is Ez. 38/., and, if genuine, Zp. 3', i. e., prophecies written either during or a few decades before the exile.
How
far
determine.
down in the postexilic period we may go is not easy to

The temple was already built and the cult had been
carried on apparently for a considerable time.

of the city
had
would take us
also been built,

to the time after
if
we
Moreover, the wall
interpret 2" correctly.
Nehemiah.
If Joel
had
This
lived in
59
Nehemiah's own time we might perhaps have expected a reference

But neither they nor any
to the Samaritans and the Ammonites.
other nations are mentioned by Joel himself, the judgment
all
This points
the nations.
present enemies of the nation but
hostile.
terminus ad quern
the editor or of the author of

2.
The
when
all
He
this.
there were
is on
no actual
nations were regarded as
may perhaps be
given by the date of
4^'^.
editor's date must, of course,
he edited belonged
with
when
to a time
to that period.
And
also is only interested in
be postexilic
all
if
the book
indications are in line
Judah and Jerusalem and
does not even think of N. Israel in his picture of the golden fu-
The
ture.
capture of Jerusalem and the dispersion of the Jews
are accomplished facts (4^^-
from the
in
exile,
^).
He
does not speak of a return
because he evidently presupposes
4^ sometimes translated bring back the
it.
captivity,
The phrase
means
really
restore the fortune.
The
with
literary relation of the editor to other
this.
quoting.
Am.
9,
prophets agrees
He is not, like Joel, an original writer, but is given to

He knew and used Amos, Zephaniah, Ezekiel, Is. 13,
Deutero-Isaiah, Malachi and Obadiah.
That the editor of Joel quoted from them is clear, (i) The direct quofrom Ob. ' in 3', which is introduced as such, shows it. This car-
tation
judgment that in the other passages which are parallel to

is on the part of the editor of Joel.
In 4" a
sentence from Ob. " is quoted and commented upon. In 4"*' a pregnant
phrase is taken from Ob. ', in 42* a phrase from Ob. " (which is used
elsewhere only in Na. 3'").
(2) The use of characteristic phrases of Ezekiel and the Hohness Code in 2" 4" argues for the editor's dependence.
(3) The unrelatedness of the passages in Joel and their indispensableness
in the parallels is another strong argument of the same kind. In Zp. ii 's
the parallel words form a climax and are indispensable, while in Jo. 2"'. *
they are unrelated and secondary. Similarly in i'^ and Is. 13^ With Is.
These considera13 also 2 is related, cf. Is. i^^"- "; and 4'^ with Is. 13".
tions indicate that the editor of Joel was the quoter also in other cases.
Thus he is indebted to Ez. 47 for the thought of the river flowing from
the temple, to Am. 9" for the phrase in 4'8, to Mai. 3" in 2" 3<'>.
ries
with
Obadiah
it
the
the dependence
According
later
to this literary
comparison the editor of Joel wrote
than Malachi and Obadiah, and this
is
what we should
6o
JOEL
expect, for Joel's date was, as
there
is
cp. Jo. 4'- '^- with Zc. 14'-
We have
Zc. 14^.
on
we
saw, after Nehemiah.
come
'
'',
Jo. 4'' with Zc. 14^-
The
editor does not
either.
His reference
and Am.
9,
See com.
to
Edom, under the influence of Obadiah

much for it does not indicate a special
does not help us
on the part of
hostile activity
contrasting
Edom
Egypt
at that time.
gloss,
it
with Egypt's and Edom's desolation.
the non-mention of the Persians
and
also is
not as an important
in order to bring out the glorious fertility of
entirely different with the Phoenicians
From
dependent
judgment scene and the
mention the Samaritans and the Ammonites
mentioned, though perhaps in a later
enemy but
Jo. 4^' with
to the conclusion that Zc. 14 is
Jo. 4 in regard to the location of the
direction of the wonderful river.
is
The
between him and Zc. 14 is a tittle more difficult. That

a strong resemblance and affinity cannot be questioned,
relation
Judah by
The matter
Philistines in
4^"^.
we may probably conclude
with good reason that the attack by Artaxerxes Ochus had not yet
taken place.
If this
reasoning
is
tenable the editor must have
written before the middle of the 4th cent. B.C.
Where can we
3.
find a place for 4*' in the postexilic period?
would seem that
It
this
passage also belongs to the Persian
period, for the awful fate which befell Sidon
hands of Artaxerxes
III,
{c.
348
B.C.) at the
when more than 40,000 people
perished
(Diodorus Siculus, XIV, 45), and the fate of Tyre in 322 B.C. at the
hands of Alexander the Great who sold the entire surviving popu-
XVII, 46; Arrian, II, 24),

same year, when Alexander sold the enslavery, had not yet occurred, else there would
lation into slavery (Diodorus Siculus,
and the
tire
Gaza
fate of
population into
in the
have been some reference

section late in the
no longer fresh
riod,
however,
in
is
The mention
to them, unless we were to place the

Greek period when these awful disasters were
the minds of the people.
The Maccabean pe-
excluded by the non-mention of Aram.
Greeks as simple slave-traders and not as a

power is not favourable to a date in the Greek period.
Phoenicia and Gaza had commercial relations with Greece as early
of the
great world
as the Persian period,
Gaza,
cf.
if
not earlier; for Phoenicia,
the use of coins with partly Phoenician
cf.
Ez.
27^^; for
and partly Greek
6l
inscriptions during this era (Schiirer, II,' p. 84, with references).
No
objection can therefore be
made
on
to the Persian era
this
ground.
known
Little is
of the history of the Jewish people in the Persian
Nehemiah on. But from the little we do

would seem, on the whole, most probable that the Phoenicians and Philistines took advantage of the conquest of Jerusalem
by Artaxerxes Ochus to procure treasures and slaves from the
period from the time of
know
it
Persians.
settled in
considerable
number
of
Jews were made captive and
Hyrcania, near the Caspian Sea,
cf.
And
p. 45.
it
is
not unlikely that the Phoenicians and Philistines bought others
from the Persian
and sold them
soldiers
into slavery at that
time.
It is true, the Phoenicians were hostile to the Persians and we
might think that they aided Judah,if not actually, at least with their
sympathy. But they had not yet revolted; not for a year or two
later did they
do
so.
And how
little
their
commercial instinct
al-
lowed them to sympathise with Judah in the time of her distress is

seen from Ez. 26^ where the same Phoenicians who but a short time
before
had
persuade Judah
Nebuchadrezzar (Je.
tried to
revolt against
by Nebuchadrezzar soon
27'),
after 586 B.C., rejoiced over Jerusalem's
because they believed
fall
them and others in a

and who were attacked
to join
it
would be
to their
own
personal ad-
vantage.
If
our arguments prove to be correct, the singling out of the Phoe-
nicians
and
serter of 4^'* that they
The
ture of
the
fall
The
is
were
is
definitely referred to in vv.
^'.
would then have been made shortly after the capJerusalem by Artaxerxes Ochus (c. 352 B.C.), and before
insertion
of Sidon in
348
use of the form
B.C.
Q-'^'lir; ''in
a literary indication that
icler
Judah is explained, and

due to the belief of the in-
Philistines as special foes of
the non-mentioning of the Persians
who
uses such forms,
Q-'nipn for nnp
The book of
4^"^
(4^)
for the older
form
|T "'in
belongs to the period of the Chron-
e. g.,
D\nn?5n
''22
for
nnp
''J3
and
''Jn
'':3.
Joel was, according to this, completed
of the 4th cent. B.C.
If
we
by the middle
place Joel himself at about 400 B.C.
JOEL
62
and the
off the
editor a few decades later
we
shall
probably not be far
mark.
There has been a great variety of opinions concerning the date of Joel.
early Jewish scholars who put Joel into the canon probably thought
The
Later Jewish scholars,

Rashi and Kimchi, thought the date could not be fixed. But
he belonged with the early pre-exilic prophets.

e.
g.,
scholarship does not easily rest content with such a conclusion though
later Calvin
and Pococke agreed with
The
it.
held to be decisive by Theodoret, Jerome,
position in the
et al.,
who made
canon was
Joel a con-
temporary of Hosea on the principle that a prophet whose book was not
dated belongs in time with the preceding prophet.
Among
modern
scholars the most varied dates have been assigned to Joel, ranging
the time of
Rehoboam through
all the
succeeding centimes
down
from
to the
was impossible for scholars to come to an agreeit seemed as if the question were settled, when
Credner, in 183 1, had marshalled his arguments for the period of
the minority of Joash.
Though Vatke a few years later, in 1835, suggested a postexilic date, Credner's position appeared impregnable. But
in 1866 Hilgenfeld argued for the Persian era, and then Seinecke and
Duhm (1875) Îso. But it was not till 1879 that the position of the
postexilic date was firmly established.
The credit for this belongs to
Merx. Since then it has become the prevailing view of critics. But even
to-day some still prefer a pre-exilic date, e. g., Kirkpatrick, Orelli, Konig,
Cameron, et al. The whole question has assumed a different aspect with
4th cent. B.C.
It
Once, indeed,
ment.
the recognition of the composite character of the book.

at
first to fix
all in
a date for either chs.
i,
2 or chs. 3, 4,
Rothstein assigned chs.
the 4th cent. B.C.
Vernes refused
but in 1880 he placed

i, 2
to the time of
Ryssel inclined to the time before Amos

Joash, chs. 3, 4 after the exile.
Duhm thinks
for chs. I, 2, and to the time of the Ptolemies for chs. 3, 4.
that the original
B.C.,
3.
I.
end
book
but the appendix
of Joel belongs
much
most probably
to the 4th cent.
later.
THE INTERPRETATION OF THE BOOK.
Some
time toward the beginning of the fourth century or the
of the fifth, a locust
swarm
visited
Judah, greater and more
seemed than any that had ever come before. Judah

was but a small land without large resources and a disaster like
ominous
it
this threatened its very existence.
With great vividness Joel describes the approach of the vast

He paints the
to an invading army.
swarm which he compares

we
scene with his forcible, graphic style so that
The
us.
call rings
see
it
63
clearly before
Already the locusts
out to sound the alarm.
cover the mountains and have begun their work of destruction.

Swiftly the prophet sketches their appearance
and with the expres-
rhythmic staccato movement of his sentences he pictures their
sive
rapid advance and their irresistible attack upon the city
Now
they have taken
it.
is
is
averted.
Yahweh had
The
If
may
worst
sent the plague as a discipline
the people repent with
He
their hearts
all
itself.
But even
at its height.
hope! the prophet declares.
yet there
ishment.
The danger
yet be
and punwill
have
mercy upon them. And so Joel appeals to them to repent. This

^"^- *^".
is his first address which is contained in 2^*But the plague was not stopped, one swarm after another inwaste and desolate.
To
aggravate the calamity a drought accompanied the locusts.
All
vaded and ravaged the country and
left it
new growth had
died, and the cry of despair went all

Only one could help in this crisis, Yahweh!
And so Joel calls for a great penitential assembly where all the
people should implore Yahweh for pardon and help. This is his
address in ch. i. Here his descriptive power is seen at its height.
hope
for a
through the land.
one of the
It is
finest pieces of poetic description in the
grim himiour in calUng on the drunkards,
its
OT.
with
its
exquisite pathos in
young widowed bride, its lifelike portrayal

and the quick, keen characterisation of the
locusts, its touching appeal of the animals to Yahweh, its sketch of
the ruin and desolation made unforgettable by the concrete touches
the comparison of the
of the various classes
of his pen.
Moved by
Joel's appeal the priests called the people together to
an ever memorable meeting.
Every
munity came, from the greatest
single
to the least,
member
com-
of the
from the oldest
to the
Then the priests voiced the need of the people in

The quick, concise and pregnant manner of tellthis is very effective.
The language becomes calmer when Joel
youngest.
prayer (2-^").
ing
speaks of the prayer, and of the answer of Yahweh, as
Yahweh heard and answered

and
of compensation for the loss caused
after
is fitting.
with a promise of restored
some time had elapsed and
by the
locusts.
fertility
And
then
the signs of the fulfilment of
JOEL
64
Yahweh's promise had appeared the prophet sings in conclusion

the praise of Yahweh in lyrical strains of joy which for beauty are
comparable to Deutero-Isaiah's lyrical interludes (2^*"^^- ^^^^).
This interpretation assimies that the chronological order of the
sections of chs.
i, 2 is
not in 2'\ and that

2.
*""^,
It is
2^""
i""
2^'-^*- "'^
2^^^; that the narrative begins in 2^^
followed originally
2''-^- =
not certain, but probable, that Joel wrote also
^^^\
3^'^^ 4^^-
not at the same time but perhaps later than chs. 1,2.
time he described Yahweh's judgment of the nations.
It
was
This
after
had passed through much suffering, they had

been judged by Yahweh; even in Joel's own day the awful locust
plague had come as one of Yahweh's judgments. But it would not
come again, Yahweh had promised. Now the judgment would
come on the nations. Just why it was that Joel thought of the
judgment of the nations, whether it was because they had mocked
Judah about her calamity (2^^) or for some other reason, we do not
know. He speaks of the future in prophetic tones. It will be a
far more terrible crisis than men have ever experienced.
Great
excitement will prevail among all classes and ages of society. People will foresee in dreams and visions, and foretell in ecstatic tones,
the coming judgment.
Extraordinary signs in heaven and on
earth will appear as warnings that the day is at hand.
And Yahweh will gather all nations into the valley of Jehoshaphat where
He will judge them. In dramatic manner He gives command that
they be summoned in full force and heavily armed for the final conflict and judgment which Yahweh will render seated in majestic
calmness on his judgment seat in the Valley of Decision. This
time it is not the advance of the locust army that Joel describes, but
the preparations for war among the nations and their summons
to the judgment valley, but again his characteristic style appears,
the exile, the Jews
that graphic, concrete style of his with

/,l-4a
its
staccato
movement
.2a. 9-i4a\
had left his addresses in chs. i, 2 and in chs. 3, 4 unconBut soon after him an editor brought them together.
His mind was full of eschatological thoughts and phrases, and his
Joel
nected.
interest centred in the future.

light of chs. 3, 4.
To him
So he interpreted
chs. i, 2 in the
the locusts were not literal locusts
buK
65
more, they were Yahweh's agents of judgment and the advance
They were
guard of His day.
the great northern hosts, predicted
by former prophets, mighty nations who would come
to execute
Yahweh's judgment on Israel. But they would overstep the limits

of their authority and would then be punished themselves.
To
the editor's mind the whole was still future, chs. i, 2 were also
By a
prediction.
he transformed the ad-
series of interpolations
and drought
dresses concerning the locust plague
into eschato-
logical chapters.
In chs.
4 also he added explanatory sentences or descriptive
3,
eschatological material taken
He
from the
earlier
prophets sometimes
on the protection of the Jews at

the time of the judgment of the nations and fortified his point by
almost verbatim.
And
(4^^^).
He
(3^ 4""^).
quotations
laid stress
supplied the description of the conflict
in beautiful,
if
not original, phrases he pictured the
perpetual safety and wonderful prosperity of Judah after the judg-
ment
dium
(4^^'^^).
As a
result of his activity
of eschatology in the
book
we have
of Joel.
It is
little
due
to
compenhim that
the eschatological interpretation of the locusts has so often been

insisted
upon.
The
book, as
we now have
it,
is
indeed an
eschatological work.
3.
When
Joel
troubling Judah.
and the editor lived there were no special nations

The judgment was to come on them all. But
about half a century, or
less, later
another writer took occasion to
insert
an oracle against the Phcenicians and
made
themselves odious to the Jews,
if
we
Philistines
who had
interpret correctly, at
the time of the capture of Jerusalem by Artaxerxes Ochus.

They
had taken the gold and silver and precious possessions of the Jews
and had sold Jewish captives to the Greeks as slaves far away from
Quickly this will be requited in accordance with the
their home.
History knows of the terrible fulfilment of this prelex talionis.
diction.
The
history of interpretation follows in the
main two
lines.
The one
takes the locusts literally as real locusts, the other allegorically as representing invading nations.
ity as
The
literal interpretation
having taken place in Joel's
tion, as
a rule, refers
it
own
to the future.
thinks of the calam-
time, the allegorical interpreta-
The
allegorists
have not always
JOEL
66
01 explained the northerner by

and the four names of the locusts
by nations, peoples, tongues, sultans and kingdoms, without committing
But church fathers as well as
itself to a more definite identification.
Jewish rabbis and many scholars down to modem times identified the
locusts with the four invasions of the Assyrians and Babylonians under
Tiglath-pileser, Shalmaneser, Sennacherib, Nebuchadrezzar (Ephraem)
or simply with the Babylonians (Jerome), or with (i) the Assyrians and
Babylonians, (2) the Medes and Persians, (3) the Macedonians and Diad-
agreed on which nations were meant.

that nation
which comes from
the north
ochoi, (4) the Romans (so Jewish scholars at Jerome's time, later also, e. g.,
Abarbanel, and early Christian scholars like Cyril and modern scholars
like
Hengstenberg and Pusey). Hilgenfeld
identified the locusts with the
four Persian invasions, of Cambyses, Xerxes, and the two of Artaxerxes
Some of the allegorists
Ochus.
of Jerome) believed that there
Merx
time.
(e. g.,
had
Theodoret and the Jews at the time
also been a real locust plague in Joel's
explained the locusts as apocalyptic warriors, unearthly
beings which belong to the wonders of the time of the end (Rev. 9'-").
We
its
can understand
diflaculties
why
the allegorical interpretation in spite of
For
has persisted through the centuries.
arguments of the
literalists
all
after all the
there remained certain points which could
not be harmonised with real locusts.
swarm
locust
is
not accom-
panied by a thunder-storm, an earthquake and shaking of the heavens,

or by the darkening of the sun, moon and stars; nor is the term my
may be said, quite suitable for a locust

can hardly be said of locusts that they have
acted overweeningly, for they cannot be held responsible for their acts.
northerner, in spite of all that
swarm
in Palestine;
and
it
Nevertheless the arguments for interpreting the locusts

so strong that they cannot be resisted.
tails
literally
are
Joel's description in all its de-
corresponds exactly to the descriptions of ancient and modern
and authors and excludes a devastation caused by soldiers.

They devour the vines and strip the bark of the trees. There is
travellers
no reference to shedding
cities, and no word about
of blood, to
captives.
plundering and destroying of
The
locusts are described
the figure of warriors not vice versa, else horsemen
men!
The
description of the annihilation of the
the restoration
and restored
is
described, only
under
like horse-
army corresponds with
facts actually witnessed in connection with locusts
And when
would be
but not with soldiers.
damage done
to the
ground
fertiUty are mentioned, but not the rebuilding of cities
and
the healing of the ravages of war.
The elements which

by the
literalists as
due
are irreconcilable with real locusts are explained

to the feeling of the prophet that the locusts are
the forerunners of the day of
awakened by
Yahweh.
The
fear of
this awful, unparalleled locust plague.
its
approach is
is com-
Yahweh
ing to judge His people, the locusts herald His advent
THE TROPHET
But the
essential unrelatedness of the
context has proved
them
67
day of Yahweh passages
And
to be interpolations.
in their
we must
henceforth
between the original book of Joel and the book

which has been worked over.
For the history of interpretation see Merx's essay in his commentary
which is of permanent value.
carefully distinguish
THE PROPHET.
4.
known of Joel outside of his book. He was the son of

His name conPethuel, or Bethuel, who is otherwise unknown.
tains a confession of faith, Yahweh is Cod! and may reflect the piety
Nothing
is
of his parents.
But there
ation that there
is
For there
is
no
in the similar
name
Elijah,
My God is
day were
trace that the people of his
our prophet was not the
not the challenge in the historical situ-
is
bearer of this rather frequent name.
first
tradition given in Pseudo-Epiphanius, Vitce
at the
end
Yahweh!
and
idolators,
Prophetarum and
says that Joel belonged to the tribe of Reuben,
of (g^^
but his book argues against
it.
According
to the
whole impression
makes Joel was a Judean, for his interest is exclusively in Judah.

Whether his home was in Jerusalem or in the immediate vicinity
we do not know. It has been surmised that he was a Jerusalem
priest, but this cannot be proved from his profound interest in the
it
among
temple, priests and ritual, for he does not include himself

the priests in
i^^-
"
2^\
Joel does not remind us of the great pre-exilic prophets.
He
no rousing of
their
has^ho word of rebuke
There
for his people.
is
consciences by a sharp reminder of their sins, social, moral or religious.
Yet he
is
not indifferent to
this,
he does not speak of
sin
because he assumes a quickened conscience which the hard blows

of disaster
believes,
had stung
know
into
life.
He
that they have sinned
has sent the plague as a discipline.
pentance for
all
and summons them
speaks to people who, he
and who
He
to
it.
realise that
Yahweh
assimies the need of re-
He believes in the
cacy of united prayer and fasting, of the temple services and

in the value of
outward means and symbols.
to-day a churchman.
on the external side of
We should
But we must not overestimate

religion.
The
his
heart of the matter
effi-
ritual,
call
him
emphasis
is
also for
JOEL
68
him the
Fasting and sackcloth he does not
attitude of the spirit.
but they are not enough.
reject,
and
heart,
it
must be
sincere
Repentance
is
a matter of the
and thorough-going,
if it is
to avail
at all.
Joel does not rise to the greatness of Job's faith that
with
God
communion
does not depend on outward blessings, he believes that
both outward and inward blessings go together and that the^true

condition
that which experiences divine grace in the sacrament
is
He has
of material prosperity.
sometimes been called the Prophet
of Pentecost because of his prediction of the outpouring of the
But the scope
Spirit.
meaning
It
is
of this
prophecy
Holy
not universal and
is
its
not so profoundly spiritual as has usually been thought.
does not imply the spiritual and moral transformation of the
recipients
but
one of the preliminary signs of the day of
is
Yahweh.
But he was a
Joel was no great thinker and no great prophet.
His style is clear, fluent and
poet, and a poet of no mean order.
The lyrical quality of some of his lines places them
beautiful.
among the best of their kind in the OT., while his graphic, terse
descriptions are exceedingly effective.
movement
of his sentences with his
This gives
to his addresses
We
tent.
He
varies the rhythmic
changing thought and mood.
a beautiful harmony of form and con-
do not wonder that the people listened
to
him
as the
sweet, plaintive cadences of his beautiful lines or the swift, gallop-
ing staccato utterances of his unforgettable descriptions or of his

stirring appeals fell
on
their ears.
obeyed his command, voicing as
knew
Nor do we wonder that

did their own feelings.
they
He
himself to be one of them, their spokesman, but also the
spokesman
of
God.
5.
The
is
it
THE TEXT AND METRE.
text of Joel is well preserved
needed here.
The
and no
special discussion of
textcritical points are all
it
considered in the
notes.
The book
is
written in metre, as Eichhorn
showed already
in
1816 in his beautiful, rhythmic rendering, but apparently without
THE TEXT AND METRE

There
strophic regularity.
are, of course,
69
thought divisions and
But to divide these again into

strophes of equal length does not seem warranted, for we have no
means of knowing whether Joel was as much interested in strophic
may be
these
regularity as
There
regarded as strophes.
we
are.
no uniformity of metre
is
eters, tetrameters are all
either.
Hexameters, pentam-
used in the book, the last
ameter or pentameter purposely
left
is
uncompleted,
it
usually a hex-
The
seems.
most characteristic rhythm of Joel is the staccato movement of the

^"
tetrameter which he uses with wonderful success, e. g., in 2^-
where
its
quick movement
where
it
accentuates the terseness of the lines, or in
where
melody appears as
if
was not always the best

E.
ings.
effect,
or
i^'-
^^-^^^ ^
in i^-^^-
interrupted by sobs.
movement
"
4'"*
where the
But the tetram-
vehicle of Joel's thoughts
in 2^^" after the rapid
g.,
^"
i* 2*^-
beautifully appropriate, or in
heightens the stirring
it
plaintive
eter
is
of
2^-
'''^
and
feel-
the stac-
be given up as inappropriate to the pleading

and the hexameter is used instead. It is also
resorted to when Joel addresses the people in more measured tones,
cato
movement had
to
tones of the prophet,

j2. 5. i3a^
also
2*^.
or
^hen
the promise of the deity
Similarly the
much
2", with
is recited,
2^^-^'^-
pentameter movement follows,
e.
^- ^^^%
g.,
in
appropriateness upon the quick tetrameters of
2I5. 18
We see, Joel changes the rhythm of his speech in accordance with

thought. This gives to his words much life and feelmust make us cautious in applying a metrical norm
However, the authenticity of 4^'"^
to questions of genuineness.
is made more probable by the metrical argvunent than it otherwise
would be, for in 4'-"* we find the characteristic tetrameter with its
staccato style which Joel uses with such telling effect in undoubted
passages of chs. i, 2. It is used here with the same felicity and
his
mood and
ing.
force.
But
it
The metre helps us also to exclude certain additions,

2'-
e. g.,
But further than this it does not help us in disFor the

tinguishing between authentic and secondary material.
editorial additions are also in metre, most of them having been
taken from other prophets who also wro e in rhythm. And since
in
i^--
^*
^.
Joel did not confine himself to one metre even within the single
JOEL
70
sections
we cannot argue
for or against authenticity simply
on the
basis of his metric scheme.
The two most noteworthy contributions

and by Duhm.
metre
to the question of the
are by Sievers
Sievers arranges the

into seven sections:
II, !*
". b.
ub.
14. 16.
strophes; V, 4"'4I6 23.

41-8.
6.
17-21
s-
in accordance with his metrical principles
8-9. isacjis-i?
i7 23- 6b. jn
4; III, i"- "b. Ub.
strophes; IV, 2"'.
book
I, i^-
2. t.
pentameter strophes;
i2. i7b. 18a. 19b. 18b. i9. 20
sa. 7. s.
""> '^-h
11
a.
loa. iib. iid
jn two-Hne heptameter
uc in two-line pentameter
:
4; VI,
2'2-i<- 18-27 31-s
hexameter strophes; VII,
heptameters without strophic grouping.
in
form 8
in two-line strophes of the metric
410a in two-line
10b. la
in two-line
two-Hnc strophes of the metric form
Of these
sections
he regards VII as secondary.
is
Here, as in Obadiah (see pp. 16/.), Siev.'s contribution to the rhythm

most valuable, but here also instead of solving the problem of liter-
ary composition by the metre he has arrived at conclusions which are so

little likely to
commend
themselves that one cannot help feeling that the
metrical argument should be used with

It
straint.
much more
caution and re-
does not seem credible that passages which form beauti-
fully
connected wholes as they stand can be the result of such an
ficial
and complicated
The
str.
reader of
Duhm's
regularity of 1^2'^.
pendix.
arti-
literary process.
translation
The
is
impressed by the great metr. and
rest of the
book Du.
According to him the prophet wrote
prints as a prose ap-
in strophes usually of four
half lines each only four strophes of the thirty-four

;
have
six half lines each.
These four consist of i4 js is. i2c.i6c iio^ and the str. structure is apparently
one of Du.'s reasons for separating them from their context and arranging
them together in one group. The result is that ch. i is rearranged as
follows (a) vv.
half lines
3.
2-
6- 7. 9- 11.
IS
each verse representing a strophe of four
(b) vv. 4.6.8-f-i2o-(-i6c.io four verses (vv.
one) making four strophes of six half lines;

i8aa. isa^b
duced
-I-
19a. 20
-|-
i9o gix
in favour of this
gument but
12 c
e c
counting as
+ " I'a^b +
More can be ad-
(c) vv. ' " '^
strophes of four half lines.
rearrangement of ch.
than simply the metr. ar-
Whether Joel himself intended two or

three long lines (equivalent to Du.'s four and six half lines) as a str. unit is
more than we can say. In some cases it is obvious, e. g., i*' (two strophes
it is
not convincing.
of three long lines each), in other cases
it
is
probable,
one strophe.
e. g., i^-
i'-
(two
'
form but
up the uniform length of the single strophes. Du. takes v.
other strophe, made up of vv. ^ '^c. i6c_ jjut are we sure that
scrupulous about the uniformity of his strophes? Are we
also
give
'
may form but

Similarly, e. g., I'l 12 may form two strophes, but they may
one; if two we cannot take v. '*' with the second unless we
strophes of two long lines each), but just as probably
'^ =
with an-
Joel
was so
sure,
e.
g.,
MODERN LITERATURE
I'o must be lengthened out to a strophe of six half lines as Du. does
by a conjectural insertion? May not the last half have been left uncompleted with intention ? It would be not less effective thus. These
are questions which the progress of metr. investigation may eventually
answer definitely in Du.'s manner. But at this present stage they are
still matters of uncertainty.
And so the metr. and str. regularity of
that
Du.'s translation appears to

Nevertheless
melody of
chs.
Joel
iibersetzt
des Joel
und
all the
und
in the
no rhythm
and
in chs. 3, 4.
und
S.
Bible,
p. 17.
A. Merx, Die Prophetic
erkldrt, 1872.
Kommentar zum Buche

R. Driver, The Books of Joel and
1898. J. D. Wynkoop, in Kahana's
ihre Ausleger, 1879.
Cambridge
See
K. A. Credner, Der Prophet
A. Wiinsche, Die Weissagung des
erkldrt, 1831.
iibersetzt
des Propheten Joel, 1885.
Amos,
finds
Minor Prophets.
commentaries on Joel.
Propheten Joel
Du.
MODERN LITERATURE.
Commentaries on
(2) Special
as not truly representing the original.
It is strange that
i, 2.
6.
(i)
me
brings out most beautifully the rhythmic swing
it
Scholz,
Biblia Hebraica, 1906 (Hebrew).
K. Marti, in Kautzsch's Die
Heilige Schrift des A.T.'s,^ 1909.

(3)
Special
articles.
schaftlich dargestellt,
1866, pp. 412
Vatke,
Die
1835, pp.
I,
biblische
462
Das Judentum im
ff.;
Vernes, Le Peuple d^ Israel
et ses
/.
1880,
ZwTh.,
Persischen Zeitalter.
M.
Esperances, 1872, pp. 46-54, 162/.;
Histoire des Idees Messianiques, 1874, pp.

Critique Religieuse,
Theologie wissen-
Hilgenfeld,
pp.
218-28.
13 /.;
Duhm,
Melanges de
Theologie der
A. B. Davidson, Exp., March,

The Prophet Joel. Holzinger, ZAW., 1889, pp.
89-131, Sprachcharakter und Ab/assungszeit des Buches Joel. G. B.
Gray, Exp., Sept., 1893, pp. 208 jf.. The Parallel Passages in Joel
Propheten, 1875, pp. 275-77.
1888, pp. 198/.,
in Their Bearing on the Question of Date.
German
patrick,
in
DB.,
sel, in
The Doctrine
II, 1899.
W.
JE., VII, 1904.
pp. lb
und
J.
W.
Rothstein, in the
edition of Driver's Introduction, 1896, pp. 333 /.
ff.
Stocks,
of the Prophets,"^ 1897, pp. 57^.
R. Smith (Driver), in EB.,
Kirk-
Cameron,
II, 1901.
Rys-
Bruston, Les plus anciens ProphUes, 1907,
NkZ., 1908, pp. 725
die Komposition des
Buches
Joel.
^.,
Der ''Ncirdliche"
Besides the Introductions
JOEL
72
mentioned on
Kuenen, Onderzoek^ 1889, 68
cp.
p. i8,
/.
Reuss, Geschichte der heiligen Schriften A.T.'s,^ 1890.
The
(4)
and
text
metre.
Students OT.,
See
Sievers, Alttestamentliche
p. 18.
Oesterley, JTS., 1906, pp. 228-35.
Miscellen, VI, 1907.
Kent,
Rahmer, Hieronymus' Com-
Ill, 1910, pp.
409 /.
mentar zu den zwolf kleinen Propheten, 1902.
ADDITIONAL NOTE ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE BOOK.

Paul Riessler presents the following theory of the composition of Joel in
new book, Die Kleinen Propheten oder das Zwolfprophetenbuch nach dent
his
Urtext ilhersetzt
To
2i-5.
8-12
und
this
not belong to the original book,
"
The
erkldrt (191 1).
original nucleus consisted of
i^-"-
were joined parallels from messages of Joel which did

i^-t- I'-ô
2"-t7.
19. 20.
27
î.
^1-3.
9.
10.
12.
were added passages which probably go back in

large measure to Joel himself but which had been handed down separately,
".
24-9.
Still
12-H.
later there
21-24. 28
older author.
their
way
7b. lOb. 12
31.
And
4,
them?)
{that the heathen
and
i^b. zob^
may
<\*-^-
"-21 .^vere
inserted
from some
a number of marginal notes and glosses found
into the text, i^ {elders)
{also palms,
we put in
Besides these,
finally
'
2^"^-
children
{to their
yea, joy, etc.) {old

^â. ab^. 7.^.
not rule over them)
">
11.
men)
'^b.
and
naab.
their children)
isa
{iDkat could
u^^b. ub {meal-offering, etc.)
{and
its
bad odour ascends) "b.
32- 3b- 6 {even escaped ones, etc.) 48 {to the Sabeans, and for
spoken) " " {the vats overflow) M*"- *'.
"
26b
Yahweh has
COMMENTARY ON
1.
The
states
title
No
JOEL.
merely that a divine communication had come
no home from v^hich

was directed, are given.
Nor is the mode described in which Yahweh's revelation came to
him. Simply the common superscription. The word of Yahweh
which came to Joel the son of Pethuel, or Bethuel, cf. Ho. i' Mi. i*
Zp. i^. Its simplicity appears to vouch for its genuineness. There
is no reason to suppose that the names are not genuine names of
to Joel.
Joel came,
date, not even of the period,
no hint
to
whom
the oracle
historical persons.
THE AWFUL LOCUST PLAGUE AND DROUGHT
(i"").
an introduction in which the attention of the people is

unexampled and ever memorable cliaracter of the
locust plague through which they are now passing (vv. ^*), Joel
proceeds to a graphic description of the unprecedented devastation
of the land by means of the rhetorical device of describing the disAfter
directed to the
tress of the
enjoy
various classes; of the wine-bibbers
ilieir favourite
drink {vv. ^^), of the priests
who can no
who can no
longer
longer
husbandmen and vineyard keepers who have lost their harvests (vv. ""^^).
Then he calls
for the remedy and exhorts the priests to make preparations for a
great day of public fasting and supplication (vv. ^").
And with
bring sacrifices
the
to the altar (vv. ^^),
words of a prayer in which he
distress of
V.
*^
is
man and
of
sets
tJie
forth in moving manner the
beast he concludes (vv. ^^^^),
an interpolation by the editor who interpreted the locusts
as the precursors of the day of

73
Yahweh.
JOEL
74
THE UNPRECENTED CHARACTER OF THE PLAGUE

AND ITS EXTENT (i'-^.
Hear this, ye old men,
and give ear, all who dwell in the land!
Has the like ever happened in your days,
or in the days of your fathers?
Tell your children
and
And
(let)
all about it,

your children (tell)
their children.
their children the following generation.
That which the shearer left,

the swarmer has eaten.
And that which the swarmer left,
the lapper has eaten.
And
which the lapper
that
left,
the finisher has eaten!
Three introductory strophes,

pentameter
as one
a trimeter, (3)
v.
(i) v.
*
a hexameter
three tetrameters.
a pentameter, (2) v. ' a

i and 2 may be taken
Strs.
str.
2-4. Joel did not merely write his addresses but spoke to the
He addresses the old men,
sembled people.
here, because he
ory.
Has
wants
Their testimony
anything
to appeal to their experience

is
like this (ever)
happened
No
be memorable.
why he
people,
The whole
is
the oldest
men can
their fathers
so unprecedented that
So the prophet exhorts them
all,
it
tell
of
will long
here
we
see
men but all the

to preserve the memory of it and to hand it down to their
and children's children, with all its particulars. The
event, thus far only referred to

terrible locust
swarms has
try.
mem-
addressed at the beginning not only the old
children
their
in your life-time or
(before)
Not even
remember having experienced or having heard

it.
and
valuable because they are so very old.
in the days of your fathers ?
anything like
as-
they are not the elders
by
this
and
it,
is
explained in
v.
*.
plague has visited the land and in successive
totally
devoured the herbage and foliage of the coun-
Shearer, swarmer, lapper a.nd finisher are different
names
for
The OT. menSome are

different names.
locusts, translated after their
probable etymology.
tions several kinds of locusts
by seven
i^-^
qmonyms
denoting
same
stages of the
is
same
the
species,
75
others denote different
species,
Here
others different species.
still
it
not locusts in the different stages of their development or differ-
ent species that are meant, but the four
names
are used to exhaust
the category and to describe the completeness of the destruction
What one swarm had
caused by these successive swarms.
In synonyms for locust the Heb.
another devoured.
left
richer
is
Whether these successive swarms were conon 2^. Either would be true to
than the English.
fined to a single year or not, see
nature.
"When we were
Fr. Alvarez reports,
place called Aqnate, there
They began
said.
to arrive
On
Abrigima, in a
of locusts as cannot
one day about terce [nine] and
they ceased not to arrive; and

selves.
in the Seignory of
came such a multitude
when they
arrived, they bestowed
be
night
till
them-
the next day at the hour of prime they began to depart,
and
mid-day there was not one, and there remained not a leaf on the trees.
At this instant others began to come and stayed like the others to the
at
next day at the same hour; and these
left
not a stick with
its
ch. 32 (quoted
sive years,
by Pusey).
"The
a million."
Snv
1.
Indias,
Barrow, on the other hand, speaks of succes-
present year
is
and
whose
the third of their continuance,
increase has far exceeded that of a geometrical progression

is
bark, nor a
Das
green herb, and thus did they five days one after another."
their
ratio
S. Africa, p. 257 (Pu.).
Sn
Yahweh
BDB.
is
God.
This
is
the best explanation.
and Kue.'s interesting but untenable suggestion that Snv was a pseudonymous name formed by inOther proposals see
version of in'Sx.
ros KV
7]y
in
Cp.
in;*:??
CJQ* iffxvs KV Trap E^patois.
5e k tiji (pvXtjs povêifj..
(22 tw^jX ep/jLeveverai
Pseudo-Epiphanius,
says, ^v iK Tijy 717$ toO 'Fovî}v iv dypi^ ê6wp,6po3v.

irdcpri iKei (Marti).
was
also the
name
Sxinij
occurs only here;
of Rebeka's father (Gn.
CS>
22"
HI
Vit(B
iv
070^7;-
Prophetarum,
elp-^pjj
& read
dwÔave Kal
Sni.-i3,
24'5- ^- ").
JEt
which
B =iJI.
Skiho has been variously explained, from the root nrô to persuade, which
Samuel who
God in prayer (i S. 8'). But Sxina is probably the more
The explanation of the Midrash, Why was his name called
the old Jewish commentators regarded as another form of
prevailed over
orig. reading.
Snips
mer).
Because he had his hair curled like a virgin (nVinaD), seems to conword-play on Sxina and nSina and to argue for Ssina as orig. (Rah-
tain a
2. a''jptn, the
of one cod. of Kenn.
is
better,
M'1Kr\^
reading o^jnon in one ms. of de R. and in the marg.

an interpretation, pk? = nuta, oa-iDia, <&^^^ tj/jluv,
is
oni usually on in disjunctive questions,
yea, give ear, the constr. of
an imv. with
waw
but
cf.
GtsJ'^^"*.
conj. after another
JOEL
76
imv. makes each imv. distinct.
waw.
3. n>Si' in
than nun
ticulars
0T^^<i2^
the use of
and
Else
Sj:
have followed ot:2.
nascentur ab Hits;
yivuvrai (Cred.).
cons, with pf.

ni^jyo.
Siev.
om. the
is
stronger
"ifiD
instead of the simple ace. indicates that par-
reflections are to
be given about
prob. for metr. reasons, but
directly
waw
Gr. suggests
emphatic position.
it
is
Now.^ om.
it.
onijo'?
dub. vbether inN nnS would
Cf. Vergil, /En. 3'',
nati natorum
et
et
qui
Homer, //. 20"'', Kal iraLduv iraTSes roL Kev fierdirKTOe

Du. transposes D-'jprn from v. ^ to the beginning of v.
because of the metre.
4.
On
the locusts see esp. Cred., pp. 261-313,
and Dr., pp 82-91, and the literature cited there. d?j shearer, 2^ Am.
na-it* Assy, aribu, usually connected with nan to
4', from DTJ, to cut off.
multiply,
locust
lap
p. 34)
swarmer, but
and occurs
the tapper, elsewhere
connects
to finish,
NH. =
it
the vb.
is
occurs 2
possible that ph>

locust but
state.
35- Je. 51'*
ilkitu,
its
The
may
assumes
the usual
name
Because
i
K. 8"
(||
it
an end.
Hpt. {JBL., XXVI,

'?>Dn from Son
= leaper.
Taanith
3*^
<*,
" Why
brings everything to an end."
Ch. 6")
Is. 33* Ps.
78".
is
In
the
Else-
It is not
im-
denote a certain stage in the development of the
use in Na. 3' Je. 51^' does not favour the non-winged
various stages are summarised by Dr. as follows,
its
for
to lick,
used in Dt. zS's of the action of the locusts.
insect, after leaving the egg, casts its skin

it
is
Ar. ualaqd,
to destroy utterly, to bring to
'?'Dn
It
connected with pph
pS^ is usually
Na.
with Assy,
locust called hasil?
where
this is doubtful.
frequently.
complete form (which
is
"The
not less than six times before
reached 6-7 weeks from birth),
but only three of the stages through which
it
thus passes are clearly
Immediately after the locusts are

hatched, they are in the larva-stsLge, in which they have no wings, but
are capable of hopping about; and advancing in compact bodies, they
different to
an ordinary observer.
begin almost immediately their destructive operations.

three weeks' time, their fourth moult brings
them
After about
to the pupa-stage, in
which their wings are partially developed, but enclosed as yet in membranous cases; in this stage they advance by walking rather than by
hopping. Ten days after reaching the pupa-stage, they moult again;
and 10-15 days after this, by a last moult, they disengage themselves
from their pupa,* or nymph-skin, and as soon as their vdngs are stiffened
and dry, mount in clouds into the air; they are now the imago, or com'
plete insect.
In
all
stages of their development, they are equally vo-
and equally destructive to vegetation," pp.84/. Cred. thought

that the four names denoted different stages of development.
But the
order in 2'^ is diff., and naiN, the most common term for locust, would
then not denote the complete insect. Moreover, the swarms move
onward and it could therefore not be said, what the shearer had left, the
swarmer has eaten, because the shearer had become the swarmer and was
no longer in the place where it was first. Cf. Dr., p. 37 n.
racious,
77
POETIC PICTURE OF THE DISTRESS OF THE WINEDRINKERS (I'-O*
Awake, ye (merry) tipplers and weep,

and wail, all ye bibbers of wine.
Because of the must, for
'
'tis
For a nation has invaded my land,

powerful and numberless;
a
Its teeth are the teeth of
and
'
snatched from your mouth!
it
has turned
It
and
Has
lion,
has a lioness' jaw-teeth.
my
my
vines to waste,
fig trees to splinters,
and thrown down (the shreds),
stripped them clean bare
white gleam their branches.
Three
strs., (i) v.
a hexameter
a trimeter,
strs. 2
and
3 are
formed by two
pentameters each.
5-7. Joel was a poet.
He
could not be satisfied with a mere
With dramatic power he
prosaic statement of the calamity.
on the various
trophe.
5.
classes of the people to
He
addresses the wine-bibbers and rouses them from
may mourn
their sleep of intoxication that they
of wine over the destruction of the grape-vines
lips.
with
all
and the
grape-juice, which the locusts have snatched, as
very
calls
lament over the awful catas-
it
the lovers
loss of the
were, from their
In contrast to their usual merriment they are to wail in
desperate grief, for they will no longer be able to indulge in their

precious and beloved sweet wine.
wine
is
mentioned
first
before the vintage, but this
The
reason
bers
is
why
It
may be
that the loss of the
because the locusts had come immediately
may
the sweet wine
a severe locust plague.
is
be due to Joel's rhetoric.
6.
taken away from the wine-bib-
The
locusts are
compared to an inFor this com-
vading nation of huge numbers and terribly armed.

parison see also
of bees, of
and
2*'^,
flies, etc.
Homer
Pr. 30 ^"^^.
The
invading army
irresistible in its attack.
also speaks of peoples

is
strong and powerful,
Joel does not think here of the
strength of the individual locust, for though they are quite strong
it is
only their immense numbers that
Without number
is literally
true;
cf.
make them
Je. 46^.
so formidable.
JOEL
^8
"You
feel as
Vast crowds of
if
never before you had realised immensity in nimiber.
men gathered at a festival,
countless tree-tops rising along
London houses from
the slope of a forest ridge, the chimneys of

of St. Paul's
all
the top
are as nothing to the myriads of insects that blot out the
sun above and cover the ground beneath and fill the air vi'hichever way
one looks." Jas. Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, 1897 (quoted by
GASm., p. 400). "In 1889 there passed over the Red Sea a swarm
which was estimated to extend over 2,000 square miles, and each locust
being assumed to weigh
j^g
oz.,
the weight of the
swarm was
calculated
be 42,850 millions of tons; a second and even larger swarm passed on

That these numbers are no exaggeration is shown by
the following day.
to
the
Government Reports on
the destruction of the locusts in Cyprus.
In
188 1 over 1,300 tons of locust eggs had been destroyed, but in spite of
this
it
eggs,
was calculated that over 5,000 egg
cases, each containing
in 1883."
were deposited in the island
EB., Ill,
col.
many
2808,
s.
v.
Locust.
The weapons of this army of locusts are their strong jaw-teeth

whose destructive power is brought out by comparing them to those
''Their mandibles and maxillae are strong, sharp and
of lions.
jagged."
Cent. Diet.,
s.
''.
v. locust.
for so small a creature, they
add saw-like
to strength incredible
teeth,
admirably calcu-
up all the herbs of the land." Morier, A Second

Journey Through Persia, p. 99 (Pu.). Pliny reports that they even
lated to eat
gnaw through doors
(Hist. Nat.,
my
whether the prophet means by
Of
Judah
course,
my fig
is
I,
11, ch. 12).
land his
own
It is
not certain
or Yahweh's land.
referred to in either case.
The
use of
my
would seem to indicate that Joel was

speaking in Yahweh's name and that my land is Yahweh's land;
but see on the other hand w. * ^^ where Yahweh is spoken of in
vine and
the 3d pers.
tree in v.
'
7. Since Joel is speaking here of the ruin of the vint-
age he does not refer to the plants and vegetables which the locusts
attack, as a rule,
fig trees.
first,
but of the total destruction of the vines and
For the personal pronoim see
vines (Heb. sg.
coll.) to
a waste
v.
and my fig
^.
He
has reduced
trees to splinters!
my
He
has utterly stripped them of their leaves and bark and while he was
devouring he has thrown the shreds and twigs to the groimd, and
stripped off their bark so that their branches gleam white.
This
is
an exact description,
have devoured
all
verified
by many
travellers.
" When they
other vegetables, they attack the trees, consuming
first
i=-
the leaves then the bark."
79
Jackson,
Travels
to
"After hav-
Morocco.
consumed herbage, fruit, leaves of trees, they attacked even their

young shoots and their bark." Adansson, Voyage au Senegal, p. 88.
"It is sufi&cient, if these terrible columns stop half an hour on a spot, for
everything growing on it, vines, olive trees, and corn, to be entirely
ing
After they have passed nothing remains but the large
destroyed.
branches and the roots, which being underground have escaped their
voracity."
"They
May,
Constitutional,
1841, of locusts in Spain in that year.
palm
are particularly injurious to the
trees; these they strip of
every leaf and green particle, the trees remaining like skeletons with bare
Burckhardt, Notes,
branches."
and
trees,
"The
II, p. 90.
to be burnt, but to be covered with
country did not seem
snow, through the whiteness of the
the dryness of the herbs."
quoted by Pu.).
"The
stripped, even the
bark of the young
Fr.
Alvarez,
trees
now
(all
t,;^
completely
having been devoured, and
Journ. Sacr.
look like a birch-tree forest in winter."
c, ch.
I.
gardens outside Jaffa are
1865
Lit., Oct.,
(Dr.).
5. ix\in, cf. Gn. 9'^ Pr. 23*'. (& adds the explanatory i^ otvov airwp,
which Du. accepts as orig. but with sf. of 2d pers. pi. am^;:' vocative,
without art. contrary to the rule, Ges. ^ '* ". Van H. concludes that all inhabitants and not only a fraction are addressed. In iSS^ni Siev. om. waw
and places
conj., with ($,

out,
grape juice as pressed
out.
Cf.
<35
In distinction from j" which
vios.
p\
iSSin after
D^Dj?
sweet wine, 1/ Doy to press
in Jo. 4I8 yT^vKacrfids, in Is.
is
fermented wine
D''Dj?
is
49*
olvos
must
either
made by a process in which fermentation was artificially arrested

(Am. 9" Is. 49^" Ct. 8'). See Dr., on Am. 9'^ (6 adds ivippoaiv-q Kal x<'-P^
or wine
= S>x\ nnnr;
=
maj, w.
hy rhy military
niySno jaw-teeth;
always
with
S B
for niySnn).
Jb. 29" f 58^
Marti NâS?
M preferable. nctyS
cf. i>6.
yjcj, v. ".
term for invading.

Pr. 3o><
D'-jif,
n^jS?.
Siev.,
word-play.
vnipSriDi;
rysfip
is
parall.
reads nsapS, but this
to noB', (&
(5
7.
is
avyK\acrfi6v.
db',
BDB.
cp. Ar.
a snapping or splintering. Dr. splinters,

pluck off (twigs, etc.) cf. yhz'n v. >.
off,
also connected with
This holds good
parall.
N'-aS,
(ni;?n'7D
kasafa, break, snap

is
6.
/îJXat,
C5
t]ap,
is
ixp
Gr.
perhaps not necessary since nosp
rô'^p.
also for ixp. (Ho. 10') a^D ^jb hy isps nj^fo, cast (sic!)
like a chip
upon
the water.
tentionally,
cf. rp
1391, or
Ti^tf ni his
no
sf., it
may have been om.
we must read with We., Now.
in-
^Sipni tîpn nsfe'n
he has stripped it, stripping and throwing away, i. e. he stripped the

bark of the fig trees and of the grape-vines for they are both included
and in doing so shreds of leaf and bark fell to the ground.
in the sf
^'7tf^, cf. Je. 9" Jb. 18'.
uoSni Hiph. show whiteness, grow white, cf.
.
Ges,
white.
'"'.
One
is
cod. of de R.,
better.
(8 confuses IBTI
The
&, Ar. have sg., he makes its branches

due to pi. neuter of the subj.
sg. in (& is
with con, iêpevvwv
i^tjpeivijaev
air-qv.
jna*
is
the
8o
JOEL
branch of the vine also
in
Gn.
40"'-
''.
thing intertwined, tendril, twig, so that
it
it means someyoung branches
Etymologically
may denote
the
of the fig tree also.
THE DISTRESS OF THE PRIESTS

'
With a sorrow
(i'-*").
a virgin, sack-girt
like that of
for the spouse of her youth,

'b-
Sorrow the
Yahweh,
For the meal-offering and the libation are cut
from the temple of Yahweh.
"
The
priests,
the ministers of
fields are blasted,
the ground
For the corn

the
The
Two
is
new wine
fresh
mourning,
blasted,
is
is
abashed
pines away.
oil
vv. 8- ' a pentameter -f a tetrameter

a pentameter, (2)
a hexameter consisting of three dimeters (staccato style).
strs., (i)
a tetrameter
-f-
8-10. Joel turns now to the
priests.
is
not intended.
simply the rapid turning from one class to another.

like that of a virgin
who is
8.
a virgin/
is
beset
some
insert
orig. reading, for the
by various
But the address
my land,
ever, not the people
sor-
girded with sackcloth for the husband
is
knd
omitted, which
so,
is
fem. form of the
or the commmiity was

is
so
awkward
or daughter of my people, or Israel.
who mourn
This
rendering lament like
The
diiBculties.
imv. would show that either the

addressed.
It is
With a
of her youth, sorrow the priests, the ministers of Yahweh.
most probably the
v.
A dramatic division into a
chorus of revellers and a chorus of priests
row
off
but the priests, as
It
v.
is,
^^
that
how-
shows,
There were two comparisons for the deepest sorrow, the mourning for an only son, cf.
Am. 8^", and the heart-rending sorrow of the young virgin for her
betrothed, the husband of her youth, with whom she had not yet
tasted the joy of married life.
To the Hebrews a betrothal was as
binding as marriage, and the engaged were subject to the same laws
as the married people and were punished in case of transgression
in the same manner.
A betrothed.maiden could therefore be called
the wife of his neighbour (Dt. 22^^ ^), and the man the husband of
though there the
line is
probably inserted.
For
her youth.
his death she
common mourning
the
mourn because
mourns, clothes herself in sackcloth,
apparel,
and laments.
9.
priests
The
necessary
means
of
come
no material
for
communion with Yahweh
are
about; the daily sacrifices have ceased, for there

offerings!
So the
the most awful thing that could happen has

is
taken away, "the tokens of Jehovah's presence and favour, manifested in
His acceptance of the offerings have been removed"
That
(Dav.).
On
doubt.
the daily sacrifices are
the meal-offering,
cf.
Lev.
a burnt-offering,
offering, usually in connection with
Nu.
The
28^"^.
cf.
Ex.
2(f^'*^
community laid great stress on the daily

by means of them daily contact and inter-
postexilic
offerings believing that
course with
meant here admits of no

on the libation or drink-
2,
Yahweh were
assured;
cj.
How
Ne. 10^.
terrible a
misfortune the cessation of the daily sacrifices was considered
Dn. 8"
plain from
12" and esp. from Josephus
11^^
that they were not omitted even in times of siege
on July
sation
Joel
had
is
was from that
fices highly,
To
{Bell.
Jud., VT,
And
2, i).
and that their cesproduced an
shows how
it
The
cf.
Am.
5^^
Ho.
are
impression on
different his attitude
of the pre-exilic prophets.
they rejected them;
we
this calamity,
befallen the people in Joel's day.
very profound,
the cult
is
us
tells
17th, 70 A.D., during the siege of Titus
awful impression
told,
who
toward
He valued sacri4^ 8" Is. i*^ Je. f\
Joel they were a condition of the gracious intercourse between
Yahweh and his people, to the pre-exilic prophets it was impossible

There is only one sanctuary
to find Yahweh by means of them.
referred to
by
Joel,
one house of Yahweh, at Jerusalem where the
That
ministers of the altar perform their sacred functions.

side of the calamity
for
it
touched them
Hebrew
short,
would be most keenly

first
of
all.
felt
by them
10. "The longer
is
this
natural,
lines into
which
parallelism tends to run are replaced by a rapid series of
heavy phrases,
falling like blows.
Joel loads his clauses
with the most leaden letters he can find, and drops them in quick
succession, repeating the
same heavy word again and
again, as
if
he would stun the careless people into some sense of the bare,
brutal weight of the calamity which has befallen
405).
The field
fication; cf.
Am.
is blasted, the
1^.
When
them" (GASm.,
p.
ground mourns, a beautiful personi-
crops are abundant "the vales shout
&2
JOEL
for joy
corn
cj.
and sing"
Is. 24',
Here the ground mourns because
(Ps. 65*^).
is blasted, the
new wine
has failed, the
used of fading, withering
is
oil
the
ashamed, another personification,

languishes, elsewhere this
trees; cf.
e.
g. v.
word
Corn, wine and
^^,
is
oil
were the most important products of the land, and are often mentioned together;
7^^ 9^^ 28^^
Dt.
e. g.,
The words
Ho. 2^
denote
both the corn in the ears, the juice in the grapes and in the olives,
and the prepared products. Here the former appear to be meant.

word-plays of the Heb. cannot be reproduced in English.
The
THE DISTRESS OF THE HUSBANDMEN AND OF THE

VINE DRESSERS
(i"-
'==).
Abashed are the husbandmen,

the vineyard keepers wail,
For the wheat and the
barley,
for the harvest of the field has perished.

*
The
vine
is
abashed,
and the fig tree is drooping.

Pomegranate as well as palm
and apple are dried up.
Yea, joy
is
abashed (and has gone)

the children of men.
away from
In
V.
12
there
is
added,
(staccato style), they
all the trees
may form
11-12. The third

lament with
harvests.
class
five tetrameters
is
but one
str.
which Joel mentions are the cultivators
husbandmen and vineyard keepers who mourn and
all
11.
the outward signs of grief over the loss of their
The prophet need
ative call to be disappointed,

sternation.
We have here
Possibly the whole section
consisting only of one str.
of the soil, the
of the field.
either three strs., as here printed, or two, v.
The reason
in V. "^, for the wheat
products of the
field,
not exhort them by an imper-
for the sorrow of the
and
grief and conhusbandmen is given
he describes their
the barley, here
mentioned for
/or the harvest of the field has perished.
reason for the lament of the vineyard keepers
all
the
The
which
shows that the term embraces not only vineyard keepers or planters
but fruit-growers in general.

signs of shame, as the
is
12. He speaks of
husbandmen did
given in
v.
the vine as
in v. ".
And
^^,
showing
the fig tree
palm and the apple tree

an addition. But
not be surprised by the omission of
languishes, the pomegranate as well as the
Probably
are dried up.
whether
we
or not
it is
all the trees of the field is
nefed
the olive tree, for the passage
we should
not for i""^
and
the locust plague,
not prose but poetry.
is
were
If it
regard the drying up of the trees as due to

this
would be quite
we
possible, but there
was suffering at the

same time. Yea, Joel concludes his description by the beautiful
line, joy is ashamed {and has gone) away from the children of men.
Joy is personified, she hides herself in shame not daring to let her
are told of a long drought from which the land
The
face be seen.
8. iSn only here in
Houb.
the
Note
'33.
foil,
me
like
a virgin,
with a sorrow
'Vn
D2
vip-cp-qv
Hi.
"''^'N
is full
of
ms. reads
due
As
'V^n,
to dittog. of
subj. of
ng, Siev. substitutes
'>Sn 21
^^-^\ for
not the topers that appear to be ad-
it is
who
is
branches have become gray
its
was
likely ^Sn
like that of a virgin
"22 is prob.
n'?iri33(?).
vpy.
with preceding
More
etc.
^x-!vX,
for sg., but
pi.
One
usual in Aram.
jj-i
also inr^p
Ehr. connects
dressed.
n'^x
de W., Marti
'^Nitt",
Du. reads
^Sn.
OT.,
05 Oprivriffov irpbs
'SS'^?.
supplies
for
The land
harvest joy has vanished.
How can gladness dwell with men who are so full of grief?
sorrow.
orig.
Sax ace. cog. to
i'?3n,
girded with sackcloth for the
husband of her youth sorrow the priests. It was changed to >Sn

had been accidentally disp'aced, it should follow directly v.
after
V. "i
should be inserted before mon,

punctuation
9").
5'.
1">3>
^'^s is
mun,
the variant reading in v.
of.
somewhat unusual, but
cstr.
cf.
147'
Nu. 21"
9. nini ^nitt'O^naiD imB'D, cf. v. ".
context refers to cultic actions

so Me., Now., Marti,
iSjx,
(S
irevdeire
'>3
The
"i'.
up.,,
Ges.
expressing girded with sackcloth as a''ian B^nS (Ez.
mif
is
often used of the sa-
cred services of the priests from the time of Deuteronomy on.
'.
may seem
na!"?
et al.
But
imv.,
Siev.
see
Since the
more proper reading,

i"P and 2". V. ^^ is om. by (6'".
the
iSjn.
preferable.
is
The
topers
be aroused to a realisation of the calamity, the priests and husbandmen (v. ") know it and are in distress over it. The comparison
had
to
with the sorrow of the virgin shows that a description
is
intended.
ij
adds DâSn kings, feeling that they should not be omitted. nin> n>as,
Du. adds irnSs mtr. cs. v. and v. "> are to be transposed, for v. "
belongs directly after v. K
10. (S begins with

'"''73N,
>3.
05 jrevdfLiru imv.
nm.v cultivated ground.

mtr.
v.
cs.
tyiîn is
"; (b) of
nnB>
Du.
used in ch.
husbandmen
ne'
nmN
nS^N
irnin câin, word-plays.
htj' indefinite, in contrast to cit}% fields.
inserts before jjt ^^^', "fort ist das Griin,"

i (a)
of
v. '; (c) of
new wine v. '", of vines v.

it
the joy of men v. '2.
", of
is
com
evident
JOEL
84
that in (b)
must be from B'n and this is the more natural and approprialso of (c).
One might be inclined to connect (a) rather
it
meaning
ate
with
Hiph.
Ti'2\
to exhibit dryness, be
dried up, as in Zc. lo", so the Vrss.,
Ew., Ges., Or., and one might then think of an interesting play on words.
But
z'2^ Qal to express to be dried, w. '' 20^ so that it is better

forms from U'o. They are either metaplastic forms or from
Joel uses
to take all
Y^P and vpi; 3ii3 and 3!0i; 'în and Sn^;

means
to he ashamed, confused, disapcf.
pointed; of things to fail, miscarry (to suffer shame = to be brought to
naught).
11. iB'Oin and i'7''Sin either imv., 01, Jewish interpreters, show
shame 1 show your disappointment ! lament 1 or pf., & H they are disappointed and show their disappointment by outward signs, they lament.
a secondary form of
BDB.,
s.
a^^2, sc.
Used
V. B'3>.
of
^2\
cf.
men
it
The
latter is preferable, as in v.
favours
though
it,
(Kenn.) has
Now.^.
cf. v.
for
iii'n
4'3.
'.
'
The absence
i'?3k.
of the art. also
(& iîjpdv6r](rav pf., dpijvetre imv.
wain.
d''D-io,
Gr.,
Now. onsp
One
cod.
harvesters, not
and wheat harvest not the vintage (&,

# "^rg.^ go also Ho. 2" Pr. 3i', S
KT-fiTopei.
12. DJ = 1.
Marti om. niirn >xj; S3 as an insertion from i'^.
The metre may also be urged as an argument against its originality.
Siev. om. mom idh dj pm. We. says " the pomegranate,
(S adds Kal.
the palm and the apple would not have been enumerated in an older age."
but
cf.
This
i^sp is here the barley
may
Dnn.nn
D>-^3X, <S
KTT^nara,
be true but psi occurs as early as
-\^y,
Ju.
iis
(j)^
i S. 14^;
Dt. 34' ( JE)., as a proper
name
inn, Ex. 152? (J);

Since
2 S. 13, etc.
palm trees suffer especially from locusts, cf. on v. ', even an earlier writer
would probably have included them in his list. ni3.-i occurs only in late
books, Pr 25" Ct. 2'- ^ 7' 8^, but its non-occurrence in earlier literature
may be
accidental,
irt xiffxvvav
xapa"
cf.
Holzinger.
ol viol avdpdbiruv,
13
due
asseverative, yea.
CALL FOR A PENITENTIAL ASSEMBLY

"
'com
to the omission of fp
Gird yourselves (with sackcloth) and beat the

wail, ye ministers of the altar!
Come, keep on your sackcloth day and night,
(i^^-
breast,
>3 (S
by haplo.
")
priests!
ye ministers of God!
[For withheld from the house of your God
are the meal-offering and the libation.}
" Sanctify
a fast!
a solemn assembly!
Gather all inhabitants of the land
into the house of your God,
call
And
Two
a tetrameter
Cf. v.
'.
cry unto
Yahweh!
" a hexameter
a pentameter, v. " is a doublet of v. 5, (2)
a hexameter, consisting of three dimeters (staccato movement).
strs., (i) v.
13-15
8^
13-14. Joel proceeds to suggest the remedy.

He summons
mourn and do penance themselves but to
the priests not only to
proclaim a universal
in order that they
fast, to call all
may
earnest national humiliation

to help them.
13.
Come
together to
all
Gird yourselves (with sackcloth,
32") and beat your breasts,

altar!
people together to the temple,
Yahweh. By such
and penitence Yahweh may be moved
there cry
O ye priests/
(into the temple,
cf.
* ^^^
Is.
cf. v.
Wail, ye ministers of the
2 S. 12^^),
keep on your sackcloth
day and night, ye ministers of God/ This accentuates the seriousOnly in time of dire disness of the mourning and penitence.
and hard penance the sackcloth was kept on day and night,
12^ I K. 21^'.
The tokens of mourning are not to be
removed until the suffering is over. The foil, clause, for the mealoffering and the libation are withheld from the house of your God,
appears to be a doublet of v. ^* and not original here. In v. it is
tress
cf
2 S.
in place, but not here, because Joel has
He
remedy.
wants the
ing and prayer.
The
tions.
14. Sanctify a
with
fast
ments was a
its
to suggest the
day of public
fast-
make the necessary prepara-
fast,
abstention from food and ordinary enjoy-
religious function.
intended to propitiate the deity,
Its
who
suppliant was supposed to accede
The
moved on
priests to prepare for a
self-inflicted
suffering
was
seeing the earnestness of the
more
readily to his requests.
underlying idea of fasting and mourning and of putting on of
sackcloth
3''^, cf.
expressed very clearly by David, 2 S.
is
also Jo. 2^^'".
Call a solemn assembly,
gather all the inhabitants of the country,
cf. 2*,
12^^,
cf.
and by Jon.
Am.
5^^ Is. i^^,
into the house of your
God and cry to Yahweh/ The calling together of all adds to the
power and effectiveness of the appeal, for when all unite in penitent, sorrowful supplication God will more readily answer.
The
old
men or
from
elders (official title)
Why
2^.
different in i^
have probably been inserted here
they should here be singled out
and
2^^.
Some
is
not clear;
it is
Vrss. bring out the intensity of their
prayer by adding incessantly or with might.

13. njn^c.
iDD
pu',
one cod. of de R., one cod. of Kenn. and
^ insert pr.
used esp. of solemn lamentations, Je. 4' Zc. 8' 12"', for the dead,
Gn. 232 I K. 14" Je. 22I8 Zc. 12"', cf. van H. i'?iS''n Siev. om. ixa
(6 "
is
om.
Ace. to van H. 'in3 appears to refer to a ritual usage which
JOEL
86
was
to
with
Ehr. translates in3 go home I
be observed in the temple.
art.
in your sackclothes.
h'^n (g
U correctly O'hSn,
reads priSw =
o^pfc'3
the error in
'iJ^j'?.
There
JK arose from an abbreviation. Siev.
V. " is a
is no reason for a distinction between my God and your God.
i"
variant of v.
and not
'"
So also Du.
orig. here.
14. B'np is a
denom-
i'^ a^^, an assembly,

Sometimes Nip is equivaicip, 2 K. lo'o.
D^jpt om.
inative verb, to consecrate with religious rites, a fast,

2' (c/. 2
K,
loô),
war, 4"
e. g.,
Jo.
lent to cnp,
I'*
Mi.
Je. 6
{cf.
n-ixy iNip
with We., Marti, Du., else read 'oty^

selves!
M,
At the end
favours
this.
out the
full force of ipyn.
<&
T\-yiy
We. reads
Sai.
mm
ds^hSn
preferable.
is
3').
pia
adds iKrepus
Jon. 3' nj^rna
"B
is
(jg
iddnh â<Aer yowr-
om.
nin'>,
metre also
vehementer, in order to bring
thus translated by
(&.
INSERTION CONCERNING THE DAY OF
YAHWEH
" " Alas for the day
(i^').
For at hand is the day of Yahweh,

and as destruction from the All-destroyer
dimeter
it
comes/"
a hexameter.
15 does not belong to the original text of Joel but is the first
day of Yahweh; see p. 50. The interpolator
connects the locust plague with the day of Yahweh and explains
To him it is not the present calamity which
it as its forerunner.
is to be feared, however great it may be, but the more awful day
interpolation of the
whose harbingers the locusts seem to be. He does not think that
the day has already arrived but that it is imminent, and to him
it is the dread of this impending catastrophe that necessitates the
appeal to Yahweh, not the locust plague. This is entirely different
from Joel's own view of the situation. The idea of the day is in
line with that proclaimed by Amos (s^^'^") as a day of punishment.
Only that with the
pre-exilic prophets the presentiment of its ap-
proach was awakened as a rule by some great political movement,

while here the locust plague is interpreted as heralding its coming.
Alas for the day!
For
the
tion from the Almighty,
(Dr.)
cf.
it
comes!
also Zp. i'-
lit.
day of Yahweh is near, and as destrucan overpowering from the Overpowerer
This cry of alarm
" Ob.
^^.
The
is
quoted from
Is.
13 Ez. 30^-
^;
phrase as an overpowering from the
15-17
8^
Overpowerer appears to be a proverbial phrase and reminds one of

overthrow caused by God,
like the
what the term
implies,
a very
& connects v. " with v. " by and say, w.

ov, with
(S translates
With
"''
v.
nn
sc.
Though
sonance.
" cp.
v.
cp.
sn
7,
pp. 404-6.
"
to read
both
a contain thus ace. to
Ez. 30'- 'anpi av
in
avh nn
2i-\p 13
2^)p
and n' are here derived from the same
n::'
iS^S^n
iSiîn.
otfwi perhaps due to double reading of

(Rahmer). ''Ti'D nB'3 with forcible as-
not decisive for the true etymology of ns'.
on Chap.
it
would involve
i3 ni3j "nu'o nrp nini or
Is.
by threefold
r\ni<
preceding nin>
is
we should have
13^/or, because instead of as, which
the prayer.
r\^n^h
to be,
change in Heb.
slight
15.
&
Is.
be what a devas-
be a veritable 'overpower-
will
it
ing from the Overpowerer,' " unless
here and in
The force of as is rightly
4".
visitation will
from the Almighty might be expected
tation proceeding
will realise
Am.
coming
interpreted by Dr., "the
root, this
See Dr., Additional Note
15 {Shaddai), p. 81, also his excursus I in his com. on Genesis,

Probably ns' is an ancient Semitic divine name (Marti).
Baethgen, Beitrdge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, pp. ig^ff., 291 jf.,

connects it with the root Tia'; No., ZDMG., 1886, pp. 735/., and Hoff-
mann, Phonizische
KA r,'
p. 358,
with
Inschriften, p. 53, connect

Sad{l,
a divine
wy raXaiirupla iK raXanrwplai
Ni3\
In
title
itj'p nS:'?,
toO êoO
Is. 13' Koi ffwrpi^T] Trapii,
it
with ir demon; Zim.,
of the Babylonians.
due
(=
(S translates
to haplo. of
in ntt'D
'IB*).
PRAYER VOICING THE NEED OF ALL CREATURES IN

VIEW OF THE FAMINE AND DROUGHT (i"-2).
16-
Is not (our)
food cut
off
before our very eyes?
From
the house of our
God
gladness and joy ?
"
Waste
lie
the store-houses,
ruined the barns!

Since the corn has failed,
'8-
what
shall
we put
in
them?
Aimlessly the herds of cattle wander about,

because they have no pasture,
And
>
even the flocks of sheep stand aghast,

unto thee, O Yahweh, they cry.
JOEL
88
For
fire
has devoured
the pastures of the steppe,
And
the flame has scorched

the trees of the field.
all
Even
the wild beasts
cry aloud to Thee,
For the water-courses are dried up

[And fire Jias devoured
the pastures of the steppe.]
Five
strs., strs.
1,2,4
of a tetrameter
str. 5
consist of
two tetrameters each,
str.
3 of two hexameters,
a trimeter.
may be taken either as a renewed descripman and beast or as the substance of the
people are to present to Yahweh. The direct
16-20. These verses

tion of the distress of
prayer which the

address in vv.
^^- ^^
appears to decide for the latter interpretation.
It is true that vv.
^^'^^
difference in 2"!
But
recital of the
do not sound
there
is
a prayer.
like
Notice the
something moving in the simple
desperate situation of the people and deeply appealing
in the awful distress of the animals

in their anguish.
Even
the interpolated v.
^^
sionate appeal.
16.
here in any case.
so
it is
which cry to Yahweh for relief

Perhaps
not a complete prayer.
has taken the place of an original, brief pas-
fresh description of the calamity begins
Isnotfoodcutoff before our very eyes?
look on without being able to prevent
phrase before our
eyes, Is. i'
it.
Dt. 28'^ Ps.
We must
Cp. for the force of the

23^.
It
stands here in an
on the helplessness of the onlookers.

The food Joel has in mind esp. is that destined for the altar which
was eaten in conformity to the ritual, at the great harvest festivals
when gratitude and joy filled every heart. But now there are no
emphatic position, laying
stress
harvest feasts, not even the daily sacrifices; cut off /row the house of
our
God
in the
Cp.,
are joy and gladness.
e. g.,
17.
The element
of joy
was not missing
temple worship in postexilic times, as some have thought.

the jubilant psalms of praise of the postexilic commimity.
There being no harvests the store-houses are dilapidated, the

barns are broken down. We do not know any particulars about the
store-houses and barns of the ancient Jews, but evidently they were
not solidly built and had to be repaired every year. This year there
jl8.20
8^
was no use for them. Since the corn has failed (lit. shows shame)
whui shall we put in them? The first half of v. ", translated by
AV., The seed (marg.: grains) is rotten under their clods, by RV.,
The
seeds rot (marg.
shrivel)
under their
clods, is in all probability
nothing more than a corrupt variant of the following sentence.
The
clause of v.
first
due
beasts groan/ is
^^
belongs with
to
a wrong vocalisation of the
we put
preserved the right text, what shall
The
18-20.
animals
18.
wander about, perplexed where

of the steppe
rich,
hunger.
the
has
in them?
and
of the wild
Aimlessly the herds of
cattle
to find food, because they have
no
and which do not
19.
that goes
which
suffer as quickly as the cattle
moist pastures, even they stand aghast, perishing with
Underlying
cries to
how
text.
And even the flocks of sheep, which prefer the dry pastures
pasture.
need
the reading,
distress of the cattle, of the sheep
vividly described.
is
v. ", for
up
is
to
Yahweh, they
Yahweh cannot
Him from man and beast.
Yahweh (M)
either because
of the animals or in the
themselves, as v.
caiise the fire
Unto Thee,
the idea that
^^
name
cf.
It is
moved
of the
clearly shows,
cry,
appealing for help.

cry
resist this imiversal
not the prophet
thereto
by the
who
distress
community, but the animals
also Jon. 3'-
^.
They
cry be-
has devoured the pastures of the steppe, and the flame
The
and flame are most

7^, and signify an
cf.
accompanying drought. We might regard them as figuratively
describing the devastation caused by the locusts, cf. 2^, if it were
not for v. ^^, where the drying up of the rivers shows that the dehas burnt
all the trees
of the field.
fire
Am.
probably the scorching heat of the sun,
struction of
all
vegetation
is
not merely due to the visitation of the
locusts but also to a severe drought.

locusts are worst in very hot
It
has often been noticed that
The word
summers.*
sheep are driven to pasture.

to
20.
Even
cattle
the wild animals cry aloud
Thee, for the channels of water are dried up, and they do not
how
to
quepch
their thirst.
If the last clause is
* "Siccate gaudenl locusttt," says TertuUian,

observes Pliny, Hist. Nat., XI, 29.
summer
De anima,
burnt all the trees e} the Held
an absolute drought.
is
ch. 32
"This year was remembered
heat," Doughty, Arabia Descrta, p. 335.

best explained
by
by
and
translated
AV., RV., wilderness, means really the steppe where the
GASm.
know
not simply a doub-
"sicca vere
major proventus,"
for the locust
swarms and great
thinks that the clause the flame has
forest fires,
which are so often a consequence
of
JOEL
90
let of V. *^'',
which
is
most
likely, it is
a kind of refrain, dolefully
reiterating, and the fire has devoured the pastures of the steppe.
Ace. to this v.
16. In M-'ry and iJvn'?N (& has sf. 2d pers. pi.
would be an appeal to the priests, not part of a prayer. 17. The second
half is clear, only read nnjD for nnjDD, the D is due to dittog., cf. Hg.
2", Aq. e/c 0T](ravp(av, as if 'dd. It is parall. to nnxN, and thus = store-
houses, granaries.
To
The first half is very difficult. Of the four words three
meaning scholars have gone back to their roots

and compared them with the cognate languages. i^*3j; has been compared
with Ar. 'abisa, to contract (esp. the face), to frown, and the meaning
shrivel has thus been derived for our passage, so among others RVm.,
Buhl, BDB. Others have explained it from NH., Aram, sfo;, to rot, H,
AE., Ki., AV., RV. But this is suitable only if animals are referred to,
since rotting of vegetable matter is not an effect of severe and continued
heat.
H takes it of beasts of burden that rot in their dung, computruBut this involves translations for nms
erunt jumenta in stercore suo.
and PD-iJD which are not certain, nmc is usually derived from / ^'ô,
to divide, separate, and compared with Syr. ferda', ferada', kernel, berry,
and the Jew. Aram. nii-\.3 pebble, berry, and then translated grains of
are
air.
get at their
Buhl, BDB., seeds, AV., RV. If this is correct, the transl. of AV.,
RV. the seeds rot is impossible, shrivel would be suitable. 3 pointed
nmjj jumenta (v. i.). aninonjD comes from 1/ T>-i to sweep away, so
also NH., Ar., Aram., and is translated either clods, AE., Ki., AV., RV.
or shovels, BDB., et al. The transl. clods would make sense but it is
seed.
etymologically indefensible, since both the root and the
noun
in Heb.,
sweep away, and the instrument with which

this is done, shovel, hoe or broom, besom, cf. NH. nmjD, Aram, ma"The Ar. gurf does not mean gleba terrae (Ke.),
grafta', Ar. migrafatun.
but (Lane, Arab. Lex., p. 411), the water-worn bank of a stream. Clod
NH., Aram., Ar, mean
to
XXXVIII, 38) would not be a probable gena word signifying properly, masses of earth swept
away by a stream" (Dr.) or of a word denoting the overhanging edge
The transl. shovels {hoes),
of the border of a stream or hollow road.
though etymologically correct, makes no sense: the grains of seed shrivel
under their shovels I Stei. emends, therefore, on-'niJiJD by oni^n their
(Heb. 2n, Jb. XXI, 33,
eralisation even of
clods, cf. Jb.
21"
If the text is to
None
38'',
and
translates the seeds shrivel under their clods.
be emended at
of the Vrss.
knew
the
all this is
meaning
icTKipTrjffav Sa/udXets iirl rats (pdrvais

Din''D''^^ ( ?) i^D'T'
But
it is
the best emendation, but v.
of this line.
difl5cult to
avruv,
i.
On the basis of (gB'ÂQ
Merx emended nns
llffs
account for rnn and for the change
Besides v^^'s is hardly the word Me. wants, for

does not express the distress of the animals before the (empty ?) man-
of on^nDiJD to on>n'nN.
it
gers.
Elsewhere the vb.
is
used of gambolling or proud prancing.
I"-^"
91
Moreover, the animals are not dealt with
This
premature.
jections
tells
mention here is
meet these ob-
v. ", their
till
Marti
also against H.
by reading Dn''nnN hy (mTjo) wiô
tries to
mules stand
Vbyâin the
dis-
appointed by their mangers, and by transposing this to the beginning of
But the
V. ".
nnn remains.
difficulty of jd
nnn
C5 translated
freely
by
iirl
It
than to explain
is
easier to believe that
how
hy
adopts this wrth the single change of

while graphically easier, this text
is
n'iT>o
or
was changed
nno.
But
Van H.
reads
D^'Tô for
also improbable.
nmo
and translates, les 'pressoirs' se sont encrasses sous leur

But is it true that the vnne-presses rot or become mouldy
the meaning of ây which van H. compares, not simply become
nnii3 for
immondices.
this is
soiled I
to
nno Wjoay and
Now.'^ reconstructs the text of <& anipci nnn
nnn,
during a season of protracted drought? From

"
this
survey
it is
and meaningless as it stands. But

the matter is not hopeless because an old scribe or editor had noticed it
also and had put directly after it the correct text, perhaps from a better
ms. The old text, which in places had become illegible and which had
therefore been so badly copied, he left also, just as the scribe in Ho.
9" wrote down a text which he could not quite make out, as he himself
tells us ^niNT nirN3 as I see, so the scribe in Jo. i" wrote down the text
clear that the text of v.
make
as he could
Ho.
just as in
91'
it
is
corrupt,
out, without, however,
mj3 nSmB' -wsH D'idx the correct
nmo
text VJ3 Jin
also oninijijD
nnn
nnjD
Cf. Bewer, JBL., 191 1, p. 61/.
iD-inj.
iif 3? is
be corrected but omitted,

(Aq., S, 6, $r](7avpo[)
is
And
adding ^hint nrsD.
another scribe wrote directly after the corrupt

*? Nixin*?
followed by the correct reading
v. '"'
V.
i^"
must
contains the correction.
Me. regards
this as original
line,
onoN, so here
nnxN
idb'J
therefore not
^^^:r:
nin;i,
(& Xrjvol
but nnjD
preferable.
18.
isation
<S>
ncna nnjsj na how the beasts groan/ With different vocalreads rl &iTo6-fi<Tonev iavroii = nona nn^jj nn what shall we
put in them ?
i. e.,
in the store-houses, since the corn has failed.
gives a very satisfactory conclusion to v.
" and
is
most
This
likely the correct
N was sometimes written, sometimes not,

et al.
was wrongly written by a scribe who thought it was nmN). But
this never occurs elsewhere with animals, and though it cannot be regarded as an impossible reading, (8 is more probable. '? = since. tsb:
Ni. from "iia, cf. Ex. 14' where Israel wanders aimlessly about, here it is
the cattle that do not know where to find pasture. (B eK\av<rav == 133.
reading, so Me., We.,
here
it
Me. adopts
where
in
nise 113 in
3" are
this,
OT.
Mi.
but the weeping of animals
The
7* either, DP3i3?p
correctly translated
gloss.
orig.
it
icu'Nj Ni.
is
grotesque,
and occurs no-
translator of the Dodekapropheton did not recog-
by
(g.
K'Kavdiiol
Siev.
airdv.
Ex. 14'
om. onS n>na v
'3
Is.
22' Est.
as a prosaic
only here, vb. never elsewhere used of animals.
would mean
suffer
punishment
(as a
consequence of
guilt),
If
Ger-
JOEL
92
man: biissen tniissen. But <JS ^(pavlirdrjcrav, & B disperierunt read -idi^j
^r:1:î<\ d lai^'j, also Ho.
are made desolate or stand aghast (cf. Ho. 5'^
10" 14'; cf. also nnjNj and nnu above).
Though ddb' is elsewhere not
used of animals,
Marti,
So also Me., We.,
this is evidently the correct reading.
In La.
et al.
4^
it is
used of
men who have
nothing to
eat,
here
meaning is therefore virtually = they are famished or

Siev. adds Nnx3.
perish with hunger and thirst, cf also Ez. 4'^.
19.
of animals.
Its
N^pN
not correct, for
is
Yahweh, as the
(HP.)
if
not the prophet but the animals that cry to
parall. in v.
from
nana without
niNj,
pi.
also Jon. 3'-
42'
i/*
where
iirpaffiiiOrj,
as the transl. of
una verba
art. also 2'^,
not impossible, Ges.
is
nrna, or unyn for Jni-n,
twice in
Aq.
cf.
it is
2'^
î"'',
favours the
with
it
Arm. ms.
V. i'^"
Du. nip.
niNJ pi. cstr. of nij as usual, nij Zp. 2;
though the
sg.
shows,
2"
Siev. iNip, certainly correct.
ÔTfaovTixi,
v. 20 b^.
as
it is
art. i^".
latter.
20.
Jij?
soul.
only here and

(& a,vi^\epav,
quasi area sitiens imhrem suspexeruni, this
is
intended
accordance with Aq.; Jer. explains hoc enim

Aquila discens, iirpaffnidtj. The vb. has usually been
ij-\jjn
significat
ninna
better to read the
is
used of the hind and of the
wrongly speciosa
in
Jii?, from which njn;^., garden terrace or bed, is derived,

and it has been compared with the Ar. and Eth. root Jnp to ascend,
and then been explained as = to ascend (with longing and desire) =
But it
42', to pant, AV., RV.
to long for, d iirnrodei, H desiderat
would seem as if this jijj had nothing to do with T^}^-\J}, and the meaning
given to it by &, the Rabbis, Luther, Cal., et al., to cry or cry aloud is
much more fitting both here and in V 42', cf. also \p 10421. Ehr., Psalm-
connected with
1/'
en,
ad
42',
connects
it
with Ar. 'agga,
to cry aloud.
n-iB>
nicnj the wild
Du. appears to omit tiSn,

animals, cf i S. 17", elsewhere mtfn pin.
but the parall. in v. >' argues for its genuineness. CD 'p>BN also \f/ 421,
(g
dcj)4ffi,s
irrigation-ditches in
V. isba^ (g96. in.
cf.
Gr., Marti.
Acc. to Deissmann this was the technical term for
iiddruv.
Egypt
183.
iM.
in the Ptolemaic
240
Qm.
It,
and Roman
Hghtly, for
it is
periods.
V.
^"^
fi
only a doublet, Siev.,
THE INVASION OF THE LOCUST ARMY
(2"*)-
This address places us in the midst of the excitement over the

approach of the locust swarm. The alarm-horn is to be sounded
on the temple hill to warn the people of the imminent danger, v. ^^.
Already a huge army of locusts, the like of which has never been
on the mountains, v.'^^^^, and has begun its de-
seen, lias settled
structive work,
which
is so
awful that
it
looks as if a fire
had swept
2-
93
over the country wherever they have been, v.
Vividly, Joel de-
'.
appearance of the locust artny and its speed,

makes when it marches and wJien it forages, v. ^*,
scribes the
v.
noise
its
it
ordered
and
the city, v.
calls to
irresistible
Then
enough
The
of the
He
is
now
at least
interpolator
day
tlie
''
and
*,
attack
its
not too late to implore
it is
gracious and
for
^^-
may
yet be prevailed
upon
had explained the
locusts in
Yahweh
upon
to
^^"".
w.
daily sacrifices,
Yahweh whose approach
of
dress, 2*'",
w.
well-
graphic and rapid description he
after this
repentance; even
for mercy for

leave
advance,
the
*,
i*^
as the vanguard
In this ad-
they heralded.
he has again inserted several verses
^**-
('*'
- *-
which connect the locust plague with the day of Yahweh.
")
See
p. 50.
The two
addresses,
i^'^"
and
2^'",
independent of each other; and

livered at the
swarm
after
same
In ch.
time.
are complete in themselves
it is
i
certain that they
the locusts
and
were not de-
had already come,
swarm, and the basis of the appeal
to
Yahweh
is
the
awful condition of the country due to the locusts and the drought,
Ch.
2 presents
a different phase of the plague.
The drought is not
mentioned, but the locusts are advancing and have begun their
destructive work, quickly reducing the fruitful landscape to a
desolate wilderness.
It
to Joel altogether
first
swarm
visitation
seems
appears thus to have been the
of the several that succeeded each other.
The
unprecedented and he takes pains to describe
and the march of this strange army in detail. The

swarm here described cannot have come after the situation had
become as depicted in ch. i. In view of this it is most reasonable
to see in v."^ an expression of the hope that by Yahweh 's gracious
the appearance
intervention enough
may
yet be
left for
performance Joel sees threatened, while

been suspended.
earlier
than
i^'^",
the daily sacrifices
In point of time 2^"" was therefore delivered
but whether Joel himself or an editor
ble for the present arrangement cannot be decided.
wrong
whose
had already
in ch. i they
is
responsi-
Possibly the
interpretation of 2'^'" as part of the address of 2*'"
something to do with
it,
see
on
2^^^'.
had
There can, however, be no
question that from a purely literary point of view ch.
a better introduction than ch.
2.
serves as
JOEL
94
WARNING OF AN UNPARALLELED LOCUST

SION AND ITS RAVAGES (2^-").
'
Blow the horn in Zion,

sound the alarm on My holy mountain!
Let
INVA-
all
the inhabitants of the land tremble!
["For the day of Yahweh comes, for it

day of darkness and gloom,
day of clouds and deep darkness/"]
is
near,
A
A
'
For black on the mountains is scattered

a great and powerful people.
Its like has not been from of old,
nor shall be again after
it,
For years of generation upon generation.

'
Before them the
devours,
fire
and behind them burns a flame!

Like the garden of Eden is the land before them,
but a desolate desert behind them.
And nothing whatever escapes them!
Four
which the second is an insertion, (i) consists of a hexameter + a

+ a hexameter (or if read more rapidly a tetrameter),
of two hexameters followed by a trimeter, each.
The trimeter in (3)
strs.,
of
trimeter, (2) of a trimeter
and
(3)
and
(4)
(4)
1-2.
may
be secondary.
One sometimes
has the feeling that Joel was a
his interest in the priests
But
there
priests,
and
in the temple services
nothing to prove
is
this.
1.
was very
great.
Again he addresses the
though he does not mention them by name, Sound the horn
My
in Zion, and give the alarm in

height of the temple
of the horn
hill
and perhaps
the surrounding parts

It is
priest, for
the alarm
From
holy mountain!
to
the
be sounded, by the blast
by shouting, so that Jerusalem and
also
may
is
be warned of the impending danger.
not necessary to suppose that the people who were to be warned
lived
all
in Jerusalem or so near
sound of the alarm-horn, for the
by that they could
signal
place to place, beginning on the temple
all
hill.
Of course, it is only
The inevitable re-
the land of
Yahweh
that
sult of the
alarm
expressed here by a further jussive,
is
is to
be thus warned.
inhabitants of the land tremble!
Cf.
Am.
hear the
was doubtless passed from
3^,
let all
the
Shall the alarm-horn be
sounded in a
and
city
the people not he afraid ?
usually flock to the fortified
Jerusalem
is
The
not stated, but
The
here Jerusalem,
cities,
cape the threatened danger.

to
95
people would
cf.
Je. 6'^, to es-
reason for calling them together
it
is
clear
from
2*^^-
i".
The
ram used as
summons in the
alarm-horn, shdphdr, was the curved horn of a cow or
The prophet
a musical instrument.
name
Yahweh,
of
for he says in
speaks this
My holy mountain.
indication of the secondary character of
3d
referred to in the
pers.
Yahweh
literal
alarm and
comes, for
it
is
^^",
This
a slight
is
where Yahweh
day of Yahweh as the reason
i*^.
1^^
Cf.
2.
is
The
p. 50.
for the fear of the people,/or the
near!
quotation from Zp.
*''
For other arguments see
interpolator gives the approach of the

for sounding the
v.
A.
4".
He
day of
continues with a
day of darkness and gloom,
day of clouds and deep darkness, cf. for the latter part also Ez.
34". This is the prophetic conception of the day of Yahweh, cf.
a
Am.
5^^-^".
Darkness and gloom are
In Zp.
spair.
the phrases
i^^
figurative for disaster
had nothing
indeed the terms are too strong
for
to
do with
and de-
And
locusts.
a locust swarm.
Observers
speak frequently of the eclipse-like hiding of the sun by a locust
swarm, but never

It
in this exaggerated
manner
of thick darkness.
may have
need nevertheless not be denied that the interpolator
used these particular phrases because "a
flight of locusts, as
it
ap-
proaches, presents the appearance of a black cloud, which, as

passes, obscures the sun,
sky"
(Dr.).
terms.
The
fortunately,
But
and even sometimes darkens
this alone
does not explain the use of these strong
writer took
them from the prophetic vocabulary.
by inserting
his interpolation at just this point
created the impression, as
if
and he meant
to
he identified the day of the locusts
locusts
warn the people
and not
of the
They are
i'^.
day of Yahweh
of the approach of their terrible
army, as blackness, darkness, a great and powerful nation
is
spread
numerous that the mountains are

In Ex. 10" there were so many "that the land
out on the mountains.
black with them.
Un-
he has
with the day of Yahweh, which he clearly does not according to
Joel thought only of the
it
the whole
so
was darkened" as they covered the face of the whole land. Cf.
Thomson, The Jjind and the Book, p. 416/., "The whole face of the
mountain [Lebanon] was black with them." The point emphasised
JOEL
96
here
by
This seems a much better reading than
the great multitude.
is
the transl. as
dawn spread on
the mountains,
though the descriptions
travellers of the shining yellow brightness
been adduced for the

e. g.,
says, p. 404,
lifelikeness of this
"No
caused by the
reflec-
on the wings of the locusts have often
tion of the rays of the sun
comparison.
GASm.,
one who has seen a cloud of locusts can
question the realism even of this picture: the heavy gloom of the
immeasurable mass of them, shot by gleams of

This
storm of lustrous wings.
and crushed by
hill-tops,
light
beams have broken through
of the sun's imprisoned
rolling
is like
where a few
or across the
dawn beaten down on
the
masses of cloud in conspiracy
to
But this is a description of a flying locust

swarm, here they are on the ground, on the mountains, see
also V. ^.
On the mountains defines the place where the locusts are
spread out, not where the dawn is. It is such an awful swarm that
it has no parallel in history, cf. i^- ^, the like of it has never been before, nor shall be any more afterward (lit. after it) all through (lit. to)
prolong the night."
the years of generation after
the
(lit.
and) generation.
part of this in Ex. 10" shows that this
first
and common way
is
The
parallel to
merely a strong
and unique charExodus passage

when he wrote this. 3. He likens the destruction caused by the
locusts to a fire which precedes and follows them on their march
Afire devours before them, and aflame burns after them. This figure
is so appropriate for the devastation of the country by the locusts
that travellers have frequently employed it.*
Joel describes the
locusts as an invading army in vv. ^- ^ ^- and the figure must have
been present in his mind also in v. ^. As a host of barbarians invades the country, burning, destroying and pillaging everything,
of expressing the extraordinary
acter of the visitation.
Joel did not think of the
so also these locusts.
Quickly the
*" Wherever they come,
fertile fields
disappear, like
the ground seems burned, as itwere with fire." "I have myself observed
where they had browsed were as scorched as if the fire had passed there." "They
covered a square mile so completely, that it appeared, at a little distance, to have been burned and
strewn over with brown ashes."
(Quoted by Pu.) Of the locust plague in Palestine on June
13-1S, 1865, an observer remarked," the trees are as barren as in England in winter, but it looks
as if the whole country had been burnt by fire" {Eccles. Gazelle, 1865, p. 55, quoted by Dr.).
" Bamboo groves have been stripped of their leaves and left standing like saplings after a rapid
bush fire,
and grass has been devoured so that the bare ground appeared as if burned"
that the places
{Standard, Dec. 25, 1896, quoted by Dr.).
2the garden of
Eden
the land
desolate wilderness!
was
The two
97
before them, but after
extremes of wonderful
them
it is
fertility
and
absolute barrenness are used quite effectively.
For the garden of
Eden, with
for the
its
proverbial fruitfulness,
Gn.
cf.
2,
same com-
parison see Ez. 36^ and Gn. 13^ (the garden of Yahweh),
(the garden of
Ez. 31-
Yahweh
'* ^^.
parall. to
scription of the destruction.*
for the trees of
set in at the
cf.
for the accuracy of the de-
Joel meant here the

and not the drought which ace.
accompanied and accentuated the plague.
cannot yet have
Eden,
51'
It is clear that
devastation caused by the locusts,

to ch. I
Eden)
Again observers vouch
Is.
The drought
time of the appearance of this swarm,
which must have been the first of the series, if we are to take Joel's
words at all seriously. And nothing whatever escapes them is again
true to
life.f
THE ADVANCE AND ATTACK OF THE LOCUST
ARMY
*
Their appearance
and
'
like
is
(2^-).
as the appearance of horses,
war-horses they run.
Like the rattling of chariots (it sounds)

(as) they leap on the tops of the mountains.
Like the crackling of a flame of fire
that devours stubble.
(They are) like a powerful nation,
set in battle-array.
["
Nations are in anguish before them

all faces grow crimson.']
* "Everywhere, where their legions march, verdure disappears from the country, like a curtain
which is folded up; trees and plants stripped of leaves and reduced to their branches and stalks,
substitute, in the twinkling of an eye, the dreary spectacle of winter for the rich scenes of spring."
" Desolation and famine mark their progress, all the expectation of the husbandman vanishes
his fields, which the rising sun beheld covered with luxuriance, are before evening a desert."
(Quoted by Pu.)
t " They ate every herb of the land, and all the fruit of the trees which the hail had left and there
remained not any green thing, either tree or herb of the field, through all the land of Egypt" (Ex.
:
"Where
swarms alight, not a leaf is left upon the trees, a blade of grass in
an ear of com in the field." " On whatever spot they fall, the whole vegetable
produce disappears. Nothing escapes them, from the leaves of the forest to the herbs on the plain."
io'5).
these destructive
the pastures, nor
(Quoted by Pu.)
JOEL
98
'
Like warriors they run;

like soldiers they
They march each
advance,
and do not entangle
None pushes
own way,
in his
their paths.
the other.
each goes on his own track.

They plunge through the weapons
and are not held back.
'
They rush upon
the city,
upon the
they run
They climb
walls,
into the houses,
through the windows they enter.

strs., (i) consists of a hexameter + a pentameter, (2) of two tetrameters;
an inserted hexameter, (3) of a tetrameter + a hexameter, (4) of a hexameter
a tetrameter, (5) of two tetrameters (staccato style).
Five
V.
^ is
4.
Now this army is described more in detail,
appearance of the single
much
The head
locusts.
like that of a horse that Joel says their
locust," says Theodoret,
The Arabs
Heupferd, the Italians
"and
9^,
all,
is
as the
"he
will find
it
exceedingly like that of a
Note
cavallette.
Germans
call
cf.
Tris-
the locust
also the description in
But not only
appearance but also their
their
likened to that of horses, and like war-horses they run.
is
Jb. 39^ the swiftness of the horse
compared
is
In
to that of the locust,
hast thou made him to leap

There are a number of archaic imperfect forms in
hast thou given the horse his might,
as a locust?
the
the shapes of the locusts were like unto horses pre-
pared for war."

speed
appearance
use the same metaphor to this day,
tram, Nat. Hist. Bib., p. 314, and the
Rev.
of
first
"If one carefully considers the head of the
appearance of horses.
horse."
and
of a locust looks so
this and the foil, verses.

They are used purposely to bring out the
whole weight and power of the attack, they deepen the impression
and awe. 5. The noise made by the flight of a vast locust

compared to the rattling of swiftly moving chariots.
of terror
swarm
is
Like the rattling of chariots (it sounds as) they leap on the tops of the
mountains. The same comparison is made in Rev. 9^, And the
sound of
rushing
their
to
wings was as
war.
Modern
the
sound of
chariots, of
many
horses
observers have also been impressed by
2"-"
99
swarm makes*
the great noise the advancing
the
It is, of course,
on the tops of the moimtains, where Joel had seen

and not the chariots, which do not leap on or over
locusts that leap
them
in v.
mountain
pared
^,
The
tops.
fire:
pear
like
6.
(//
feeding
com-
is
sounds) like the crackling of a
The same comparison
fame offire that devours stubble.

ancient and
make when
noise the locusts
to the crackling of
made by
is
modem observers.f Now they approach and they ap-
a strong nation
in battle array, ready for the attack.
set
This verse interrupts the description of the march of the

which began in
locusts
v.
and is continued in v. '. The mention

it was inserted by the day of Yahweh
of the nations suggests that
The
See p. 50.
interpolator.
interpolator connects the locust
plague so closely with the day of Yahweh,
cf.
w.
also
^^'
", that
he can speak of nations as writhing in terror at the approach of the

awful army, while Joel would have thought only of Judah.
verse should, however, after
slight change, before
crimson,
all
If the
be genuine, we must read with a
them hearts are in anguish,
and the impression of great
all
terror caused
faces grow
by the
locusts
would be portrayed. We may then compare the words of Pliny,

Nat. Hist., XI, 35, "they overshadow the sim, the nations looking
up with anxiety, lest they should cover their lands," and of Burckhardt. Notes, II, 91, "the Bedouins who occupy the peninsula of
Sinai are frequently driven to despair
by the multitude
which constitute a land plague"
7.
march
of the attacking host
(Pu.).
now
is
of the
Like warriors they
continued.
run, as they charge, like soldiers they advance.
of locusts
The description
In perfect order, like
a regular, disciplined army, they march, every one in his own way,
and they do not entangle their paths. There is no confusion in their

ranks which would impede their rapid advance. They move in
straight lines,
no king,
none crossing the other's
go they forth
yet
all
The
track.
"What strikes every one as they approach is the strange rustling of millions on
wings."
sound
noise
C. Horae, in Hardwicke's
Gossip, 1871, p. 80 (Dr.).
of a great cataract, Descript. animal., p. 87 (van H.).
made by them
forest."
ling of
5cie7i<;e
GASm.
bush on
in
marching and foraging was
speaks of
fire," p.
it
have
locusts
of them in hands, says Pr. 30^^.
like that of
millions of crisp
Foskal compares
Thomson, I.
c, p. 416
a heavy shower
8.
/.,
it
to the
wrote,
"The
falling
on a distant
as "less like the whining of wings than the rattle of hail or the crack-
309.
t. g; by Cyril, dum prostratas fruges dentibus commolunt, ecu flammis vctUo diffundetUe
lanlibus ; by Riley, Riierside Nal. Hist., II, p. 197, who likens it to " the crackling of a prairie
by Newman Hist,
oj Insects,
V,
i,
who
says,
"The sound
the rushing of flames driven by the vfind" (Dr.).
of their feeding,
when
in
crepilire";
swarms,
is
as
JOEL
lOO
There
no crowding, none pushes the other, lit. his

own track. This remarkable order and
is
goes in his
march with
their
To
served.*
and they
attack:
its
soldier-like precision
have often been ob-
add a sheer
this regularity they
brother, each
regularity in
irresistible
thrust themselves, or plunge through the
with which the people try to check their advance.
power of
weapons
All efforts
9.
They rush upon the city, they

(scale and) run upon the walls, they climb up into the houses,
they enter through the windows.X The Eastern windows have no
glass, they are at most latticed.
So "they flood through the
open, unglazed windows and lattices; nothing can keep them
out," GASm., p. 403.
The staccato character of the rhythm
is evidently intended, it brings out the movement of the advancing and attacking hosts with great realism.
The rhythmic tone
corresponds exactly to the graphic description and heightens its
are vain, they are not stopped.'^
efifect.
* Jerome wrote, " This

locusts came,
and
filled
we have seen
For when the hosts of

by the disposal of Gcd's or-
lately in this province [Palestine].
and
the air between heaven
earth, they flew,
daining in such order, as to hold each his place, like the minute pieces of mosaic, fixed in the pave-
ment by the
hands so as not
one another a hair's breadth." Morier, /. c,

be impelled by one common instinct, and
moved in one body, which had the appearance of being organised by a leader.
They seemed
to march in regular battalions, crawling over everything that lay in their passage, in one straight
front" (Pu.). Another observed, "Theroadswerecovered with them, all marching and in regular
artist's
pp. 98 ^., described
them
thus,
to incline to
"They seemed
to
lines, like
armies of soldiers, with their leaders in front," Journ. Sacr.
GASm. saw
Lit., Oct., 1865, pp.
235
/.
"though they drifted before the wind there was no confusion in their
ranks. They sailed in unbroken lines, sometimes straight, sometimes wavy," p. 399.
Though our men broke
t " All the opposition of man to resist their progress was in vain.
their ranks for a moment, no sooner had they passed the men than they closed again, and
marched forward through hedges and ditches as before," Journ. Sacr. Lit., Oct., 1865, pp. 235 /.
Thomson, /. c, pp. 206 fj., gives this vivid description, " Toward the end of May we heard
(Dr.).
that thousands of young locusts were on their march up the valley toward our village: we accordingly went forth to meet them, hoping to stop their progress, or at least to turn aside their line of
march.
Their number was astoimding: the whole face of the mountain was black with them.
On they came like a disciplined army. We dug trenches and kindled fires, and beat and burnt
They charged up the mountain
to death heaps upon heaps, but the effort was utterly useless.
side, and climbed over rocks, walls, ditches, and hedges, those behind coming up and passing over
the masses already killed."
Shaw, Travels in Barbary, pp. 256 ij., wrote of similar endeavours
to stop the progress of the locusts.
But "the trenches were quickly filled up, and the fires put
out by infinite swarms succeeding one another whilst the front seemed regardless of danger, and
the rear pressed on so close that a retreat was impossible" (Pu.).
t "We have seen this done," says Theodoret, "notby enemies only, but by locusts also. For not
(Dr.).
that
only flying, but creeping

(Pu.).
up
the walls also, they enter the houses through the openings for light"
" A.D., 784, there came the flying locust, and wasted the com
And Bar-Hebrzeus similarly,
and left its offspring and this came

windows and doors" (Pu.).
;
"They
clothes,
and
forth
and crawled, and scaled walls and entered houses by
entered the inmost recesses of the houses, were found in every comer, stuck to our
infested our food," Morier,
/.
c, p. 100.
lOl
2
nBic alarm-horn,
1.
some
mss.,
xai
<]6^
(6B om.
day
unyy an op of
illustrations
on Am.
2'.
u"'i^"
<6 itjim, (gB><Q Kal <Tvyxv6'^'ruc7av,
"'afg-^
same confusion in a'". n3

Du. transposes
the
near, but has not yet arrived.
is
after n3
v.
iijt' juss.,
so &*^
(TvvaxG'f)TU(Tav,
prtc, not pf., the
and
Dr.'s note
cf.
conj.
which
>3,
is
attractive but arbitrary.
Fol-
2.
lowing Abulwalid and Tanchumi, Gr., Du. point more correctly nnB'3 as
darkness, blackness,
seems
to
haps due
again.
cf.
be due to Ho.
The
For
La. 4^
5'.
to scriptio defectiva, or
Siev.
om.
ini in
>iv
read
ij;
is
It
is
3.
nSoN pf.
not necessary to punctuate
the technical term for those
it
cno
Vp
Mas. pointing
is
per-
may not occur
not absolutely necessary, but the
parall. dSijjh-jd argues for its genuineness.
of the following.
']p^\
expresses the wish that
it
inn
reading of one cod.
juss. ip>'
who have
is
used because
r^-c-ha is
often
escaped the great judgment,
cf. Is.
nSpj<,
and on that account, probably, Du. om. the whole clause as part
42,
of
Yahweh interpolation of vv. "'2. 21 also connects it with the

Yahweh x''j.xnS nj o'S aMTsr-iNi. But it is not necessary to
the day of
day
of
take
in that sense here.
ntaiSfi
caped them.
iS
Gr. suggests
escapes them;
irnreii,
preferable,
^KSidiKeiv, (6
aisj? o';3
nnj;,
but
(6
cf.
]^\3^^^\''
= M.
&
6.
For
The
AE.
to
d;j,
v.
nothing has
^,
pf. nrr'n is
used with
RVm.
The
war-horses.
refer-
lattei
Note the solemn archaic endings, cf.

(^ Ktt T o 5i tiô j^tt t, in v.' dpa/Mvvrai; Je. 49" 50"
Siev. om. ]:.
5. For naDiD Sipo Gr., Me. read
D'Did.
awkward, for chariots do not leap on mountain tops.

add 1 aifrom v. . -^nj;. the usual pointing would be
^^". 4. n.
cf.
D11J3
2^
^6.
^p_i|T
II, 130, 3a, cstr. st. expresses
mar-
2 S. 13", JX'O 'W^, Ps. 32>.
Ehr. suggests cyn which would be parall. to
0''np
es-
is
Ges.
shalled for battle,
back
dji
AV., RV. horsemen,
parall.
ni33iD3, but this
refers
used for emphasis, and nothing whatever

German, und da ist auch nichts, das. 4. o^riD (S
cf.
equites,
Holz., p. 120.
iS
but that gives a different shade of meaning.
has the force of i:cn here, Ki.,
ence to the preceding,
is
u';',
D'JiJ-Ss, cj
This would remove the strongest objection to the genuineness

'\y\i<D ixap is a technical term for exhibiting signs of fear,
of the verse.
but its exact meaning is debated. The phrase occurs only here and
Na. 2". It is translated (a) all faces grow pale, Cred., Hi., WiJ.,
Je. 4".
RV.,
Je.
cf.
30 rpi?.S D'';s-S3
^sorj^v,
or (b)
all
faces grow red, crim-
son, Ew., Me., We., cf o^^JD D^snS ^je Is, 138; or (c) all faces shall gather
blackness, AV.,
c.1,1 J
tDDtt,
GASm.
(a)
assumes that ysp
gather in, withdraw, but
it is
IDN as in
v. "> D''33i3i
not used thus elsewhere. v^P means
to collect, gather together, IDN to gather in, withdraw,
mo
(a) is therefore
^ U. Some
from this connection, others that of redness. The latter is the more likely and (b) is the most probable translation,
SeeHpt., JBL., XXVI, p. 43
all faces have gathered, acquired redness.
Others derive inNS from inc, cf. BDB., and translate beauty or color
contrary to usage.
derive the
meaning
inNS
is
connected with
of blackness
pot,
by
JOEL
I02
Ehr. translates every face betrays that which
np.
Pr
05 ws irpbffKavna xi^rpaj
VP
lo*
translated (wrongly) by Kavfia.
is
is
Ginsburg: -inD
within.
seems to have read
with a noun for Vi2p.
nmn
7.
omitted by Siev.
is
because of the metre and of the context, in which the climbing of the wall
is
premature,
ist's
cf. v.
'.
appears indeed to be due to
It
eye lighting upon ncnSo after he had written
term for marching, advancing.
iranp would be
dittog., the
they borrow or lend,
lit.
but the explanation they do not lend their paths,
copy-
a military
r\hy is
iS>'\
each one main-
i. e.,
own and does not allow another to take it, does not sound natAnd the difficulty of this term has long been felt. One ms. reads
tains his
ural.
another
nSi,
]YC}}2'<
nSi, 01
poSj?''
by pJoyD.
explains
may point to an original

GASm., Marti). The last is
declinabunt
(We.,
I-inip.'
pnap
curs
well established.
If Syr.
van H. claims, and
if it
binden, complicare),
why
oniniN.
8.
mss. ppmi,
n^DD
riN.
meaning
'abat means
dub., though the root
and
him alone."
DPin-iN
ppmi
05 a.<piêTai,
correct.
is
is
Aq.
naj
is
or
read
it
oc-
{cf.
also Scholz: ver-
in his translation?
it
is
mixed up, entangled, as
be
to
<TvvTpi\f/i,
dXiêi.
05
onimN
for
some Heb.
used here to avoid the repetition of
usually the artificially constructed road, here parall. to
GASm.:
rain,
It
is
"high-road, as
if
defined and heaped
up
for
simply due to the desire to avoid the same term in close
succession that Joel uses here nSoc.

iirXois
To
where
7'
&,
(Siev.),
of n^y, to wind, weave, twist,
could be used with paths

did g not use
|iui!
the most probable.
not so advisable, because the reading in Mi.
is
is
05 iKK\lvwaav,
(Gr.), or
jiBl
05
read Karaâpwdfievoi. 4v rotj
a^T (2 j',apparently=Qi'?:3) on^Spa ona?, though Wii. thinks that iv
avTwv is = ''n'?3D3. Van H. regards 05 as containing the better

and reads insopa, dans son equipement, Du. reads with his sword.
But on the whole
is preferable, though perhaps not altogether correctly
preserved.
iSc nScn nyai 05 xal iv rotj ^^Xecriv avrCov ireffovvrai, apparently "1^3 for iiJ3, so Gr., Du. rhtv occurs only in late writings, Ne,
Totj SirXots
text
2i5 411
Ch. 2310 326 Jb. 33'8 36'2; it is significant that the parall. of 2 Ch.
K. II" has d^Sd instead. It is used collectively. Cf. Ar. silahun, German, Geschoss, missile. SoJ does not only mean to fall (iminten.
17
23!" in 2
but also
tionally)
DijiSnn, v.
',
to
threw
oneself, plunge.
through the weapons,
the weapons, round about them,
due
to
nStt'n
iy3
is
similar to
-\^2
they thrust themselves in between
RV.
sed
et
per fenestras cadent
is
Jerome's misunderstanding of his teacher's remark that (the
construction of) nScn 1^3
Du.
i. e.,
is
the
same as
D''JiSnn
translates, sie fallen mit Waffengewalt ein.
joining pdSi to nSt^n tjs
ny3
(v. '), cf.
Rahmer.
Siev. divides differently,
and taking iSc with the foil., but poS^ cannot

line.
v;-i2'< from 1/ >'X3 to cut off, break off.
be spared in the previous
Usually it is thought that the obj., their course, is omitted, RV., though
Marti takes it absolutely in the sense that they burst through the weapons and then close up their ranks at once so that there is no break. But
2"-"
very doubtful whether
it is
I03
can mean
ij?x3''
(6 Kal ov ^t;
this absolutely.
non demolientur, note nSi, which

also many Heb. mss. have, and the pass., some Gk. mss. and 2 have the act.
<rvvTpi^^(TovTai,
ffvvreXecrduxnv,
AE.,
et al.,
explain
as equivalent to lyxD^
it
But
AV., Gr. emends text thus.

nects ys3 with
is
due
and
J?X3
gain, jidd 'SapD nSi
pond and are
Evidently what was meant
it
off at the city.
rush, they rush
cordingly
'\pD\
virtue of
its
One may
but
9. ipw"
upon
is
i/ pSo.
But
'\''V^,
v.
cf. Is.
[>pi:^
2,2)'^.
doubtful whether
it is
to read
',
with
'nxj?i.
ipx3>,
ijJS2>
nSi for tyi2> ah
they do not break
piB' leg, to leg,
scamper,
& they climb, Gr. emends ac-
may mean this,
without emendation, by
o^'naa, they
climb into the
city.
question whether Tiya was then not rather Tjâ upon the wall,
this is
expressed in the next phrase

city is therefore preferable.
Aram, pv: (Vol.).

Gr. emends a''3jJ3.
to
Since
connected with
ppir
the city, 2,
this
Ehr. transl.
locusts.
comparing rhv with Ar.

But this is contrary to the
that nothing can stop them in their
connection with p^v, 3 as in
rush upon the
is
-^Z
con-
vpv
seems advisable
Du. takes
they are not stopped.
21
and they take no money;
not drowned,
march, neither weapons nor walls.

abs. can express this
they are not wounded, so
of the
to 's allegorical interpretation
fall into the
tih
this is contrary to the facts.
salahun{?), and reading y;2^\ for

facts.
ei
be regarded as a
ajJ3 generic pi., 05
The comparison
is
]ix"i^
nnina.
The
05 iiriXrjfixpovTai
&
transl. they
took ipiy from
correctly translate
by
pi.,
not appropriate here, and 2jJ3
later gloss (Du.).
INSERTION CONCERNING THE DAY OF YAHWEH
10-11. These verses are by the day of Yahweh interpolator

and do not belong to Joel's original description of the advance and
attack of the locusts. The interpolator connects the day of the
Yahweh that they are practically

The locusts are here not the precursors and heralds of the
day of Yahweh but the terrible army which He uses to execute His
locusts so closely with that of
one.
will
on His great day.
This
raises, of course, at
once the question
whether the interpolator regarded the locusts as

rather as apocalyptic forces.
cosmical
We
See p. 50.
phenomena here described
real locusts or
The accompanying
are not caused by the locusts.
have here no ordinary thunder-storm nor the frequently wit-
nessed darkening of the sky by a
flight of locusts
but the tremen-
dous convulsions and signs accompanying the day of Yahweh.
JOEL
I04
"Before them the earth trembles,

the heavens quake.
'"
Sun and moon grow

and
the stars
dark,
withdraw
their splendour.
And Yahweh
utters His voice

His army,
For very great is His host
"
before
yea, powerful he that executes
For
great is the
And who
Three
and
strs., (i)
hexameter.
all
day of Yahweh and very awful.

it ?"
can endure
(2) consist of
They may
His word.
a pentameter
together form only one
^ hexameter each, (3) of a
str.
10. Before them the earth trembles, the heavens quake.
Preceded
and accompanied by these great manifestations the locusts approach. They are not due to them. To heighten the fear and
deepen the awe, the earth as well as the heavens tremble. The
heavens are thought of as a solid vault,
The sun and
the
their brightness, 4^^.
13^^.
moon grow
terrible
dark,
cf.
Am.
and
8 2 S. 22^
the stars
Is.
withdraw
thunder-storm accompanies the
"day of clouds and deep darkness," 2^. 11.

And Yahweh utters His voice in awful thunder peals, for the
thunder is His voice, sometimes also the rumbling and roarearthquake on
this
ing of the earthquake; but here
it is
evidently the thunder,
cf.
Hb. 2,'"' " Ps. 18'* 46'. The locusts are called His army,
^,
and the agent or executor of His word or purpose. Before
cf. v.
them He thunders as if to enhance the awful noise of the tramp of
His vast army. They are coming on His great and exceedingly terrible day.
The day is so awful that the prophet wonders who may
Am.
1^
endure
it, cf.
Mai.
3^- ^^ Je. io^.
Evidently the
literal locusts
are
and they are no longer heralds or precursors of

Yahweh's day, but the agents of His will.
lost sight of here,
CALL TO HEARTFELT REPENTANCE
(2'^-").
call to repentance originally followed directly upon

As it now stands it is connected with the interpolation of the
day of Yahweh, and was intended by the interpolator to be taken
12-14. This
V.
^.
2i2-"
as a call to repent even now, before

of
Yahweh has
105
it
was too
late,
though the day
not only been heralded but actually begun, in order
that the judgment of
Yahweh may
But
ilar interpolation in i^^.
Cj. the sim-
yet be averted.
the verses themselves give
of such an intention on the part of Joel.
It is the
calamity to which the locust swarms might reduce them,

that he seeks to avert
no hint
extreme of the
cj. v. "'',
by Yahweh's gracious intervention which he
hopes to secure by the earnest, whole-hearted penitence of the
Of
people.
the day of
"
Yahweh he does not
Yet even now,
is
Yahweh's
speak.
oracle,
Turn unto Me with all your heart.

With fasting and weeping and mourning,
" but rend
And
return to
for gracious
Long-suflFering
and
"
your hearts and not your garments!
Yahweh your God,

is He and compassionate,
and plenteous
in love,
relents of the evil.
Who
knows but He
and leave behind
will turn
Him
and
relent,
a blessing,
(For) meal-offerings and libations

to
Three
strs., (i)
and
Yahweh your God ?
(2) consist of
two hexameters, each, (3) of a hexameter
-7-
a tetrameter.
The
12. Bui even now he believes that the worst may be averted.
locust
swarms are working
feels the stirring of the
Yahweh's own name.
terrible havoc.
proph. impulse to
But
in his spirit Joel
summon
the people, in
Even now, says Yahweh, turn unto
Me
with your whole heart! "with the entire force of your moral pur-
pose" (Dr.).
The
also of the intellect
whole soul
on
this
is
heart
is
and the
usually added.
not only the seat of the emotions, but

will.
It is
In Deuteronomy and with your
important to note the stress laid
whole-hearted repentance because Joel joins to this inner
requirement
all
the external signs of penitence, fasting, weeping
and lamenting, which characterise the day of contrition

Est.
4^.
He
does not speak of the sins of the people at
all,
also in
but he
appeals to the general feeling of sinfulness which expresses
ternal
itself
modes of penitence. 13. But while he endorses these exmodes he insists on the repentance of the heart, rend your
in these
JOEL
I06
hearts rather than your garments
and Isaiah
nises the
While he differs, e.
in valuing the cult, he
no mere
is
g.,
from
Amos
He
recog-
ritualist.
need of deep, sincere repentance and presses

manner,
this striking
was a
of the garments
home
it
in
Rending
36^*.
But it
5i^Êz. 36^Zc. 7^^
Je. 4^ Ps.
C/".
sign of grief,
13'^ Je.
Lev.
cf.
That
might be only outward and formal.
is
not enough.
So far
Yahweh had spoken. Now the prophet expands and interprets

this call.
And turn to Yahweh your God, for He is gracious and
The
full of compassion, slow to anger and of great loving kindness.
reason for hope even in extremis
in the wonderfully gracious
lies
Yahweh. The prophet uses the famous old phrase,

Ex.
which
was used ever again, e. g., Ps. 86^^ 103* 145^ Ne.
34",
cf.
9^^.
Instead of and truth which is added in Ex. 34^, both Joel and
Jon. 4^ read and repenteth of the evil, which he intended to bring
upon the people. This is given here as one of Yahweh's attricharacter of
butes, also in Jon. 4^,
that
it
He
always does
implies, as Je. 18^ 26^-
when
Yahweh
^^- ^^
Jon. 3^" show,
certain conditions are fulfilled.
On
has become characteristic of Him.
cious compassion of
is
and
this
the prophet builds his hope.
who knows He may
not absolutely certain, but
So
the basis of this gra-
14.
It
from His
turn,
purpose of judgment, and repent and show His compassion, and

leave behind
Him,
as
He turns back,
a blessing in the tangible form
of renewed fertility, so that the daily sacrifices, the meal-offering
and
the drink-offering,
means
may
10.
mp
n-ci
ainov inai
snu
insured.
om. by some Gk. mss.

"i?, due to dittog. of
!f Da*
ntyjjD
be continued and thus the ordinary
Yahweh be
of intercourse with
d-isj?
<S iirL(pavfj$
illustris,
as
if
from
11.
0,
nN->.
(S 8ti
l^xvpa epya \6yup
translating sg. freely
uS^'Oi (S eirrat
by
pi.
iKavbi a^rj,
Aq. 6 vTro/jL^vei aiirrju, H sufficiens. -12 nny OJi d Kal vOv 15 nunc ergo,
but this is too weak, and even now I though the danger is so great. German: und auch jetzt noch. nin> dnj 05 adds 6 5e6s v^lC)v. ny aia*, cf.
Am. 4 Ho. 142. Some Heb. mss. ^ 13 om. 1 before aisa, some mss.
om. prep.
D1S3.
3 in
''3331
and
.ome Gk. mss. add Kal ip
"iflDD3i.
13. Sni rather than,
cf.
Ehr.
anji prtc,
(Hi.), for V.
" describes God's character,
of pardon.
In
v.
position to n3i3,
Gr. proposes
meant.
onji pf. with
which
"[Dji
is
nnjcS.
03^nS8< (& v/jluv,
little
If
waw
v.
conj.
harsh.
'<
not pf. with
speaks of the possibility
14.
iDji nnjD
AE., Ki.:
iDji
cf. v. ".
stand in ap-
nnjo unn
did not stand in the orig.
M correct,
ffdKKtp after
waw subord.
it
Vii-yt:'.
was surely
loy
THE GREAT PENITENTIAL ASSEMBLY AND

PRAYER FOR MERCY (2^^-").
ITS
15-17. These verses are usually regarded as a reiterated appeal,

cf. V. ^ to hold a solemn service of penitence and contrition in the
temple.
But another
dently
^*
V.
interpretation
But
exhortation to repentance.
To assume
in our text.
we
so easy, because
Why
it,
is
this is
Was
v. ^'
Me.
not quite
after all so self-evident?
and
v. *^
somewhat
It is
summoned should have been demanded by
it
(Hi,), together with the specific
But
to use.
this is
where the
But
it
formula of prayer which they are
in the present tense
clearly
it
it is
priests are to
not inexplicable either.
fore, that the narrative of the people's
Joel describing
Again
does not seem impossible.
strange that the particular place
past.
is
not proph. address.
somewhat
weep ( !)
to them
assigned
and
out
pointed
been
should
have
pray
But
the proph.
to
it
^*,
urged, that such a holy assembly to which even
the suckling babes are
and
Evi-
likely.
nowhere expressly said
have narrative in v.
thus a break between
strange, as
perhaps more
while not impossible,
did the narrator omit this?
There
is
presupposes that the people have followed the prophet's
Hi. believed, there-
repentance began with
and continuing
would be preferable
in v.
^^
v.
^',
in the
to point the various tenses
as narrative tenses in the past, which can be done without changing
a single consonant.
the lacuna between
break,
it is
true,
This removes some

v. ^^
and
v. ".
There
but nevertheless a real one.
difficulties,
is
but
it
puts
then not so serious a

It
seems that we must

^^
go one step further and assume that the narrative begins with v.
and not with v. ^^. With v. " the proph. address comes to an ef-
and a new section begins with v. ^^. If v. ^^ is really the

how the proph. demand was carried out, it does not
tell us enough, for it speaks only of what the priests, and not at all
of what the people did. V. ^^ points, therefore, beyond itself and infective close
description of
dicates that vv.
actually
^^-
^^
are also description.
happened the assembly
were present
is
in
entirely in order.
As a
description of
what
which even the suckling babes
This necessitates the punctua-
tion of the verbs as perfects not as imperatives.
And
here an ob-
JOEL
lo8
jection
must be faced by pointing out that the staccato form of deunusual in Heb., corresponds altogether to the style
scription, so
of Joel in
The
i^"^^ 2^'^.
abrupt sentences, unconnected by
brief,
admirably adapted to bring before our imagination
particles, are
by
the quick action taken
priests
and
They blew
people.
in Zion, they sanctified a fast, called a solemn assembly,
everything
There
in order.
is
no break between v.
Nothing is to be supplied
is
the horn
etc.
^^
Now
and
v.
^^,
or between
v. ^
The
and of its character,

wept and prayed, as well as the formprayer and Yahweh's answer all this is exactly as we
and
v. ".
in thought.
description of the calling of the assembly
of the place
ula of their
where the
priests
And no
should desire
it.
necessary for
this.
>6-
They blew
change, even of a single consonant,
the horn in Zion,
they sanctified a
They
is
fast,
solemn assembly,
called a
' they gathered the people.
They consecrated
the congregation,
they assembled the old men,
They gathered
the babes,
even the infants at the breast.

The bridegroom came forth from his nuptial chamber,
and the bride from her

"
bridal pavilion.
Between the porch and the altar

the priests were weeping.
The ministers of Yahweh, and said,
"Spare, O Yahweh, Thy people!
"And do
not make Thy heritage a reproach,

a by- word among the peoples!
"Why
should they say
'Where
It is
doubtful whether
two, as printed here.
w.
"
V.
their
is
'S-
also
pentameter, (3) of a pentameter

the staccato style in (i)
16. Cf.
2^
and
and
i".
evidently the priests
-j-
the nations,
more than one
are
may
above, (i) consists of a pentameter
among
God?' "
str.,
but they
be either one or two
-\-
strs.
may
consist of
As represented
a tetrameter, (2) of two tetrameters
a hexameter, (4) of two pentameters.
-{-
Note
(2).
16.
who
Though
the subject
is
indefinite,
it is
gathered the people, they sanctified^ pre-
"
2'"-
I09
pared everything for an assembly, a solemn
They
cultic meeting.
assembled the old men, gathered the children, even those that sucked
the breasts.
make
Everybody was brought
to the temple,
young and
old,
Yahweh as strong as possible. Ace. to

Jon. 4^* Yahweh is moved to pity by the many children who cannot yet make moral distinctions. The old men are mentioned with
to
the appeal to
the children and the babes, not as officials but because they might
perhaps under ordinary circumstances not go to the temple on ac-
But they came, their age and infirmity silently

Everybody came, even the bridegroom and
the bride, who felt least inclined to mourn and to weep and who
ordinarily were excused from many functions and duties, cf. Dt.
24^; ace. to Berakhoth 2^, also from saying the prescribed prayers on
their wedding day and even to the end of the following Sabbath if
The bridegroom
the marital function had not been fulfilled before.
came out of his nuptial chamber, atid the bride out of her bridal
pavilion, in which their marriage was to be consummated.
17.
In the inner court, between the porch at the east end of the temple,
I K. 6^, and the great altar of burnt-offering in front of it, i K.
count of their age.
appealing for mercy.
8**
Ez.
8^*
Ch.
8*^,
with their faces turned toward the sanctuary,
per contra, the priests, the ministers of Yahweh,
weeping in genuine
contrition.
similar scene
is
i^-
^^,
cf.
were
recorded in
And the priests went in and stood before tlie altar and the
sanctuary and wept and said.
The prayer of the priests is
given, Spare thy people, O Yahweh, And do not make thine inI
Mac.
7'',
heritance a reproach
and a by-word among the nations !
Why should
God ? They appeal to

Yahweh to spare them because they are His people and His inheritance, cf. Dt. 9^^- ^^, and try to move Yahweh to intervene on
they say
among
the peoples,
Where
is their
their behalf because His non-interference will be mterpreted falsely

by the nations, cf. Ex. 32^ Nu. 14*'-^^ Dt. 9^*. They will begin to
doubt Yahweh 's efficiency and to mock Israel and Yahweh HimThey see no
self by contemptuously asking, Where is their God 7
evidence of His power.

exilic times, cf. Ps. 42^-
This appeal is constantly made in post" 79*" 115^ Mi. 7*". Yahweh's glorious
name will be profaned by this taunt. If the interpretation of

w. ^" as narrative, rather than as a reiterated appeal, holds good
no
vv.
JOEL
*^
^-
simply continue the narrative, and there is an interesting

^^
but to vv. ^^^ in Judith 4*^^ Since ch. i
parallel not only to v.
contains a later address than ch.
2,
the description of the assembly
and its result, vv. ^^^-^ belongs really in point of time after ch. i,
and not directly after 2^'^*. The prayer of the priests which does
not mention the locusts whose approach and arrival had been so
vividly portrayed in 2^ ^-
so
is
the promise in v.
of vv.
^-
quite in line with this observation.
is
*^.
If vv.
we should expect an
locusts before the
^^
^-
And
were the direct continuation
ardent prayer for the removal of the
whole harvest was destroyed.
In vv. ^^^- the
on the restoration of the fertility of the land. The

removal of the locusts, v. ^"j comes in almost incidentally. Some
have regarded v.
as an insertion which did not belong to the
emphasis
lies
^'^
original text.
YAHWEH'S ANSWER AND PROMISE OF RELIEF AND

RESTORATION (2^-2- ^' ^^^).
This
is
the direct continuation of the narrative of vv. ^^".
tenses are narrative tenses
and cannot be interpreted as
to the future.
IS.
Then Yahweh became
jealous for His land,

on His people.
Yahweh answered and said to His people,
and had
"
And
pity
Behold, I will send you

corn and
And
And
new wine and
oil,
ye shall be satisfied therewith.

I will
not
make you again
a reproach among the nations.
And
20
the northerner I will remove far from you,

and will drive him into a dry and waste land.
His van into the eastern sea,
and his rear into the western,
And stench and foul smell of him wUl arise,
for I will do great things.
And
I will restore unto you the rich

which the swarmer has eaten.
fruits
The
referring
The lapper, the finisher and the shearer,

[My great army] which I sent among you.
And you shall eat in plenty and be satisfied.
'
Four
of a
strs., (i)
hexameter
hexameters
18.
The
and a tetrameter,
introductory, consisting of a pentameter
a dimeter
-|-
^ trimeter.
priests
had appealed on behalf
of the people to
came jealous for His land.
Him.
scornfully
He
had
answer
be-
Strong and deep emotions were aroused
He cannot bear to have His land and people treated
thus
by the nations nor the honour of His name
And
His
pity on
people,
whom He
though he had to discipline them.

said to
Yah-
And Yahweh
weh's love and to the honour of His holy name.
in
(2)
a hexameter, (3) of three hexameters, (4) of two
His
people,
most
likely
19.
after all loved as
His own,
And Yahweh answered and
through His prophet, because His
Others believe that
quoted in direct form.
is
defiled.
Yahweh
spoke directly to His people, not in words, however, but in deeds,
by removing the plague.
and new wine and fresh

locusts, 1^,
have
it
in
and
of
Behold, I will se'nd
oil,
which they stood in such need, and (you
such abundance that) you shall he
I will no longer
make you a reproach among
had become as a
to yoii {directly)
satisfied
this
result of their direful condition,
word, the locust swarm which contrary to
now
the north, for
described.
It
it is
seems
c/".
if
v.^^.
shall
And
it.
which they
20.
And
indeed he wrote
all
precedents had
the fate of the locust
likely,
with
the nations,
as for the northerner, by this Joel must mean,
come from
corn
which they had been deprived by the
of
swarm
that
is
however, that the term north-
erner which conjures up those dark prophecies concerning the ene-
my
whom
39^ had spoken

and who had become a fixed feature of later eschatology is due to
the interpolator of the day of Yahweh who slightly changed, as in
v. ^^, the original text, in which Joel had spoken of the locust
swarm. The removal of the locust swarm is mentioned after the
promise of restored fertility of the land had been given. It does not
appear to be the most pressing need at the time, as we should have
expected if vv. ^^'^^ told what happened directly after the address of
2^^-. But we saw that 2^^- are an earlier address than i^^-, and that
2*^ ^- tell the story of the end of the plague and not of an episode,
from the north of
Je. i"
and Ez.
38-
^^
JOEL
112
upon which the worse
disaster described in i^ ^-
was
yet to follow.
Nevertheless, the promise of the removal of the locusts
added, esp. also because
Yahweh wants
had
to
be
to assure the people that
come again to cause them all this

and shame, v. "^. So he says, And as for the northerner
I will remove him far away from you. The Heb. expresses the
burdensome character of the plague, the locusts had settled upon
them and they will be removed far away /row upon them. Andl
will drive him, i. e., the main body of the swarm, into a dry land
and a waste, the desert S. and SE. of Judah, where they will perish.
The two ends of the army will be carried out into the sea, its van into
the Dead Sea, lit. the front or eastern sea, cf. Ez. 47^^ Zc. 14^, and
the locust visitation shall not
distress
its
rear into the Mediterranean,
idiomatic
way of
lit.
the hinder or western sea.
expressing E. and
W.
is
due
This
to the habit of facing
What was in front

what was behind was W. The swarm lies on the whole
land from E. to W. and each part is to be removed in the quickest
Usually this is done by a wind, probably in this case
possible way.
*' There is no reason to supalso, though this is not mentioned.
pose that the prophet has abandoned the realism which has hitherto
eastward in fixing the points of the compass.
was
E.,
distinguished his treatment of the locusts.
The
plague covered
the whole land, on whose high watershed the winds suddenly veer
The
upon the deserts and

and the same time.
Jerome vouches for an instance in his own day" (GASm., p. 420).*
"A wind rising first in the NW., and afterward gradually veering
round to NE., would produce approximately the effects indicated"
(Dr.).
Cf. the description by Home, /. c, "The wind was blowing
from the north-east, and they were borne along upon it. Afterward the wind veered round, and the locusts turned with it,"
(Dr.).
In the desert and the sea the locust swarm will be completely destroyed, that his stench and foul smell, due to the decaying
and change.
the opposite seas
carcasses,
dispersion of the locusts
was
therefore possible at one
may come up. The mention of this feature is another

The awful odour cannot have been pleasant to
touch of realism.
* Jer. wrote, "In our times also we have seen hosts of locusts over Judea, which afterward, by
... a wind arising were carried headlong into the eastern and the western
the mercy of God,

seas."
2^->. ^
the Jews,
it
was added
to assure
them of the total destruction of the
Observers have noticed this feature* V. ^
locusts.
and
it
113
fits
so exactly the fate of locust swarms,
cannot well be regarded as an insertion.
/ will do great things.
Yahweh
so true to
It
concludes with /or
He
show His
will
greatness by restoring fertility and by destroying the locusts.
reading Jor he has done great things,

overweeningly,
is
so improbable that
the whole clause as secondary, but
The composition of w.
rupts the speech of
by
Joel.
Style
2'-'^.
Yahweh
in a
i.
e.,
due
preferred to omit
to the editor.
The poetical insertion of w. ^^-^ interway that can hardly have been intended
and phraseology
are,
however, so distinctly those of
Joel that the verses cannot be regarded as a later insertion.

Joel himself should have placed
most
them here
likely at first directly after vv.
beautifully chs.
i, 2.
iJl's
the locusts have acted
many have
it is
life,
also Ex. 10^*, that
speaking,
is still
is
cj.
^^-
2a
is
improbable.
But that
They
stood
where they concluded very
Since the displacement
was hardly
accidental,
we
may assume
that the editor intended ch. 3 (Engl. 2^8-32) ^g the continuation of the promise of Yahweh and so placed the poem after v. 2", which
the phrase /(Tr I will do great things suggested as a suitable place for
its
But while it follows well enough upon v. ô, w. ^- 2*" are

torn apart by it from vv. " ô to which they inseparably belong. Another argument for v. ^^ as the original place of the poem is found in v. *
The sentence and you shall praise the name of Yahweh your God
itself.
who has dealt wondrously with you, is not a part of Yahweh's own words
which are given in the ist pers., cf. v. ^s. This difficulty disappears as
soon as it is taken as a part of the poem, w. "-2^. The poem, it will be
noticed, is not rounded out to a conclusion in v. ^.
This is supplied by
our sentence which is admirably suited to bring the poem to a satisfying
close.
Joel composed this poem some time after the promise of w. "
insertion.
80. 25. J6aa^
cxpresses joy not over the promise but over the re.storawhich has already been experienced at least to some extent by the people, w. ^- '', who are looking forward to a rich harvest,
for
it
tion of fertility
v.
^*.
The poem formed originally
the conclusion of the locust passages.
" And when the shores of both seas (the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea) were filled with
dead locusts which the waters had cast up, their stench and putrefaction was so noxious
Augustine,
as to corrupt the air, so that a pestilence was produced among both beasts and men."
De Civ. Dei, III, 71, quotes from Julius Obsequens, De prodig., ch. xc, that the carcasses of a
vast locust swarm which had been driven into the African sea were "cast back on the shores, and
Jer.,
heajjs of
the air being infected thereby, such a pestilence arose that in the realm of Masinissa alone 800,000
men perished, and many more in the lands on the coasts. Then at Utica, out of 30,000 men in the
prime of life, who were there, they assert that only ten remained." Cp. also Orosius, Historiarum,
V, 11, on this catastrophe at Utica, quoted by Pu. Similar observations of the awful odour
produced by the decaying mass of locusts are given by modem writers. See Pu. and Dr.
lib.
JOEL
114
This implies that vv.
^sb. 27
typed phrases which have
V. "
are additions.
meaning
vital
is
composed
of stereo-
in Deutero-Isaiah, Ezekiel
and
the Holiness Code, but are without real significance here where they are
Of course, even though Joel does not use hackneyed

we should not necessarily assert that he was not the author were
it not that the phrase atid you shall know that I am Yahweh your God,
followed by who dwells in My holy mountain Zion, recxars in 4", where
purely liturgical.
phrases,
would seem, therefore, that the editor was also

several Gk. mss. omit v. 2' cannot be used as
an argument in favour of the secondariness of v. ", because it was probably due to homoioteleuton, v. "b = v. ^s^. One might question whether
v. 'sb is also secondary, if v. ^' is an addition. If genuine, Yahweh would
it is
quite in place.
responsible for
It
That
2^''.
probably have proceeded in the direct address and ye shall never be

ashamed and not as here and My people shall never be ashamed. In v.
"b
this
fits,
but not in
v. -^b.
This
stylistic hint, slight as
it is,
indicates
For the rounding out of the thought

'''>.
it is not needed since the same promise had been given in v.
In accordance with our results we take up first vv. ^^- 2**" which form
the direct continuation of w. >' "^ then vv. 21-24- ssa^ which form the
that v.
26b is
a doublet of v. "^.
comment on
poetical
which are
the restoration of
fertility
and
finally vv. "''
"
later additions.
25. Continuing his promises
Yahweh
assures the people of
full
compensation for the deprivations which the successive swarms of

And I will restore to you the rich fruits which
locusts had caused.
the
swarmer has devoured, the tapper,
the finisher
and
the shearer.
is most
names of
has the years which the swarmer has devoured, but this
probably due to a slight corruption of the

the locust,
polator
plenty,
weh
cf.
I*.
who used
and
My
text.
On
the
great army appears to be due to the interphrase in 2". 26*". And you shall eat in
this
he satisfied because of the great
abundance which Yah-
will give.
SONG OF JOY OVER THE BEGINNINGS OF THE

RESTORATION (221-2". 26a^)
In
V.
^^,
this lyrical otitbnrst of joy the prophet calls
the animals, v.
^^,
over the restoration of fertility by
In vv. "
2"- 25-
26aa
upon
the land,
and the inhabitants of Jerusalem to rejoice
Yahweh.
Yahwch promised
deliverance, the prophet
in this song speaks of the deliverance as past, the promise as
221-26
breaks forth into jubilant strains of deep joy, and an
He
fulfilled.
jj^
poem expresses his delight. It is one

made students of Joel admire the beauty
exquisitely rhythmic lyrical

of the passages that has
of his style.
reminds one of the
It
lyrical
passages with which
Deutero-Isaiah interspersed his book.

"
Fear not,
for
M-
Fear
ground, exult and rejoice,
Yahweh
not,
has done great things!
beasts of the
field,
for the pastures of the steppe are covered with
For the
and grape-vine
fig tree
And
new
grass.
trees bear their fruit,
yield their produce.
ye children of Zion, exult
and rejoice in Yahweh your God!

For He has given you food as (a token of your) justification,
and He has poured down for you rain [fall rain and spring
rain],
as before.
And
the threshing-floors shall be full of wheat,
and the vats

2-
Four
shall overflow
strs., (i)
of a pentameter
consists of
-f-
a tetrameter
a hexameter, which
against the originality oifall rain
21. Fear not,

fore, i^^,for
V.
^''-
with new wine and fresh
oil.
And ye shall praise the name of Yahweh, your God,

who has dealt so wondrously with you.
a trimeter, (2) of two hexameters, (3)

read rapidly. The metre argues
to be
and spring rain.
(4) consists of
two heptameters.
had "mourned" beHe had promised in

beasts of the field, who had
ground, exult and rejoice,
Yahweh has done
22. Fear
-|is
it
great things, as
not, ye wild beasts,
lit.
much, i^,for the pastures of the steppe are covered with,

lit. hsLve, fresh, young grass, those same pastures that were burnt,
i'^, and the trees, which had failed and were languishing, i^- ^^
have borne their fruit, the fig trees and the grape-vines, coll. sg.,
to suffer so
have yielded as much as they can bear,

is
spoken with
ch.
I.
It is
strict antithetical
due
lit.
their strength.
All this
reference to the description of
to his poetic impulse that Joel joined the refer-
ence to the bearing of the fruit
trees,
which of course
a cause of rejoicing for the wild animals.
23.
is
not strictly
Now he calls upon
the children of Zion, strictly the inhabitants of Jerusalem only, but

it
would seem that he meant
worship
Yahweh
there,
cf.
all
who belong to Zion as children, who

Exult and rejoice in Yahweh
Ps. 87.
ii6
JOEL
your God.
Contrast
where joy and rejoicing had gone away

Their joy is to be full of gratitude for
i^^
from the children of men.
He
Yahweh, for
{(&)
has given you, note the past tense, nourishment
for (a token of) justification, showing that the right relation
between Himself and His people has been re-established.
He
stead of the long drought
down, abundant
5^,
and spring
respectively, the fall
seed sowing, the latter
is
and ripen the growing

Yahweh had fulfilled
had come and the spring rains also
needed
to nourish
the
fall
rains
looks forward to a plentiful harvest
The
Je.
early rain prepares the land for
as aforetime, in the years before the visitation.
oil.
cf.
to April
and which are indispensable
rains,
The
in-
back over some months.
Joel looks
be full of wheat,
And
caused to come
October to November and in March
in
for the fertility of the land.
His promise
lit.
rain, the early rain as well as the latter rain,
which come
crops.
has poured down,
and
when
24.
And now
he
the threshing-floors shall
new wine and fresh

when possible on
where the wind would blow. They were
the vats shall overflow with
threshing-floors were in the
or near the top of the
hill
open
air,
quite primitive, consisting of a round piece of ground firmly
stamped by the
threshed.
I,
83,
BD.,
feet.
On
this the sheaves
were spread out to be
modem
threshing-floor in EB.,
See an illustration of a
I,
The grapes were trodden out by the feet in winehewed out in the rock. They consisted usually
50.
presses which were
of two vats, a larger one, eight or
more
feet square,
which was on
the upper side of a ledge of rock and rather shallow, and a smaller
one, not quite half as large, which
and three or more
feet deep.
was sometimes two
feet
lower
This was connected by a large groove
through which the juice flowed from the upper to the lower vat.
This lower vat
is
meant
in our text.
Sometimes there were two or

The must was then
even three of them in connection with a press.

passed from one to the other to clarify
it.
See an illustration in
Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie,^ iQO?? P- i43- Olives were

also pressed in these presses, cf. Gethsemane = oil-press.
See
illustration in Benzinger,
/.
c, p. 144.
26^^.
Full of joy over the
prospect of such harvests Joel closes his poem, calling on the
people to show their gratitude and ye shall praise the name of

Yahweh, your God, who has dealt wondrously with you.
117
EDITORIAL LINK
(22b. 27)
[And My people shall nevermore be put to shame.]

Ye shall know that I am in the midst of Israel,
and (that) I Yahweh am your God and none else;
And My
people shall nevermore be put to shame.
Trimeter or tetrameter
26^
^''^
27. V.
lines.
"^.
V.
This renewed material prosperity, so
common
the editor adds, in well-known,
terms, will assure the
among them.
people of Yahweh's protecting and helping presence
"Rain and harvest are not merely physical
but religious
benefits,
sacraments: signs that GOv'l has returned to His people, and that
His zeal
is
know (by
cf.
wonderful
if Nu.
Ex.
14" Dt.
11="'
And
and
(further ye shall
{that there is)
none
fertility) that
currence of Israel in the book,
Judah.
And you shall
again stirred on their behalf" (GASm.).

this
else.
am
in the midst of Israel,
This
Is. 12", etc.
it is
the
is
used as the postexilic
know
first
oc-
name
for
Yahweh am your God
that) I
These two phrases express profound

and postexilic prophthe two elements of Yahweh's unity,
convictions which thrilled the hearts of exilic

ets:
the blending together of
monotheism, and of His particularly intimate relationship to

rael, as in
a special manner Israel's God.
fusing iato a higher unity Deutero-Isaiah

to the core of his teaching.
Here
is
For
this
It belongs
responsible.
in Joel the phrases
do not have
that real, vital significance, but sound purely liturgical.

of idolatry appears in the book.
heathen
is
ment with
given in
this,
more he put
to
v.
^*.
Joel's
The editor
No
trace
answer to the taunt of the
connects, of course, his state-
as the following shows, and
shame.
Is-
blending and
My people
shall never
Note the emphasis on the pronouns
My
people, your God.

15-17.
The
tenses are to be
changed to the narrative
tense,
because
these verses do not contain an exhortation but a description of the result

of the sermon.
Tin
15'
1D3%
16.
Siev. om.,
perhaps
rightly, the
second iddk mtr.
here parall. and synonymous with nan bridal-chamber,

19^.
Some
mss. point
If the impf. is
in the past,
133''
mno.
17.
For
1331
cf.
cs.
Ju.
one Heb. codex reads
taken as expressing inchoative or continued action
need not be changed to
133.
But,
if
necessary,
it is
not
JOEL
Il8
difficult to
assume that the editor changed
his interpretation of vv. '^-'^
read
13a to 1321 in
noin with hy,
among
SrD'7 a by-word
OMj D3
î'oS
means
that the nations should rule over them,
No
the context.
Judah.
d;'ij3
cf.
Ne.
conformity with
13*2
AV., RV.,
For
Jon. 4".
the nations.
is
which
excluded by
foreign nations have been mentioned as ruling over
Not a devastation by enemies but by
the locust plague has been
and DMja noin iiy jps vh^

do not rule over,
Judah. The vb. Vro, to make proverbs of, using their name as a byword, cf AVm., RVm., is, however, excluded here, because Srn with 3
means always either to rule over, or to mock in or among, 2 locale, cf. Ez.
For the reading Sc'D as a noun, above proposed, cf. Je. 24',
i8 122'.
the theme.
The
parall. T\2-\rh inSnj jnn Sni
in V. ", cf. also v. ",
show
Either the day of
Sb'dSi nfj-inS.
the influence of ch. 4
and
corrected the text so that
that the nations taunt, but
it
an
of
Yahweh
interpolator or a reader, under
allegorical interpretation of the locusts,
read that the nations should not rule over them.
M points correctly the impfs. with waw consecutive.
18.
this verse
ise.
So,
and the
e. g.,
6,
foil,
waw
Some have
and that
and promMe., who regards the verses as a
thought that the impfs. should be read with
conjunctive,
refer to the fut., containing prediction
AE., Ki., AV.,
etc.,
also
They pray that Yahweh may

answer and give to them all the beautiful promises which they put into
This is altogether improbable. NJp.''î is entirely correct
his mouth.
and regular on our interpretation. If v. '^ were the beginning of the
narrative the 1 consecutive with impf. would have to be explained as one
of the few instances where there is nothing in the preceding with which
continuation of the prayer of the priests.
It would be a sort of crystallised form for the introduca narrative, cf. Jon. i>. 19. myS, Ki.: vn>23 n> hy D-'pyis'? r\iy.
Note the interpretative addition in some
n^b' prtc. of imminent fut.
mss. 2yT nsin shame offamine; one ms. ayn noin shows the explanatory
it is
connected.
tion of
character of the gloss.
also njd3 -niD^n.
Cf. Ez. 36".
20.
"jifisn
The term must refer to the locusts, for the fate described
The interpreis that of a swarm of locusts and not of human armies.
tation of human invaders from the N., e. g., the Assyrians, is excluded by
the northerner.
the context.
If original, the
term designates the locusts as coming from
That
come from there is certain for swarms were seen by
Niebuhr between Mosul and Nisibis, by Thomson at Beirut, by John
the N., which
is
not the direction from which they usually come.
they may, however,
P. Peters west of Mosul, on the Tigris.
But
The
rareness
may have
sug-
such a designation not rather strange? Hi.,

Ew. explain uisxn, therefore, as = 6 tv<j}uvlkI)$, Ex. 14', Acts 27" Rev.
9'-', the locust swarm is a demoniacal scourge.
Cf. for this use of Tv<p<agested the term.
is
the prophecy of the Egyptian potter to King Amenophis, col.

Gressmann, Texte und Bilder zum A. T., p. 208. Somewhat
differently most modern scholars believe that 'JiDxn, which was first used
vik6s, e. g.,
2,
1.
14,
220-27
jjg
by Jeremiah of the northern hosts of the Scythians and Babylonians, had

become a typical name for doom and as such might have different meanings in accordance with the special need; here the terrible locust
is
But
called thus.
mode
does not suit the
this
swarm
of the speech of Joel so
who saw in the locusts the precursors of

Yahweh, and who evidently took ^jiaxn in the eschatological
or apocalyptic sense, cf. also his understanding of v. ". There is thus
some justification for the apocalyptic interpretation, but not for Joel
himself.
With true insight Roth, regards v. 20 as due to the editor who
joined both sections together, WRS., EB., 2496, as the addition of an
well as that of the interpolator
Day
the
of
But
allegorising glossator.
The
as secondary.
it is
not necessary to regard the whole verse
may be
interpolator
E. Meier suggested as the original ^N3S or
mann
V.
Gr. 'aun yin,
battle-line;
n., rjs-n.Ni lijiD-nNi
before v.
25
1/ ix Ar.
EB., 2496
responsible only
and both
for
''Jisxn.
Ew. 'jissn der Heeresagmen locustarum; Che.,
^ta^!^;
and
rear
its
its
van, transposing
Joel wrote simply a term for the locust plague.
20.
We
should be inclined to think that the apocalytic interpretation of the
Am.
custs appears also in <8 of
the
It
or
Gk.
may
in
Heb.
<S d4>aviQ
els
Twy
in their ability than they do.
much on a
njni,
translation of a corrupt
M l^cn
mj nnx cpS njni.
was connected with it

word in Heb. literature,
vnciri.
idd is
late
occurring only in Chronicles, Ecclesiastes, Daniel besides.
Aram,
mjnx nowhere
Ecclus. II", a
synonym
WN3
injnx Syni
and
nSpi
iCNa T\hp
is
the
used in Heb. Bible,
else
of
common
seems
van H.
njnx which was well
et al.,
of
-^Pl), cf.
the subj.
Ez.
is to
must be the
One can
that one of
them
Am. 4'" Is. 34^ and
is
is
secondary.
therefore
conj., is against the
om.
But
genuineness of
be solved by regarding Sjjm as a corruption, say

favours this also. In mtryS Si^jn o
But
this is difficult, since the
God
commands.
Yahweh
It is not likely that
in such close conjunction.
Yahweh
-isy,
phrase when
expresses arrogance, overweening
hardly speak of the locusts as animated by haughty
ately afterward with
since
really
cni needed no explanatory gloss, but did

later times need it ?
Is it not more likely that
locusts.
disregard of Yahweh's
things.
is
tautology of the clauses
The rhythm
811 ?
It
however, njnx
as a gloss on the unusual injnx.
waw
used in contradistinction to
pride.
cf.,
Surely,
known in
the whole difficulty
show
to
expression.
the tense of Syni, juss. with

injnx Sypi, We.,
BDB. The
tt'N3, cf.
by Me., GASm., Dr., Marti,
lo-
6 âffiXeh, if
the following nx
'PiDDir,
one cod.
text of (&;
reflect too
read iSnn ju inx pSi
illegible text, <S
^povxos
more confidence
translators inspired
be that they did not
noDCi
7' Kal ISoi)
is still
The phrase
in the sense of
it
occurs almost immedi-
doing great and wonderful
would have the two
We
speaking.
different
should therefore read
Many
'?''"'.j.n
meanings
for Snjn,
take the clause as a doublet of
and omit it. But it seems that it suggested the place where the
lyrical poem, w. ^'-s^, should be inserted, and belonged to the text in the
V. ">
JOEL
I20
emended form. The editor who inserted the day of Yahweh passages and
interpreted 'jissn of human invaders was probably the one who changed
the reading here also, interpreting our clause of the overweening haughtiness with
which Yahweh's agents overstepped the
21.
thority.
NB*:
with
na
inj
no
Siev. reads riNi for 'Nin-Ss.
understood, Hg.
were used at
23.
transl. of ni-nxS
miDn
by the
and with
context,
limits of their au-
ins ns'j also Ez. 13' 36',
parall. expressions
oS^n their strength
all times.
soviet sie tragen konnen.
The
2''.
22.
Marti
The
Siev. inserts dfini at the beginning.
the teacher of righteousness, 21

it all
B,
and
''is niyjj
their fruit,
is
excluded
the various interpretations of this teacher
as the Messiah, or the prophets, or Joel, or any other person,
e. g., HezeMessiah had been meant this would hardly have been said
so incidentally, mien must be = nî'n. In the second line it is obvi-
kiah.
If the
ous that nn>D should be
r\y''
form nniD occurs again, Ps.

here
we should read
ppibfuiTa, also &'s,
as 34 mss. read, the D

84',
but
if
is
due to
the former rain
is
also in the first instance nnin.
Ch. ii" (Me.).
136 Ps. 6922 (Vol.), or jiTpn, 2
we do not expect
The meaning
<6 is almost certainly orig.
Those who translate minn by teacher take it
foil, line
ness, or, in order to
nmon by
AV., in
ity
make
early rain, or
just
BDB.;
The
meant
(g's translation
however, suggest that they read probably nnan, 2 S.

Hilgenfeld thought of
iniD abundance, but the other suggestions are better.

curs again in the
dittog.
actually
read food, take
et al.,
Since
nni''
oc-
here and the reading of
of
np-\'ih
is
also debated.
as the teacher in righteous-
the people righteous.
who
measure RV.,
it
Those who
r\p-\'ih
translate
either as moderately
in normal measure GASva., for prosper-
or for righteousness or justification, Ew., We., Dav., Now.,
is used only in a moral or religious sense.

Dr. somewhat
"as His righteousness prompts Him to give it." Gr. riimsa.
In regard to the second n-\is it may be noted that the Talmud in quoting our passage reads B'ir>':'Di nnv, Taanith 5b, 6b, Shekalim 6^, Sifre,
ad Dt. II". Van H. points it ni-jD, Vondee qui arrose.
Marti,
npix
differently,
25. Gr.
Moreover,
adds nNian before a^jcn.

this is the only
The
expression eat years
is
strange.
passage which regards the visitation as ex-
tending over several years.
Probably we should emend and read
a^jirrn
This would be beautifully

continued in v. *^ Siev. om. Duni S''Dnni ph''7\ as an interpolation from
TnSa', one cod. tpj. Snjn ^S''n appears to be an insertion by the
I*.
Me., We., Gr.,
editor, cf. 2.
26. SSn, ancient word, cf. QiSiVn, Ju. 9".
the fat, rich fruits or products,
cf.
Gn.
27*8.
om. v. ^^^. 27. Several Gk. mss. and ffi'^''*- om. the whole verse,
(giss om. V. "b.
Gr. adds after ni>' either TiSa or TSir, with OS &, but
Me. adds ^\^}! after wij', with (6.
cf. Is. 45 >^
et al.,
3*"'
Chs.
2^*''^)
121
with an entirely different sub-
3) deal
Yahweh, and make
the day of
ject,
2^*"^^
(Engl.
3, 4
(eNGL.
the impression of having
been originally altogether unrelated with chs.
now connected
likely,
but not certain, that the nucleus of chs.
and that the
Joel
i,
ing the
day
of
2.
They
with them by a series of interpolations.
editor
Yahweh
in chs. 3, 4 also.
See
who
3,
4 comes from
inserted the interpolations concern-
in chs. i, 2
made a number
of additions
51^.
p.
THE SIGNS OF THE DAY OF YAHWEH,
3'-"
2^^^^).
(Engl.
Under
are
It is
the terrible impression of the approach of the
day of
judgment a great excitement will take hold of all the people, old
and young, male and female, high and low, and it will manifest
itself
in
all
kinds of ecstatic experiences, vv.
this excitement
and on
Accompanying
will be great disturbances in the sky
where extraordinary portents of the day
earth,
appear, vv.
of
among men
"will
' *^.
The editor added

Yahweh comes, the
before the day

and then emphasised,
the explanatory clause, v.

great
and
terrible one,
*^,
on the authority of former prophecies, that every true worshipper of Yahweh would be delivered on this awful day, v. ^.
I.
(28)
[And
it
I will
shall
come
pour out
to
My
pass afterward thai]
Spirit
upon
all flesh,
and your sons and your daughters
J.
(29)
will I
I.
(30)
shall
And
pour out
I will
My
Spirit [in those days].
show portents in heaven and on

fire and columns of smoke.
blood and
.
i)
be entranced.
Your old men shall dream dreams,

and your young men shall see visions,
And even upon your male and female slaves
The sun
shall be turned into darkness,
and the moon
into blood!
[Be/ore the day of

the great
and
Yahweh
comes,
the terrible.]
earth,
JOEL
122
I.
(32)
[And
it
shall be tlmt every one wJio calls
on the name of Yahweh shall be saved,

For "in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem shall be those that escape"
as Yahweh has said,
And (indeed), among the/ugitives
(shall be every one)
whom Yahweh
calls.]
Three
strs.,
(i)
without secondary material, consists of two hexameters + a

+ a pentameter an editorial pentameter,
pentameter, (2) of two tetrameters

(3) secondary, of two hexameters
1.
shall
The
a trimeter.
editor connected ch.
come
and
or distant future, / will pour out
My
term pour out
My
Spirit appears to
Spirit
mark
used several times,
a kind of
fluid.
upon
all flesh.
where Ezra drinks the cup of inspiration "which was

fire," and is gifted as a
insight,
wisdom and memory.
pouring of the Spirit which

it is
The
the abundance of the
water whose colour was like
draught with
it
whether in the near
tell
Is. 32^^ Ez. 39^^, as if the Spirit were

the instructive passage in 4 Ezr. 14^ ^
gift; it is
Compare
by the phrase And
ch. 3
pass afterward, he does not
to
is
The
described directly
filled
as with
result of this
effect of the out-
makes
it
clear that
not a moral transformation of the people, not the renewal of
their inner
life,
nor a deeper and more intimate knowledge of
God
such as heretofore had been enjoyed only by the prophets and which
would now be the property of all, but the experience on the part of
all, old and young, male and female, high and low, of those ecstatic
spiritual states which had always been regarded as caused by a, or
the. Spirit of
God.
Your sons and your daughters
shall prophesy,
or speak with tongues; prophesy does not represent exactly the mean-
ing of the Heb. here, they will be in an ecstatic state and act as
persons
who
shall see visions.
visions are frequently referred to as

e. g.,
Nu.
12.
men shall
Dreams and
are possessed by the Spirit, and your old
dream dreams and your young men
The assignment
means
of divine revelation,
of the various
forms to the various
and not due to the special appropriateness of

dreams for old men and of visions for young men. If we were to
explain the words with prosaic literalness we should have to inquire why the old women are left out, and why the yoimg men are
ages
is rhetorical,
3^'^
2'*-^^)
(engl.
123
among the sons whose

The Heb. term for young men, used here,
who are old enough to go to war, Je. 1 1^^ i8^\ The
mentioned twice,
for they are also included
age is not specified here.

refers to those
content of the prophesyings and dreams and visions can only be

the coming of the day
ment which takes hold
Yahweh.
of
It is
the tremendous excite-
under the
of people
stress of the terrible
fear of the approach of a great catastrophe that
Here
static.
everybody
it is
by the presentiment which
seized
is
makes them
the most awful of days that approaches

is
usually experi-
Yahweh
enced only by persons of a special nervous organisation.
pour His
will
kind, and
not
Spirit
upon
we should
restrict
it
interpret
to the Jews,
cf.
it
thus,
if
le
all
man-
the following context did
also Is. 66"^.
simply everybody, as the French tout
may mean
All flesh
all flesh.
ec-
and
All flesh comes to
mean
"But within
Joel's
monde.
was to be at once thorough and

Even the slaves will not be excepted, and
Israel the operation of the Spirit
universal "
(GASm.).
2.
here again female as well as male are included.
The author is very
he means everybody.
That the noble and free are included goes without saying, but that the women and the slaves,
even female slaves, will also be possessed by the Spirit is significant.
It marks the universal character of the excitement.
Though such
possession by the Spirit is regarded as a high honour nothing is
said or implied here of the moral power of the Spirit of God which
transforms men and lives in them as an abiding presence. We
must not, under the influence of Nu. 11^^ Je. 24^ 31^ ^- 32^^ Ez.
36^' ^- 39^ Is. 5V, read into this passage that the Spirit will impart
specific,
to all
full
and complete knowledge of God so that they will
inspired with moral
In that side of the
him
And
3.
Spirit's
character will
umns
day
I will show
extraordinary
^^
religious truth as the prophets
work our writer
is
all
be as
had been.
not interested here, to
these spiritual manifestations of ecstatic character are a sign
of the approaching
V.
and
of
(lit.
Yahweh.
give) portents in
heaven and on earth,
phenomena which by their strange and striking

make a profound impression. Blood and fire and col-
of smoke refer most naturally to the portents
speaks of those in heaven.
There
will
on
earth, since
be terrible wars with
JOEL
124
bloody massacres and the burning of
their
13^
into darkness,
sun and blood-red appearances of the moon,
atmospheric conditions, always caused
to
They were
6^^.
Rev.
Mk.
4.
tiquity eclipses of the
due
Ez. 38^^
cities, cj.
As portents in heaven the sun will turn itself

and ilie moon into blood, cf. 2^ 4^^ Rev^. 20". In an-
24^.*
Mt.
^-
inexplicable
foreboding something unusual,
much
fear,
Ez. 32^
^-j
and therefore awe-inspiring,
Am.
8*, as
indeed every extraor-
dinary phenomenon in the sky or on earth did.f
Here they
are impressive portents of the coming judgment-day,
Is. 13^
Mt.
34^
24''.
The
clause before the great and terrible day of Yahiveh comes is

same as in Mai. 3^ (Engl. 4^). It is added here by the editor,
The awe and terror which
for Yahweh's speech ends with v. ^^.
from Amos on had been associated with the day is reflected here.
The judgment according to prophetic teaching should begin with
the Jews for whom it will be great and terrible also. But our
author does not mention the punishment or purgation of Israel.
the
His
interest is rather in the deliverance of the Jews,
which
con-
is
trasted in ch. 4 (Engl. 3) with the destruction of the heathen.

5. Nevertheless Israel's purgation
is
implied, for he continues
and
who calls on the name of Yahweh

shall be delivered, that is not every Jew simply because he is a Jew,
but every God-fearing Jew who trusts in Yahweh and calls on
Him for help. Note the complement in v. ^ whom Yahweh calls
and thereby recognises as His true worshipper. The others shall,
it
shall
come
of course,
to
pass that every one
this is implied,
liverance of a
by a
literal
This promise of the de-
remnant had often been made
the authority of an
fortifying his
not escape.
words not by a reference
and
makes
before,
older oracle that the editor

to his
own
it is
it
on
here,
inspiration but
quotation from an older prophet, Ob. ", for "in
Mount Zion and in Jerusalem
there shall be those that escape"
* Dr. thinks that the columns of smoke more probably allude to " columns of sand and dust raised
high in the air by local whirlwinds accompanying a sirocco, which sometimes 'march with great
rapidity over the open plain, and closely resemble pillars of smoke' (Thomson, The Land and the
Book, Southern Pal.,
t Cred.
and
esp.
Livy, 22,
cites
De
i;
p.
142)."
Others think of volcanic outbreaks.
XV, 782
Ovid, Met.,
if.;
Cicero,
divinatione ; Vergil, Eel.,
Josephus, BJ.,
i, 7,
12;
i,
i6
and other
De not.
fj.;
dear., 2, 3
Georg.,
parallels
i,
fj.;
464
De leg.,
fj.;
2, 13; 3, 12, 19, etc.,
Lucan., Phars.,
i,
524
from oriental and germanic sources-
if.:
3*"'
(lit.
2^*"'^)
(engl.
an escape), as YaJiweh has
said, sc. in
fortunate ones he defines once more, and
among
the fugitives,
whom Yahweh
who
125
shall escape the
And
Ob.".
= German
these
und zwar)
judgment, shall be every
and thus proclaims as belonging to the

saved ones. Is. 4^ defines them slightly differently as every one
The sentence and among
that is written for life in Jerusalem.
one
calls
whom Yahweh calls is parallel

who calls on the name of Yahweh shall be delivered.
It does not mean that others in addition to those already mentioned shall be saved, namely the Jews in the Dispersion who
the fugitives (shall be every one)
to every one
will
be called to Jerusalem, for
Dispersion are included
And though
obvious.
among
it is
not said that those
it is
tioned are already in Jerusalem.
That
the true
first
men-
the loyal Jews of the
Yahweh worshippers
not directly stated
it
may
is
be gathered
from the editor's words combined with those of the quotation

that they will
all
V.
^,
who
one
ei'ery
calls
summoned to
men in general,
be
only of Jews, not of
on the
name
of
have a universal ring and could
manner,
much
Rom.
10^^.
much
when
on Pentecost, Acts
the Spirit on that day
prophecy.
Pentecost.
was
difl&culty in a univer-
cf.
the astonishment
was
v. ^^,
2"'-^, in
was quoted by Peter
which the outpouring of
interpreted as the fulfilment of this
Joel has, as a result of this, been called the Prophet of

But he did not predict the event of Pentecost nor " the
order of things of which Pentecost was the

.
calls,
the context
But our authors would have been
This chapter, with the exception of
(Dav.)
^,
10^^.
in his speech
new
all flesh, v.
Yahweh, whom Yahweh
astonished over such an interpretation,
Acts
in
cf.
The passage speaks

phrases
its
later on,
disregarded, be interpreted without

salistic
Zion.
but
He
first
example"
did not predict the enjoyment of the fuller illmnina-
on the part of all, which had been the prerogative of the prophand the hope of Nu. 11^ and Je. 31^ ^- and which later became
the ideal of the Christian church. The reason why his words have
tion
ets
ever again seemed to students to contain just this
lies
partly in the
general terms which he used and partly in that he did not state the
content of those ecstatic and prophetic experiences.
In the context
they are connected with the approach of the terrible judgment-day.
JOEL
126
But usually their context has been defined in the

Âcts 2" ^- rather than of the context *
Je. 31^
to note that the author of the
which Jo.
reads
On
Bewer, AJSL., 1902,

for \'^2-h2~h-;.
'?Nitt'''-ni2-'?D-S3;
Yahweh, not
is
Spirit
would
p. 120.
all
but part of the
Che., CB.,
II, p. 130,
2. D-'i^yn (B Toi>s SovXovs
refer to the
Jews
/j.ov,
so
in their relation to
But a further
more poetic than
to slaves in their relation to their masters.
indicated by DJ\
the pass,
on the outpouring of the
rov irveifiaros, also v. \ not
dTrb
<8
n3j, cf.
also H, but wrongly, for this
step
ii^"
had spoken.
^nn-nN
1.
spirit.
Nu.
It is instructive
Acts disregarded the other elements
of the prediction, being solely intent

of
light of
would be,
cf.
4. isni n;.^ reflexive here,
Now.'^
isDs, 2^".
is
inclined to regard
Nium Snjn
as secondary, but probably the whole clause is an editorial addition.

aîniyai (gSAY ^gî eâ77eXtf6)uej'oi oOs Kipios
5. Nip^ itTN Gr. xn,-^''. "^sfH.
irpoffK^KKrjTai,
O Kal iv roT^ KaraKeKeififiivois oOs /ci^pios KaXâei. (S

Q = M. Gr. D-'-i^n';'!, Is. 66^ Siev. on;-\c'S. Gram-
Aq.
Aq.
D''iti"5!:i.
matically amu'2i
is
taken by some as parall. to ^vx "n^, and
and among
the
overlooks that ann-iâi
is
/otov,
w. *'
no longer part of the quotation.

(6 not from the Heb., as
", Kal ol irpeff^vrepoi^ v.
clearly show.
'Ev rots ^(rxdrats
additions Kal
'irpo<pr}Te{i(Tovaiv,
be due
to free quotation, as
concerning the old
n^nn
The author of Acts quoted from

futrds
n-j-'Ss
Mount Zion
shall be those who escape
But this constr.
fugitives whom Yahweh calls.
supplied in thought, on
is
men and
'*,
-rj/x^pais,
v.
',
v.
dov\ovs
'^,
yuoO, v. '^,
dirb
for jueri ravra, v.
ficw, ffTj/xeta, Kdroi,
v.
rod
wei-
iwKpapij, v,
i',
',
'",
and the
appear to
does also the transposition of the sentences\

the
young men.
ANNOUNCEMENT AND REASON OF THE JUDGMENT

ON ALL THE NATIONS, 4'"' (Engl. 3'-').
At the time of the
restoration of
Judah Yahweh
will gather all
nations in the valley of Jehoshapliat to judge them for the wrongs
done by them
'
to
His
[For belwld in
when I
* See on
people.
iJiose
days and at
restore the fortune of
tltat
time,
Judah and Jerusalem,]
Giesebrecht, Die Berufsbegabung der Allteslamentlichcn Profhdcn, 1897, p. 152/.

Der Geist GoUes itnd die verwandlen Erscheinungen im Allen Testament und im
anschliessenden Judenlum, 1910, pp. 91 fi.
and
3'-*
esp. \'olz,
4^-
Then
'
(engl.
3^- ^)
127
I will gather all nations,
and bring them down to Jehoshaphat's valley.

And I will enter into judgment with them there,
[Because of
Whom
My
people
and
they have scattered
My
heritage Israel,
among
the nations,
My land.
My people,
and they divided
And
cast lots over
and gave a boy for
And
Two
1.
{the use of) a

wine and drank
harlot.
x7.]
introductory, editorial pentameters are followed by an original* hexameter
a trimeter.
ameter
sold a girl for
The remainder
consists of a trimeter
a pentameter
a hex-
a tetrameter.
This
is
To him
the editor's connecting link.
the judgment
As
Yahweh, who speaks Himself, calls attention to the importance of his announcement by behold! In those days, the same
phrase occurs in 3^, and in that time, cp. for the combination of these
phrases, Je. 33*''^ 50^when I restore the fortune of Judah and
Jerusalem. This defines the time more closely but not in the same
manner as ch. 3. There the escape of the true Israelites is deof the nations
is
the complement of the deliverance of Judah.
so often
^'*,
scribed, here the restoration of the fortune of Judah.
The
involves a decisive change for the better.
fortune
in the
had not come.
Babylonian
This does not mean that
exile, for
cf.
this writer lived
even after the exile the conditions were
such that the Jews could not believe that

to them,
The term
turn of Judah's
Haggai and Zechariah.
Yahweh had come back
It is
noteworthy that only
Judah and Jerusalem are mentioned, N. Israel had perished long

ago.
V. ^ would be unnecessary, if v. ^ still followed directly upon
the words of Yahweh in 3*'^.
2. / will gather all nations, not only
the one or the other but all, all heathendom, cf. Ez. 38/. Zp. 3^, and
will bring
them down into the valley of Jehoshaphat.
hoshaphat means Yahweh judges or has pidged, and
Yahweh
The term Jeis
used here
and I will contend

there in judgment with them.
Yahweh's judgment valley is called
the valley of decision in v. ", because His decision on the nations
will be executed there.
These are legal terms, cf. Je. 2^ 25^* Ez.
symbolically of the place of which
38^^,
the case
is
says,
carried through to a final judgment.
Yahweh
dis-
JOEL
128
and decides His case against the
putes, argues
Our
nations.
writer evidently thought of the valley as situated near Jerusalem,

y}^. Ever since Ezekiel had predicted the attack upon Jerusalem by united heathendom and its judgment before the Holy City,
the Jews believed this, Ez. 38/. Zc. 9"^- 12'-' Dn. 11^. This
cj.
makes
it
certain that our author did not have in
mind
the valley of
Berakhah which was connected with King Jehoshaphat's victory

over the Moabites, Ammonites and Meimites, 2 Ch. 20^""^^. Not
name but
against it. That there was

King Jehoshaphat in ancient
times is unknown and improbable. The Kidron valley which
bears the name valley of Jehoshaphat now and did so in the time of
Eusebius received it on the basis of our passage rather than on any
only
its
also the distance
a valley near Jerusalem
named
is
after
Whether, however, our author identified the Kid-
other ground.
ron valley with the valley of Jehoshaphat

identification with
Gehinnom* has much
we do not know. The old

to commend itself in view
of Je. 7^^^- 31^".
Both belong together as scenes of judgment.

But unfortunately the location of the ravine of Hinnom is much
debated, and the Heb. term for valley, 'emek, used here, denotes
a wide depression between mountains, not a narrow gorge or
ravine as the term gai' in connection with Hinnom does. For the
gathering of all the nations a wide, capacious valley was needed.
There is no doubt that the author of Zc. 14 regarded the Kidron
valley and the adjoining widening mountain basin in the S. of the
city where the three valleys met as the scene of the judgment.
That he depends on earlier tradition is apparent, and that this was
our passage
is
virtually certain
though he does not mention the
name, valley of Jehoshaphat. This

is
merely a rhetorical device.
is
not strange, since that
The reason
for the
judgment
name
is
not
the moral iniquity of the nations, general or specific, or idolatry,
but their attitude toward

heritage, cf. 2^^, Israel
Israel is here the
not
mean N.
name
Israel
Israel,
whom
on account of My people and
of the people of
but Judah,
My
among the nations.

Yahweh as such, and does
they dispersed
cf. v.
The words presuppose an
important dispersion and get their true significance only by refer* Eusebius, Onomasticon, ed. Lagarde, p. 300, </>apayf 'Evvofi.
(TaXrjit.
Acyerai Si ets cTt vvv <âpoy| 'Iwaoâr.
napaKeirai Si
rfj
'lepov-
4^-"
3^"")
(engl.
129
ence to the Babylonian exile and the dispersion that followed it, cj.
Ez. 1 1'^ 1 2'^ 20'' '' 22" 28-^ 36'^ Whether also the north Israelitish
dispersion
is
included,
we cannot
of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
but
tell,
likely.
it is
implied in the following.
is
The capture
And they di-
my land among new occupants, as victors do with conquered

This may include a reference to the occupation of parts
the country by the neighbouring nations, Ammon, Edom, Phi-
vided
territory.
of
listia after
586 B.C. as well as to the settling of colonists in N. Israel
The
after 722 B.C.
invasion of the Philistines and Arabs under
with which some have identified these
Jehoram,
Ch. 21*"
sentences,
is
excluded by the strong terms which
ence to 586 B.C.
3.
^,
More
enemies toward Yahweh's people at

over
lot
my
Ob. " Na.
cj.
among themselves
And
fare.
tle
people,
3^",
this time.
may
also
And
they cast lots
dividing the captives of
many
of
war by
them and esteemed them
that they gave a boy as price for the use of a
text
the refer-
behaviour of the
accordance with ancient custom in war-
in
they had so
demand
details are given of the
harlot.
so
lit-
Though
the
be translated they gave a boy for, in exchange for, a

shows that they did not intend to keep but only
harlot, the following
momentary gratification of their sensual passion.

and drank it at once in their reckless
And
revellings.
What a contemptuous treatment of Yahweh's own
people! These lines give us a vivid touch of those awful scenes
to use
them
for the
they sold a girl for wine
after the capture of Jerusalem.
It is the
usual picture of the be-
haviour of victorious soldiers with their revelry and debauch after

the conquest.
Merchants and slave-traders followed the army or
were sometimes even asked

I
Mac.
3*^
And
to
come and buy the
captives, as in
the prices paid were high or low in proportion
number.
Nicanor offered ninety captives for one talMac. 8", Josephus, Ant., XII, 7, 3. At Hebron four Jews
were sold for a modius of barley in the Jewish war under Ha-
to the
ent, 2
drian,
Glyc, Ann.,
Ill, 448.
gives as the reason for the
It will
their treatment of Israel.
Now
manner toward
Israel.
described
be observed that the writer
judgment on
not
all
all
the nations only
nations had acted in the
Assyria had done so in 722 B.C.,
but not the other nations.
Babylonia in 586
B.C.,
hint that Assyria
and Babylonia are thought
There
is
no
of here as repre-
JOEL
130
Most probably
heathendom.
sentatives of
vv. ^^-
come from
the
editor.
1. (S
adds ^c6 after njn.
Kt.
nns
Gr. suggests
The
for nK, scTeral codd.
JiB'(3''tf n) means either

make a restoration, to restore the fortune
The strongest arr\''2V is derived either from nar or from aic.
of.
gument for the latter is the use of the phrase in connections where the
But while not impossible, it is not so likely
captivity is not alluded to.
The phrase becomes frequent from the time
that T\^2V came from 312*.
And it would seem that it had first to do with captivity
of Jeremiah on.
1/ r\2z<, and then became a general phrase in proph. usage for restoring
pny, in contrast to
2. Siev. om. Dimiim.
the fortunes of somebody.
a narrow gorge or ravine "J, denotes a wider, more spacious deepening
om.
to
3i;rK,
Q.
a"'B'N.
phrase
n'3B'
nx
bring back the captives or to
between mountains.
Che., CB., emends
(in contrast to
Gr. n;,
is
cf.
transl.
t2Btt'in'
on Ob.
".
Pu.,
pDj? Sn, els
t^v x^po-v t^s Kplaeus.
Maacath
on
Ob. ". n^
to pes npjJD the Zarephathite
a northern Maacath).
points tits
(5
tasscin^.
!3D!:'in> pc>'
Note the word play
dieffirdprjffav.
For njv3 Me., Gr.,
3.
et al.,
Vx for
read
in v-ieoa'ji
Sy,
r''tp3
or njn??,
preferable.
SPECIAL ORACLE AGAINST THE PHCENICIANS

PHILISTINES,
4'"'
(Engl.
AND
3*-').
These verses are not merely a digression but a later insertion

by a writer who probably interpreted w. ^- ^ as referring to the
Persians under Artaxerxes Ochus, c. 352 B.C. He added them
here because the behaviour of the Phoenicians and Philistines at
that time called for special condenmation.
and merchants to whom the Persian

captives and their booty.
traders
They were
soldiers
the slave-
had sold
YOU want of me. Tyre and Sidon,

and all the districts of Philislia ?
Were you trying to repay Me for something I had done,
or were you intending to do something to Me (which will
requital on My part) ?
Moreover, what did
call forth
I return your deed on your own head,

{On you) who have taken My silver and My gold,
and have brought my costly jewels into your palaces,
And have sold the Judeans and the Jerusalemites to the Greeks,
In order to remove them {as) far {as possible) from their home.
Swiftly, speedily will
their
4'-'
Behold, I
am
whither
about
you
(ENGL.
to stir
3'-')
131
them up from the place
liave sold them,
I will return your deed upon your head,

and I will sell your sons and your daughters
Into the hand of the Judeans,
and they shall sell them to the Sabeans for a distant
For Yahweh has spoken (it).
And
8-
people.
twoheptamstrs., (i) consists of two heptameters, (2) of a tetrameter

a tetrameter, (3) of three heptameters. For Yahweh has spoken does
not belong to the strophic scheme. While certain lines in this whole section are
rhythmic, the paragraph as a whole is prosaic and as such sharply differentiated
Three
eters
from
its
context.
And moreover, in addition to the others, what

Yahweh identifies Himself with His people
of me?
4.
do
you want
so that what-
Him, and whatever Israel has done

Thus the question really
is regarded as having been done by Him.
means, was what you did to Israel an act of revenge for some wrong
that Israel had done, or was it a wanton, gratuitous movement on
ever
is
done
to Israel is
done
to
your part unprovoked by Israel?

at
once
own
head,
which
my
He adds,
cf.
a rhetorical question, for
It is
speedily, swiftly I will return your deed
Ob.
is specified.
^^
5.
finest valuables,
They had
Ps. 7".
You have
lit.,
taken
my
desirable things,
upon your
already done their deed,
i.
silver
e.,
and
my gold
and
jewels, ornaments,
By a community of interests the treasures of Israel belonged

Yahweh, who is here as in v. ^ identified with Israel. It is not,
etc.
to
therefore, the plundering of the temple at Jerusalem that our au-
thor refers
to,
he would have been more
explicit in that case,
but the taking of the treasures of Israel which they brought
home
aces
in order to enrich their palaces.
may
tuaries
also
mean
temples,
The Heb. term
and a reference
for pal-
to gifts to the sanc-
The use of the phrase ye have taken

may be intentional. It supports the view
need not be excluded.
instead of a stronger one

that the Phoenicians
the merchants
and
Philistines
who had come
ing wine, furnishing harlots,
were not the conquerors but
to profit
etc.,
by exchanging wares, selland the captives.
for the spoil
The second charge is closely connected with the first. 6. And the
Judeans and the J erusalemites ye have sold to the Greeks as slaves.
The Phoenicians and the Philistines were famous slave-traders
JOEL
132
in antiquity*
The Greeks
are mentioned here not as the great
world power but as traders; as such they had long been in

course with the PhcEnicians and Philistines.
the Jews were taken far from their
home and
thus practically for
This made
ever prevented from returning to their native land.
The
their fate all the harder.
their
lit.,
might remove them far from
was
border, but this
purposed by
text represents this as
their owners, in order that ye
home,
inter-
Sold to the Greeks,
their
certainly only incidental to them,
main motive was commercial. The Heb. often expresses the

by a purpose clause, as if it had been designed, cf. e. g., Je.
result
27^".
7.
Now Yahweh
announces the mode of
their
punishment.
am about to stir them up, i. e., the Jews who had been sold
slavery.
He rouses them into activity so that they may make
Behold I
into
an
effort to leave their slavery
How this will
and return home.
be
done, whether they will revolt against their masters, and what will
happen
to their masters
we
are not told.
and
Historical agencies
Yahweh
probabilities our author does not consider.
will
put this
impulse into them to leave the places of their servitude, and

will, of course,
enable them to accomplish
it.
Then Yahweh
avenge their wrongs upon the Phoenicians and
And
their fate will
sold the
will sell
be the same as
Israel's
8.
They had
NW., now the Jews
had been.
Jews into slavery to the Greeks in the

them into slavery to the Sabeans in the distant SE.
Yahweh
administration of the lex talionis!
strict
Philistines.
are the destinies of
all
He
will
whose hand
sons and the
in
the nations will deliver their
daughters into the power of the Jews,
lit., sell them into the hand

by a victory or in some other way. The Jews will sell
slavery to the Sabeans in S. Arabia, with whom they had
of the Jews,
them
into
been in commercial relations,
cf.
ites
them to a still more distant nation.

had acted as the middlemen, Am.
do
so.
sell
On
people in
* C/.
II, 54.
in
And
Je. 6"".
the Sabeans will
In former days the

i^-
^,
now
Edom-
the Sabeans will
the Sabeans, a wealthy and important commercial
SW.
Arabia, their
own
inscriptions furnish us with in-
Am. i6- 9 Ez. 27" I Mac. 3 2 Mac. 8", also Homer, Od., ijpssfs. j^ms.^ Herodotus, I, i,
The Greeks were known among the Hebrews by the name Y'u'anTm, lonians, 'laFofes
Homer, because " the lonians (whose
were best
colonies extended over a large part of the
\\'.
coast of Asia
many of the JEg&tm islands) were most active commercially in ancient times, and hence
known to other nations" (Dr.).
Minor, and
4'-'
The
formation.
(engl.
3'-')
133
interpolator concludes with the solemn formula
for Yaliweh has spoken
ment as the purpose
which marks the foregoing announce-
(it),
Yahweh Himself and
of
not merely the wish
of the writer.
4.
'S
B.iN n:;
lit.
what are ye
want of me? or what
German
'3N*i
me? which
will ye do to
Siajn a disjunctive
me?
means
Scj
^j)
to
part.
TiTN is taken
by
what do you
niS>Sj the districts,

1
Mac. 5" Aq.
lit.
OTves,
circles,
2 6pia.
"B,
depends on the context whether it

Ch. 20" it is used in a bad sense,
The same
OJ
means what have
indicates,
It
or bad deed, here as in
a good sense.
foil,
Rosenm., Ew., van H. take 'cx)

This is not impossible, but less natural and
do something to somebody which calls forth
question;
as a conditional sentence.
a similar act on his
frequently
here as the
Bezirke. C5 Ta\i\ala, also Jos. 132
graphic.
in
to
me? AV., RV., but
ye to do with
holds good of Sidj.
as a conjunctive particle.
is
a good
in
'/'
qsc'ni^, (B pi.
B3^'2?''nS
13'
5.
some mss.
a3'^^^r^h, 3 mss. read '2 for 'S.

So^n from e-kallu may mean either
temple or palace, the Gk. mss. vary, most have vaotjs, others otKovs, -^
point
6r]<raipovs.
i5
expect either
&
peculiar,
we
or simply a^jrn, but there are parall. in late
lit-
retain Sîn,
ij; "|J3
delubra.
erature for the use of the pi. of the gentilic
6. zîvr\ ijj is
word with
^:2
instead of the
The Y'wanlm were formerly often identified with a people

C|i^n-\n (^ i^Jxnjre =
in Arabia, so e. g., among modern com. by Cred.
un^m (?), cf. 2^" eiw(ru) \~mn. The subj. of the inf. are the Phoenicians
and Philistines. 7. aiiyo, one cod. aT'ys. The constr. is pregnant 7
sg., cf.
Holz.
am about to arouse them
imminent future) into action so that they

and return home. 8. T'a 13S lit. to
sell into the hand of, means usually to deliver into the power of, and must
mean this here also, though "^3:: (but without i'j!) in this section means
to sell. 2 codd. read \irji, which is a correct interpretation, but not the
a''N3S'S (I ds alxiMiXucrLav = ''av'S so Me., Oort, et al. But
orig. text.
may leave
(prtc. of
the place where they are
is
preferable because
it is
suggests anârS to them with
pare
Is. 14',
more
striking.
whom
Aq.
rots Zaâelfj..
they were in captivity.
but the thought is not quite the same.

and Sn in mj Sn asva^'S is noteworthy.
prepositions S
Marti, Du. are right in translating
to the
Ehr.
We may com-
The change
of the
Probably Scholz,
Sabeans for a distant nation.
This makes the Sabeans the middlemen in this slave traffic. It gives
point to the words and explains also the omission of the art. in pim >u.
JOEL
134
PREPARATIONS OF THE NATIONS FOR THE FINAL

CONFLICT OR JUDGMENT, 4-^2 (Engl. 3'-")
judging
Yahweh had announced His
In vv?-
all the
they are all siunmoned to
march
where
to the valley
and
In w. ^^^
battle and to
intention of gathering
nations in the valley of Jehoshaphat.
arm themselves for a great

will he fought.
The battle
is
it
a figure
of Yahweh' s judgment.
Proclaim
this
among
the nations:
Consecrate war,
arouse the mighty men!
Let all the warriors
approach and come on!
lo-
Beat your ploughshares into swords,

and your pruning-hooks into lances!
Let the weakling say, I am strong!
"
let
the coward
For the nations
become a hero!
shall be
roused and march
to Jehoshaphat's valley.
For there will I sit in judgment

on all the nations from every quarter.
Three
with a prefatory trimeter, (i) consists of two tetrameters (staccato

pentameter
a hexameter, (3) of a pentameter
a hexameter.
strs.
style), (2) of a
Yahweh Himself speaks, see v. *^. Whom He addresses is

not stated and His command, Proclaim this (the following) among
the nations/ may be rhetorical for let the following be proclaimed/
by heralds, of course, cf. Ob. ^, or it may be addressed to the agents
9.
of
His judgment to
consecrate,
sacrifices
war/
and
soldiers are
is
whom He
gives orders in v.
c/".
i S.
7^- Je. 6^ 51^^.
sometimes called the consecrated ones.
arouse, the mighty
men/ "from the
foil, is still
believed.
Let
all the
Is. 13^.
inactivity of
The
Stir up,
peace"
(Dr.).
summons which the heras many from early times
part of the
alds address to the nations, not to Israel,
on have
Sanctify, or
a characteristic term for getting ready for war by
cultic observances,
This as well as the
^^.
warriors approach,
let
them come on/
4'"-^"
The
their
briefer in
is
most
emphasised,
is
brief, strong
words
in Engl., are vivid
and
10. The
crit-
effective.
it is
to
be a war of
Therefore every possible armour
consequences.
135
The
Heb. than
rhythmic staccato movement
character of the war
ical
S''-'')
style of this entire section is graphic.
command, much
of
(ENGL.
is
to
terrible
be used, Beat
your ploughshares into swords, and your pruning-hooks into lances f

turn
need
your instruments of peace into weapons of war, for you will
all
the
all
weapons you can procure.*
this crisis, Let the
needed for
the help of
It
(&.
lated (Hither) cause
stands
Thy mighty ones
AV., RV.), a text which
a doublet of
For
v.
iy. i.) the
*^*
is
sit
and not a part
The
i6^-
^^
23"
is
sit
down
to
to give
judge
all the
11a.
12.
is
i.).
nations from
dropped and a
judgment scene.
to the
of anger
The word
and passion, as
legal
term
Yahweh
will
in Is. 3^^, but
His judicial decision on the great
usually translated round about
means
around, from every side, from everywhere, as in Ez.
37^^
39", for the judgment
rounding nations but
There
way
full
solemn majesty
judgment-day.
all
O Yahweh! {cf.
of the original text {v.
figure of the battle is
on His throne, not
here from
come down,
nations shall be roused and march to the valley of
used, the battle gives
full of
to
altogether out of place here.
is
Jehoshaphat, for there will I

everywhere.
The last part has been restored with

now in v. "^ and M, is usually trans-
coward become a hero!
the
men will be
am strong! lib. Let
All available
weakling say I
is
a lacuna after
universal,
v.
*^
is
not limited to the sur-
^- ^^*.
cf. vv.^-
which acts
like
a pause during which
the nations have gathered themselves in the valley of judgment,

for suddenly
Yahweh's command
rings out, addressed
most prob-
ably to his angelic host and not to the Jews.

* Cf. Vergil, Georg., I. 507 /., squalent abductis arva colonis. El curvae rigidum fakes conflantur
Ovid, Fast., I. 699 /., sarcula cessabunt, versique in pila hgones, Factaque de rastri
fondere cassis erat. For the reverse of this in the golden era of peace, cj. Is. 2' (Mi. 4^), also
in ensem.
Martial, Epigr., 14, 34, Faix ex ense:
nunc sum,
mililis ante jui.
Pax me
certa dulcis placidos confiavit in usus, Agricolae
JOEL
136
THE SIGNAL FOR THE ATTACK,
(Engl. 3").
V^"
Apply the pruning-knivesi

for the vintage
Go
ripe.
is
in! tread!
for the wine-press
Empty
for their overflow
Three tetrameters (staccato
is full.
the vats!
great.
is
style).
13. Apply the pruning-knives, for the vintage
Go
is ripe/
in
(into the wine-press), tread (the grapes), /or the wine-press is full!
Empty
The executors of Yahwho are to begin and

The grapes are ripe, the
the vats, for their overflow is great!
weh's judgment are represented as vintagers

complete the terrible harvest at once.
wine-press
thing
is
Usually the
have two
sentence
first
And
harvest is ripe!
down
No
the vats overflow.
is full,
time
to
is
be
lost,
every-
ready for the attack upon the nations and their destruction.
figures, the
is
translated.
Put in
the sickle, for the
We
this is entirely possible.
should then
mowing
reaping of the grain harvest for the
for
and the treading out of the grapes

trampling down the enemies and wading in their blood, cf.
Is.
63^'^.
figure
of the foes,
is
cf.
17^,
Is.
In Rev. 14"'^" both figures are used.

poetically
more
effective here, the single
But
the whole process of the vintage appears preferable.
wine-presses see
2^*.
The
saves the poetic quality of the verse
14-16.
Now
vats
and
But a slight emendation
{v. i.).
we
self-restraint.
see
no
We hear the roar and thunder
fighting, as
if
the valley shutting out of view the scene.
and
On
follows a brief description of the battle, character-
by a remarkable
of the battle, but
tail
one
last sentence is usually translated the
vats overflow, far their wickedness is great.
ised
since
comparison with
of definiteness
which creates a
a heavy cloud hung over
There
is
a lack of de-
feeling of vagueness, not
We might interpret this as due to the

and reverence which prevented him from describing minutely the battle between the heavenly and the earthly
unsuited nor unimpressive.
writer's shy regard
armies,
if it
were not rather due to
With the exception
of v.
"'^
his lack of original
the phrases are
all
power.
taken from other
4''-"
Only
prophetic writings.
(engl.
"*
v.
from
is
isj
s''-'')
"^"^
Joel., vv.
are from
the editor.
THE BATTLE,
4"'" (Engl.
3"-^^).
Multitudes roar
in the valley of decision!
is the day of Yahweh
in the valley of decision.
[For near
>5.
Sun and moon have grown

and
'5-
>'
the stars liave
And Yahweh
dark,
withdrawn
their splendour.
from Zion,
and thunders from Jerusalem,
And quaking are heaven and earth.
roars
But Yahiveh is a refuge to His people,

and a stronghold to the Israelites.
Aiid ye shall know tlmt I am Yahweh, your Cod,
My holy mountain.
Jerusalem shall be inviolable,
dwelling in Zion,
And
and barbarians
Three
strs., (i) consists of
a tetrameter
a trimeter, (3) of a hexameter
The
14.
shall not set foot in her
It is
more."]
a pentameter, (2) of two hexameters
two heptameters.
din of the vast crowds
the valley of decision!
any
is
heard. Multitudes roar {(&) in
not merely the
hum of a great throng,
but the tremendous roar of the war cries and the noise of the battle
in the valley
which
is
where the
final decision of
Yahweh
therefore called the valley of decision.
is
rendered and
iH reads. Multi-
an exclamation of surby the prophet because he sees multitudes upon
tudes, multitudes in the valley of decision!
prise
and
terror
multitudes gathered there.
exclamation
is
the preparations for
it,
and comes too
attack has been given in

the
the original reading, the
If this is
not part of the description of the battle
v.
^^.
late after the
itself
but of
command
of
Similarly the explanation because
day of Yahweh is at hand in the valley of decision comes too

because the day has actually begun, v. ^^, We might emend
late,
by changing the punctuation because
the battle of
itor.
15.
Darkness has
settled
Yahweh
is
{going
more probably to the edon the scene, the sun and the moon
on) in the valley, but the clause belongs
JOEL
138
have grown dark and the stars have withdrawn their shining,
The same words
This makes the battle more gruesome.
where
2*,
light.
occur in
found more or
also the following sentences are
less
16a. Above the din of the battle sounds Yahweh's
literally.
and Yahweh roars from Zion and thunders from

Cp. 2" where Yahweh
is verbatim = Am i^.
terrible voice,
This
Jerusalem.
He Himself does not appear

He only utters His terrible judgment, cf.
where He dwells and from where He can see
thunders before His mighty army.

or fight as in Zc. 14.
Is. 17^^,
from Zion
the vast throng in the valley below.

tion
between
earth quake,
and
this
2^",
cf.
in terror of
His
to
and
The outcome
must emphasise as most important,
the
16b. The
people and a stronghold
so obvious that the writer does not describe
safety he
real contradic-
the heavens
His awful majesty.
Cf. Ps. 14 46^ 47^ 31^ 43^.
Israelites.
flict is
a refuge
is
no
is
In this awful judgment Israel will 'be
protection of Israel.
and Yahweh
There
As He thunders
v. ^^^.
safe,
the
to
of the con-
but Israel's
it,
2^^).
cf. 3^ (Engl.
Yahweh Himself speaks again, promising abiding safety

The transition from v. ^^ to v. ^^ is abrupt, not in
thought but in form, and the fact that Yahweh comments on the
17.
to Jerusalem.
words of the prophet in
v.
^^
is
But
remarkable.
it is
the editor's
As a result of this defeat of the nations and of their

cf.
own deliverance the Jews shall know, so He says, that I am Yahweh
your God, cf. Ez. 38^^ 39*- ' ^^- ^^, bound to you by ties of close remanner,
tP.
and dwelling
lationship
2'"^
cf.
4^^ Is. 8^,
And
of the nations.
Ob.
^^
Na.
also
in your midst on
protecting you as
now
My holy mountain
so for ever from
all
Zion,
attacks
Jerusalem shall be a sanctuary, inviolable,
i^^ Is.
52^ Zc. 9^ 14^^
This means that
cf.
strangers,
enemies, barbarians, shall not pass through her any more, as they
had done,
9.
On
tiirner,
found
i,
47.
For
chiefly
XVIII.
586 B.C.
preparations for war see Schwally, Semitische Kriegsalter-
pp.
4: inri?.
usual
g. in
e.
For
either in
28), or in late
n\^^:^.
OT., but usual
n''j?n
0''nn, a
v>-;r\.
i.-ii>,
Is. 2*
Mi.
affinities,
authors" (Dr.), the parall.
NH.
10.
and otherwise
North-Israelitish writings (Jud. V. 8 i K.
K'^n intensive
in
one cod. reads
word "with Aramaic
The
in Is. 2*
Mi.
4' reads the
formation, as adj. or noun only here in

vb. occurs several times in
OT.
11.
^Df
4"-''
:T-i;aj r\^p] nn:ri
thither lead
so abruptly that
(engl.
3"-*)
down Thy
heroes,
139
Yahwehl
This comes
can only be explained as the passionate interruption
it
who prayed that Yahweh would lead his andown into the conflict. But it is not only abrupt but premature.
The attempt to obviate the abruptness by translating, there Yahweh
of the author (or a reader)

gelic host
dismays, thy heroes! (Cred., Gr., Scholz, deriving nnjn from
shatters, or
nnn with 21 & B) is not successful because it

Moreover, who is spoken to ? The nations ?
(Gr. reads
Why
pi.).
But
sentence as a gloss.
which reads
and not
^"av
this
we
become a hero!
for juss., Ges.
am a
i^3J n^n^ nnjn or nnjn.
"t_
hero! to which
complementing hemistich, argues for

probably correct one ni3J to
n'3t<.
fMxV''^^ or
iroXefiiffT-^s in
',
Heb., but
may
was
it
originally
'?
v.
due
also be
the sg. used then ?
Marti, Siev., Du. regard the
asf?
should, of course, read nnn
r\''T\'^
the weakling say, I
Why is
does not seem likely esp. in view of <S
6 7rpgi>s <<rTw /xaxijri^j
impossible nnjn
interrupts the address
still
it
its
The
may
and
xhe
coward
strict parall. in v.
'", let
would form the balancing and

originality.
Only we should
variation in
(S,
1(txu(^ in v.
'">,
perhaps suggest a difference in the
to the translator's taste.
and belongs with
For the
trans!., let the
the following.
The
is'ij?
in y\^2i
sf.
of
is
unknown
conjectured assemble yourselves ! d 21 &, so AE.,

no etymological basis for this. The idea of assembling themselves is expressed by ixapji.
So it has been emended by
it'in hasten, Menahem, Rashi, or by lu'j, come near, Che., or by niy,
meaning.
Ki.
But
cf. V. ",
The Vrss.
there
We.
is
But
in V. " that they
should be noticed that
it
v.
" has such a close parall.
cannot have stood together originally, and one of them
must be secondary. V, " contains the better text and solves the difl&by vj'v which is unknown, by isapji which does not
fit into the constr., and by nas' which is not explained, for v. * is too far
removed and the nations must be told where to go. Besides, if v. " is
omitted, v. '"> is in its right place as the complement of v. "">. (5'" om.
from aâDs to the end of the verse, ^'i" om. 20D2. 12. d and one
Heb. ms. add S3 before CMjn, also the variant in v. ". This is a corcuities occasioned
rect interpretation
but need not be part of the
harvest, but Is. i8<Je. 48*^
Je. S''
'
however has
n'S3.
orig. text.
13.
hi'z
Ar.
means usually the {grain)

it is the vintage, so also Is. 16', whose parall.
It is most likely that we have here only one
mingalun, either sickle or pruning-knife.
"cSi"^
comparison of judgment, the vintage (Hi.), rather than two, with the
grain harvest and the vintage. In \iew of Is. 16' i8<- ^ Je. 8^ it seems
unnecessary to change Txp to
Sj2
is
"I'xa,
though the change would be simple.
then of course the pruning-knife, and ^'^2
of the grapes.
în3,
Gr.
ing out of the grapes
loh, cf.
Na. 3", but on
and besides the
taken by B, AV., RV., Dr., GASm.,
but
(8 TrareiTe, 21 yff>v-\,
take
it
foil,
is
is
used of the ripening
never used of the tread-
word expresses
BDB.
this.
nn
as imv. of i-c go
in the sense of treading.
And
is
down!
this is
JOEL
I40
required by the context.
is
Whether
mi
can mean
better therefore to read with Gr. 0"<i,
oop''n
which
is
to tread is dub.,
and
it
the usual term for this,
2^^.
But the
and not for beginning to
press the grapes.
Here this cannot be meant. We might take -ip'ii'n
transitively,^// the vats to overflowing!
This would be in line with the
preceding imvs., C8 virepeKxecre. The vats become filled as the result
Then the metaphor would end, as indeed it should,
of the treading.
cf. Is. 633, and an;?i njT >3 would give the reason, but no longer in figuraBut in a poetic passage like this the
tive language, for this process.
author would not pass so abruptly from the picture to the literal prosaic reason and it is therefore likely that the text read originally, ir'''"in
e.
cf.
g. Is. 633.
overflowing of the vats
O'^"^^?.
^31
tify
DOp-in,
''2
would be
is
the signal for ceasing
empty the vais ! for
strictly parall.
from
flXi]<ôiv,
224
(Marti)
Jer., sonitus
their overflowing is great.
is
The omission of oiap^n

14.
ip>a>n
as an in-
'jidh o'-jicn, (g ^x<" ^?-
unjustifiable.
exauditi sunt
This
Why should Yahweh jus-
with the preceding.
the attack to His agents
trusion
the vats overflow, as in
ip^!:'n,
cjicn
The onomatopoetic
The hum and
-icn.
word-play of the Heb. cannot be reproduced in English.

roar of a great crowd
is
in
mean, threshing instrument,
Me.
Cred.,
V.
14
1'
I'nnn
Am.
who connect it with v.
due
to homoioteleuton
'pvy2 nLT" aip
ô,
strict decision,
1',
and
',
is
we cannot
so taken
but wrongly.
omitted by a number of Gk. mss. and
is
ally or
et al.,
it.
cf.
tell.
05" om. the second vnnn
05'^''*
It might
by many, Cal.,
(B Q.
H concisionis.
whether intention-
Perhaps we should read
pny::.
THE WONDERFUL FERTILITY AND PERMANENT

HAPPINESS OF JUDAH IN THE GLORIOUS
FUTURE,
This
It is
its
is
new
4^-2^
section with a
(Engl.
new
3^'-'0-
introduction and a
work that leads us to assign

V.
had not brought us to a satisafter the judgment had still to be
close correspondence to the editor's
these verses also to the editor.

fying conclusion.
described.
Joel
Israel's fate
^*
may have done
this,
but not in this manner.
he wrote a description of the ideal future, as

is
new theme.
not the thought but the lack of originality in the form and
is
not unlikely,
lost.
"
And
it
shall
come
to
pass in that day that
The mountains shall drop sweet wine,

and the hills shall flow with milk
If
it
4'"-
And
''
(ENGL.
all the water-courses
'')
141
S''-
of
Judah
shall flow with water.
And
Egypt
'
Yahweh
a spring shall come forth from the Iwuse of
and water
the valley of Shittim.
shall be a desolation
and Edom a
desolate steppe,
[For the violence done to the Judeans,

because they shed innocent blood in their land.]
But Judah shall be forever inhabited,

and Jerusalem for generation upon generation.
[And I will avenge their blood (which) I have not
"
And Yahweh
Two
strs.,
a hexameter
(1) consists of
(yet) avenged].
shall be dwelling in Zion.
a pentameter
introductory line does not belong to the strophic structure.
secondary matter, of two hexameters
a heptameter, the
(2) consists,
omitting
a trimeter.
18. In that day, the ideal time of blessing which is to follow the
judgment, the mountains shall drop sweet wine, and the hills sliall
flow
An
go) with milk.
(lit.
enthusiastic description of the marvel-
and the great abundance
lous fertility of the land
of
its
produce.
The
Cf. the earlier expression a land flowing with milk atid honey.
The fertility of
phrases are hyperbolic.
2^^"^ is
not to be compared
with this miraculous fruitfulness of the messianic age.

tence
is
Judah
dependent on
Am.
And
9*'.*
The
all the channels, cf.
sen-
i^**,
of
flow (perennially) with water. Ordinarily these torrent-channels are filled only during the rainy season. And, in adshall
dition to these streams, a spring shall
Yahweh and
Ez.
47*"^^
shall water the
Wady
come forth out of the house of
of Shittim, or of the Acacias.
had already predicted that a stream would
issue
from the
temple toward the east and through the Kidron valley, gradually
Arabah and finally into the Dead

The banks along the river would be fertilised and the water of
Dead Sea sweetened by the miraculous potency of this life-
swelling to a large river, into the

Sea.
the
giving stream.
It
was
a, hope that
the heart of every Jerusalemite.

of the city
was one long-drawn-out
water was not too plentiful.

* Cf. the similar descriptions
Days, 113
ff.,
must have found welcome
The
in
Vergil, Eclog. I\', 21
Ho. 2^'ff.,
This
I,
and even then the
struggle,
will
be different in the golden
14*-', also in classical
Gcorg.
in
labour for the water supply
125, Ovid,
Melam.
iam ftumitM neclaris ibant, Flavaque de viridi stillabant ilice mella.
authors
I.
iii
/.,
Hesiod, Works and

Flumina iam laclis,
JOEL
142
age,
when Yahweh
dry and barren, and the Holy City

water.
It
was an ancient
and E.
in
if,
will
be im-
be
fertility
marked
took the special form
But he appears
have modified
to
it
Wady of Shittim is corThen the river will not
as seems probable, the
rectly identified with the
Wady
flow toward the E. into the
W.
wonderful
Our author
from Ezekiel.
one particular,
it
of Jerusalem to
without abimdance of
itself
belief that
the dwelling-place of a deity.

of this thought
Then
will really dwell in Zion.
possible for the country toward the S.
Dead
es Sant.
Sea, as in Ezekiel, but toward the
Wady
into the Mediterranean through the
es Sant
which
is
the
from Jerusalem to Gath and Ashkelon. This identifirst suggested by We., is made probable not only by the
direct route
fication,
identity of the
names but
flows both toward the E.
by the fact that in Zc. 14* the stream

and the W., into the Dead Sea and the
also
Mediterranean respectively.
may have combined
who
Zc. 14
follows here tradition
the conception of Ezekiel with that of Jo. 4.
We had reason to believe that Zc.
14 showed the influence of Jo. 4
in the location of the final judgment.
often been connected with the
The Wady of Shittim has
Meadow
called simply Shittim, Jos. 2^ 3* Mi. 6^),
of Shittim,
which
is
Nu.
33^* (also
Moab
situated in
beyond the Jordan and forms a part of the Gh&r or Jordan valley.
But not only the designation Wady is opposed to this but also
the consideration that the stream
crossing the Jordan.
tion with the
Wady
would hardly be thought of as
In view of these
difficulties
the identifica-
of the Kidron, through which Ezekiel's river
seemed to commend itself. But what could be the reason

name which is nowhere else given to the Wady of the KidIt has been thought that the name signified an arid Wady be-
flowed,
for this
ron ?
cause acacias, as Jerome had already noted, grow in dry
name Meadow
while this
is
against
as the usual connotation.
it
doubtless true, the
observed that the seyal, one of the
soil.
E. H. Palmer, Sinai, p. 39,

kinds of acacias, is "less
many
dependent on moisture than the palm, though certainly

specimens are found near springs."
Judah's wonderful
dark
fertility
19.
Egypt and
fate of these countries
its finest
In sharp contrast to
Edom
will
Egypt and
The
be waste.
can only be mentioned as a
heighten the glory of Judah's fate.
But
of Acacias argues
foil to
Edom must
have
4^"-
(ENGL, y'' ^0
'-'
been included among the nations
143
But
in the valley of Jehoshaphat.
almost any postexilic Jew would find added joy in the contemplation of
Edom's
Egypt may have been
ruin.
mentioned
specially
because the desolation of the usually so well watered and irrigated

country brought out the
full
wonder
But it is
Egypt is not original.
which must be remedied in
of Judah's fertility.
also possible that the clause concerning
The grammatical
any
would favour
case,
added the
320
B.C.
We
this.
clause, say after
just as
Edom's
special reason for
0/ the violence done
is
That
fate is given.
it
in
does
indicated by the phrase on account
the Judeans which reminds one strongly of
to
whom
from
(v. ^)
might think of a reader who
Ptolemy Lagi had invaded Palestine
not refer to the Egyptians also
Obadiah
v. ^^^,
inelegance of
the editor quoted also in
And
^^.
v.
he commented there on the Obadian phrase, so also here
by adding because they shed innocent

fers to 586 B.C.,
Ob. " Ez.
cf.
of the Judeans, others think
it is
This
blood in their land.
Their land
35'^.
Egypt and
is,
re-
of course, the land
Edom and interpret

Edom of which we
the clause of massacres of Jews in Egypt and
have no further knowledge. That the

is
clear
With the
of in their land.
closely connected.
iK's,
{yet)
And
21a.
had been
last clause of v.
And
It is
after vv.
^.
first
^'
of v.
is
Ci
#,
is
superior to
The
writer did not think that the Edomites
punished for their brutal behaviour toward
It
Yahweh which
later additions.
dwell, the
13'" Je. 17^-
^^
their
punishment
stood originally directly after
expectedly in the editor's manner,
4^^.
orig. text instead
the
in the
near
evident that a sentence like this has no real place
of a direct speech of
erations.
in battle
which implies
I will avenge their blood (which) I
Judah and he expected therefore
still
^^
This reading, based on
avenged.
sufficiently
future.
are
blood,
I will hold as innocent (RVm.) their blood which I have
not held as innocent.
lit.
was not done
Perhaps by murdering them stood in the
murder.
have not
killing
from the term they shed innocent
20.
Heb. idiom
Zc.
21b.
9'^
12^.
Atid
is
cf.
v. ^^^.
It is
2-^ 4'^.
But Judah
Perhaps
vv.
Yahweh
*'"^-
-'^
shall be inhabited forever,
for a flourishing city or country,
And
a part
introduced suddenly and un-
cf.
Is.
Jerusalem for generations and gen(shall be) dwelling in Zion,
Yahweh's abiding presence
is
the basis
Judah's happiness and permanent security.
cf.
and guarantee
2^^
of
JOEL
144
16.
Di^Di
Kal iviffxô'ei
not genuine, but
it
T^r.
maintains that Jo. 4"

quotation from Am.
om.
Siev.
cannot be spared.
v.
s''
as " anerkannt"
ZAW.,
Bu.,
1910, pp. 37 jf.,

quoted from Am. i'', not vice versa. But note the
9'' in v. ".
17. (g^^.
om. ivx3, (&^- ^^- om,
and a3''n'?N. 19. Now.^ om. the second

ninn in the interest of the style. Du. om. n^nn 'tt'S onxD. Marti, Now.''
om. from -\!i't< to dx-in3. For asixa read onxna (?). K^p: so here and
Jon. i'* for ''pi which several codd. read. The Masora notes this orthography in both places. Vv. ^^- " are missing in (S". iss, 2I. nS ddt n''|i:i
'jT'pj, and I will declare, hold as, innocent their blood {which) I have not
declared, held as, innocent, or and I will leave unpunished their blood
from ]D^
to
î^-^P,
Siev.
om.
this
{which) I have not

iK^-qT-ffcru,
blood, I will not leave

>r\'<pi
left
unpunished.
(S^Q iKdiK-^cro)=
it
does not favour
^ncj^ji
unpunished,
For
this.
This
for the first
it
is
evidently wrong.
^r\^pi,
But the tense of the second

cf. &.
would be a proph. pf., which is not
We., Marti
used in the context.
It is best to read with Eich.,
for the second
I will avenge their blood, which I have not
''n^pj,
(&^^
and I will avenge their
^r\Gp_:
also
(yet)
avenged. The sudden change to the 1st pers. would indicate the secondary character of the clause (Marti, Du.), if it were not the editor's
Ew., G ASm., Dr. take v. " t as an oath,
manner. It belongs after v. =
but
this
''.
would be most unusual.
INDEXES TO OBADIAH AND JOEL.
I.
!^2-\H,
76.
HEBREW WORDS.
INDEX
146
11.
Alexander
SUBJECTS AND NAMES.

Meal-offering,
the Great, 60.
Alexander Jannasus,
Ammonites,
Seir, 8, 21/.,
31. 32.
9, 31.
Antiochus the Great, 45.

Antiochus Epiphanes, 45.
Nabateans,
7, 9, 10, 11,
Northerner, 51, in, 118/.
I, 9.
Artaxerxes Ochus, 45, 60, 61.
Obadiah, prophet, 13^.

Obadiah, book:
Bride, bridegroom, 109.
composition,
Day
see Sacrifices!
of
Yahweh,
metre,
15
Je- 49.
33
i ff.
interpretation, 10
date, 6 ff.;
place in canon, 14 n.;
Cult;
22, 23.
Negeb, 29, 31.
Arabians; see Nabateans.

Aristobulus
81, 106.
Mount Esau, Mount
9.
ff.;
text,
ff.;
15;
comparison with
ff-
interpolations of,
50/., 65, 86/., 93/., 95/., 103/.
Pentecost, 123/.
Petra, 21, 22.
Dispersion, 45.
Phoenicians, 54/., 60/., 130/.
Edom,
iff.,
Philistines, 31, 54/., 60,
passim, 142/.
Egypt, 142/.
Rain, 116/.
Ephraim,
Reseph, 45.
field of, 31.
Sacrifices,
Fasting, 85.
Joel's
attitude to, 81
106.
Gaza,
Samaritans,
60.
9.
Saparda; see Sepharad.
Gebal, 39.
Gilead, 31, 45.
Sarephath, Sarepta, 31/.
Greeks, 54/., 60, 131/.
Selah, 21.
Halah,
Sepharad, 32, 45/.

Shephelah, 31.
32, 45.
Shittim, valley of, 141 /.
Jehoshaphat,
Jerusalem,
valley of, 128.
destruction
of,
in
Sidon, 60/.
586
B.C., 10, 26/., 53, 55, 130.
Joel, prophet,
Joel,
book:
67 /.
composition,
date, 56 ff.;
text, 68;
Spirit, 122 /.
interpretation, 62
ff.;
ff.;
metre, 68 _^.; position in
John Hyrcanus,
9.
26.
Threshing-floor, 116.
Vision, 19.
Wine-press, 116.
Libation, 81, 106.

ff.,
Teman,
Tyre, 60.
canon, 57.
Locusts, 74
Sippar, 46.
Slave-trade, 54/.
49
Wine-vat, 116.
passim.
//^^
130/.
z.
PrtnceiDii
Theologic
1012 01108 4508
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A Critical and Exegetical Commentary On Micah, Zephaniah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Obadian and Joel - John Merlin Powis Smith, William Hayes Ward and Julius A. Bewer

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m

The iNTERNATroNAL Critical Commenta

JOHN MERLIN POWIS SMITH,

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

three volumes for

when he was taken from us by death. His pupil and associate,

now assumes the entire responsibility for that work. He wishes

These appear chiefly

and books and

of his results in the present

delay in the preparation of the volumes was so great that

Accordingly, Zephaniah and

dertaken by Prof. Charles P. Fagnani, who, however, was obliged

M. Powis Smith kindly assumed the task.

prophets are published in this vol-

Jonah by Prof. Julius A. Bewer, will be published soon in a third

order of arrangement of the Minor Prophets in these vol-

not only from the traditional arrangement found in

arrangement was not a chronological one, even

from the point of view of

traditional theories of authorship,

from the point of view of modern

and, so far as the edi-

tors are concerned, impracticable to insist

upon any chronological

combined under the names of these Minor

Prophets, where indeed there

were compelled therefore to consider the views of

the several authors,

respect the traditional

The order finally agreed upon

arrangement wherever practicable.

not therefore an ideal one, but the best that

we could make under all the circumstances.

and there are therefore differences in these commentasuch

general plan of the series.

best to publish the

work of the several authors un-

volume is thus really composed of three

separate pagination. This

each author being responsible only for his

volumes bound in one,

to insure its conformity to the

The Book of Micah

The Prophet Micah

Recent Literature on the Book of Micah

The Book of Zephaniah

From the Fall of Thebes to the Fall of Nineveh 159-165

The Times of Micah

The Times of Nahum

Index of Hebrew Words

The Composition of the Book

The Composition of the Book

Aquila's translation, cited

from Field's Hexapla.

orum codex Bahylonicus Petropolitanus.

Texts of Holmes and Par-

R. Kennicott, Vettis Tes-

BOOKS OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS

Beitrage zur Assyriologie

G. L. Bauer, Die kleinen Propheten

containing the Bib-

based on the Lexi-