SECOND

EDITION

Astrophysics of
Gaseous Nebulae
and Active Galactic
Nuclei
Donald E. Osterbrock
Lick Observatory, University of California, Santa Cruz

Gary J. Ferland
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Kentucky

U N I V E R S I T Y S C I E N C E BOOKS
Sausalito, California

Contents
Preface

xi

Preface to the First Edition

General Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

xv

Introduction
1
Gaseous Nebulae
1
Observational Material
3
Physical Ideas
7
Diffuse Nebulae
8
Planetary Nebulae
10
Nova and Supernova Remnants
11
Active Galactic Nuclei
12
Star Formation in Galaxies
13

Photoionization Equilibrium
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

Introduction
17
Photoionization and Recombination of Hydrogen
19
Photoionization of a Pure Hydrogen Nebula
23
Photoionization of a Nebula Containing Hydrogen and Helium
Photoionization of He+ to H e + +
33
Further Iterations of the Ionization Structure
35
Photoionization of Heavy Elements
35

Thermal Equilibrium
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

17

45

Introduction
45
Energy Input by Photoionization
45
Energy Loss by Recombination
47
Energy Loss by Free-Free Radiation
49

27

vi

Contents
3.5
3.6
3.7

Energy Loss by Collisionally Excited Line Radiation

49
Energy Loss by Collisionally Excited Line Radiation of H
Resulting Thermal Equilibrium
60

Calculation of Emitted Spectrum

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

67

Introduction
67
Optical Recombination Lines
68
Optical Continuum Radiation
77
Radio-Frequency Continuum and Line Radiation
88
Radiative Transfer Effects in H I
92
Radiative Transfer Effects in He I
97
The Bowen Resonance-Fluorescence Mechanisms for O III and 0 1
Collisional Excitation in He I
100

Comparison of Theory with Observations

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12

Introduction
157
Hydrodynamic Equations of Motion
158
Free Expansion into a Vacuum
161
Shocks
162
Ionization Fronts and Expanding H + Regions
Magnetic Fields
169
Stellar Winds
170

99

107

Introduction
107
Temperature Measurements from Emission Lines
108
Temperature Determinations from Optical Continuum
Measurements
114
Temperature Determinations from Radio-Continuum Measurements
Temperature Determinations from Radio and UV Absorption Lines
Electron Densities from Emission Lines
121
Electron Temperatures and Densities from Infrared Emission Lines
Electron Temperatures and Densities from Radio Recombination
Lines
127
Filling and Covering Factors
133
Ionizing Radiation from Stars
135
Abundances of the Elements in Nebulae
142
Calculations of the Structure of Model Nebulae
148

Internal Dynamics of Gaseous Nebulae

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7

60

157

164

116
120
127

Contents

Interstellar Dust
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8

177

Introduction
177
Interstellar Extinction
177
Dust within HII Regions
184
Infrared Thermal Emission
190
Formation and Destruction of Dust Particles
Grain Opacities
195
Effects of Grains on Surrounding Gas
197
Dynamical Effects of Dust in Nebulae
200

Infrared Radiation and Molecules

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6

Introduction
207
The Structure of a PDR
207
The H 2 Molecule
211
The CO Molecule
214
Comparison with Observations
Molecules Around H II Regions

207

216
221

HII Regions in the Galactic Context

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.j5
9.6
9.7 -

10

10.5
10.6
10.7

225

Introduction
225
Distribution of H II Regions in Other Galaxies
225
Distribution of H II Regions in Our Galaxy
227
Stars in HII Regions
230
Abundances of the Elements
232
Newly Formed Stars in HII Regions
240
Starburst Galaxies
242

Planetary Nebulae
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4

194

247

Introduction
247
Distance Determinations
247
Space Distribution and Kinematics of Planetary Nebulae
251
The Origin of Planetary Nebulae and the Evolution of Their Central
Stars
253
The Expansion of Planetary Nebulae
258
Morphology and Composition
261
Planetary Nebulae with Extreme Abundances of the Elements
264

vii

viii

Contents

10.8 Molecules in Planetary Nebulae

266
10.9 Mass Return from Planetary Nebulae
268
10.10 Planetary Nebulae in Other Galaxies
269

11

Heavy Elements and High-Energy Effects

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5

12

12.8

13

295

Introduction
295
Nova Shells
295
The Crab Nebula
301
The Cygnus Loop
307
CasA
314
Other Supernova Remnants
316
Spectroscopic Differences Between Shock-Heated and Photoionized
Regions
316
n Car
317

Active Galactic NucleiDiagnostics and Physics

13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6

14

Introduction
277
Physical Processes Involving Bound Electrons
277
Physical Processes at Still Higher Energies
283
Physical Conditions from X-ray Spectroscopy
286
Collisional Excitation of H
290

Nova and Supernova Remnants

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7

277

Introduction
325
Historical Sketch
326
Observational Classification of AGNs
328
Densities and Temperatures in the Narrow-Line Gas
Photoionization
340
Broad-Line Region
345

Active Galactic NucleiResults

14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4

Introduction
353
Energy Source
353
Narrow-Line Region
356
LINERs
361

353

325

336

Contents
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8

Measures of Light

APPENDIX

A 1.1
A 1.2
A 1.3
A1.4
A1.5
A1.6
A1.7

APPENDIX

Broad-Line Region
363
DustinAGNs
372
Internal Velocity Field
374
Physical Picture
382

JL

395

Specific Intensity /
395
Flux F
396
Mean Intensity /
397
Energy Density and Radiation Pressure
397
Emittance
398
Surface Brightness S
399
Emissivity and Observed Quantities
399

Milne Relation Between Capture and Photoionization Cross

Sections
401
Emission Lines of Neutral Atoms

APPENDIX

405

APPENDIX

nr

Nebular Quantum Mechanics

APPENDIX

Atomic Data for Heavy Element Ionization Balance

APPENDIX

407

Quantum Mechanics of Molecules

Glossary of Physical Symbols

433

437

Glossary of Telescope and Instrument Acronyms

Index

445

443

423

ix