International Higher Education Finance - An Annotated Bibliography

International Higher Education
Finance: An Annotated Bibliography
publication series
center for international
higher education
Philip G. Altbach, Comparative Higher Education: Knowledge, the University and
Development, 1997. (Commercial edition published by Ablex Publishers. Asian
edition published by the Comparative Education Research Centre, University
of Hong Kong. Japanese-language translation published by the Tamagawa
University Press, Tokyo, Japan. Chinese-language translation published by the
Peoples Education Press, Beijing, China.)
Philip G. Altbach, ed., Private Prometheus: Private Higher Education and
Development in the 21 st Century, 1999. (Commercial edition published by
Greenwood Publishers, Westport, Connecticut. Spanish-language translation published by Centro de Estudios Sobre la Universidad, UNAM, Mexico.
Japanese-language translation published by the Tamagawa University Press,
Tokyo, Japan.)
Philip G. Altbach and Patti McGill Peterson, eds., Higher Education in the 21st
Century: Global Challenge and National Response, 1999. (Published in cooperation with the Institute of International Education, New York. Spanish-language
translation published by Editorial Biblios, Buenos Aires, Argentina.)
Philip G. Altbach and David Engberg, Higher Education: A Worldwide Inventory
of Centers and Programs, 2000. (Commercial edition published by Oryx
Publishers, Phoenix, Arizona.)
Philip G. Altbach, ed., The Changing Academic Workplace: Comparative
Perspectives, 2000. (Also published as a special theme issue of Higher Education,
vol. 41, no. 1-2, January-March, 2001.)
Philip G. Altbach and Viswanathan Selvaratnam, eds., From Dependence
to Autonomy: The Development of Asian Universities, 2002. (Commercial edition published by Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands.
Japanese-language edition published by Tamagawa University Press, Tokyo,
Japan. Chinese-language edition published in Taiwan. Asian paperback edition published by De La Salle University Press, Manila, Philippines.)
Philip G. Altbach and Yoshikazu Ogawa, eds., Higher Education in Japan: Reform
and Change in the 21st Century, 2002. (Also published as a special theme issue of
Higher Education 43, no. 1, January 2002.)
Philip G. Altbach, ed., The Decline of the Guru: The Academic Profession in
Developing and Middle-Income Countries, 2002. (Commercial edition published
by Palgrave Publishers, New York and London.)
Glenda Kruss and Andre Kraak, eds., A Contested Good? Understanding Private
Higher Education in South Africa, 2003. (Co-published with the Program for
Research on Private Higher Education [PROPHE], University at Albany.)
Alma Maldonado-Maldonado, Yingxia Cao, Philip G. Altbach, Daniel C. Levy

and Hong Zhu, eds., Private Higher Education: An International Bibliography,
2004. (Co-published with PROPHE, University at Albany.)
Francesca B. Purcell, Robin Matross Helms, and Laura Rumbley. Womens
Universities and Colleges: An International Handbook, 2004. (Commercial edition published by Sense Publishers, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.)
Philip G. Altbach and Toru Umakoshi, eds., Asian Universities: Historical
Perspectives and Contemporary Challenges, 2004. (Commercial edition published
by the Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. Japanese language
edition published by Tamagawa University Press, Tokyo, Japan. Chinese language edition published by China Ocean University Press, Quingdao, China.)
Philip G. Altbach and Daniel C. Levy, eds., Private Higher Education: A
Global Revolution, 2005. (Commercial edition published by Sense Publishers,
Rotterdam, the Netherlands.)
James J.F. Forest and Philip G. Altbach, eds., International Handbook of Higher
Education, 2006. (Commercial edition published by Springer Publishers,
Dordrecht, the Netherlands.)
D. Bruce Johnstone, Financing Higher Education: Cost Sharing in International
Perspective, 2006. (Commercial edition published by Sense Publishers,
Rotterdam, the Netherlands.)
Philip G. Altbach, International Higher Education: Reflections on Policy and
Practice, 2006.
Philip G. Altbach, Leslie A. Bozeman, Natia Janashia, and Laura E. Rumbley.
Higher Education: A Worldwide Inventory of Centers and Programs. (Revised
Edition), 2006. (Commercial edition published by Sense Publishers, Rotterdam,
the Netherlands).
International Higher Education

Finance: An Annotated Bibliography
Pamela N. Marcucci
D. Bruce Johnstone
Center for International Higher Education

Lynch School of Education, Boston College
Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
International Comparative Higher Education Finance and

Accessibility Project (ICHEFAP), Center for Comparative and
Global Studies in Education, Graduate School of Education,
State University of New York at Buffalo
Buffalo, New York
2006. Boston College Center for International Higher Education

and ICHEFAP.
Boston College Center for International Higher Education
207 Campion Hall
Chestnut Hill MA 02467
USA
Website: http://www.bc.edu/cihe/
International Comparative Higher Education Finance and
Accessibility Project (ICHEFAP)
428 Baldy Hall
University at Buffalo, State University of New York
Buffalo, NY 14265
USA
Website: http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/IntHigherEdFinance/
This research project has been supported by the Ford Foundation.
table of contents
introduction
section i: annotated bibliography by authors last name
section ii: cross-referenced by subject
A1. Economics of Education and/or Higher Education
ix
1
149
151
A2. Higher Education Finance
151
A3. Higher Education Finance: Cost-Sharing and

Revenue Diversification
154
A4. Student Loans
157
A5. Grants and Any Other Forms of Student

Assistance Other than Loans
160
A6. Privatization and Private Forms of Higher Education
161
A7. Access and Participation
162
section iii: cross-referenced by geographical area

165
B1. No Setting: General, Theoretical, Universal or Conceptual 167
B2. Comprehensive or Encyclopedic
168
B3. High Income-Industrialized Other Than United States
168
B4. United States Only
172
B5. Low and/or Middle Income Other than Transitional
175
B6. Transitional
178
author biographies
179
introduction
This annotated bibliography was prepared by members of the research
team involved in the International Comparative Higher Education
Finance and Accessibility Project, a Ford Foundation-financed program
of research, information dissemination and networking that began in
1999 and extends into 2007. The project examines the worldwide shift
in the burden of higher education costs from governments and taxpayers to parents and students, and the policies of grants, loans and
other governmental interventions designed to maintain higher educational accessibility in the face of this shift. The project is directed by D.
Bruce Johnstone, SUNY Distinguished Service Professor of Higher and
Comparative Education Emeritus at the State University of New York at
Buffalo and is based in the Center for Comparative and Global Studies in
Education at the Universitys Graduate School of Education. The Project
has involved graduate students as well as visiting scholars/students and
a number of partner centers. Since 1999, it has:
Created a substantial body of descriptive and theoretical literature
on higher educational finance and "cost-sharing as well as the most
complete compilation of country descriptions of the higher education costs borne by parents and students. Most of this available on
the Website as well as in hard copy and many scholarly journals.
[See http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/IntHigherEdFinance/]
Provided, in part through a successful conference in Dar es Salaam
in March 2002, a particularly positive impetus to the concept of "cost
sharing" in Eastern and Southern Africa. The project also carried
out a research project (2004-06) focusing on the dual tuition programs characteristic of East Africa in order to examine the impacts
of these programs on institutional financial health as well as the
equity of who is able to receive the benefits of higher education.
Co-hosted and co-planned conferences in Prague in the summer of
2003, in Moscow in the summer of 2004, and in China in the summer of 2005 that brought together scholars and policy makers to
focus on higher education finance in the social, political, and economic contexts of the transitional, or post-communist, countries in
the former Soviet Union, Eastern and Central Europe and China.
Developed a long-range research agenda for the further study of
higher education finance and accessibility in an international comparative context that is informed both by a sound theoretical grasp of the
economics and finance of higher education and by a practical grasp
of the politics and management issues affecting implementation of

policy at both institutional and governmental levels.
Provided fellowships for visiting scholars and advanced graduate
students from Argentina, the Czech Republic, Chile, China, India,
Japan, Kenya, Mongolia, Portugal, Sierra Leone, Russia, and Ukraine
to spend varying periods of time at the University at Buffalo consulting the documentation center, auditing courses, and working
with Professor Johnstone and the other graduate students on the
project.
The project has also compiled, cataloged, and annotated a library of more
than 500 articles, books, and papers on the topics of higher education
finance, tuition policies, student financial assistance, and student loans.
This annotated bibliography is the culmination of those efforts. The
main topics covered in the bibliography include: the economics of higher
education, higher education finance in terms of institutional finance,
institutional revenues and expenditures, and revenue diversification
and higher education finance specifically in terms of cost-sharing and
revenue diversification, student loans, grants and all forms of student
assistance other than loans, the politics and ideology of cost sharing,
privatization and private forms of higher education and access and participation. The bibliography includes published and unpublished books,
articles, conference papers and reports. It is far from exhaustive as new
books and articles are emerging every day, and as the particular regional
interests of the project have allowed it to delve more deeply into the
issues in some geographical areas rather than in others. It is, however,
an attempt to highlight the recent literature in English that deals with
higher education finance throughout the world and to include those
authors who have made a large contribution to the field.
The annotated bibliography is laid out alphabetically by author and
then cross-referenced by subject area and by geographical region. Given
that the subject categories are not discrete and that some publications
deal with more than one issue or more than one geographical region,
some of the publications appear in more than one category.
The subject categories include:
Economics of Education and/or Higher Education (i.e. theoretical or
conceptual rather than applied, or country- or topic-specific);
Higher Education Finance General (institutional finance, institutional revenues and expenditures, revenue diversification,
cost-sharing, tuition and financial assistance, student grants and
loans, management issues);
xi
Higher Education Finance: Cost Sharing and Revenue Diversification

General (tuition and cost sharing policies);
Student Loans (including graduate taxes, income contingent repayment schemes and all other forms of deferring payment);
Grants and all Forms of Student Assistance Other than Loans;
Politics and Ideology of Cost Sharing (including Neo-Liberalism or
its Opposition);
Privatization and Private Forms of Higher Education;
Access and Participation.
The geographical setting categories include:
No Setting: general, theoretical, universal or conceptual;
Comprehensive or Encyclopedic;
High Income /Industrialized Other than US;
US Only;
Low and/or Middle-Income Other than Transitional;
Transitional (i.e. recently converting from all state-owned means
of production and a Marxist command economy to an economy
largely organized by markets and allowing substantial measures of
private ownership of the means of production).
Special thanks should be made to the following graduate students for
their assistance on this annotated bibliography: Rima Aranha, Sherene
Cheah, Gheorghita Faitar, Rachel Fix, Johnson Ishengoma, Rita Kasa,
Handan Maziouglu, Ali Ait Si Mhamed, Mary Ngolovoi, Manar Sabry,
Touorouzou Some, Qian Sun, Abebayehu Tekleselassie, Tomoka Toraiwa,
Tengteng Wan, Jie Wang, Yu Wang, Shengjun Yuan, and Yan Zhao.
Section 1
Annotated Bibliography by
Author Last Name
marcucci and johnstone
Abraham, Katharine G. and Melissa A. Clark. (2003). Financial Aid

and Students College Decisions: Evidence from the District of Columbias
Tuition Assistance Grant Program. Cambridge: National Bureau of
Economic Research. Available at: http://www.nber.org/papers/W10112
The study focuses on the impact of the District of Columbias Tuition
Assistance Grant Program (DCTAG) on students college choices.
The DCTAG program, established in 1999, provides a substantial
subsidy for DC residents to attend public colleges and universities
throughout the USA. The study found that the number and share of
DC residents applying to four-year colleges increased substantially
under the program, and students were considerably more likely to
apply to colleges that were eligible for the subsidy. According to the
study, freshmen enrollments of DC residents also increased substantially at eligible institutions, although the effect on overall freshmen
enrollments of DC residents was fairly modest, suggesting that in
its first year the subsidy had more of an impact on where students
chose to attend than on whether they chose to attend college at all.
Adams, Don. (2002). Education and National Development: Priorities,
Policies, and Planning, Education in Developing Asia, Vol. 1. Hong Kong:
Asian Development Bank and the Comparative Education Research
Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
Part of the Education in Developing Asia series produced jointly by
the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Comparative Education
Research Centre of the University of Hong Kong, this book looks at
the role of education in national development in Asia. It specifically
examines the relationships between education, economic growth,
poverty and social change and outlines policies for the development of high quality, equitable, and adequately financed education
systems.
Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance. (2002). Empty
Promises, The Myth of College Access in America. A Report of the Advisory
Committee on Student Finance Assistance, Washington, DC: Advisory
Committee on Student Financial Assistance. Available at:
http://www.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/acsfa/emptypromises.pdf
Building on the Advisory Committee on Student Financial
Assistances previous report Access Denied, Restoring the Nations
Commitment to Equal Educational Opportunity, this report argues
that financial barriers (shortages of student aid, especially needbased grant aid and rising college tuitions) prevent significant
numbers of low-income, college-qualified graduates from attending college within two years of graduation. While not discounting
annotated bibliography
the importance of ongoing efforts to increase academic preparation

and information about college and financial aid, the report argues
that such strategies do not solve the financial problems facing college-qualified, high school graduates and calls for the development
of a federal strategy that focuses specifically on reducing unmet
need through the provision of additional need-based grant aid.
Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance. (2001). Access
Denied, Restoring the Nations Commitment to Equal Educational
Opportunity. A Report of the Advisory Committee on Student Finance
Assistance. Washington, DC: Advisory Committee on Student Financial
Assistance. Available at:
http://www.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/acsfa/access_denied.pdf
The report predicts that three interrelated factors are producing a
crisis in access to higher education. These include the rising cost of
higher education as a percentage of low-income family income; the
shifting of policy priorities away from access at all levels to middleincome affordability and merit resulting in a rise in unmet need
on the part of low-income students; and consequent choices on the
part of students (i.e. working long hours, attending school part-time,
and borrowing heavily) that lower the probability of degree completion. The report calls for a renewal of the nations access strategy
to address these problems and, more specifically, for the reinstatement of the nations longstanding access goal and the refocusing
of federal student aid policy on reducing unmet need; increases
in need-based grant aid to low-income students; the reaffirmation
of Title IV programs as the long-term solution to the access problem; and the rebuilding of access partnerships between the federal
government, states and institutions with aid being targeted at lowincome students.
Agarwal, Pawan. (2006). Higher Education in India. The Need
for Change. New Delhi, India: Indian Council for Research on
International Economic Relations. Available at: http://www.icrier.
org/pdf/ICRIER_WP180__Higher_Education_in_India_.pdf
A comprehensive paper on higher education in India that provides
an overview of its structure, the regulatory environment in which
it works, its financing and other important issues including governance, academics and technology. It argues that while the higher
education system (particularly the private sector) in India has
expanded rapidly over the last 20 years, it has done so with little regulation and decreasing standards in all but a few quality institutions.
Moreover the expansion in enrollments has taken place at a time
when public funding has declined (in real terms) and public universities have started to charge higher tuition fees. These changes have
had a negative impact on access for the poor given the absence of
substantial student financial aid programs. The paper consolidates
a number of recommendations into a broad framework for action.
Within this framework it identifies several strategies for making
higher education affordable and accessible to everyone including
the introduction of an income contingent loan program and the
establishment of a Social Equity Fund that would administer financial aid programs for poor students.
Ahmed, Eliza. (2000). What Do Our Graduates Say About the Higher
Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) A Pilot Report on Compliers and
Defiers. Canberra, Australia: Center for Tax System Integrity.
This report discusses the results of a pilot study of 30 graduates in
Canberra that was aimed at obtaining information on the beliefs and
attitudes of a sample of recent Australian graduates about HECS.
The respondents were grouped into three categories: the upfront
(those who paid at the beginning of each semester), the complied
(those who had deferred their HECS debt and had commenced
repaying), and the defied (those who deferred their HECS debt, but
are not repaying even though they are required to).
Albrecht, Douglas & Adrian Ziderman. (1991). Deferred Cost Recovery for
Higher Education: Student Loan Programs in Developing Countries. World
Bank Discussion Paper #137. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Available at: http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/
WDSP/IB/2000/07/19/000009265_3980203115113/Rendered/PDF/
multi_page.pdf
One of the first comprehensive descriptions of student loan
programs worldwide. The information is now dated, but the comprehensiveness is still a useful indicator of both the scope of student
loan programs, worldwide, and some of their important variations.
Alexander, F. King and Ronald G. Ehrenberg. (Eds.). (2003, fall).
Maximizing Revenue in Higher Education, New Directions for
Institutional Research, 119.
A collection of papers, originally delivered at a 2001 forum at the
Cornell Higher Education Research Institute on the financial and
economic challenges influencing institutional revenue production.
They address the issues of revenue generation and the struggle that
institutions face in the United States to balance public expectations
with the maximization of private market forces.
Altbach, Philip G. (Ed.). (1999). Private Prometheus: Private Higher

Education and Development in the 21st Century. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press.
This book includes 10 papers that examine the parameters of private
higher education worldwide. Altbach outlines the perspectives on
private higher education: themes and variations, issues and trends.
Levy explores the diversity of private higher education by analyzing the formulation of isomorphism. Although the book is mainly
about private higher education in Latin America, the private sectors
in other countries including India, the Philippines, Malaysia and
Hungary are also discussed.
Altbach, Philip, Patricia J. Gumport and D. Bruce Johnstone (Eds.).
(2001). In Defense of American Higher Education. Baltimore, MD and
London: Johns Hopkins University Press.
This edited work is well described by its title, In Defense of
American Higher Education. However, several of the chapters
have relevance to higher education in an international comparative perspective, and some to higher education finance. Philip
Altbachs introductory chapter presents what seems to be special
to American higher education in an international comparative perspective. Chapter 5 by Martin Trow, From Mass Higher Education
to Universal Access: The American Advantage, places the ubiquitous pressure for massification in an international context, with
particular reference to Europe and Japan as contrasted to the US.
Johnstones Chapter 6, Higher Education and Those Out-of-Control
Costs, examining the popular and often political perspective on
higher education as having lost all control of its costs (and therefore
ripe for having some governing board or strong central government
force a drastic reduction in per-student costs) is a defensive portrayal
that also attempts to see what reality lies behind this all too common
allegation. The relevance to cost sharing and to the need for tuitions
as higher education costs increase over time is laid out in a manner useful to an international examination of comparative costs and
tuition policies.
Altbach, Philip G. and D. Bruce Johnstone (Eds.). (1993). The Funding of
Higher Education: International Perspectives. New York: Taylor and Francis.
This is an edited volume of papers presented at the 6th International
Conference on Higher Education held in Washington, DC in the
summer of 1992. The descriptive information is dated, but some
of the broader overview papers, such as ones by Johnstone, Massy
and Hulfactor, Firstenbach, and Psacharopolous, remain useful.

Chapters on African higher education and financing and on higher
education funding in Australia are outdated, but still useful.
American Association of State Colleges and Universities and the
National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges.
(2005). Student Charges and Financial Aid, 2004-2005. Washington, DC:
American Association of State Colleges and University and the National
Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges. Available at:
http://www.nasulgc.org/publications/05scfarpt.pdf
A report on trends in student charges (including tuition and fees
and room and board in public colleges and universities), financial
aid, and state financing policies.
American Council on Education. (2004a). Reflections on 20 Years
of Minorities in Higher Education and the ACE Annual Status Report.
Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
Available at: http://www.acenet.edu/bookstore/pubInfo.cfm?pubID=319
This publication includes three articles by the creators of the ACEs
annual Minorities in Higher Education Annual Status Report on their
perceptions of the evolution and influence of the report and progress made in terms of minority participation over the past 20 years.
Robert Atwell points to the disturbing trends including the movement from need based to merit based aid at the state and federal
levels, rapidly increasing tuitions at public institutions and, what
he calls, the attack on affirmative action. Sara Melendez compares
the figures in the 1983 report with those in 2001-02 and finds that
despite increased college participation rates across race, the gap
between Hispanics and both whites and all other groups remains
unacceptably high and the college completion rates remain unacceptably low. Reginald Wilson tracks the history of the report and
finds that the first report identifies some trends that still hold true
in 2004 including lower high school completion rates and college
graduate rates by blacks and Hispanics.
American Council on Education. (2004b). Rewriting the Rules of the
Game: State Funding Accountability and Autonomy in Higher Education.
Second in a series of essays based on roundtable discussions
among college and university presidents on the changing relationship between states and their institutions, the publication
identifies the main topics discussed and areas in which consensus
has been reached. All participants acknowledged that the implicit

social compact that has guided public investment in higher education has been changed. In response three main options for higher
education were identified including finding ways of living with
the new ground-rules; altering the nature of the debate and changing the often value laden terminology used (i.e. to talk about such
things as flexibility and freedom from counterproductive management
regulations instead of autonomy); and articulating its commitment
to better use the public money that it is given in exchange for more
flexibility.
American Council on Education. (2004c). Shifting Ground: Autonomy,
Accountability and Privatization in Public Higher Education. Part of Series:
The Changing Relationship Between States and their Institutions.
This essay, the first in a series, is based on a discussion in January
2004 of college and university presidents about the changing
relationship between states and their institutions and the implications of this change for the future of higher education in the
United States. It reports an acknowledgement among higher education leaders that they need to stop blaming state governments
for cuts in support, acknowledge that this is unlikely to change
in the short term and start identifying solutions. The essay also
discusses the new trend toward privatization in higher education
including decentralization, tuition deregulation, vouchers, changes
in the regulatory status of colleges and universities, performance
contracts or charter colleges and negotiated statewide compacts.
The essay concludes by identifying critical questions that need
to be addressed in the future. An appendix provides overviews of
changes in the relationship between the state and public higher
education in eight states.
Amonoo-Neizer, Eugene H. (1998). Universities in Africa: The Need for
Adaptation, Transformation, Reformation, and Revitalization. Higher
Education Policy, 11(4), 301-9.
This article argues that African universities, most of them established prior to independence or immediately after independence
through the transplantation of European models, need to undergo
a process of adaptation, reformation, and revitalization. It is further
argued that African universities need to transform themselves and
address the principal issues of finance, relevance, efficiency, quality, equity, governance, and university-state relations. The article
among other things, suggests that in order to maintain quality whilst
increasing access, finances must be diversified mainly through costrecovery and cost sharing.
Andrews, Les. (1999). Does HECS Deter? Factors affecting university
participation by low SEC Groups. Canberra, Australia: Department of
Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Available at: http://www.dest.gov.
au/archive/highered/occpaper/99F/does.pdf
The report identifies some of the reasons for the relatively low and
unchanging participation rate of students from low socio-economic
groups in higher education in Australia over the past twenty years
and responds to charges that it is the Higher Education Contribution
Scheme (HECS) that is responsible for this low participation. The
report uses various methodologies to examine the reasons for the
low participation and finds that HECS has very little influence on
the low participation of lower income students.
Anthony, Susanne. (1999). Student Income and Study Behaviour in
Denmark. European Journal of Education, 34(1), 8794.
This article describes the State Educational Grants and Loans
Scheme, the student financial support program in Denmark, and
discusses the issue of students contributing to the costs of education, particulary living expenditures. It concludes with a historical
review of the Danish support system and the effects of the current
system.
Archibald, Robert B. (2002). Redesigning the Financial Aid System: Why
Colleges and Universities Should Switch Roles with the Federal Government.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
The author argues that higher education institutions, rather than the
federal government, should provide student loan guarantees. Such
a switch would provide institutions with more incentive to provide
a good education, and would cause a saving in federal aid spending
that could be applied to increasing Pell Grants for students from
lower income families.
Association of African Universities. (1997). Revitalizing Universities in
Africa: Strategy and Guidelines. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
This document outlines a major strategy and guidelines to revitalize
African universities to save them from declining quality and general institutional crisis. The document proposes strategic planning
as a major strategy for revitalization and recommends guidelines
addressing: quality of university education, finance, access, management, research, and international collaboration.
10
Avery, Christopher and Caroline M. Hoxby. (2003). Do and Should

Financial Aid Packages Affect Students College Choices? Working Paper
9482, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Available at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w9482
The study investigates whether high school students in their college
choices respond to student aid packages like rational human capital investors. The authors find that the typical high school student
chooses his college and responds to aid in a manner that is broadly
consistent with rational investment. However, they also record some
serious variations, such as excessive response to loans and workstudy programs, strong response to superficial aspects of grants, for
example, whether they have a name, and response to a grants share
of college costs rather than its amount. The study concludes that
approximately 30 percent of high school students respond to aid in
a way that apparently reduces their lifetime present value. According
to the study, both lack of sophistication and credit constraints can
explain the behavior of this group of students, although the weight
of the evidence in this study favors a lack of sophistication.
Babalola, Joel B. (1998). The Cost and Financing of University
Education in Nigeria. Higher Education, 36, July 1998, 43-66.
This article uses expenditure data from 10 Nigerian universities
and the National Universities Commission (NUC) to identify areas
of over- and under-spending so that adjustments can be made. It
finds that there is overspending on general administration, general
academic and retirement benefits with negative repercussions for
research and public service. The article recommends some structural
adjustments in the spending patterns of Nigerian universities to
move money away from administration and into teaching, research
and public service.
Bain, Olga. (2001). The Costs of Higher Education to Students and
Parents in Russia: Tuition Policy Issues. Peabody Journal of Education. 76
(3&4), 57-80.
Using D. Bruce Johnstones theoretical framework of cost-sharing
and empirical data from various sources, the author focuses on
tuition policy issues in Russia. She describes the evolution of tuition
policy in Russia, where until relatively recently higher education
was free to all qualified students. Cost sharing was introduced in
Russian higher education in the mid-1980s via the contract-training
model, and later via the policy of split admissions whereby a certain
number of students were state-supported, while others had their
costs covered by their employers or other sponsors. The 1992 Law
11
on Education and the 1993 Constitution laid the legal framework for
charging tuition fees to students. The author examines the affordability of tuition and fees in higher education and then summarizes
the patterns of fees for instruction. Lastly she discusses the policy
stumbling blocks as well as the relationship of markets to higher
education.
Balan, Jorge. (1993). Governance and Finance of National Universities
in Argentina: Current Proposals for Change. Higher Education, 25, 4559.
A historical account of higher education policy shifts in Argentina
since 1987. Section three in particular focuses on finance reform and
funding patterns of the late 1980s and early 1990s within the social
and political context of these transition years.
Banya, Kingsley. (2001). Are Private Universities the Solution to the
Higher Education Crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa. Higher Education Policy,
14 (2), 161-174.
Based on empirical data, this paper examines the factors leading
to the proliferation of private colleges and universities in Africa
in recent years. It identifies three compelling reasons why private
universities blossomed recently in Africa: increased demand for
university education; religion; and changing labor market demands.
Challenges facing private universities in Africa are also discussed
including finance; staffing; and the poor quality of academic programs, faculty, and students. The article concludes that as public
universities in sub-Saharan Africa have nearly collapsed, private universities have become an alternative, and perhaps even a solution, to
the higher education crisis in Africa.
Banya, Kingsley and Juliet Elu. (2001). The World Bank and Financing
Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Higher Education, 42, 1-34.
This article critically examines the World Bank and other donor
agencies policy changes toward the financing of higher education in
sub-Saharan Africa that have profoundly affected the sector. It recommends that the unique context of each country should play a role in
higher education financial policy formation and implementation.
Barr, Nicholas. (2005). Financing Higher Education: Answers from the UK.
London, UK: Routledge Studies in Education.
The book traces the twenty-year evolution of the United Kingdoms
higher education finance system from one financed almost exclusively by the government and taxpayers to one with significant
student/family financial contributions. The authors examine the
12
changes leading up to the highly-contested 2004 legislation that

abolished up-front tuition fees and introduced a scheme that allows
students to defer their contribution to the cost of their courses until
after they have graduated in terms of two key elements the proper
design of student loans and the role of regulated market forces.
Barr, Nicholas. (2002). Funding Higher Education: Policies for Access
and Quality. House of Commons Education and Skills Committee,
Post 16 Student Support, Sixth Report of Session 2001-2002, HC445.
Available at: http://econ.lse.ac.uk/staff/nb/Barr_Selcom020424.pdf
The paper describes a policy for achieving both improved access to
and increased quality in higher education. The policy would include
three elements: flexible fees, a wide-ranging loan program (with
interest rates equal to the governments cost of borrowing), and
active measures to promote access.
Barr, Nicholas. (2001). The Welfare State as Piggy Bank, Information, Risk,
Uncertainty, and the Role of the State. London, UK: Oxford University Press.
Building on economic theory, the author argues that the welfare
state exists not only for poverty relief, but also to make up for pervasive and probably unsolvable (at least in terms of what the author
terms twenty-first-century developments) problems of imperfect
information, risk and uncertainty; an insurance and consumption
smoothing role that is as important as its more widely discussed
redistributive role. The author takes education (in addition to insurance and pensions) as one of the topics that is central to the welfare
states efficiency function. He argues that the state has a larger role
to play in basic education due to imperfect information, and makes
the case for market forces in higher education where information
is widely available and easily understandable. He advocates a state
role in income transfers to address equity objectives and in quality
assurance. The authors discussion of options for financing higher
education ultimately supports public funding supplemented by
private funds (fees) that can be paid with income-contingent loans
offered at a market interest rate that cover all tuition charges and
living costs.
Barr, Nicholas. (2000). The Benefits of Education: What We Know
and What We Dont. Economic Growth and Government Policy, Papers
presented at a HM Treasury Seminar, October, 2000. Available at:
http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/24A/71/252.pdf
A good, succinct theoretical discussion of the economic benefits of
higher education and the inherent difficulties of measuring these
13
benefits, both public and private, in ways that are unambiguous, and
also politically and ideologically acceptable. Nevertheless, Barr argues
persuasively that there remain private benefits and that this fact, in
addition to the sheer difficulty of 100% public financing, presents a
strong case for some of the costs to be borne by the individual. Barrs
analysis also supports differential pricing and at least a partial marketization of higher education. The government has a role, which
is more to steer, to provide quality assurance, and to influence and
perhaps to control the degree of competition among institutions, in
addition to assuring equity through targeted grants and governmentally sponsored, but minimally subsidized, student loans.
Baum, Sandy. (2004). A Primer on Economics for Financial Aid
Professionals. New York: The College Entrance Examination Board.
Available at:
http://www.collegeboard.com/prod_downloads/highered/fa/
Economics-Primer-2004.pdf
This short monograph is a good general primer about higher education finance, particularly for the beginner.
Baum, Sandy and Saul Schwartz. (2006). How Much Debt is Too Much?
Defining Benchmarks for Manageable Student Debt. New York: The
College Board. Available at: http://www.collegeboard.com/research/
pdf/06-0869.DebtPpr060420.pdf
Paper develops a range of empirically-derived thresholds for manageable student debt with manageable defined as levels of debt that
will not unduly constrain the life choices facing former students.
Baum, Sandy and Marie OMalley. (2003). College on Credit: How
Borrowers Perceive their Education Debt, Results of the 2002 National
Student Loan Survey. Braintree, MA: Nellie Mae Corporation. Available
at: http://www.nelliemae.com/library/research_10.html
The report analyses the results of the Nellie Mae 2002 National
Student Loan Survey (NASLS) and compares them with the three
previous NASLSs. One particularly important finding, consistent
with the earlier surveys, is the positive role that student loans appear
to play in ensuring access to higher education. Over 70 percent of
students who have borrowed for higher education believe that they
could not have gone to college without the student loans and more
than half said that student loans were important in allowing them
to attend the college of their choice. The percentage of students who
reported having their educational decisions negatively affected by
student loans has decreased from 50 percent to 29 percent since
14
1997. However, the average undergraduate student loan debt has

increased since 1997 by 66 percent and an increased number of borrowers (55 percent in 2002 compared to 50 percent in 1997) report
feeling more burdened by their education debt. The analysis showed
differences in perception of the burden by socio-economic class and
ethnic group. Low-income students (defined as those eligible for
Pell grants) appeared to feel more burdened by their debt than nonPell recipients and African-American borrowers expressed a greater
perception of burden.
Beerkens, Eric. (2003). Higher Education in Austria, Country Report.
Higher Education Monitor. Enschede, the Netherlands: Center for
Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS).
Available at: http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/austria.pdf
This country study on Austria was produced as part of the CHEPS
Higher Education Monitor, an ongoing research project that aims
at providing education policy makers with current information on
national higher educational systems. Each study provides information on the structure of the tertiary education sector. The reports
provide excellent information on institutional finance and student
support.
Bekhradnia, Bahram. (2003). Widening Participation and Fair Access: An
Overview of the Evidence. London, UK: Higher Education Policy Institute.
Available at: http://www.hepi.ac.uk
Making a distinction between widening participation (a sector wide
issue) and fair access (an institutional issue), the article asserts that
it is well possible to have one without the other and that misdiagnosis of the problems involved may lead to ineffective and even
harmful policies. In terms of widening access, despite improvements in the last 30 years, there is still a large gap in participation
between different social groups in the UK. The article argues that
in order to widen participation, it is critical to identify exactly what
factors are keeping students from higher education. Evidence cited
in the article suggests that demand for higher education is relatively
insensitive to price and is not much affected by students fear of debt
and instead is very much tied to the economic and social value that
students put on higher education. Policies, therefore, need to be
aimed at understanding and changing these attitudes. In terms of
institutional efforts for fair access, the article dismisses the use of
quotas and argues that institutions need to ensure that a wide variety
of student apply and that their admissions staff have effective means
of identifying student academic potential.
15
Belfield, Clive R. and Henry M. Levin. (Eds.). (2003). The Economics of

Higher Education. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward
Elgar Publishing Limited.
A volume that contains 37 previously published contributions from
the Economics of Higher Education that examine higher education
from an economic perspective. Part I looks at the economic benefits
(private and public returns) of higher education. Part II examines
the impact of cost on student demand for higher education. Part
III focuses on the production of higher education, while part IV
looks at the cost functions for higher education institutions. Part V
deals with higher education finance and includes articles on revenue diversification and student financial aid. The final part focuses
on the higher education market in the United States.
Belfield, Clive and Henry M. Levin. (2002). Education Privatization:
Causes, Consequences and Planning Implications. Fundamentals of
Educational Planning, Number 74. Paris: International Institute for
Educational Planning, UNESCO. Available at: http://www.unesco.org/
iiep/eng/publications/catalogue.htm
This book provides an overview of the phenomenon of privatization
in higher education. The authors define the three forms of privatization as (i) private provision, (ii) private funding, and (iii) private
regulation, decision making and accountability and analyze the
factors that drive it including excess and differentiated demand, pressure for higher quality, and general pressure linked to globalization.
The authors then set up a framework for evaluating privatization
programs that includes the criteria of freedom of choice, efficiency,
equity and social cohesion and summarize privatization reforms in
Chile, Colombia, the USA, the UK, the Netherlands and the Czech
Republic. Finally, the authors outline the implications of privatization reforms for educational planning in the political, legal and
economic domains.
Berkner, Lutz and Larry Bobbitt. (2000). Trends in Undergraduate
Borrowing: Federal Student Loans in 1989-90, 1992-93, and 1995-96.
Statistical Analysis Report. Washington, DC: National Center for
Education Statistics, US Department of Education.
Available at: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2000/2000151.pdf
This report reviews the effects of the 1992 Reauthorization by comparing student borrowing patterns before and after the changes were
implemented. These changes, which generally allowed more students to borrow and to borrow larger amounts, included increased
loan limits of subsidized Stafford loans, the elimination of home
16
equity as a consideration in the federal need analysis and the availability of unsubsidized loans to dependent students. Following the
implementation of these changes, the percentage of student borrowers grew as did the average loan amount.
Berryman, Sue E. (2000). Hidden Challenges to Education Systems
in Transition Economies (A World Free of Poverty). Washington, DC:
Europe and Central Asia Sector, The World Bank. Available at:
http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/
IB/2000/10/07/000094946_00092105321215/Rendered/PDF/multi_
page.pdf
The transition process in Eastern Europe and Central Asia has
brought to the surface challenges that are much broader and deeper
than anyone had expected. In most countries of this region, goal setting and steering processes, which provide the basis for assessing the
performance of the education sector, are still partisan, nontransparent, weak or missing. The efficient delivery of educational services
depends on a strong checks-and-balances relationship between
three forces: the state, the private sector, and stakeholders. Actual
evidence shows that in most ECA (Europe and Central Asia Region)
countries, the state now dominates the delivery of educational services, unchecked by competitive processes and stakeholder voices.
Thus, an important purpose of the book is to sound a regional alert.
Another purpose is strategic - to chart how ECA governments and
the World Bank might move toward more effective delivery of educational services in the region as a whole.
Bevc, Milena. (2004). Higher Education in Slovenia Funding, Equity and
Efficiency. Paper presented at the international conference Accessibility
of Higher Education: Challenges for Transitional Countries in Moscow
in June 2004.
This paper describes the public higher education funding system in
Slovenia in terms of its equity and efficiency and the role of private
investment in it. Using data collected by the Institute for Economic
Research in Ljubljana and the Statistical Office of the Republic of
Slovenia, the paper analyzes the systems equity as measured by the
structure of enrolled students by socio-economic groups and efficiency as measured by completion rates, dropout rates, repetition
rates and length of study. The study finds that the present system of
funding does not provide equal access to all socioeconomic groups
with significantly greater proportions of higher income youth attending higher education and that the systems efficiency is low. The
author concludes that to address this situation, tuition fees cover-
17
ing 10 to 30 percent of the instructional costs of higher education

should be introduced along with a government supported student
loan scheme.
Blair, Robert D.D. (1998). Financing Higher Education in Africa. In
UNESCO, Higher Education in Africa: Achievements, Challenges and
Prospects. Dakar, Senegal: UNESCO Regional Office for Education
in Africa.
This paper provides an overview of various strategies and policies
needed to achieve effective financing of higher education in Africa.
Discussed also in this paper is the crisis facing higher education
in Africa. The paper argues that financial reform is the essential
pre-requisite for achievement of all other major reforms in higher
education.
Blair, Robert D.D. (1992). Financial Diversification and Income Generation
at African Universities. AFTED Technical Note No.2. Washington DC:
World Bank.
The report assesses the progress made in revenue diversification at
some selected African universities since 1988. The report concludes
that very little progress had been made by 1992 and recommends
the establishment of private universities (where they have not been
established) as a potential means of diversifying the financial base
of national higher education systems in Africa.
Boezerooy, Petra. (2003). Higher Education in the Netherlands. Country
Report. Higher Education Monitor. Enschede, the Netherlands: Center
for Higher Education Policy Studies. Available at: http://www.utwente.
nl/cheps/documenten/netherlands.pdf
This country study of the Netherlands was produced as part of the
CHEPS Higher Education Monitor, an ongoing research project that
aims at providing education policy makers with current information on national higher educational systems. Each study provides
information on the structure of the tertiary education sector. The
reports provide excellent information on institutional finance and
student support.
Boezerooy, Petra and Vossensteyn, H. (1999). How to Get In? A
Comparative Overview of Access to Higher Education. Higher Education
in Europe, XXIV (3), 349-358.
In many countries, the transition from elite to mass higher education has provided a strong stimulus for putting access high on the
political agenda. The article explores the accessibility of nine western
18
European countries on the basis of the concepts of selectivity and

affordability. The nine countries concerned display a degree of variation in terms of relative selectivity, ranging from those with strong
entrance selection procedures, such as Finland, Sweden, and the
United Kingdom, to countries with an open system, such as Austria,
Belgium (Flanders), and The Netherlands. In addition, there is a good
deal of variation in the extent to which students can afford to attend
higher education. In countries with grants and loans, they are in a
better position to meet their costs than in countries in which students
are mainly subsidized with public support through their families.
Bollag, Burton. (2003). Improving Tertiary Education in Sub-Saharan
Africa: Things that Work, report of a regional training conference held in
Accra, Ghana, September 2004.
Available at: http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/
WDSP/IB/2004/08/03/000090341_20040803142154/Rendered/PDF/
297130PAPER0Improving0tertiary0ed.pdf
A report on the innovative experiences presented at the conference
of the same name in Accra, Ghana in September 2003. The conference, organized by the AAU, ADEA, the Ghana National Council
for Tertiary Education and the World Bank, brought together 150
higher education leaders from 26 African countries to share experiences and best practices in higher education management efficiency,
financing, access and quality.
Bouapao, L, O. Sengchandavong and S. Sihavong. (2000). Educational
Financing and Budgeting in Laos PDR. Financial management of education systems. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning,
UNESCO. Available at: http://www.unesco.org/iiep/eng/publications/
catalogue.htm
Part of a larger IIEP project that also included Cambodia and
Vietnam, the report reviews the education finance and budgetary
process in Laos as the country moves from a centrally planned to
market-based economy. The report concludes that the process needs
to be updated to reflect changes in the political and economic environment and move beyond incremental budgeting that does not take
into account regional disparities.
Bowen, William G., Martin A. Kurzweil and Eugene M. Tobin. (2005).
Equity and Excellence in American Higher Education. Charlottesville, VA
and London, UK: University of Virginia Press.
The book addresses the conceptual issues involved in the simultaneous pursuit of equity and excellence objectives in higher education
19
in the United States. It reviews the history of the pursuit and moves
on to look at the main equity-excellence policy issues that are facing universities now and future strategies for dealing with them.
Particular attention is given to the debates surrounding affirmative
action, student financial aid (need versus merit), and government
support to public higher education. The authors devote a chapter to
the issue of college preparedness arguing that it is the differential in
college preparedness that is the major determinant of differences in
educational attainment. Finally, the appendix looks at the experience
of the University of Cape Town in South Africa in working towards
equity and excellence objectives.
Boxall, Mike, Shahid Amin and Aamir Baloch. (2002). Determining the
Costs of Widening Participation: Reports of Pilot Study. Universities UK
Report. London: Universities UK. Available at: http://www.universitiesuk.
ac.uk/studentexperience/wideningparticipation.asp
A report on the findings of a research exercise aimed at determining
the costs incurred by Higher Education institutions in recruiting and
retaining students from non-traditional backgrounds. The findings
from the exercise substantiate the widely held view that students
from nontraditional backgrounds are more expensive to recruit and
retain than the traditional student.
Bray, Mark. (2002). The Costs and Financing of Education: Trends and
Policy Implications. Education in Developing Asia, Volume 3, Manila, the
Philippines: Asian Development Bank. Available at: http://www.adb.
org/Documents/Books/Education_NatlDev_Asia/Costs_Financing/
costs_financing.pdf
the scale and nature of existing education provision and the volume
of expenditures on education in developing member countries of
the ADB. Of particular interest are the sections on cost sharing in
education, cost recovery and student support in tertiary education,
and the privatization of education.
Bray, Mark. (2001). Government and Household Financing of Education:
Finding Appropriate Balances. International Conference on Economics of
Education, Beijing, China.
Presented at the International Conference on Economics of
Education at Peking University in May 2001, the paper first looks
at recent data on the balance of inputs (direct and indirect costs)
20
between governments and households in primary and post-primary

public education, the topic of Brays 1996 study, Counting the Full
Cost: Parental and Community Financing of Education in East Asia.
The second part of the paper looks at the evolution in international
policy advocacy for fee-free basic education and fee-charging higher
education and the implications of these policies for taxation, costsharing by students and their families and institutional income
generation.
Bray, Mark and Nina Boresvskaya. (2001). Financing Education in
Transitional Societies: Lessons from Russia and China. Comparative
Education, 37(3), 345-365.
A number of theoretical debates about the nature of educational
change in transitional societies have emerged in recent years.
Focusing particularly on the financing of education, the article examines patterns in Russia and China in light of this literature. It shows
that although transitions in the two countries have displayed major
differences, they have also demonstrated significant similarities
such as the decentralization of financial responsibilities, due to the
impact of market forces and the broader forces of globalization.
Bray, Mark and R. Murray Thomas (Eds.). (1998). Financing of
Education in Indonesia. Hong Kong: Asian Development Bank and the
Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong.
A study of how the Indonesian education system is financed. The
chapter on higher education looks at its structure, sources of its
funding, and the way in which the funds were spent.
Breneman, David and Chester E. Finn Jr. (1998). Public Policy and
Private Higher Education, Washington, DC: Brookings Institute.
This book on the politics and economics of private higher education includes ten chapters: two provide analytical background on
the financing of private higher education; three look at federal policy,
dealing with the Washington political arena, student aid and tax
matters; three deal with state policy, covering political relationships
and financing options and one was written from the perspective
of a private college president. The first and final chapters also provide the recent history of public-private issues, policy options and
recommendations.
Brown, Roger. (2004). The Possible Consequences of Top-Up Fees.
Higher Education Review, 36 (3), 3 12.
This article looks at the possible consequences of the policies con-
21
tained in the UKs Higher Education Bill that introduces variable

top-up fees in higher education. The author concludes that the policies will reorganize the sector to include a smaller number of larger
and more similar higher education institutions.
Brown, Nigel and Charles River Associates. (2003). Saving for Learning
in the United Kingdom. Report prepared for the Learning and Skills
Research Center. London, UK: Learning and Skills Research Center.
As part of the Learning and Skills Research Centers Saving for
Learning Project, the report looks at available evidence on individual contributions to the cost of learning in the United Kingdom
(at all educational levels) and related savings behavior. It concludes
that given the potential competing financial needs facing parents of
undergraduate students (their own retirement, older parents, etc.), it
is wisest to keep savings vehicles as general as possible. The report
also stresses the need for the government to let people know what
they will be expected to contribute towards the costs of higher education so long-term financial planning is possible.
Brown, Richard and Wendy Piatt. (2001). Funding Widening Participation
in Higher Education: Discussion Paper. London, UK: The Council for
Industry and Higher Education, IPPR.
Available at: http://www.ippr.org.uk/uploadedFiles/projects/wendy.pdf
This paper was written in response to the widespread concern in
the UK that the current higher education funding system does
not encourage the participation of students from non-traditional
backgrounds. Brown and Piatt offer a framework for change that
proposes to further transfer public funds from relatively well-off
students and institutions towards those individuals for whom the
lack of financial means is a real deterrent to participation.
Caliber Associates. (2003). Cultural Barriers to Incurring Debt, An
Exploration of Borrowing and Impact on Access to Postsecondary Education.
Santa Fe, NM: ECMC Group Foundation.
Available at: http://www.ecmcfoundation.org/current_access.html
This report uses US Censuss Survey of Income and Program
Participation (SIPP) and National Postsecondary Student Aid Study
(NPSAS) data to examine disparities among ethnic groups in terms
of their willingness to finance higher education with student loans.
The analysis found that the differences in the attitudes of different
ethnic groups to borrowing appear to be due to socio-economic level
rather than ethnicity.
22
Callan, Patrick M., Joni Finney, Kathy Reeves Bracco and William R.
Doyle (Eds.). (1997). Public and Private Financing of Higher Education:
Shaping Public Policy for the Future. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.
A collection of essays divided into two categories: National Trends
and Financing Higher Education in Five States from 199095.
Included are: California, Florida, Michigan, Minnesota, and New
York. Information on statistics and data that highlights the last
twenty years of higher education finance is detailed. Articles highlight themes of privatization, accessibility, and current policies
amidst state politics.
Callender, Claire. (2003). Attitudes to Debt: School Leavers and Further
Education Students Attitudes to Debt and their Impact on Participation in
Higher Education. London, UK: Universities UK and HEFCE. Available at:
http://bookshop.universitiesuk.ac.uk/downloads/studentdebt.pdf
The study investigates the impact of debt and perceptions of debt
on participation in higher education in the United Kingdom. The
author concludes that prospective students with tolerant attitudes
towards debt are more likely to go to university than those who are
debt adverse. According to the study, debt aversion deters entry
into higher education and also is a social class issue. Those most
anti-debt are the focus of widening higher education participation
policies in the UK and include people from the lowest social classes,
lone parents, Muslims, especially Pakistanis, and black and minority ethnic groups. The study provides valuable material to inform
analysis of student aid policies.
Callender, Claire and Martin Kemp. (2000). Changing Student Finances:
Income, Expenditure and the Take-Up of Student Loans Among Full- and
Part-time Higher Education Students in 1998/99. Department for
Education and Employment Research Brief, No. 213. London, UK:
Department for Education. Available at:
http://www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/RR213.PDF
This study focuses on full and part-time undergraduate and PGCE
(Postgraduate Certificate in Education - a British teaching qualification for people who already have a university degree) student income
and expenditures in the UK and assesses how these have changed
over time between 1995-96 and 1998-99. The study looks at different
groups of students to identify those groups who might be experiencing financial hardship. Among other findings it concludes that
single parents were more likely than any other student groups to
experience financial difficulties and were the most vulnerable financially. The study also recorded student attitude towards borrowing,
23
finding that more than one third of students cited dislike of borrowing as a reason for not taking out a student loan. It is important
to mention that the survey for the study was completed during the
1998-1999 academic year in a transitional period that saw the move
from a student support maintenance system of grants and loans to
a largely loans based one. It included the first cohort of students
affected by the introduction of contributions to tuition fees.
Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation. (2002). Student Financial
Survey, Baseline Results. Montreal, Canada: Canadian Millennium
Scholarship Foundation. Available at: http://www.millenniumscholarships.ca/images/Publications/sfs_e.pdf
This report provides the findings from a survey of 1,524 post-secondary students in Canada on three selected themes: parental assistance,
summer earnings and credit cards and lines of credit. The results
of the survey indicate that students levels of parental financial
assistance decrease with age, while their levels of debt and summer
employment earnings increase. Results also show that students earn
relatively modest amounts during summer employment and consequently are carrying significant debt loads from private sources.
Carnoy, Martin (Ed.). (1995). International Encyclopedia of Economics of
Education. (2nd edition). Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press.
The International Encyclopedia of Economics of Education, second
edition, is a comprehensive treatment of the economics of education, with many detailed chapters by such familiar economists as
Carnoy, Levin, Hinchliffe, Woodhall, Blaug, M.J. Bowman, Bowles
and Gintis, and many others. The chapters are particularly good on
critical perspectives, and the introductions to each section by Martin
Carnoy are well balanced and informative. Some of the chapters are
a little dated, but the volume overall is a good comprehensive treatment of the economics of education.
Center for International Higher Education. (2001). International
Higher Education, Winter 2001 issue. Special focus on Student Loans
in International Perspective. Articles by Woodhall, Hopper, Bing Wu,
Fomer, and Salmi. Boston, MA: Boston College Center for International
Higher Education. Available at: http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/
cihe/newsletter/News22/Newslet22.html
The International Higher Education Newsletter of Boston Colleges
Center for International Higher Education presents very short, current, generally policy-oriented articles by recognized experts. The
Winter 2001 issue focuses on student loans and contains articles
24
by Maureen Woodhall, one of the most recognized scholars of

International comparative higher education finance; Jamil Salmi, a
principal World Bank expert on higher education; Richard Hopper,
an analyst with the World Bank with special expertise in student
loans; Bing Wu, on the Jamacian student loan scheme; and Robert
Fomer, Director of the Colorado Student Loan Program and an
experienced trainer of student loan program officials in developing
countries.
Cerdeira, Maria Luisa and L. Pereira. (2003). The Recent Evolution of
Higher Education in Portugal. Paper presented at the Douro Seminar on
Higher Education in Portugal.
This article addresses the higher education structure, students,
financing and investment and management policy in Portugal and
details the changes in higher education financial policy since the
early 1990s including the most recent in 2003 when institutions
became responsible for setting their own fee levels. Most of the institutions expenses are supported by the state budget, which has been
increasing in the last decade. The government has also increased
investment on infrastructure. The financial model, the model of
university autonomy at four levels (scientific, pedagogic, administrative and financial and disciplinary) and the management organs
are discussed.
Cervenan, Amy and Alex Usher. (2004). The More Things Change
Undergraduate Student Living Standards After 40 Years of the Canada
Student Loans Program. Canadian Higher Education Report Series.
Toronto, Canada: Educational Policy Institute.
Available at: http://www.educationalpolicy.org/pdf/40Years.pdf
The paper looks at changes to the student body and student living standards since the introduction of the Canada Student Loans
Program in 1964. This quantitative study addresses four aspects.
First, it looks at changes in the composition of the student body
and stresses the substantial changes that have taken place in the
gender composition of the undergraduate population. Second, by
focusing on changes in student income patterns, the study finds
that the composition of student income has changed drastically over
the past forty years. Third, the study concludes that in terms of student expenditures little has changed since the introduction of the
Canada Student Loan program. Finally, looking at the effect changes
in undergraduate income or expenditure have had on access to university education, the study comes up with the result that finances
are no more a barrier to completion of higher education now than
25
they were in 1965. The paper also provides some general observations on the apparent effects of the Canada Student Loan Program
and concludes that over the forty years that the Program has been in
place, educational opportunities have become wider.
Chapman, Bruce. (2006). Government Managing Risk: Income
Contingent Loans for Social and Economic Progress. London: Routledge.
The book analyzes the ways in which income contingent loans
can aid risk management policy reform. Part I looks at the use of
income contingent loans for supporting higher education students
and includes a detailed case study of risk sharing in the Australian
income contingent loan program and a review of higher education
income contingent loan programs in several other countries. Part II
focuses on the potential role of income contingent loans for managing risk in other areas of public policy.
Chapman, Bruce. (2004). A Critical Appraisal of the New Higher
Education Charges for Students. Dialogue 23, 1, 61-72.
The article analyzes the 2005 reforms to the Australian higher education funding system approved by Parliament in late 2003. While it
supports the HECS-HELP policy change (whereby universities will
be able to set their own prices for HECS places up to a certain ceiling) as good economic and social reform, it criticizes the Fee-Help
reform as allowing universities too much discretion in price setting and not enough in deciding the number of places to be offered
on a fee paying basis. The article concludes by offering a preferred
model of Australian higher education financing that would include
price capping, reform of vocational education and training fees, and
removal of all up-front costs.
Chapman, Bruce. (1999). Reform of Ethiopian Higher Education
Financing: Conceptual and Policy Issues. Economics of Education
Thematic Group. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Available at: http://www1.worldbank.org/education/economicsed/
research/econseries/Chapman_index.htm
This paper, done through a World Bank consultancy, proposes an
Australian-style Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) of
income contingent loans for Ethiopia. (See Johnstone and Aemero,
The Applicability for Developing Countries of Income Contingent
Loans, with Special Consideration of an Australian HECS-type Income
Contingent Loan Program for Ethiopia, which rebutted the Chapman
proposal and presents a case for the inapplicability of income contingent loans in general for developing countries such as Ethiopia.)
26
Chapman, Bruce. (1997). Conceptual Issues and the Australian

Experience with Income Contingent Charges for Higher Education. The
Economic Journal 107, 738-751.
Bruce Chapman is the father of the Australian income contingent
loan plan, and presents a good explanation of its essential concepts.
The HECS program allowed a tuition fee to be imposed in Australia
with less than the usual student opposition, and with apparent initial
success in the cost recovery.
Chapman, Bruce and Chris Ryan. (2003). The Access Implications of
Income Contingent Charges for Higher Education: Lessons from Australia.
Discussion Paper No. 463, Center for Economic Policy Research,
Australian National University. Canberra, Australia: Center for Economic
Policy Research. Available at:
http://cepr.anu.edu.au/discussionpapers.htm
This paper looks at the impact of Australias Higher Education
Contribution Scheme (HECS) on university enrollment. Based
on their analysis of university participation data for three cohorts
(before HECS, immediately following the introduction of HECS and
after substantial revisions were made to the HECS program), the
authors conclude that HECS does not have a discouraging impact on
university participation for the general population or for the lowest
socio-economic groups.
Chapman, Bruce and Chris Ryan. (2002). Income Contingent Financing
of Student Charges for Higher Education: Assessing the Australian
Innovation. The Welsh Journal of Education (Special International Issue
on Paying for Learning: The Debate on Student Fees, Grants and Loans
in International Perspective), 11(1) 64-81.
Chapman and Ryan present the Australian higher education contribution schemes (HECS). In asserting that economic theory
illustrates the conceptual superiority of income contingent loans
over loans of more conventional fixed schedule properties, the
authors are arguably overstating the case for income contingency
and missing some of its inherent problems as well as some of the
interesting variations on the income contingent theme.
Chapman, David. (2002). Management and Efficiency in Education: Goals
and Strategies. Education in Developing Asia, Volume 2, Manila, the
Philippines: Asian Development Bank. Available at: http://www.adb.org/
Documents/Books/Education_NatlDev_Asia/Management_Efficiency/
27
Research Centre of the University of Hong Kong, this book looks

at trends and issues in education management and efficiency in
developing member countries in the ADB. In terms of higher education, the book identifies four education management issues that
will be especially relevant over the next decade. These include: the
development of new/alternative funding streams; student transfer
and the transfer of credits across institutions; the formulation and
imposition of standards and the implementation of accreditation
systems; and the translation of faculty creative talent into income
streams for the institution. Recommendations are made for ways
in which governments can strengthen the administration of their
education systems.
Cheeseman Day, Jennifer and Eric C. Newburger. (2002). The Big Payoff:
Educational Attainment and Synthetic Estimates of Work Life Earnings.
Washington, DC: United States Census Bureau. Available at: http://
www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/p23-210.pdf
A report prepared by the US Census Bureau that looks at the economic value (in terms of work-life earnings) of a high school diploma
or college degree and how the relationship between educational
attainment and earnings has changed in the last 25 years.
Choy, Susan P. (2004). Paying for College, Changes Between 1990 and
2000 for Full-Time Dependent Undergraduates. Washington, DC: National
Center for Education Statistics. Available at: http://nces.ed.gov/
pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2004075
This report, published by the National Center for Education Statistics,
summarizes the data on tuition fees, grants, and loans from a variety of sources, including the annual surveys of the College Board,
the National Association of State Student Grant and Aid Programs,
and the National Postsecondary Student Aid Studies from various
years. The document focuses on changes between 1990 and 2000
for full-time dependent undergraduates, pulling together and providing effective summaries of findings from the NCES Annual
Condition of Education reports.
Chudgar, Amita. (2004). Higher Education Expenditure in India: Role of
the Household. Paper prepared for the ASHE International Conference.
The paper explores the role of various family characteristics
(parental education, familys economic status, household size,
membership in a social group, students gender) in financing
higher education in India. The study finds that these characteristics
account for 27 percent variation in higher education expenditure
28
and that they are more important in explaining variation in educational expenditure at lower levels of education. The findings are
important for the governments higher education finance policymaking process
Chung, Yue Ping. (2003). The Student Loan Scheme in Hong Kong, Policy
Research and Dialogue, Student Loan Schemes in Asia, Volume 1, N.
3. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for
Education and Paris: IIEP.
Available at: http://www2.unescobkk.org/ips/ebooks/documents/studentloan/index.htm
Part of a new series on government-sponsored student loan schemes
in Asia, the monograph describes the expansion of higher education
in Hong Kong in the late 1980s and early 1990s and the increase
in tuition and academic expenses for students that accompanied it.
The monograph reviews the evolution of the student loans scheme
looking first at past student grants and loans schemes and then the
development of the (subsidized and non-subsidized) schemes that
are presently in place. The monograph assesses the loans system in
terms of its equity, efficiency and adequacy and concludes that it is
generally equitable and efficient.
Chuta, E.J. (1998). New Dimensions in Educational Financing: the
Nigerian Educational Bank. Higher Education, 35(4), 443-433.
This article describes the role of the Nigerian Education Bank in the
educational system as threefold: to serve as a major intermediary in
Nigerias education credit market; to harness private sector resources
for funding of education; and to take over some government responsibilities to enable the government to re-channel its resources to
other pressing areas of the economy. The main and specific functions of the bank include, among others: student lending, lending for
publishing, equipment leasing, project financing, funds for mobilization and provision of advisory services for educational purposes.
The article also highlights the comparative experience of several
countries in Africa, Europe, and the Americas in the area of student
financing. It recommends the active participation of Nigerias private
sector in educational financing, and the strengthening of the student-lending scheme through resources from petroleum, a higher
education tax and the value added tax.
Chuta, E.J. (1992). Student Loans in Nigeria, Higher Education,
23(4), 443-49.
This article describes the operations of the student loan program in
29
Nigeria, including its past problems and attempts of the Nigerian

Students Loan Board to improve efficiency of loan collection.
Clancy, Patrick and Deirdre Kehoe. (1999). Financing Third-level
Students in Ireland. European Journal of Education, 34(1), 43-56.
In this article the authors trace the policy changes in university
financing and student economic support in Ireland in the last decade
including most importantly the abolishing of tuition fees in 1996.
The authors argue that the generous public financing of the tertiary
sector that made it possible to abolish tuition fees may not last if
Irelands economic boom starts to slow down and that renewed pressure on public expenditure would bring about renewed debate on
levels of student contributions to their higher education costs.
Clark, Burton. (1998). Creating Entrepreneurial Universities,
Organizational Pathways of Transition. IAU Press, Issues in Higher
Education. Paris, France: Pergamon Press.
Amidst the backdrop of fiscal constraints and the rapidly changing
role and position of universities, Burton Clark reports on a handful
of Universities in Northern Europe that made valiant efforts in the
1980s and 1990s to become more entrepreneurial. Clark explains
how it was done and offers insight by organizing his findings in
two ways: through integrated stories and later generalized concepts
highlighted in introductory and concluding chapters.
Cloete, Nico, Pundy Pillay, Saleem Badat. (2004). National Policy
and a Regional Response in South African Higher Education. New York:
Partnership for Higher Education in Africa.
This case study commissioned by the Partnership for Higher
Education in Africa tracks the higher education policies that have
been implemented since 1990 to meet the governments equity
and development goals and address the challenges inherent in the
tension between them. The study describes measures being implemented in the Eastern Cape to identify strategic regional cooperation
scenarios that could optimize the teaching, research and administrative expertise in the region, expand access and resource availability
and achieve economies of scale.
Colclough, Christopher. (1999). Raising Additional Resources for
Education in Developing Countries: Are Graduate Payroll Taxes
Preferable to Student Loans? International Journal of Educational
Development, 10 (2), 169-180.
This paper discusses whether user fees are helpful in raising addi-
30
tional resources to finance educational expansion in developing

countries. Using simulations, it demonstrates that graduate payroll
taxes satisfy equity and efficiency criteria more thoroughly than
loan schemes and identifies the structural characteristics that are
required for their success.
College Board, The. (2004). Education Pays. The Benefits of Higher
Education for Individuals and Society. Trends in Higher Education Series.
Washington, DC: The College Board. Available at:
http://www.collegeboard.com
Part of the Trends in Higher Education Series, the report documents
the benefits, both monetary and nonmonetary, of higher education
for individuals and society. The report also looks at participation and
success rates in higher education by race/ethnicity and gender and
socioeconomic and identifies persistent gaps.
College Board, The. (2003). National Dialogue on Student Financial Aid,
Research Reports. Washington, DC: The College Board. Available at:
http://www.collegeboard.com
The College Board in 2002-03 sponsored a blue ribbon national task
force entitled National Dialogue on Student Financial Aid that generated several valuable research reports as background. Research report
#1 Fundamental Assumptions and Aims Underlying the Principles
and the Policies of Federal Financial Aid to Students by D. Bruce
Johnstone, examines the often unstated but fundamental principles
and finds that the actual federal financial policies given these fundamental aims and given the underlying nature of state controlled
public higher education and state chartered private higher education--make far more sense than what is usually ascribed to the
seemingly complex array of federal grants and loans. Donald Heller
in Research report #4 presents a summary of what we know about
the relationship between financial aid at the state level, including
both need-based and so-called merit programs, and college access.
In research report #5, Sandy Baum analyzes current data on student
indebtedness and the evidence regarding the effect of student loans
on college access. Research Report #6, by Michel McPherson and
Morton Shapiro, entitled Getting the Most out of Federal Student
Aid Spending Encouraging Colleges and Universities to Promote
the Common Good examine the sometimes complex and illusive
incentive effects of federal student aid in all of its various dimensions upon college and university behavior. In Research Report
#7, the College Scholarship Service Council of the College Board
summarizes the recommendations of its task force on federal aid
31
reauthorization. Taken together, these research reports present, as

of 2003, a collection of timely, policy oriented papers on financial
assistance, particularly at the federal governmental level.
College Board, The. (2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005). Trends in Student
Aid and Trends in College Pricing. Washington, DC: College Entrance
Examination Board. Available at: http://www.collegeboard.com
These annual publications for the Washington Office of the College
Board present recent data, with time series trends, on both tuitions
and other student- and family-born expenses (i.e. college pricing) as
well as various forms of student assistance, including federal grants
and loans, state grants, federal campus-based grants, institutional
grants, and estimates of other grant and loan programs. The time
series data include total aid, number of recipients, and other key
statistics in current and constant-dollar trends. Taken together the
two reports provide an excellent overview of higher educational costs
and opportunity in the United States.
Collins, Susan E., Thomas C. Leitzel, Samuel D. Morgan, and Robert
J. Stalcup. (1994). Declining Revenues and Increasing Enrollments:
Strategies for Coping. Community College Journal of Research and
Practice, 18, 3342.
The results of a national survey of community college presidents on
the coping strategies used to manage declines in state funding and
increase enrollments in an attempt to avoid enrollment limitations.
The survey findings are analyzed and discussed. Data reveals that
community college leaders prefer to select limitation strategies that
do not appear to alter the institutions admission criteria or close
the door to open access. In addition, tuition and fees were found to
have increased at 90 percent of institutions and data indicates that
continued enrollment growth may be adversely affected.
Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals in Tanzania. (1997).
Public Universities Remaining Competitive Under Liberalized Education
Environment in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: University of Dar es
Salaam.
This report on the implications of the liberalized higher education system for public universities in Tanzania reviews the reasons
behind the growth of the private higher education sector and makes
recommendations for reforms/improvements in the public higher
education sector to help it remain competitive. Some of the recommendations include strengthening the public universities business
focus, capitalizing on strengths and comparative advantages, imple-
32
menting incentive schemes and reforming retirement benefits and

conditions for faculty, and reducing unit costs.
Congressional Budget Office. (2004a). Private and Public Contributions to
Financing College Education. Washington, DC: Congressional Budget Office.
Available at: http://www.cbo.gov/showdoc.cfm?index=4984&sequence=0
The paper, prepared at the request of the Senate Budget Committee,
looks at how much students and their families paid in college costs
in 1999-2000 after accounting for all financial aid (including loans,
grants and tax credits). It finds that in 1999-2000, families (parents
and students) bore between 37 percent for the lowest group and 59
percent for the highest of total costs. For every income group and
every college type, the students share of the costs was less than 30
percent of total costs. It also found that while the parents share of
costs increased as family incomes rose, in terms of percentage of
income, parents in the lowest-income group contributed a larger
percentage (9 percent) than did parents in the middle (less than 6
percent) or upper-income groups (6 percent).
Congressional Budget Office. (2004b). Estimating the Value of Subsidies
for Federal Loans and Loan Guarantees. Washington, DC: Congressional
Budget Office. Available at: http://www.cbo.gov/showdoc.cfm?index=
5751&sequence=0
This study looks at using commercial interest rates, which incorporate risk, instead of risk-free Treasury rates when discounting federal
student loans to their present values to measure the cost of these
programs to the government.
Congressional Report. (2004). Slamming Shut the Doors to College, The
State Budget Crisis and Higher Education. Washington, DC: United States
Congress. Available at: http://edworkforce.house.gov/democrats/
higheredreport.pdf
Report prepared by the Democratic Staffs of the Senate Committee
on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions; Senate Committee on
Appropriations; House Committee on Education and the Workforce;
and the House Committee on Appropriations, Washington, DC that
looks at the implications of cuts in state and federal higher education funding for student access.
Correia, Fernanda, Alberto Amaral and Antonio Magalhaes. (2002).
Public and Private Higher Education in Portugal: Unintended Effects of
Deregulation. European Journal of Education, 37(4), 457-472.
This paper concludes that the expansion and diversification of
33
Portuguese higher education was more the result of institutional

strategies and new areas of knowledge than an answer to market
demands or an increase in the sectors responsiveness to external
demands. The Portuguese case shows that both state regulation and
market coordination are incomplete political regulators. Despite the
presence of a large private sector, the available regulation mechanisms are unable to solve many of the problems that have arisen due
to the very rapid expansion of that sector.
Council of Australian Postgraduate Associations. (2003). The Social and
Economic Impact of Student Debt, March, Research Paper. Melbourne,
Australia: Council of Australian Postgraduate Associations. Available at:
http://www.capa.edu.au/frameset.html?/briefing/index.html
This research paper considers the social and economic consequences
of student debt in Australia, and gives an overview of related research
findings from New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the USA. It
discusses the impact of student debt on individual life choices, such
as the decision to have children; the ability to accrue additional debt,
such as a home mortgage; the capacity of the individual to save, either
for their own childrens education or for their retirement; the size of
the labor market as graduates choose to work overseas to avoid repaying their debt; and fees for professional services as dentists, doctors,
lawyers and accountants who accrue larger student debts.
Court, David. (1999). Financing Higher Education in Africa. Makerere: the
Quiet Revolution. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available at:
http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/
IB/2001/10/12/000094946_01100204031685/Rendered/PDF/
multi0page.pdf
The provision of quality higher education to a large number of clientele without undue dependence on government budget has been
the major challenge of most universities in Africa today. The article
describes instructive lessons from Makerere University in Uganda,
which demonstrates new possibilities to solve the challenge.
Included among the major alternative funding strategies are
schemes to encourage privately sponsored students, commercialize service units, institutionalize consultancy arrangements, and
introduce demand-driven courses. As a result of these reforms, the
University moved from a situation where none of its students paid
tuition to one where 70% of the students do. Overall enrollment has
doubled with privately sponsored students representing 80% of new
admissions. The funds gained from non-government sources have
been allocated to library development, faculty development, build-
34
ings maintenance, and most important, for raising staff salaries,

where the impact has been a slow down on faculty mass exodus to
greener pastures.
Cunningham, Alisa, Christina Redmond and Jamie Merisotis. (2003).
Investing Early, Intervention Programs in Selected US States, Institute
for Higher Education Policy, Montreal, Canada: Canada Millennium
Scholarship Foundation. Available at: http://www.millenniumscholarships.ca/images/Publications/investingeng_web2.pdf
Based on research showing that financial aid alone cannot ensure
equal access to higher education, state-sponsored early intervention
programs are designed to encourage educationally and economically disadvantaged students to enter the post-secondary education
pipeline. Programs offer different services including counseling/
awareness, academic/enrichment/support, parental involvement,
personal enrichment/social integration, mentoring or scholarship
support or some combination thereof. The report examines 17 such
programs in 12 states by categorizing each program based on its
approach, its target and its oversight and administration and assessing their outcomes. The report concludes among other findings that
state programs that combine several components tend to be more
effective and that tutoring, mentoring and academic enrichment
are important program components. It also highlights the trade-off
between the scope of program services and the number of students
in the program.
Daka, J.S.J. et al. (2000). Innovative Strategies for Financing and
Management of Engineering Education in Africa, Proceedings of the
Workshop, Gaborone, Botswana.
Report of the experts group meeting organized by the African
Network of Scientific and Technological Institutions (ANSTI) to discuss the inadequacy of financial resources for engineering education
in Africa and discuss existing and potential strategies for dealing
with financial constraints. The report contains a large number of
papers describing the income generating strategies being implemented by engineering faculties in a number of African countries
(Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa in particular).
Daniel, Hans-Dieter, Stephanie Schwarz and Ulrich Teichler. (1999).
Study Costs, Student Income and Public Policy in Europe. European
Journal of Education, 34, (1), 7-21.
Cost and funding have been amongst the major issues of higher
education policy in industrialized societies for several decades. The
35
aim of the comparative study on which the article is based was not
only to provide updated in-depth information on higher education
costs and funding, but also to establish the quantitative role public
support continues to play in covering the overall costs of study. The
qualitative function of public support in shaping the students roles
as dependent children, investors or citizens was also analyzed.
Davis, Jerry Sheehan. (2003). Unintended Consequences of Tuition
Discounting, Lumina New Agenda Series, Volume 3, Number 1.
Indianapolis, IN: Lumina Foundation for Education.
Available at: http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/
Tuitiondiscounting.pdf
The monograph looks at tuition discounting including the ways in which
it does not always achieve its goals of increasing institutional revenue,
increasing student diversity and attracting outstanding students and its
unintended negative effects on lower-income students.
Davis, Jerry Sheehan. (2000). College Affordability: Overlooked Long-Term
Trends and Recent 50-State Patterns. USA Group New Agenda Series, Vol.
3, No. 1. Indianapolis, IN: USA Group Foundation. Available at: http://
www.luminafoundation.org/publications/collegeaffordability.pdf
Aimed at informing discussions on the college affordability crisis
in the United States, the monograph looks at long-term trends in
college charges, the ability of students and families to pay them and
trends in graduation productivity ratios (college prices in relation
to the earnings outcomes of college graduates). Among the copious findings are the following: prices in public and private colleges
grew rapidly in the 1990s, but at a lower rate than during the 1980s;
it has become more difficult for low-income students to afford to
attend college without access to student financial aid; the perceived
affordability crisis for middle class students is more one of willingness to pay than one of ability to pay; since the early 1980s, mean
annual earnings have grown much faster for young persons with
college degrees than those with just high school degrees; and there
are substantial state-by-state differences in affordability and graduation productivity and, therefore, significant inequities between states
in terms of paying for college.
De Dios Jimenez, Juan and Manuel Salas-Velasco. (2000). Modeling
Educational Choices. A Binomial Logit Model Applied to the Demand
for Higher Education. HigherEducation, 40, 293-311.
Using a binomial logit model and cross-sectional survey data on the
educational choices made by Spanish high school graduates, the
36
authors examine the extent to which the theoretical determinants

of educational choice (academic aptitude, the students social background, family income, employment prospects, etc.) actually are
confirmed in practice. The authors found that social background,
family income and scholastic ability mainly explain the educational choice of students (i.e. the probability of choosing a four year
university).
Department for Education and Skills. (2004a). Student Loans and the
Question of Debt. London, UK: Department for Education and Skills.
Available at:
http://www.dfes.gov.uk/hegateway/uploads/Debt%20-%20FINAL.pdf
This government paper looks at the impact of student debt on participation in higher education in the United Kingdom and describes
the new student support system due to start in 2006. It argues that
debt need not be a significant deterrent to higher education and
that the real deterrents lie elsewhere in the system at lower levels
of education.
Department for Education and Skills. (2004b). Increasing Voluntary
Giving to Higher Education, Task Force Report to Government.
Nottingham, UK: DfES Publication Center.
Available at: http://www.dfes.gov.uk/hegateway/uploads/Increasing%2
0Voluntary%20Giving%20to%20Higher%20Education%20%20Task%2
0Force%20Report%20to%20Government.pdf
The report on the potential role of voluntary giving in supporting
institutional development in UK higher education asserts that the
success of higher education fundraising in the United States is
not only due to the countrys strong culture of giving, but more
importantly to its universitities culture of asking. The report
recommends that this culture of asking be fostered in higher education institutions in the United Kingdom through the creation
of strong development offices and commitment in terms of time
and resources by university leadership. The report lists ten key
recommendations to the Government, inter-university agencies
and institutional governing bodies that include the commissioning of a national survey on attitudes towards voluntary giving to
higher education, the fielding of study trips to the United States,
a review of tax relief provisions and the introduction of planned
giving vehicles.
Department for Education and Skills. (2003). The Future of Higher
Education, White Paper presented to the Parliament by the Secretary
37
of State for Education and Skills in January, London, United

Kingdom. Available at: http://www.dfes.gov.uk/hegateway/uploads/
White%20Pape.pdf
A Government white paper that proposed several policy changes in
the system of financing higher education in the United Kingdom to
expand capacity and increase access. Policy components include the
re-introduction from 2004 of a new grant of up to 1,000 a year for
students from lower-income families; the introduction in 2006 of a
new Graduate Contribution Scheme that includes the scrapping of
up-front tuition in favor of a deferred payment scheme; the payment
of the first 1,100 of fees for students from lower income families;
and the appointment of a Higher Education Access Regulator, who
will develop a framework for Access Agreements for each institution.
Most of the proposals became law in 2004.
Deutsches Studentenwerk (Ed.). (1997). Current Developments in
the Educational Assistance Systems in Western Europe in Connection
with the Family Burden Equalisation Systems. Project Manager Dieter
Schaferbarthold. Bonn, Germany: Deutsches Studentenwerk.
The report, produced within the context of a project supported by
the German Federal Ministry for Education, Science, Research and
Technology, looks at current developments in the educational assistance systems of 13 western European countries (Austria, Belgium,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK) and the interaction of
these systems with each countrys family burden equalization system and maintenance legislation provisions.
Dill, David D. and Maarja Soo. (2004). Transparency and Quality in
Higher Education Markets. In Pedro Teixeira, Ben Jongbloed, David Dill
and Alberto Amaral (Eds.), Markets in Higher Educatio. Rhetoric or Reality?
(pp. 13-36). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
In their paper, prepared for the third Douro higher education seminar in Douro Portugal (October 2003), the authors review relevant
research on the transparency of higher education markets. They
explore the relationship between academic quality information and
perfect competition in higher education markets and discuss problems of misinformed principals and under informed consumers.
The article discusses information asymmetry whereby consumers
(students) and those who pay (government, parents, students themselves) do not have as much information as the higher education
institutions themselves on the quality of education available and
38
whether there are other comparable options that are cheaper. The
authors argue that this situation leads to inefficiency in the higher
education market. As a result, the social costs of higher education
may not produce the optimal social benefits. Another problem raised
in the article is the existence of imperfect information on the actual
quality of academic programs, because producers themselves have
imperfect information on a programs true quality and therefore
they fail to make improvements. The authors suggest that the current institutional framework provides insufficient incentives for
academic quality improvements within universities and discuss the
effects of information asymmetry and imperfect information on the
market, the effectiveness of social investment and the way university
resources are used.
Dobson, Ian. (2001). Go Forth and Diversity! The Rise and Fall of
Government Contributions to Australian Higher Education. Higher
Education Management, 13 (1), 9-22.
The article reviews higher education funding over the years in
Australia and the policy changes that were behind the variations in
government contributions. While 25 years ago the government provided higher education institutions with 90 percent of their income,
by 1998 government contributions accounted for less than 52 percent. This decline was paralled by an increase in the percentage
of income provided by the students themselves and funding from
other sources (research grants and contracts, donations, investment
income etc.) and is expected to continue.
Ehrenberg, Ronald G. (2000). Tuition Rising, Why College Costs so Much,
Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press.
This is one of the best recent books on higher education finance, particularly in the elite, high cost/high price colleges and universities.
Ehrenberg is an economist and former Cornell administrator, and
combines a sophisticated yet readable book on both the economics
of rising costs and prices, and on the practical administrative, or
managerial, side of coping with this trajectory.
Eicher, Jean-Claude. (1998). The Costs and Financing of Higher
Education in Europe. European Journal of Education, 33(1), 3139.
One of the many articles presented in this volume of the European
Journal of Education on innovation and changes in financing higher
education in Europe, the author discusses the costs and financing
of higher education in Europe. Over the last four decades, higher
education systems in Europe have undergone deep quantitative
39
transformations that have been accompanied by very great structural

changes. Based on recent observations and economic analyses of the
financing of higher education in Europe, it can be concluded that
students participation in the financing of their studies is still lower
than the optimum seems to justify in many European countries, that
tuition fees are increasing in different forms and methods, that student aid systems in most countries must be rethought and amended
in relation to the evolution of fees, that a harmonization of fees and
student aid systems is highly desirable if a unified Europe is to be
built, and that many problems are still being debated, particularly
the level of tuition fees and the ways of reimbursing loans.
Eisemon, Thomas and Jamil Salmi. (2002). Increasing Equity in
Higher Education: Strategies and Lessons from International Experience,
International and Intercultural Development Education Graduate
Program, Florida International University.
The paper studies the efforts of governments in developing countries to implement policies that increase equity in higher education.
It examines the relationship between access to higher education and
the quality and efficiency of different policies. The paper also asserts
that direct grants to meritorious, but needy students are the most
effective way to increase higher education participation.
EKOS Research Associates. (2003). Making Ends Meet, The 2001-2002
Student Financial Survey. Montreal, Canada: Canada Millennium
Scholarship Foundation. Available at: http://www.millenniumscholarships.ca/images/Publications/making_ends_meet_en.pdf
Written to fill the gap in knowledge regarding the total debt load of
students (beyond student loans) in Canada and its origin and on their
expenditures during their in school years, the survey also examines
the impact of this information on access and enrollment behavior.
European Centre for Higher Education. (1999). Access and Admission
to Higher Education in Europe. Higher Education in Europe, XXXIV(3),
335-465.
This special issue addresses access and admission to higher education in Europe and includes articles on several different facets
of access including gender, finance and selectivity issues. In their
article, Boezerooy and Vossensteyn use the concepts of selectivity
and affordability to compare accessibility in nine western European
countries. Gabrscek provides an interesting case study of Slovenias
introduction, for the first time in central and eastern Europe, of an
external exam at the interface of secondary and higher education.
40
Grunberg reviews the CEPES project to promote gender equality

in higher education. Several articles addressing quality issues are
also included.
Eurydice. (1999). Key Topics in Education: Financial Support for Students
in Higher Education in Europe, Trends and Debates. The Information
Network on Education in Europe. European Commission. Available at:
http://www.eurydice.org/Doc_intermediaires/analysis/en/frameset_
analysis.html
A comprehensive compilation of data and policy issues concerning
higher education finance in Europe with extensive case study analysis and recent statistics. Very much a practical reference on present
systems of student support in Europe from tuition fees and loans to
grants and tax relief. Detailed description of social benefits, foreign
study and students facilitate model building and interpretation.
File, Jon and Leo Goedegebuure (Eds.). (2003). Real-Time Systems,
Reflections on Higher Education in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland
and Slovenia. CHEPS, CROSS, Netherlands: Vutium Press. Available at:
http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/publications/complete_list/english/
English_books.doc/
The book outlines the higher education systems and main policy
issues in each of the four countries and includes a chapter on each
of four key areas including institutional funding, tuition fees and
student support, quality assurance and governance. The chapter on
student support by Hans Vossensteyn looks the debates involved in
cost sharing and the history of its implementation (or non-implementation) in each country. He concludes that the tradition of free
higher education is eroding in three of the four countries, but that
the systems of student financial support are poor and the dual track
structures that have been established are far from fair.
Finnie, Ross, Alex Usher and Hans Vossensteyn. (2004). Meeting the
Need: A New Architecture for Canadas Student Financial Aid System.
Toronto, Canada: Educational Policy Institute.
Available at: http://www.irpp.org/pm/archive/pmvol5no7.pdf
The report proposes the creation of a new system for student financial assistance in Canada that would replace the plethora of existing
programs with a single program to deliver assistance to those in
financial need. The report describes the current Canadian system
(loans and need based grants, tax credits and savings programs),
identifies its major flaws (too much spending on tax credits, inadequate assistance limits among others) and describes several
41
student assistance models in other countries that are defined by

the person/entity who is primarily responsible for the costs of
study - the student, the parents or some combination thereof. The
report outlines a proposed system that would consist of a single
program to assess need and deliver a combination of loans and
grants. The system would redefine the definition of dependent
student with the implication that family financial resources are
assessed for more students, and create a secondary loan program
for dependent students whose parents could not or would not
make the expected contributions. It would also create programs
that provide debt relief for graduates who face excessive debt burdens relative to their incomes and ensure that the system is well
advertised to the public.
Finnie, Ross. (2004). A Simple Model of Access and Capacity for PostSecondary School in Canada. Kingston, Canada: Queens University.
Available at:
http://www.queensu.ca/sps/working_papers/files/sps_wp40.pdf
The study develops a conceptual framework in order to frame issues
of access to postsecondary education and system capacity in the context of increasing tuition, changes in student aid policies, and higher
educational institutions facing financial austerity. The framework
employed in the study is based on a supply-demand model and
makes clear how the demand and supply of postsecondary education
interact to determine the number of students and their characteristics. The framework is applied to analyze the effects of an increase
in tuition and in student financial aid, as well as to consider issues
of higher educational system capacity. This study adds to the understanding of the postsecondary education system in terms of student
body formation and related policy issues.
Finnie, Ross. (2002). Student Loans, Student Financial Aid and Postsecondary Education in Canada. Journal of Higher Education Policy and
Management, 24 (2), 155-170.
The article reviews the Canadian student loan system and suggests
reforms including higher borrowing limits, wider eligibility and
more assistance for those having repayment problems. To fight
declining educational quality, the author also proposes the introduction of a post-secondary education revitalization social contract
whereby each party (students, provincial governments, the federal
government) would put C$1,000 per student of new money into the
system each year, which would increase average per student spending by 25 percent.
42
Fiske, Edward B. and Helen F. Ladd. (2004). Elusive Equity, Education

Reform in Post-apartheid South Africa. Washington, DC: Brookings
Institution.
The book looks at the strategies employed by South Africa to reform
the state education system following the defeat of apartheid and
the election in 1994 of the democratically elected new government.
While it focuses mainly on primary and secondary school reforms
(and gives particular attention to the impact of school fees on enrollment patterns and school quality), the book has a chapter on the
higher education system and government policies to redress past
inequalities and create a unified multiracial university system.
Foose, Robert A. and Joel W. Meyerson. (1986). Alternative Approaches
to Tuition Financing, Making Tuition More Affordable. Washington, DC:
National Association of College and University Business Officers.
This monograph examines several tuition funding and payment
alternatives currently in use and gives an overview of their major
characteristics, and examples of different versions. Plans and sponsoring institutions are identified in the appendices.
Fossey, Richard and Mark Bateman. (Eds.). (1998). Condemning
Students to Debt. College Loans and Public Policy. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Designing student loan programs that expand access, especially
to lower income groups, and recover investments is certainly one
of the foremost challenges to cost sharing policy reforms. Student
loan policies, programs, and outcomes are addressed in 10 essays/
chapters. In particular, chapters 3, 6, and 7 are of interest to those
designing loan programs as they focus on making due with less,
how loans affect students educational decisions, and an analysis
on why and who defaults on student loans using both qualitative
and quantitative data.
Fred Hemingway Consulting and Kathryn McMullen. (2004). A
Family Affair: The Impact of Paying for College or University, A
Literature Review and Gap Analysis. Montreal, Canada: Canada
Millennium Scholarship Foundation and Canadian Policy Research
Networks. Available at: http://www.millenniumscholarships.
ca/images/news/june25_family_e_.pdf
Against the backdrop of decreases in government direct post secondary funding on a per student basis in Canada, and increases in
the costs being covered by students and their families, the report
examines the strategies used by students and their families to man-
43
age these costs and looks at the impact of this increased cost burden
in terms of debt trends and participation. The report offers very
detailed suggestions about future research that is needed to further
clarify these issues.
Fred Hemingway Consulting. (2004). Pressure Points in Student Financial
Assistance, Exploring the Making Ends Meet Database. Montreal,
Canada: Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation. Available at:
http://www.millenniumscholarships.
ca/images/Publications/pressure_en.pdf
The data in this study came from the EKOS survey of 1,543 Canadian
students in the 2001-02 school year. Using Canada Student Loans
Program definitions and categories, this report explores the data to
identify additional information for analysis, and the policy implications inherent in the reformatted data. Information was extracted
on the following eight topics: 1) actual vs. allowed Canada Student
Loan living expenses, 2) actual education & living costs vs. assistance
limits, 3) student financing strategies, 4) actual vs. expected parental
contributions, 5) students intent to work, 6) impact of work on time
taken to graduate, 7) program choice, and 8) graduate debt.
Fred Hemingway Consulting. (2003). Assessing Canadas Student Aid
Need Assessment Policies. Montreal, Canada: Canada Millennium
Scholarship Foundation. Available at:
ca/images/Publications/assessing_en.pdf
A part of the Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundations ongoing evaluation of its programs to enhance access to post-secondary
education, the report looks at the effectiveness of current need
assessment procedures in Canada and seeks to determine whether
there are better ways and means of assessing student need in the
future. Based on web searches, literature reviews and interviews and
reviews of assessment methodologies used in the United States, the
report outlines the student loans need assessment presently used
in Canada and seeks to identify possible program bias against certain student groups and unmet need. It concludes that unmet need
is increasing as a result of increases in tuition and fee amounts
since 1994 and too low loan limit and recommends among other
things: indexing assistance limits to recognize increases in costs;
increasing the income exemption above the $600 level; reducing
required parental contributions to more realistic levels; moving from
a needs-testing to a means-testing approach; and establishing an
unsubsidized loan option available to qualified families.
44
Fry, Peter, and Utui Rogerio. (1999). Promoting Access, Quality, and
Capacity Building in African Higher Education: The Strategic Planning
Experience at Edward Mondlane University, Association for the
Development of Higher Education in Africa-Working Group on
Higher Education. Washington, DC: ADEA Working Group on Higher
Education. Available at:
http://www.adeanet.org/publications/wghe/wghe_uem_en.pdf
This report analyzes the efforts of Edward Mondlane University in
Mozambique to carry out strategic institutional reforms intended to:
expand access higher education; improve the quality of university
teaching and research; and strengthen its capacities for institutional
planning, program implementation, performance monitoring, and
output evaluation.
Gill, T.K. and S.S. Gill. (2000). Financial Management of Universities in
Developing Countries. Higher Education Policy, 13(2), 125-130.
This short article reviews the options available to universities in
developing countries (and particularly India) to deal with resource
constraints including implementation of, or increases in, tuition
fees, privatization, and implementation of policies to attract foreign
students, policies to encourage investment by businesses, and policies to encourage entrepreneurial activities.
Gladieux, Lawrence E. and Arthur Hauptman. (1995). The College Aid
Quandary: Access, Quality and the Federal Role. Washington, DC: Brookings
Institution Press.
This book examines U.S. financial aid policies in a historical context and discusses present programs and future strategies aimed at
improving student aid. Loan programs and their problems are highlighted throughout the book as it describes the unique and dynamic
approach to higher education funding in the United States. Recent
data and estimates on costs and expenditures in higher education
by various levels of government, families, individuals, and endowments are included.
Glennerster, Howard. (2003). A Graduate Tax Revisited. Higher
Education Review, 35(2), 25-40.
Re-published 1968 article by Howard Glennerster, Stephen Merrett
and Gail Wilson with a short introduction by H. Glennerster.
Although not implemented in any country, the graduate tax concept
is an important part of the theoretical literature on student finance,
and Glennersters 1968 article was its first widely read proposal.
45
Greenaway, David and Michelle Haynes. (2000). Funding Universities to

Meet National and International Challenges, School of Economics Policy
Report, Russell Group of Universities.
Available at: http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/economics
The report points out that higher education in the United Kingdom
faces three challenges: funding, access, and regulation. It examines
the publicly-funded British universities and observes that funding
for UK higher education has lagged behind increasing enrollments
over the past two decades. The report argues that since both the
individual and society benefit from higher education, the students
should also bear some of the costs, which would bring additional
revenues into UK higher education institutions. To stimulate the
countrys knowledge-based economy, the report concludes that
future funding strategies should include greater fee differentiation,
more generous scholarships and more extensive income-contingent
loans, which would allow a larger portion of UK students from lower
socio-economic backgrounds to obtain a higher education.
Guhr, Daniel J. (2001). Access to Higher Education in Germany and
California, Studies in Comparative Education. Frankfurt am Main, Berlin,
Bern, New York: Peter Lang.
Based on access data by ethnic group for California and by social
class (measured by parental employment, employment sector, and
educational background) for Germany, the book compares and contrasts access to higher education patterns in California and Germany.
The author analyzes the extent to which the groups differ in their
success rates in gaining access to higher education and the respective impacts of the policy tools (affirmative access in California and
need-based aid in Germany) used in each context to positively influence these success rates.
Guill, Marianne. (2001). Student Loans: A Solution for Europe? Paris:
PuRE Public Funding and Private Returns to Education European
Commission Project. Available at: http://www.etla.fi/PURE/
StudentLoans_fullpaper.pdf
Written in the context of the 15 country Public Funding and Private
Returns to Education (PuRE) European Commission project, the
paper compares the student loan systems in European countries in
terms of their relationship to grants, their criteria of eligibility, and
their repayment conditions. The paper concludes with recommendations for a European Loan scheme that would harmonize these
systems. The report recommends that all students should be eligible
46
for loans that are sufficient to cover all living costs, that repayments
should be income contingent and that all students should have to
pay a real interest rate.
Hansen, Janet S. (Ed.). (1990). College Savings Plans, Public Policy
Choices. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.
This 1990 edited volume, published by the College Board, is dated
but is still an interesting and useful historical account of the early
years of the governments movement from need-based student aid
to an emphasis on tax-advantaged savings plans to encourage parents
to save for their childrens college educations. While encouraging
and perhaps even subsidizingparents to save more for the higher
educational expenses of the children, the concept has been rightly
criticized on two counts. First, it is not clear how much additional
savings such plans generateas opposed to moving savings from
other vehicles into the more subsidized one, rewarding parents for
taking advantage of this vehicle, but arguably not actually increasing
accessibility. Another objection is that it has the quality of seemingly
solving the largely political of middle and upper middle class tuition
anxiety without, in fact, spending any money in the current budget
years by hiding the true (present value) costs to the government of
the programs, in part by pushing the effective costs of the tax advantages far into the future.
Harding, Ann. (1995). Financing Higher Education: An Assessment of
Income-Contingent Loan Options and Repayment Patterns Over the
Life Cycle. Education Economics, 3, 173-203.
The author provided much of the simulation modeling of the
Australian Lifetime earnings streams upon which the design of the
Australian Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) was
based. Although the HECS program has undergone modification,
this early 1995 article is valuable in its account of the importance of
simulated future earnings and the need to go beyond the simulation
only of mean incomes to a simulation of the distributions of incomes/
earnings/around these estimated means. By Hardings simulations,
most Australians would repay their HECS debts in full by their 65th
year (93% of males and 89% of females), with most repaying in their
30s and 40s.
Harmon, Colm, Ian Walker and Niels Westergard-Nielsen (Eds.). (2001).
Education and Earnings in Europe: A Cross Country Analysis of the Returns
to Education. Northampton, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
This book, reports on a research project, Public Funding and Private
47
Returns to Education (PURE), supported by the European Commission

under the Targeted Socio-Economic Research Program. The volume
summarizes the most current empirical studies on returns-to-education in fifteen European countries, including Austria, Denmark,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United
Kingdom. The authors are labor market economists, and much of
the volume is annotative and econometric, although conclusions are
readable and useful to the non-econometrician. The introduction, in
particular, is a good treatment of the complexities of the econometric
work on the returns to education, describing, for example, attempts
to control for age, labor force participation, family background, and
other factors affecting earnings outside of education.
Hauptman, Arthur M. (1999). Ideas on Higher Education Funding:
Internal Financing of Student Loans, International Higher Education,
16, 4-5.
Hauptman, a long-time player in the analysis of US financial aid and
loan policies, turned his attention in this short article to the possible
role that student loans and tuitions might play in other countries,
particularly developing countries. The short length of the article (a
requirement of articles in the Boston College publication) allows for
very little theory or context, and little analysis, but the proposal for
tuition in developing countries (many of which display a political/
ideological rejection of tuition and other forms of cost-sharing) a
portion of which new revenues could be used to support a student
loan plan is reasonable, although lacking in specifics.
Hauptman, Arthur. (1998a). Accommodating the Growing Demand for
Higher Education in Brazil: A Role for the Federal Universities?, LCSHD
Paper Series No. 30. Washington, DC: World Bank Latin America and
Caribbean Regional Office. Available at:
http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDS_IBank_Servlet?pcont=det
ails&eid=000094946_99031910571767
This paper focuses on three questions: 1) What policy might be
adopted so that some of the growth in demand is accommodated
by the federal universities in Brazil within the constraint of existing
public resources? 2) What could Brazil do to free up public resources
currently provided to the federal universities to fund future growth
in other sectors of higher education? 3) How can Brazil ensure that
access to federal universities is expanded for students with below
average family incomes? Two financing models are examined in
this report. One model is to set tuitions and allocate government
48
funds to public institutions on the basis of cost recovery. The other

one is to set tuitions at public institutions as a percentage of GDP
per capita or some other general economic measure. Hauptman concludes that Brazil should seek to coordinate its funding and tuition
policies with the student aid programs rather than have these policies work at cross purposes.
Hauptman, Arthur M. (1998b). Linking Funding, Student Fees, and
Student Aid: An Alternative to Cost Recovery. International Higher
Education, 13, 10-11.
The paper first presents arguments for and against cost recovery in
higher education highlighting the major critics on the subject. The
paper then presents a strategic model for financing higher education that links funding, tuition fees, student aid polices with overall
economic trends.
Hauptman, Arthur M. (1990). The Tuition Dilemma, Assessing New Ways
to Pay for College, Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution Press.
This slim monograph was an effective analysis of the higher education finance and particularly student finance landscape as of 1990.
Tuition anxiety was high, and politicians and analysts were seeking
new approaches, some with sound economics and finance, others
with mainly cosmetic approaches. Although dated, this is an excellent treatment, particularly since many of the same programs and
alleged solutions e.g., tuition pre-payments, tax-advantage savings
plans, income contingent loans remain with us.
Hearn, James C. (2003). Diversifying Campus Revenue Streams:
Opportunities and Risks, Washington, DC: American Council on
Education, Center for Policy Analysis.
This report considers why colleges and universities are diversifying their revenue streams, examines how they are doing so, and
synthesizes the research on decision-making processes regarding new revenues. The revenue-seeking efforts are investigated in
eight domains: 1) instruction, 2) research and analysis, 3) pricing, 4)
financial decision making and management, 5) human resources, 6)
franchising, licensing, sponsorship, and partnering arrangements
with third parties, 7) auxiliary enterprises, facilities and real estate,
and 8) development. The author asserts that revenue diversification
efforts should not only generate new revenues, but also generate
new net returns. When pursuing new revenues one must deal with
the question of why new revenues are being sought. This report is a
good reference for leaders of higher education institutions.
49
Heath, Julia A. (1998). Financing and Provision of Education and

Health Services in Developing Countries: A Review Article. Economics of
Education Review, 17(3), 359-62.
A review article looking at Marketing Education and Health in
Developing Countries edited by Christopher Colclough. The article
provides an overview of the approach taken by this collection to
analyze the results of market-determined distribution of education
and health services in developing countries. The article supports the
books main contention that market-led initiatives might be more
appropriate (to the point that they are effective at all) in developed,
as opposed to developing countries and introduces attention to the
differential gender based impact of these initiatives.
Heller, Donald E. (2001a). The Effects of Tuition Prices and Financial Aid
on Enrollment in Higher Education, California and the Nation. Rancho
Cordova, CA: EdFund. Available at:
http://www.edfund.org/pdfs/i-57.pdf
This report, prepared for the California Student Aid Commission
and the EdFund, assesses the impact of tuition prices and financial
aid on student decisions to attend college. The report starts by summarizing the existing research and points out that different studies
have come to different conclusions regarding students responsiveness to tuition prices and financial aid. It asserts that while college
pricing and financial aid factors generally play a relatively small part
of the decisions made by most students compared to their academic
aptitude and achievement; the degree to which their parents, siblings and peers promote college as a post-high school option, the
proximity of colleges, etc., college pricing and financial aid policies
are among the only factors under the direct control of education
policy makers.
Heller, Donald E. (2001b). Debts and Decisions: Student Loans and Their
Relationship to Graduate School and Career Choice, Lumina Foundation
for Education New Agenda Series, Volume 3, Number 4. Indianapolis,
IN: Lumina Foundation for Education. Available at:
http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/debtsdecisions.pdf
This report examines the relationship between the amount of
loans that students take out during their undergraduate years and
the decisions that they make regarding careers and enrollment
in graduate school. Data is used from 11,000 undergraduate students who completed their baccalaureate education in the 1992-93
academic year.
50
Heller, Donald E. (Ed.). (2000). The States and Public Higher Education
Policy. Affordability, Access, and Accountability. Baltimore, MD: The John
Hopkins University Press.
The essays in this report explore the debates surrounding issues
of affordability, access and accountability in higher education in
the United States by focusing on the relationship between tuition,
financial aid and enrollment. The report surveys recent literature on
this relationship, updates the historical findings on student price
responsiveness nationally and applies these findings to California.
The report makes the point that while research has shown that college pricing and financial aid factors play a relatively small role in a
students decision to enroll in college, they are critically important
because they are among the only factors under the direct control of
policy makers.
Heller, Donald E. (1999). The Effects of Tuition and State Financial Aid
on Public College Enrollment. The Review of Higher Education, 23(1),
6589.
This study examines the impact of state policy in the US on public
college enrollment by students from different racial groups. The
author suggests that if the impact of rising prices does differ from
group to group, states need to adapt their policies to safeguard the
goal of equality of access to public higher education.
Heller, Donald E. (1997). Student Price Response in Higher Education:
An Update to Leslie and Brinkman. The Journal of Higher Education,
68(6), 624659.
In 1987 Leslie and Brinkman reviewed 25 quantitative analyses for
their metaanalysis on the relationship between price and enrollment
in higher education. The main quandary has been, and continues
to be, that college participation rates grew in the US over the past
three decades, even in the face of increasing costs. The answer is
that college prices, though increasing in nominal terms, have not
increased in real terms. Heller extends the Leslie and Brinkman article with more recent student demand studies to answer the question:
Do tuition and financial aid changes have the same effect on later
cohorts of students as those found by Leslie and Brinkman? Many of
the 20 new student demand studies Heller uses focus on the effect
of tuition and aid changes on students of different income categories, races, and in different college sectors. Heller concludes that the
evidence continues to be overwhelming: as the price of tuition goes
up, the probability of enrollment tends to go down.
51
Herbert, Alicia and Claire Callender. (1997). The Funding Lottery, Student
Financial Support in Further Education and its Impact on Participation.
London, UK: Policy Studies Institute.
The report assesses the impact of student financial support in the
further education sector in the UK on participation and concludes
that given the absence of a comprehensive or universal system of
financial support for further education students and the discretionary
nature of the financial funds that are available, the current funding
system can only have a minimal impact on widening participation. It
recommends the creation of a national-level comprehensive system
of financial support built on additional research on the actual costs
of participation, and the impact of financial support on initial access,
completion and progression in further education.
Herz, Barbara. (2005). University-Level Education for Women in the
Developing World: Questions for Public Policy. New York: Carnegie
Corporation of New York.
This paper was commissioned by the Carnegie Corporation of New
York to explore the accessibility, value and cost of higher education
for African women and the social, cultural and financial barriers
that they face. The author argues that one of the first steps for
improving womens participation in higher education is to fill in
some of the research and data gaps on current university enrollment patterns, on the economic and social returns to university
education and on strategies for increasing womens education at
the university level. After reviewing the data that is available in
each of the three areas, she makes suggestions for future research
and data collection.
Heyneman, Stephen and Alan J. DeYoung (Eds.). (2004). The Challenge
of Education in Central Asia. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
The book looks at developments in the field of education in the
Central Asian countries that emerged as independent entities after
the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The book addresses a number of educational issues including the problems of educational
accessibility and quality in Central Asia and looks at the educational
reforms aimed to decentralize the system. In terms of higher education, a wide range of issues are addressed including university quality,
governance problems, the dilemma of confusing profit-making education with private education, the process of financial diversification,
institutional autonomy issues, and the dilemmas involved in creating a new citizenry through a new university structure.
52
Hinchliffe, Keith. (2002). Public Expenditures on Education in Nigeria:

Issues, Estimates and Some Implications, Africa Region Human
Development, Working Paper Series. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
This paper, the first in a set being prepared to provide basic information on the educational system in Nigeria, was written to address
the inadequacy of knowledge regarding expenditures on education.
Based on case studies in nine states and data from four additional
states together with information on Federal and local government
spending, estimates of local, state and Federal government expenditures and their distribution across educational levels are made for
1998. The data is then compared to recent estimates in other African
countries. It was found that not only does Nigeria spend a lower
percentage of total government expenditure on education than the
average for 19 sub-Saharan African countries, it also distributes a
significantly higher portion of that expenditure to higher education,
at the cost of primary education.
Hochschul-Informations-System GmbH. (2002). Euro Student, Social
and Economic Conditions of Student Life in Europe 2000, German Federal
Ministry of Education and Research (Bundesministerium fur Bildung
und Forschung).
This report is part of a project aimed at delivering internationally-comparable indicators on the social and economic conditions of student
life in Europe. The following indicators are included: demographic
characteristics, access to higher education, study performance, social
make-up of the student body, accommodation, funding and state
assistance, living expenses-student spending, student employment
and time budget, and internationalization. The final report includes
two formats: the Synopsis of Indicators and the National Profiles
(CD-ROM). Surveys were conducted in Austria, Belgium, Finland,
France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, and Netherlands.
Hoffmann, Adonis. (1995, Winter). The Destruction of Higher Education
in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 0, 83-87.
The article interalia observes that financial pressures and an explosion in the college-age population have put tremendous pressures
on higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa leading to a critical crisis.
The article concludes that this crisis portends the most egregious
long-term damage to Africas economic survival.
Holtta, Seppo. (1998). The Funding of Universities in Finland; Towards Goaloriented Government Steering. European Journal of Education, 33(1), 55 63.
This article focuses on the new higher education policy in Finland
53
from the late 1980s, which put greater trust in universities by allocating them extra resources and decreasing their accountability to
the State. The current policy tends to be a mix of self-regulation,
and contract between the Ministry of Education and each university.
Decentralization and deregulation are the characteristics of this
new policy. The new funding model is composed of three distinct
components: the basic budget, oriented towards formula budgeting; the performance component, based on indicators of efficiency
and effectiveness in academic activities; and the component for
development programs, which is awarded based on a national competition. External funding has increased in recent years. The article
concludes with discussions on the new funding model and the balance between the state, markets and the academic profession.
Horn, Laura J., Xianglei Chen and Chris Chapman. (2003). Getting
Ready to Pay for College: What Students and their Parents Know about the
Cost of College Tuition and What are They Doing to Find Out. Washington,
DC: NCES, NHES, US Department of Education. Available at:
http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2003/2003030.pdf
Using data from the 1999 National Household Education Survey
Programs Parent and Youth Surveys, the study looked at how much
students who plan to attend postsecondary institutions and their parents know about the costs of attending college. It examined whether
parents had started to save for their childrens education, had gathered information on financial aid, and knew about the various tax
credits that were available to offset costs. The study found that both
parents and students tended to overestimate tuition; especially for
public institutions and that parents ability to estimate accurately was
positively linked to their household income and educational level.
However, regardless of income and educational level, parents who
were involved with their childrens school were more likely to have
begun saving for college and were more aware of college costs.
Huang, Lihong. (2005). Elitism and Equality in Chinese Higher Education.
Studies of Student Socio-economic Background, Investment in Education,
and Career Aspirations. Studies in Comparative and International
Education. Stockholm: Institute of International Education, Stockholm
University. Available at: http://www.interped.su.se/publications/lihongthesis.pdf
A doctoral dissertation, this study presents empirical patterns of
social equity in Chinese higher education based on a questionnaire
survey administered to 1,200 students at six public universities in
Southwest China. The survey findings reveal that a disproportion-
54
ate number of students come from high-income families and that

students from urban areas are over-represented while rural girls
are severely under-represented. It confirms that the average cost of
higher education in China is far above the average annual income of
even urban families and that about one-third of the students took out
student loans, borrowed elsewhere or received some other form of
financial system. The author concludes that given these results, student loans should be made more accessible to a greater proportion of
students and more financial assistance to students from lower socioeconomic strata, especially rural girls, should be available. She also
concludes that private enterprises should be more involved in financing and otherwise supporting higher education given that most of
the students aspire to take jobs in the private sector. She suggests
further research on the entire education sector in China to compare
to similar data on students in another system or country and on the
gender differences in terms of access to higher education.
Huang, Lihong. (2002, September). Paying for Higher Education in an
International Perspective. Stockholm: Institute of International Education
Working Paper Series, Stockholm University.
Available at: http://www.interped.su.se/publications/WPS4.pdf
This paper looks into the funding mechanisms and cost sharing
practices in the US, Australia, UK, and Asian countries. It pays
particular attention to the ways these countries are struggling to
apportion the cost burden appropriately among parents, students
and taxpayers without diminishing access and opportunity.
Huisman, Jeroen. (2003). Higher Education in Germany. Country Report.
Available at: http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/germany.pdf
Country study for Germany produced as part of the CHEPS Higher
Education Monitor, an ongoing research project that aims at providing education policy makers with current information on national
higher educational systems. Each study provides information on the
structure of the tertiary education sector. The reports provide excellent information on institutional finance and student support.
Iacobucci, Frank and Carolyn Tuohy (Eds.). (2005). Taking Public
Universities Seriously. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.
A comprehensive collection of papers presented at the University of
Torontos Munk Centre for International Studies international symposium on public universities in 2004 that identify the challenges
55
that face them (including increasing participation rates, stagnating

or decreasing government investment in public higher education,
public opposition to cost sharing, and quality concerns) and the ways
these challenges are being addressed. Most relevant to higher education finance are the seven chapters included in Part VI, Enhancing
Accessibility: Normative Foundations for Income-Contingent Grant
and Loan Programs, which look at the impact of tuition fees on
accessibility and the ways that this impact is tempered by the careful
design of student financial aid programs. Nicholas Barr reviews the
lessons learned from economic theory and country experience and
describes the recently introduced reforms in the United Kingdom
in light of these lessons. Ross Finnie argues that given their different functions and effects, both student loans and grants are essential
parts of any student financial assistance strategy and that their proper
mix is necessary for an integrated successful system. Benjamin Alarie
and David Duff propose an income-contingent style student loan to
replace Ontarios current system of mortgage style student loans. H.
Lorne Carmichael argues for a graduate tax that while similar to an
income contingent student loan would never present students with a
fixed amount that they were responsible for repaying (thereby avoiding debt aversion). Under such a graduate tax program, graduates
would start to pay a fixed percentage of their earning (the graduate tax)
through the tax system once they started to earn above a cutoff salary
and would continue to pay for 35 years from their year of graduation.
Ifill, Roberto M. and Michael S. McPherson. (2004). When Saving
Means Losing: Weighing the Benefits of College-savings Plans. Indianapolis,
IN: Lumina Foundation for Education.
Available at: http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/
SavingMeansLosingWebL.pdf
The report looks at the implications of families putting savings into
state college saving plans, called 529 Plans, in terms of the students treatment by traditional financial aid programs. The authors
analyze the effects on financial aid of a $100 increase in assets of
each of four family income levels, and three costs of attendance and
finds that by saving lower income families may reduce their eligibility for need-based aid.
Ikenberry, Stanley and Terry W. Hartle. (1998). Too Little Knowledge is a
Dangerous Thing, What the Public Thinks and Knows About Paying for
College. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
To one who has even a modicum of economic sophistication and who
has followed the course of higher education finance for some years,
56
the publics reaction to rising tuitions is perplexing and frustrating.

This reaction is even more dangerous when the misconceptions are
held not simply by the general public, but by politicians, journalists,
civic leaders and opinion makers generally. This monograph, based
on a well-designed public opinion poll, analyzes just what the public does believe--which is a valuable service and useful antidote to
analysts and higher education leaders who hide too much behind the
theoretically reasonable economic principles behind rising tuition,
and who sometimes therefore discount the anger and anxiety that
is very real and potentially very dangerous, however unsophisticated
it may be.
Independent Institute for Social Policy. (2004). Accessibility of Higher
Education in Russia. Project Summaries. Moscow, Russia: Independent
Institute for Social Policy.
Between 2001 and 2004, the Independent Institute for Social Policy
coordinated a Ford Foundation research project that included 11 individual studies on the impact of social and economic differentiation,
institutional factors, and socio-cultural factors on access to higher
education in Russia aimed at devising methods of increasing such
access. This report summarizes the findings of each study.
Independent Committee of Inquiry into Student Finance. (2000).
Student Finance Fairness for the Future. Research Report: Volume I and 2.
This report, known as the Cubie Report, discusses the findings
of a study that reviewed tuition fees and financial support for
students normally residents of Scotland, who were participating
either part- or full-time in further and higher education courses
elsewhere in the UK. The purpose of the report is to make recommendations for changes to the current system that would promote
access to higher education, particularly for those groups currently
underrepresented.
Institute for Higher Education Policy and Scholarship America. (2004).
Investing in Americas Future, Why Student Aid Pays Off for Society and
Individuals, Washington, DC: Institute for Higher Education Policy, St.
Peter: Scholarship America, Indianapolis: USA Funds.
The paper acknowledges that student aid, particularly grants, is
a critical part of the investment in higher education that leads to
public and private benefits. Public benefits include increased tax
revenues, decreased reliance on public assistance programs, lower
unemployment rates, and increased voting, volunteering and other
civic activities. The paper discusses these benefits in detail. The
57
paper also stresses the role student aid plays in increasing access to
postsecondary education especially in circumstances of increasing
tuition. It points out that student aid enables lower income students
to acquire college education that benefits both individuals and society. However, this study indicates that over the last three decades the
amount and type of support has shifted considerably, resulting in
diminishing access for low-income students. In its conclusion the
paper suggest possible policy solutions to address higher education
access issues.
Institute for Higher Education Policy. (2000). Higher Education Cost
Measurement, Public Policy Issues, Options, and Strategies. Compilation
of background papers prepared for the Seminar on Cost Measurement
and Management, The New Millennium Project on Higher Education
Costs, Pricing, and Productivity. Washington, DC: Institute for Higher
Education Policy.
This is a compilation of background papers prepared for seminars
on cost measurement and information management in higher education. Approaches to cost analysis, inter-institutional effort to share
cost information, institutional cost and productivity, and the impact
of differential allocation of subsidy are the major background papers
included in the compilation.
Institute for Higher Education Policy, Sallie Mae Education Institute,
and the Education Resources Initiative. (1997). Student Loan Debt:
Problems and Prospects. Proceedings from a National Symposium.
Washington, DC: Institute for Higher Education Policy.
The collection of papers (proceedings from a national symposium)
addresses a number of questions related to student debt. Jacqueline
E. King of the American Council on Education in her study Student
Borrowing: Is there a Crisis? suggests that increased reliance on
loans is not a crisis for all students; nevertheless there are pockets
of students for whom borrowing has become a problem. Patricia
M. Scherschel of USA group in her research Reality Bites: How
Much Do Student Owe? focuses on borrowing patterns and debt
levels, as well as how they changed over time. Susan Choy of MPR
Associates, Inc. in the article Early Labor Force Experiences and Debt
Burden looks at early labor force experiences of borrowers and nonborrowers. Sandra Baum of Skidmore College and Diane Saunders
of Nellie Mae in their paper Life After Debt: Summary Results of
the National Student Loan Survey discuss students repayment
experiences and attitudes toward borrowing and repaying student
loans. Finally, Patricia Somers of the University of Arkansas at Little
58
Rock and James Cofer of the University of Arkansas System in their

qualitative study Singing the Student Loan Blues: Multiple Voices,
Multiple Approaches? describe student experiences with borrowing,
lenders, and their colleges.
International Finance Corporation. (1999). Investing in Private
Education in Developing Countries. Washington, DC: International
Finance Corporation.
The paper provides an overview of the International Finance
Corporations (IFC), the private sector arm of the World Bank Group,
strategy for education in developing countries. It describes the IFCs
potential roles (to assist in the development of parent-of-student
finance markets and investment in education goods and services) and
its current initiatives including investments in two private universities
in Argentina. The paper also includes information about applying to
the IFC for funding, resource mobilization and advisory services.
Ipsos-Reid. (2004). Canadians Attitudes Towards Financing Post-Secondary
Education: Who Should Pay and How? Toronto, Canada: Ipsos-Reid.
The paper presents survey findings on Canadians opinions on
higher education finance. The paper explores Canadians estimates
and views on higher education costs, university graduate earnings,
student debt, student aid policy, and opportunities for post-secondary education. According to the survey, 90 percent of Canadians
consider the costs of a university education as a good long-term
investment. The survey found that the majority of Canadians would
like to see the difference between available funds to students and the
costs of education covered by increasing loan limits for students.
Ishengoma, Johnson. (2002). Cost Sharing in Higher Education in
Africa: Fact or Fiction. Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 2(2), 101-133.
Abstract available at: http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/
africaHEjournal/journal_home.htm
The article reports on the success of Tanzanias cost-sharing policies in generating additional resources for, increasing capacity in
and improving access to Tanzanias major public university, the
University of Dar es Salam. It concludes that low enrollments in the
privately sponsored, tuition-fee paying programs, the failure to charge
break-even fees on the universitys cafeteria and hostel operations,
the proposal to give more loans to cover items that were supposed to
have been covered by students and parents in a previous phase of the
cost-sharing program, the apparent inability and/or unwillingness to
59
begin serious efforts to collect on these loans, and the governments

general reluctance to introduce the next cost sharing phases are all
indications that real cost sharing in higher education in Tanzania has
a long way to go in order to reach its goals.
Jackson, Roy. (2002). The National Student Financial Aid Scheme of
South Africa (NSFAS): How and Why it Works. Welsh Journal of Education
(Special International Issue on Paying for Learning: The Debate on
Student Fees, Grants and Loans in International Perspective), 11(1), 82-94.
The article discusses the South African student loan scheme as an
affordable financial instrument that helps historically disadvantaged
students with academic ability gain access to university. It identifies the reasons for the schemes success in a continent where so
many student loan programs have failed. These reasons include the
schemes young age, (i.e. it was able to benefit from lessons learned
elsewhere), the strong political support that it received from the
South African government, its capitalization by foreign donors for
the first several years of operation, a strong legal framework based
on sound legislation, a deliberate mix of central control with decentralized administration, the charging of a positive real rate of interest,
the use of an income-contingent style repayment schedule, and a
state of the art information technology system.
Johnes, Geraint. (2004). The Evaluation of Welfare Under Alternative
Models of Higher Education Finance. In Pedro Teixeira, Ben Jongbloed,
David Dill and Alberto Amaral (Eds.), Markets in Higher Education.
Rhetoric or Reality? (pp. 113-126). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer
Academic Publishers.
Paper prepared for the Duoro III conference in Portugal held in
September 2003 that develops a model to assess the welfare effects
of alternative methods of financing access to higher education.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2006). Cost-Sharing and the Cost-Effectiveness
of Grants and Loan Subsidies to Higher Education. In Texeira, Pedro,
Bruce Johnstone, Maria Joao Rosa and Hans Vossensteyn (Eds.), A
Fairer Deal: Cost-Sharing and Accessibility in Western Higher Education
(pp.51-78). Springer Science + Business Media (formerly Klewer
Academic Publishing). Available at: http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/
inthigheredfinance/publications.html
Grants and the so-called effective grants contained within student
loans that is, the present value of the subsidy streams that are
present in virtually all student loans are presented as alternative
60
governmental expenditures that ought to be examined for their respective cost-effectiveness in promoting whatever goal or goals constitute
the basis for governmental subsidization via student assistance.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2005a). Higher Education Accessibility and
Financial Viability: the Role of Student Loans. In Tres, Jaoquim and
Francisco Lopez Segrera (Eds.), Higher Education in the World 2006:
The Financing of Universities (pp. 84-101). Barcelona: Global University
Network for Innovation (GUNI) published by Palgrave Macmillan.
Available at: http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/inthigheredfinance/publications.html
This chapter, drawn from earlier papers prepared for the International
Comparative Finance and Accessibility Project, serves as the Projects
primer on student loans. It begins with the four principal ways that
governments can participate in generally available student lending,
including (1) bearing all or a significant part of the risk; (2) subsidizing
interest; (3) absorbing some costs; and in some cases (4) employing
governmental income tax and /or pension contribution collection
systems for the collection of student loan obligations. The chapter
covers the forms of student lending, including conventional or mortgage-type loans, income contingent loans, and hybrid versions of fixed
schedule and income contingent repayment obligations, and presents
examples of loan programs in several countries, concluding with the
crucial elements of student lending, including terms and conditions,
risk bearing, and the provision of capital.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2005b). A Political Culture of Giving and the
Philanthropic Support of Higher Education in International Perspective.
International Journal of Educational Advancement. 5(3), 256-264.
The political culture of giving, which is presented as one of the critical factors in the success of philanthropic funding in the search for
other-than-governmental funding of higher education, depends to a
considerable degree on the political acceptance of the appropriateness
of tuition fees and other elements of cost-sharing. Johnstone suggests
that Germany and other European countries that continue to reject the
appropriateness of cost-sharing will have difficulty in attracting broadbased philanthropic support for institutions of higher education.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2005c). Fear and Loathing of Tuition Fees:
an American Perspective on Higher Education Finance in the UK.
Perspectives. 9(1), 12-16. Available at:
http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/inthigheredfinance/publications.html
Although the UK in 1997 became the first European country to have
61
a more-than-incidental tuition fee, the Labor Partys Left supported by a strong National Union of Students and strong academic
Left seems never to have forgiven the Labor Government for
this act, and in 2004 managed to convert the tuition fees which,
because they were means-tested, were mainly paid by relatively
well-to-do parents to deferred fees, which are to be paid for
mainly by students. This article traces this and other features of
what Johnstone describes as the UKs somewhat curious fear and
loathing of tuition fees.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2004a). Higher Education Finance and
Accessibility: Tuition Fees and Student Loans in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Journal of Higher Education in Africa. 2(2), pp. 11-36.
Abstract available at: http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/africaHEjournal/journal_home.htm
The article describes some of the historic resistance to cost sharing
in Africa as well as its rationales the most compelling of which
is the sheer need for revenue, coupled with the increasing unlikelihood that African governments can raise revenue by taxation
to meet currently underfunded social needs and simultaneously
provide more money to higher education. It identifies some limitations to the dual-track tuition policies that are being implemented
in East Africa and some reasons for the many failures African
countries have experienced with student loans programs. Finally,
it cautions against the prevailing fascination with income-contingent loans and makes recommendations drawn from both theory
and practice.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2004b). Cost-Sharing and Equity in Higher
Education: Implications of Income Contingent Loans. In Pedro Teixeira,
Ben Jongbloed, David Dill, and Alberto Amaral (Eds.), Markets in Higher
Education. Rhetoric or Reality. (pp. 37-60). Dordrecht, the Netherlands:
Kluwer Academic Publishers.
This chapter traces the history of cost-sharing in European higher
education, and some implications of the current interest in income
contingent loans for recovering a portion of the costs either of student living or tuition fees or both. The author outlines the differences
and similarities (which are more than commonly thought) between
income contingent versus conventional repayment obligations and
describes some of the unintended consequences of the former. He
recommends that countries carefully study the theoretical underpinnings of cost sharing and the operations of alternative programs of
tuition fees and student loans, before choosing a loan system.
62
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2004c). The Economics and Politics of Cost

Sharing in Higher Education: Comparative Perspectives. Economics of
Education Review. 23(4), pp. 403-410. Available at: http://www.gse.
buffalo.edu/org/inthigheredfinance/publications.html
This paper examines the rationales for cost-sharing as well as the
continuing ideological, political, and technical opposition to it, even
in the face of extreme austerity and the virtual inevitability of higher
educational revenue diversification in most countries.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2004d). The Applicability of Income Contingent
Loans in Developing and Transitional Countries. Journal of Educational
Planning Administration, pp. 159-174. For a Chinese translation of the
same paper, refer to this article in Peking University Education Review, 2(1).
Available at: http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/inthigheredfinance/publications.html
This paper explores the theoretical applicability for developing countries of income contingent loans or graduate taxes for recovering a
portion of the cost of higher education. It argues that a HECs type
of student loan program is often unviable in a country with little
capacity to know and verify incomes or earning.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2003). Cost-Sharing in Higher Education: Tuition,
Financial Assistance, and Accessibility. Czech Sociological Review, 39(3),
351-374. Available at: http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/inthigheredfinance/
publications.html
This paper has served the International Comparative Higher
Education Finance and Accessibility Project as the introductory paper
to the concept of cost sharing, summarizing the range of country
experiences and providing an outline of the forms of cost sharing,
the rationales for a policy of cost sharing, the political and ideological opposition to such policies, and a perspective on the complex
arena of student lending. This paper updates an earlier version by
Johnstone and Schroff-Mehta that was widely distributed from the
project and on the project web page and that appears as a chapter in
Heather Eggins, eds. Globalization and Reform in Higher Education
published by the Society for Research into Higher Education.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2002). Challenges of Financial Austerity:
Imperatives and Limitations of Revenue Diversification in Higher
Education. The Welsh Journal of Education (Special International Issue
on Paying for Learning: The Debate on Student Fees, Grants and Loans
in International Perspective), 11(1), 18-36.
This article by Johnstone presents the standard case for revenue
63
diversification, describes the problems wrought by the pervasive

and increasing austerity in higher education and presents the
various forms of revenue diversification. The principal theme of
the paper, however, is to acknowledge some of the limitations on
revenue diversification, beginning with the difficulties in the determination and verification of parental income, the challenge to the
very notion of student dependence on parental support, and the
serious limitations on student cost sharing, including the limited
opportunities, in many countries and regions, for part-time employment, and more seriously, the limitations on student loan programs.
The paper points to the need for effective cost recovery on student
loans, including repayment compliance, an efficient system for collections (which may or may not be attached to the governments tax
withholding and pension contribution system), and the need for
repayment guarantees, which might appropriately include parents
and other members of the family, but which the paper concludes
need an ultimate governmental guarantee for those without access
to credit worthy co-signatories. The paper also presents some
limitations on faculty and institutional entrepreneurship as well
as limitations on philanthropy as an alternative to governmental
revenue.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2001a). Higher Education and Those Out-ofControl Costs. In Philip G. Altbach, Patricia J. Gumport and D. Bruce
Johnstone (Eds.), In Defense of American Higher Education (pp. 144-178).
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
This chapter takes on the common challenge, or allegation, that
higher educational costs are out of control, and demonstrates
why this is a misleading and inaccurate portrayal. The article then
acknowledges some smoke and some possible fire, and analyzes this
challenge from a variety of meanings, including whether the essence
of the criticism be sheer profligacy, or inefficiency, or wrong priorities, or insensitivity to the needs of poorer students and families.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (2001b). Response to Austerity: The Imperatives
and Limitations of Revenue Diversification in Higher Education. Buffalo,
NY: The International Comparative Higher Education Finance and
Accessibility Project, Center for Comparative and Global Studies in
Education, State University of New York at Buffalo. Available at:
http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/inthigheredfinance/publications.html
See annotation for Challenges of Financial Austerity: Imperatives
and Limitations of Revenue Diversification in Higher Education,
Welsh Journal of Higher Education.
64
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (1999). Financing Higher Education: Who

Should Pay and Other Issues. In Philip G. Albach, Robert O. Berdahl,
and Patricia J. Gumport (Eds.), American Higher Education in the
21st Century: Social Political, and Economic Challenges (pp.347-369).
Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. 2nd Edition 2005.
This chapter is a comprehensive, albeit succinct, treatment of higher
education finance focusing on the three broad issues of: (1) the size
of the higher education enterprise, (2) the efficiency or productivity
of the enterprise, and (3) the sources of revenue, or who pays (as
among students, parents, taxpayers or philanthropists). This paper
presents estimates of the costs, or more properly the expenses, borne
by students and parents at high-and low-cost public and private institutions, as of 1994-95.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (1992). Tuition Fees. In B.R. Clark and G. Neave
(Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Higher Education, (pages 1501-1509), Vol. 2.
London, UK: Pergamon Press.
This paper on Tuition Fees became the entry by the same title in the
massive four-volume Encyclopedia of Higher Education, published in
1992 by Pergamon Press and edited by Burton Clark and Guy Neave.
It defines tuition, or tuition fees, acknowledging the US distinction
between tuition and fees, but essentially treating as tuition fees
all charges that are not discretionary and not related to food, lodging
or other costs of student living. Johnstone presents the conventional
cases both for and against tuition fees, discusses criteria for setting an appropriate level of tuition fees, and differentiates between
the important distinction of the tuition fee at a point in time, and
increases in those tuition fees over time. It discusses the pros and cons
of differentiating tuition fees based on e.g. program costs, residency,
ability to repay student debt, or market power and student demand.
It concludes with discussions of whether the tuition (or tuition fee as
the British would write) is seen as a parental or a student obligation-which obligations differ in important ways, both in the underlying
economic and ideological rationales and in the appropriate modes
of collection.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (1991). The Costs of Higher Education. In Philip G.
Altbach (Ed.), International Higher Education: An Encyclopedia, (pp. 5989), Vol. 1. New York: Garland Science Publishing.
Johnstones entry in Altbachs 1991 two-volume International Higher
Education: An Encyclopedia, is one of the early treatments of the international comparative costs of higher education, with particular attention
to cost sharing, including data on the costs borne by students and
65
parents in five countries. Johnstone presents three broad categories

of higher educational costs: the cost of instruction; the cost of student
living; and the opportunity costs, or student-foregone earnings. He
presents the three underlying issues of higher education finance: (1)
how much of societies total resources ought to be devoted to higher,
or post-secondary education; (2) what ought to be the unit cost of
higher education, or the overall efficiency or productivity of enterprise;
(3) and how these costs ought to be apportioned among taxpayers
or the general consumer, parents, students, or philanthropists. The
encyclopedia entry discusses the ways a national higher educational
system balances the financial goals of efficiency, equity and equality
of opportunity and then goes into a discussion of cost sharing in five
nations: US, UK, Japan, Australia and Sweden. While the data are
old, the entry presents a more recent and expanded treatment of cost
sharing than Johnstones works from the mid-80s that introduced the
cost-sharing concept, and adds data on Japan and Australia not covered
in his earlier works.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (1987, Spring). International Perspectives on
Student Financial Aid. Journal of Student Financial Aid, 17(2), 30-44.
This 1987 article published in the Journal of Student Financial Aid
summarizes the essence of Johnstones 1986 book, Sharing the Cost
of Higher Education: Student Financial Assistance in the United
Kingdom, The Federal Republic of Germany, France, Sweden and
the United States. As with the book, the actual data on cost shares
and the summary descriptions of the national systems are dated, but
the underlying theory and perspective on cost sharing remains valid
and a useful lens of analyzing public and institutional policy toward
tuition, finance assistance, expectant parental contributions, loans,
elements of loan subsidy, etc.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (1986). Sharing Costs of Higher Education:
Student Financial Assistance in the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic
of Germany, France, Sweden, and the United States. New York: College
Entrance Examination Board.
This 1986 book is the foundation of Johnstones theories and writings on cost sharing--the perspective on higher education finance
that treats higher educational costs as essentially given, and then
examines how these costs are borne, or shared, by taxpayers, students, parents, and philanthropists. The comparative analysis is of
student financial assistance in the United Kingdom, United States,
France, Sweden, and Germany as of the mid 80s. While the data
are out-dated, as is the descriptions of these national systems, the
66
introductory and concluding chapters on the theory of cost sharing and on the summary observations of how public policy can be
viewed through the lens of those forces attempting to shift costs onto
another party, are still valid.
Johnstone, D. Bruce. (1972). New Patterns for College Lending: Income
Contingent Loans. New York and London: Columbia University Press.
This book, published in 1972 while the author was a Project Specialist
for the Ford Foundation, was the product of extensive research
within the Foundation in response to the question of whether the
Ford Foundation should back Yale Universitys early experiment
with income contingent lending. As the first entire book devoted to
the concept of income contingent lending, it remains important for
the analysis of the principles of income contingency, as well as an
historical record of the details of several important early and failed
experiments, particularly Yales Tuition Postponement Option, and
Dukes Deferred Tuition Plan. The book is particularly useful in its
discussion of the essence of income contingency and the need for a
source of subsidy, whether the source be the institution, the taxpayer,
or the high earning borrowers who thereby need to pay a substantial premium in effective interest on their repayments. Johnstone
also presents for the first time his proposal for a hybrid version of
income contingent and fixed-schedule loans in which only the low
earners would repay income contingently, and where the source
of subsidy would be the government, which is now subsidizing students on the basis of their parents low earnings at the time they were
in college, but which could just as (or perhaps more) reasonably
subsidize students on the basis of their own low lifetime earnings
after college, thus providing the means of funding the losses from
low earners without the mutualization of risk and the consequent
adverse selection that tends to keep potential high earners out of the
program.
Johnstone, D. Bruce and Olga Bain. (2001). Universities in Transition:
Privatization, Decentralization and Institutional Autonomy as National
Policy with Special References to the Russian Federation. Buffalo, NY: The
International Comparative Higher Education Finance and Accessibility
Project, Center for Comparative and Global Studies in Education,
University of New York at Buffalo.
This paper presents the three interrelated concepts of privatization, decentralization, and institutional policy in connection with
governments relationship to higher education, and in the context
of governmental policies that seem to be attempting to further these
67
three trends worldwide. It then gives examples with respect to governmental policies in the Russian Federation in the 1990s, following
the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the severe financial crisis, and
the embrace of more market principles.
Johnstone, D.Bruce, Alka Arora, and William Experton. (1998). The
Financing and Management of Higher Education: A Status Report on
Worldwide Reforms. Washington, DC: The World Bank. [Prepared in conjunction with the October 1998 UNESCO World Conference on Higher
Education, Paris, October 5-8, 1998.]
This monograph was commissioned in 1998 by the World Bank as
part of the World Banks contributions to the 1998 UNESCO World
Conference on Higher Education, held in Paris in October of that year.
The authors present worldwide trends in financing and management
in the context of five themes: (1) expansion and diversification; (2)
financial pressures and austerity; (3) the gravitation toward more market orientation, together with the search for more non-governmental
revenue; (4) the demand of greater accountability with both institutions and faculty; and (5) the demand for both greater quality and
greater efficiency. Particular emphasis is placed on resource diversification and increasing use of cost sharing in student loans. Examples
are given from, e.g., Hungary, Chile, China, and Argentina.
Jongbloed, Ben. (2004). Tuition Fees in Europe and Australia: Theory,
Trends and Policies. In John C. Smart (Ed.), Higher Education: Handbook
of Theory and Research (pp. 241309), Volume XIX. Dordrecht: Kluwer
Academic Publishers.
Part of the Handbook compendium series that collects literature
reviews on higher education topics, the chapter discusses tuition
fees in higher education using price theory, human capital theory and screening theory. It reviews the literature on private and
social returns to human capital investment. Using examples of
facts, trends and policies in Western Europe and Australasia, the
chapter draws some conclusions about the setting of fees and the
design of student support systems.
Jongbloed, Ben. (2003). Marketisation in Higher Education, Clarkes
Triangle and the Essential Ingrediants of Markets. Higher Education
Quarterly, 57 (2), 110-135.
The article discusses the introduction of marketization and markettype mechanism policies (deregulation and privatization) into the
higher education sector; a sector that has traditionally been characterized by a high degree of government intervention. It identifies eight
68
conditions, four for providers and four for consumers, that need to
be fulfilled for a market to function and looks at the extent to which
they exist in the Dutch higher education system. These freedoms
include freedom of entry, freedom to specify the product, freedom
to use available resources, freedom to determine prices, freedom to
choose provider, freedom to choose product, information on prices
and quality, and direct and cost-covering prices paid. The author concludes that there is a substantial presence of market-type elements in
the Dutch higher education system, with the exception of prices that
reflect costs and the capacity for new providers to enter the market.
He concludes that there is no such thing as a truly free market in
higher education and that Burton Clarks triangle of coordination
between state authority, the market and academe can be seen as a
dynamic process in which demands confront supply and that finding
the optimal balance between these is the real challenge.
Jongbloed, Ben and Jos Koelman. (2000). Vouchers for Higher
Education? A Survey of the Literature Commissioned by the Hong Kong
University Grants Committee. Enschede, the Netherlands: Center for
Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS). Available at: http://www.
utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/engart00vouchers.pdf
This report surveys the literature on the use of vouchers in higher
education and presents the pros and cons of their use. It also
describes voucher models and reviews the theory and practice of
vouchers in compulsory education and in higher education.
Jongbloed, Ben and Carlo Salerno. (2002). Funding and Recognition:
A Comparative Study of Funded Versus Non-funded Higher Education
in Eight Countries. Enschede, the Netherlands: Center for Higher
Education Policy Studies (CHEPS). Available at: http://www.utwente.nl/
cheps/documenten/engreport02fundingandrecognition.pdf
Prepared by the Centre for Higher Education Policy Studies
(CHEPS) for the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Sciences,
the report looks at how different countries invest in higher education, and specifically in higher education outside the public sector,
in order to foster the competitiveness of their systems. The study
compares the situation of recognized government funded and nonfunded higher education institutions in eight countries in terms of
formal criteria for public funding, the degree to which such criteria
refers to quality, the existence or not of programs that meet quality
criteria, but are not eligible to receive funding, and recent changes
in the system that could affect the sector of recognized, non-funded
higher education.
69
Junor, Sean and Alexander Usher. (2004). The Price of Knowledge 2004.
Access and Student Finance in Canada. Montreal, Canada: Canada
Millennium Scholarship Foundation Research Series.
This second edition of the Price of Knowledge generally follows the
same format as the original edition published in 2002, but adds new
information and additional analysis in each area. After reviewing
the barriers to post-secondary education, the book provides extensive information on the costs of higher education facing students
and their families and the student assistance resources available to
them.
Junor, Sean and Alexander Usher. (2002). The Price of Knowledge: Access
and Student Finance in Canada. Montreal, Canada: Canada Millennium
Scholarship Foundation Research Series.
Produced within the context of the Canada Millennium Scholarship
Foundations program of research into access to higher education,
the book describes what is known to date about access and student
finance in Canada. The book provides a wide range of data collected
from a variety of national sources including data on barriers to higher
education, student behavior and composition, costs of higher education, financial assistance programs and graduate outcomes.
Kagia, Ruth. (1997). Financing Sustainable Educational Programs in
Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and Opportunities. Paper presented at
the International Seminar on Basic Education and Development in SubSaharan Africa organized by Japan International Development Agency
(JICA), Tokyo, March 6-7, 1997.
The paper among other issues, discusses rationale for investing in education, context of financing educational programs in
Sub-Saharan Africa, challenges and opportunities for financing
sustainable development in Africa. Challenges discussed in this
paper include economic, political and historical diversities, rapid
population growth, heavy debts, low access to education at all levels,
gender gaps, and declining quality. Opportunities for developing
educational programs include forging effective partnerships, capacity building and supporting educational reforms.
Kaiser, Frans. (2003). Higher Education in France. Country Report. Higher
Education Monitor. Enschede, the Netherlands: Center for Higher
Education Policy Studies (CHEPS).
Available at: http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/france.pdf
Country study for France produced as part of the CHEPS Higher
Education Monitor, an ongoing research project that aims at provid-
70
ing education policy makers with current information on national

higher educational systems. Each study provides information on the
structure of the tertiary education sector. The reports provide excellent information on institutional finance and student support.
Kaiser, Frans, Hans Vossensteyn, Eric Beerkens, Petra Boezerooij,
Jeroen Huisman, Anneke Lub, Peter Maassen, Carlo Salerno and Henno
Theisens. (2003). Higher Education Policy Issues and Trends, An Update
on Higher Education Policy Issues in 11 Western Countries. Enschede, the
Netherlands: Center for Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS).
Available at: http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/engreport03monitorupdatereport.pdf
This report provides insights into the latest developments in higher
education in terms of infrastructure, finance, governance, and quality assurance in ten Western European countries (Austria, Denmark,
Finland, Flanders, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal,
Sweden and the UK) and Australia. The first part includes individual
countries profiles and cross-country studies, and the second part
presents an overview of statistical trends in these countries. The
report also looks at developments in European higher education as
part of the Lisbon process through which the European Union is
working to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledgebased economy in the world by 2010.
Kaiser, Frans, Hans Vossensteyn and Jos Koelman. (2001). Public
Funding of Higher Education: A Comparative Study of Funding
Mechanisms in Ten Countries. Enschede, the Netherlands: Center for
Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS). Available at:
http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/engart01fundingmech.pdf
This study, commissioned by the Dutch Ministry of Education,
Culture and Science in 2000, explores the funding mechanisms
in ten higher education systems: Australia, Denmark, Flanders,
France, Germany, New Zealand, Sweden, the Netherlands,
Tennessee (USA), and the UK. For each country, the study provides
a detailed description of the national funding mechanisms, highlights recent discussions and trends regarding higher education
funding and reflects on the impact of the funding mechanisms on
the quality of teaching. The first part of the report Summary and
Reflections provides an overview of the results of the project from
a comparative perspective. The second part mainly consists of the
detailed case descriptions in the ten countries. Overall the report
is an excellent resource.
71
Kaiser, Frans, van der Meer, P., Beverwiji, J., Klemperer, A., Steunenberg,
B. and A. Van Wageningen. (1999). Market Type Mechanisms in Higher
Education. A Comparative Analysis of their Occurrence and Discussions on
the Issue in Five Higher Education Systems. Enschede, the Netherlands:
Center for Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS).
Available at: http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/publications/complete_list/
english/English_reports.doc/
According to this report, public higher educational institutions are
pulled from traditional public teaching and research activities into
more market-oriented activities to generate additional resources.
The report explores types of market-oriented policies in place and
the market structure and regulations imposed by the government
to introduce market like mechanisms in higher education on the
basis of field surveys in five countries: Germany, France, the UK,
the Netherlands and the US. According to the report, the success of
market type mechanisms in higher educational institutions depends
on the level of productive efficiency, the degree of providers responsiveness to the demands of the consumers, the degree of choice that
customers have regarding services and providers and the attention
paid to equity.
Kajubi, Senteza. (1992, June). Financing Higher Education in Uganda
Higher Education, 23, 433-41.
This article discusses the current structures of educational finance
in Uganda, arguments for increased cost recovery and the introduction of student loans. The article also examines obstacles to student
loans in Uganda.
Kane, Thomas J. and Peter R. Orszag. (2003). Higher Education
Spending: The Role of Medicaid and the Business Cycle, Policy Brief
Number 124. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.
A policy brief that looks at the decline in quality in public college
and universities due to decreasing state support (due in turn to the
States rising Medicaid obligations) and the institutions inability to
offset these decreases with adequate tuition increases.
Kane, Thomas J. (1995). Rising Public College Tuition and College Entry:
How Well do Public Subsidies Promote Access to College? Working Paper
Series. National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. Cambridge, MA:
National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
This paper evaluates the price sensitivity of students, using several
sources of non-experimental variation in costs. The bulk of the
72
evidence points to large enrollment impacts, particularly for lowincome students and for those attending two-year colleges.
Kasozi, A.B.K. (2003). University Education in Uganda. Challenges and
Opportunities for Reform. Fountain Series in Education Studies. Kampala,
Uganda: Fountain Publishers.
This study reviews the higher education sector in Uganda and the
challenges that it faces in terms of access. It proposes a number
of reforms in such areas as university management, institutional
capacity and university finance. The third chapter is dedicated to
higher education finance and includes information on the cost sharing strategy that is currently in place in the public university sector.
Kaul, Rekha. (1993). Caste, Class and Education: Politics of the Capitation
Fee Phenomenon in Karnataka. New Delhi, India: Sage Publications.
This book looks at the growth of capitation fee colleges in the State
of Karnataka (and the rest of India). It argues, with data from 19
private engineering and medical colleges, that the capitation fee phenomenon reflects what it terms persisting inequalities and the elitist
base of the education system, works to maintain the caste-class and
power structures and lowers educational standards. The book concludes by outlining several corrective measures and interventions
that need to be made by the government and social forces.
Kezar, Adrianna J. (2000). Higher Education Trends: Finance. George
Washington University. Washington, DC. Graduate School of Education
and Human Development. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on
Higher Education. Available at: http://www.eriche.orgAibergU/finance.
html
Summarizes the major literature on financial issues in higher education. Reviews a major study on trends in higher education finance
that presents data from an ongoing study of tuition discounting at
270 colleges and universities and finally relates this to how higher
education is financed internationally. Debt financing, creative budget
strategies, and strategic planning in response to shrinking resources
are explored.
Kiamba, Crispus. (2004). Privately Sponsored Students and Other
Income-Generating Activities at the Univeristy of Nairobi. Journal of
Higher Education in Africa, 2(2), 53-74.
Abstract available at: http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/africaHEjournal/journal_home.htm
This article describes the income generating policies that have been
73
implemented by Kenyan public universities (with a special focus

on the University of Nairobi) to deal with declining government
investment in higher education. In particular it looks at the dual
track tuition policy adopted in 1998 wherein the limited number of
students admitted for government sponsored places in university
(Module (I program) have to pay only a token tuition fee and a much
greater number of other students are admitted on a full tuition paying basis to the Module II program.
Kiiza, Julius. (1997). Liberalization Policies and University Education in
Uganda. An Assessment of Cost Sharing Policy. M.P.S.R. , 1, 70-87.
The article critically assesses the cost sharing policy that is being
implemented in Ugandas public universities under what the author
calls a sophisticated remote control mechanism of the IMF-World
Bank fraternity Using the efficiency-equity model, the article
argues that cost sharing policy that is premised upon the doctrine
of economic rationalism, is neither socially nor politically rational.
The article further argues that in the context of socio-economic
contingencies pertaining in Uganda, cost sharing will predictably
undermine the pursuit of social equity without effectively realizing
the efficiency motive.
Kim, Anna and Young Lee. (2003). Student Loan Schemes in the Republic
of Korea: Review and Recommendations, Policy Research and Dialogue,
Student Loan Schemes in Asia, Vol. 1, N. 4, Bangkok, Thailand:
UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education and Paris:
IIEP. Available at: http://www2.unescobkk.org/ips/ebooks/documents/
studentloan/index.htm
After briefly introducing the background of the higher education
system and the development of the student loan schemes in the
Republic of Korea, this monograph, part of a new series on student loan schemes in Asia, compares the two major loan schemes,
the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development
(MOE&HRD) Scheme and the Government Employees Pension
Corporation (GEPC) Scheme in terms of their financial viability and
their equity performance. Particular attention is paid to the measurement of the loan repayment ratio, the repayment burden and the net
recovery ratio.
King, Jacqueline. (2004). Missed Opportunities: Students Who Do Not
Apply for Financial Aid. American Council on Education Issue Brief.
October. Washington, DC: American Council on Education (ACE).
The paper looks at the 50 percent of undergraduates at institu-
74
tions that participate in the federal Title IV student aid programs

who did not apply for financial aid in 1999-2000. Using data from
the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, it finds that large
proportions of low and moderate-income students (1.7 million in
1999-2000) did not complete a Free Application for Federal Student
Aid (FAFSA), that students at community colleges are far less likely
to apply for aid than students at other types of institutions and that
850,000 students who did not file a FAFSA form would have probably been eligible for a Pell Grant. The paper explores the reasons
given by students for not applying (family could afford to pay; family
income too high to qualify; missed deadlines; or some other reason)
and concludes that all low-and moderate- income students need to
be encouraged to submit the FAFSA.
King, Jacqueline. (2003a). 2003 Status Report on the Federal Education
Loan Programs. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
US Higher Education Loan Programs are complex and ever-changing, but this 2003 report is as good a description as there has been
in recent years. The author, Jacqueline King, directs the Center
for Policy Analysis of the American Council of Education, the US
umbrella Higher Education Association that represents all sectors
of higher education, public and private, and through which most
of the legislative testimony on behalf of colleges and universities
is transmitted to the US Congress, particularly during the periodic
Title V reauthorization processes. Much of the data comes from the
1999-2000 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS).
King, Jacqueline. (2003b). 2003 Status Report on the Pell Grant Program.
This report on the Pell Grant is made up of two major parts. The
first part looks at the historical trends in the Pell Grant Program
and is based on the data from the annual Pell Grant end-of-year
reports, including program structure and history, changes in the
Maximum and Average grant, number of applicants and recipients,
Pell grants and other Title IV student aid programs, family income
and college affordability, institutional participants and shares of
program funds, recipients income, and recipient dependency status. The second part describes characteristics and financing choices
of Pell grant recipients and other undergraduates and is based
on the data from 1999-2000 National Postsecondary Student Aid
Study (NPSAS), focusing on demographic characteristics, income
and Expected Family Income (EFC), institutional type and total stu-
75
dent budget, attendance status, living arrangements, and adjusted

student budget, student aid, need, net price, and unmet need, and
employment.
King, Jacqueline. (2002). Crucial Choices, How Students Financial
Decisions Affect Their Academic Success. Washington, DC: American
Council on Education, Center for Policy Analysis
This report describes the demographic and academic background of
entering college students and discusses how these students pay for
college. It also delineates the choices students can make to improve
the likelihood that they will complete a college degree. The data
show that low-income students arrive at college with many strikes
against them. Among other characteristics, they are more likely to
have children, to be the first in their family to attend college, and to
have completed a high school curriculum that is not rigorous. Even
after receiving grants, they must find an average of $5,400 in additional resources to meet their college expenses.
King, Jacqueline. (1999). Money Matters, The Impact of Race/Ethnicity
and Gender on How Students Pay for College. Washington, DC: American
Council on Education.
Using data from the 1995-96 National Postsecondary Student Aid
Study, the report focuses on how men, women and students from
the major racial and ethnic groups pay for college and identifies
background characteristics that influence their finance decisions.
The report contains student profiles of white students, AfricanAmerican students, Hispanic/Latino students, Asian-American
students, American Indian students, women students and men
students in terms of their background characteristics, their price
choices (type of institution, attendance status, and housing), the
grants that they receive and the net price they must pay, and the
financing choices that they make (work vs. loans vs. work and
loans).
King, Tracey and Ellynn Bannon. (2002). The Burden of Borrowing: A
Report on the Rising Rates of Student Debt. Washington, DC: State PIRGs
Higher Education Project.
This report discusses the high and rising rates of student loan debt
in the United States and possible explanations for such increases
including a decline in the buying power of the Pell grants, a shift
from savings to student loans among families, and large increases in
tuition. It recommends that in order to protect student from unman-
76
ageable levels of debt there need to be increases in grant aid funding,

decreases in the cost of borrowing to students, and continued flexible repayment options.
Kinser, Kevin and Daniel C. Levy. (2005). The For-Profit Sector: U.S.
Patterns and International Echoes in Higher Education. PROPHE Working
Paper Number 5. Albany, NY: Program for Research on Private Higher
Education (PROPHE). Available at: http://www.albany.edu/dept/eaps/
prophe/publication/paper/PROPHEWP05_files/PROPHEWP05.pdf
This working paper looks at the for-profit sector in higher education in the United States and identifies its main types and
international dimensions. It also points out several tendencies of
the for -profit sector that appear to be common in very different
international contexts.
Kipp, Samuel M., Derek V. Price and Jill K. Wohlford. (2002). Unequal
Opportunity, Disparities in College Access Among the 50 States, Lumina
Foundation for Education, New Agenda Series, Volume 4, Number 3.
Part of the Lumina Foundations New Agenda Series, this volume
classifies almost 3,000 public and private colleges and universities
in the United States according to their accessibility (admissibility plus affordability) to students. It finds that college/university
accessibility varies among states and among students from different income groups within states. Individual state summaries
describe the state of higher education access, the college-going
rates of recent high school graduates, and freshmen enrollment
patterns in that state.
Kirshstein, Rita J., Andrea R. Berger, Elana Benatar, and David Rhodes.
(2004). Workforce Contingent Financial Aid: How States Link Financial
Aid to Employment, Lumina Foundation for Education, Research Report.
In the United States, workforce-contingent financial aid (WCFA)
programs can take the form of programs that provide financial aid
to students in support for a future workforce commitment and
those that repay existing educational debt in exchange for specified
work. The number of programs is expanding rapidly at the state
and national levels and 43 states support programs. Few studies
assess the effectiveness of these programs and it appears that their
popularity is based more on political appeal and appearances than
on quantitative findings. The report documents the need for further
77
research to assess the success of such programs in helping students

cover their educational costs.
Kitaev, Igor. (1999). Private Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Re-examination of Theories and Concepts Related to its Development and Finance.
Paris: UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).
Available at:
http://www.unesco.org/iiep/eng/publications/catalogue.htm
This book reviews the existing literature, theories, and concepts
related to the recent trends in the development and financing of
private primary and secondary education in sub-Saharan African.
Covered in this book are the following themes: rationale for private
education development and finance; current trends in private education development and finance; information and decision making on
private education finance; and implications for policy research on
community/family contributions to private education.
Kitaev, Igor, Teresita Nadurata, Virginia Resurrection and Freddie
Bernal. (2003). Student Loans in the Philippines: Lessons from the Past.
Policy Research and Dialogue, Student Loan Schemes in Asia, Vol. 1,
N. 1. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for
Education and Paris: IIEP. Available at: http://www2.unescobkk.org/
ips/ebooks/documents/studentloan/index.htm
After reviewing the background of the higher education system
and the student financial support programs in the Philippines, this
monograph, part of a new series on student loans schemes in Asia,
focuses on the central student loan scheme, Study Now, Pay Later
(SNPL), looking at its history, problems and lessons. It also briefly
describes new student loan initiatives in the Philippines.
Kruss, Glenda and Andre Kraak. (2003). A Contested Good?
Understanding Private Higher Education in Africa. Boston, MA and Albany,
NY: Boston Colleges Center for International Higher Education and
SUNY at Albanys Project for Research on Private Higher Education
(PROPHE).
Made up largely of papers from the conference on private higher education in South Africa organized by the Human Science Research
Council in 2002, the book seeks to empirically describe the sector
in South Africa (largely commercial, for-profit, non-university), and
examine the debates that are presently surrounding it involving regulation and accreditation and its role as competition or complement
to the public higher education sector.
78
Kusherbaev, Krymbek et al. (2001). Educational Financing and Budgeting

in Kazakhstan, Financial Management of Education Systems, Paris:
International Institute for Education Planning UNESCO. Available at:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001235/123537e.pdf
The volume looks at processes in education finance in Kazakhstan
after 1991. These developments are discussed in a broader context of
changes that have taken place within the countrys system of education during the decade since independence. The volume indicates
problem areas in financing education and describes the solutions
sought to address them. In addition, the volume contains appendixes with detailed information on the education enterprise and its
finance in Kazakhstan.
LaRocque, Norman. (2003). Who Should Pay? Tuition Fees and Tertiary
Education Financing in New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand:
Education Forum. Available at: http://www.educationforum.org.nz/documents/publications/who_should_pay.pdf
The book discusses the tertiary education policy shifts of the 1990s
in New Zealand, specifically focusing on the introduction of tuition
fees, the creation of an income contingent student loans program,
and the effects of these reforms on access to tertiary education. The
book also provides international comparisons on the issues of higher
education finance and access. The author states that there is little
justification for public subsidies to tertiary education and analyzes
the beneficial effects of tuition fees in higher education. He also
disagrees with, and provides counter evidence to, those who argue
that tuition fees negatively impact participation especially among
underrepresented groups.
LaRocque, Norman. (2001). Shaping the Tertiary Education System.
Wellington, New Zealand: Education Forum and Arthur Anderson.
Available at: http://www.educationforum.org.nz/
This report examines the underlying rationale for the proposed
reforms in New Zealand and discusses the Tertiary Education
Advisory Commissions second report Shaping the System. The
author identifies problems with the report in terms of its perception of competition and the impact of competition on the tertiary
education sector and the Commissions approach to funding and
regulating the tertiary education sector. The author assesses the
wider tertiary education reforms as well, including the student loan
scheme tuition fees, and equity impacts of increased spending on
tertiary education.
79
Lebel, Philip. (1999). Economic Criteria for Higher Education Finance.

Paper presented at the International Conference on Reforming
Universities for the 21st Century, Beijing, China July 31-August 1, 1999.
Drawing some examples from developed and developing nations,
the paper argues that although proposals for reform of university
finance may begin in the first instance as a response to political
pressure, it is important to examine the economic impact of alternative financial incentives. The paper outlines how different financial
incentives may produce alternative educational outcomes. Any proposal to alter the method of university financing should proceed on
a clear understanding of the effects of various economic incentives,
the paper concludes.
Lee, W. O. (2002). Equity and Access to Education: Themes, Tensions and
Policies, Education in Developing Asia, Vol. 4, Asian Development Bank.
Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of
Hong Kong.
trends of access and equity in education in the developing member
countries of the ADB and then looks at these trends by country to
study the relationship between the degrees of access and equity and
individual characteristics of economic and human development.
Leslie, Larry and Paul Brinkman. (1988). The Economic Value of Higher
Education. New York: American Council on Education.
This volume, while dated, is valuable both for its treatment of the history of the literature, and especially of the empirical research, on the
economic value of higher education in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s,
and also for its integrative review or meta-analysis of this research.
Meta-analysis is an analysis that puts together empirical research from
a large number of studies with slightly different populations and subjected to slightly different statistical techniques and attempts to draw
a new overview conclusion from the substantially larger database,
although not necessarily data that was collected at the same time in
the same way. The meta-analysis is particularly useful when much of
the empirical research was based on small or narrowly drawn samples,
and which were often inconclusive because of these limitations. The
Leslie and Brinkman meta-analysis is useful particularly in its attempt
to reach conclusion from the many somewhat flawed and rather small
studies on income elasticity of demand for higher educationthat is,
80
studies that have attempted to show the enrollment impact of tuition

increases. There remains considerable controversy regarding the
usefulness or even appropriateness of research that uses aggregate
enrollment changes as the only dependent variable, but Leslie and
Brinkmans meta-analysis is probably the best summary of this body
of research especially from the 70s and 80s.
Levy, Jan S. (2004). Student Finance Schemes in Norway. A Case Study.
Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.
A case study of the Norwegian higher education finance system tracing its development over the last 60 years. Considerable attention is
given to the system reforms made in 2003 that increased the financial support to students and increased the grants proportion of this
support.
Levy, Daniel C. (2004). The New Institutionalism: Mismatches with
Private Higher Educations Global Growth, PROPHE Working Paper
Series, Working Paper No. 3. Albany, NY: Project for Research on
Private Higher Education (PROPHE). Available at: http://www.albany.
edu/~prophe/publication/
This paper compares evidence on private higher education with the
new institutionalism and concludes that the new institutionalism does
not take into account the enormous and often growing organizational
diversity brought on by the sharp growth of private higher education.
Levy analyzes the private higher education sectors in Argentina, China
and Hungary. He also explores how the coercive and non-coercive
tenets of isomorphism come up short against the private higher education literatures inter-sectoral evidence. The paper finally deals with
two further sectoral considerations: reconciling the new institutionalism with inter-sectoral diversity, and privatization and intrasectoral
diversity.
Levy, Daniel C. (2003). Profits and Practibility: How South Africa
Epitomizes the Global Surge in Commercial Private Higher Education,
Working Paper Series, Working Paper No. 2. Albany, NY: Project for
Research on Higher Education (PROPHE). Available at:
http://www.albany.edu/~prophe/publication/
This paper argues that the growth of South Africas private higher
education illustrates the commercial thrust at the bottom of most
contemporary private higher education growth worldwide. From a
comparative perspective this paper uses global perspectives to help
understand the South African case and uses the South African case to
help understand key global tendencies. The conclusion is that South
81
Africa presents an intriguing case through which to explore the nature

of the worlds expanding commercial private higher education.
Levy, Daniel C. (2002). Unanticipated Development: Perspectives on
Private Higher Educations Emerging Roles, PROPHE Working Paper
Series, Working Paper No. 1. Albany, NY: Project for Research on Private
Higher Education (PROPHE). Available at:
http://www.albany.edu/~prophe/publication/
The paper analyzes the roles of private higher education and posits that the development of these roles has been unanticipated and
has not followed a systematic design. The consideration of private
higher educations roles includes three inter-related contrasts: 1)
roles linked to various types of private higher education; 2) roles in
new and established private sectors; 2) distinctive and non-distinctive roles, compared to public roles.
Levy, Daniel C. (Ed.). (1986). Private Education: Studies in Choice and
Public Policy. New York: Oxford University Press.
The book is made up of three parts: overviews of private school
choice and public policy, intersectoral comparisons, and review of
private choice and financial policy in higher education. Public policies towards private schools are examined in part one. Comparisons
between private and public schools are made in part two, also at the
higher education level. International patterns of higher education
finance, financing of private higher education in America, and crosssubsidization in higher
Lewis, Darrell R. and Halil Dunbar. (1999). Equity Effects of Higher
Education in Developing Countries: Access, Choice and Persistence. In
David W. Chapman and Ann E. Austin (Eds.), Higher Education in the
Developing World: Changing Contexts and Institutional Responses (pp. 169194). Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishers.
Part of a collection of papers that look at the critical issues facing
higher education institutions in the developing world, the paper
looks at the challenge of managing enrollment expansion while
preserving equity, raising quality, and controlling costs. It asserts
that despite increases in enrollments, programs and institutions,
there has been only limited progress on equalizing educational
opportunities for disadvantaged groups in developing countries. It
points out the inequalities inherent in systems that provide free or
low cost education to students from middle and high-income families and calls for the implementation of tuition fees (or increases
in existing tuition fees) of up to 20 or 25 percent of instructional
82
costs and the use of some of these funds for means tested financial
assistance to students from lower socio-economic groups.
Li, Wenli and Weifang Min. (2000). Tuition, Private Demand and Higher
Education Expansion in China. Beijing, China: School of Education,
Peking University.
All higher education institutions in China have adopted cost-recovery policies since 1997. This study analyzes the impact of college
costs, expected return to education and family education and
financial background on the probability of individual enrollment
in higher education in China, especially in urban areas. The data
are from Urban Household Survey of the State Statistical Bureau of
China, which was collected in August 1999. Using price-response
measures, this study examines cost sensitivity among different
income groups. It also analyzes willingness to pay for higher education and the financial resources available for students educational
expenses using data from a college student survey, administered in
December 1999. This study finds that the main portion of financial
resources is coming from the students families, and that the gap
in terms of willingness to pay among different income groups is
becoming larger with increases in tuition. The study concludes
by outlining some recommendations aimed at informing enrollment projections and tuition policy choices in the Chinese higher
education system.
Looker, E. Dianne. (2004). Why Dont They Go On? Factors Affecting
the Decisions of Canadian Youth Not to Pursue Post-Secondary Education.
Montreal, Canada: Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation
Research Series. Available at: http://www.millenniumscholarships.
ca/images/Publications/looker_en.pdf
The paper focuses on why young people opt out of postsecondary
education. In order to address this question, it uses two studies of
Canadian youth commissioned by the Canada Millennium Scholarship
Foundation (Foley, 2001, and COGEM, 2001), which examine the factors affecting the decision not to attend postsecondary education. The
paper gives an overview of the relevant literature, describes the design
and major findings of the two studies mentioned above, and presents
some policy implications based on this research.
Lund, Helen. (1999). Making and Saving Money: Income Generation and
Cost Saving in Higher Education, Commonwealth Higher Education Manage
ment (CHEMS)-Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU).
Based on data from questionnaire surveys administered to 150 insti-
83
tutions in Commonwealth countries (attached in the article) and

other sources in a variety of countries, this report consists of two
main parts: income generation and cost saving. The institutional
initiatives for generating income include: 1) short and full-cost
courses, 2) advertising, 3) corporate sponsorship, 4) hire of facilities,
5) fundraising, 6) research/technology transfer/spin-off companies, 7) sale of manufactured goods and commercial services, 8)
investment, and 9) unusual income generating initiatives. Lund
also summarizes the institutional initiatives for cost saving which
include: 1) conference management, 2) downsizing, 3) estates and
environment, 4) finance office, 5) libraries, 6) personnel administration, 7) publications and information, 8) purchasing, 9) student
administration, 10) teaching and learning, and 11) cost-cutting
across the board.
Mabizela, Mahlubi, George Subotzky and Beverley Thaver. (2002).
The Emergence of Private Higher Education in South Africa: Key Issues
and Challenges. A discussion document prepared for the CHE Annual
Consultative Conference, Education Policy Unit, University of the Western
Cape.
The document discusses emerging trends in the private higher education sector in South Africa, international trends in private higher
education, and the relationship between private higher education
and the public sphere.
Maldonado, Alma, Yingxia Cao, and Philip G. Altbach. (2004). Private
Higher Education: An International Bibliography. Charlotte, NC:
Information Age Publishing.
This volume provides a bibliographical guide to the literature on private higher education. It contains nearly 2,000 documents books,
articles, reports, theses and dissertations from all over the world,
compiled according to geographical region, topic and author. It is a
very useful reference book for researchers to consult relevant materials in the field of private higher education.
Marginson, Simon. (1997, November). Imagining ivy: Pitfalls in the
privatization of higher education in Australia. Comparative Education
Review, 41, 46080.
The challenges involved in privatizing higher education in Australia
are examined in detail. Distinctions are made between private
commercial and private nonprofit institutions to explain why the
unaided private sector failed in Australia but succeeded in Latin
America.
84
Massy, William F. (2004). Markets in Higher Education: Do They Promote

Internal Efficiency? In Pedro Teixeira, Ben Jongbloed, David Dill and
Alberto Amaral (Eds.), Markets in Higher Educatio. Rhetoric or Reality?
(pp. 13-36). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
The paper, prepared for the third Douro Seminar in Douro, Portugal
(October 2003) on markets in higher education, assesses the extent
to which markets drive institutions toward internal efficiency. The
author concludes that markets do better than government regulation
and gives some recommendations for improving their performance.
Mateju, Petr and Natalie Simonova. (2003, June). Czech Higher
Education Still at the Crossroad. Czech Sociological Review. (39)3,
393-411.
The article, part of a special issue on Higher Education, reviews the
transformation of the Czech higher education system since the fall of
Communism. It argues that while there have been significant changes
in terms of its structure, governance, autonomy, openness and spirit,
lasting financial and structural obstacles have limited growth and
higher education opportunities. The authors point to the failure of
the Bill of Financing Higher Education, which would have established
a comprehensive student financial assistance program, increased the
use of private funding and expanded capacity, to pass Parliament
in 2002 as a major blow to the ability of the sector to accommodate
increased demand.
Matthews, Rebecca. (2001). Myths of Equal Opportunity 2001: Wealth of
School-District as a Determinant of Tertiary Participation. Wellington, New
Zealand: New Zealand University Students Association.
This report looks at the tertiary participation rate of school-leavers
by the wealth of their school district. It was conducted in a policy
environment where there have been some government measures
to improve equity of participation by lowering the costs of study
through charging no interest on student loans during in-school
years. The analysis found that between 1997 and 2000 there was
an improvement in tertiary participation rates from most deciles,
with the exception of students from Deciles 6-8 who seems to have
plateaued. There is still a much greater likelihood of tertiary participation for students from wealthier school districts.
Mayanja, Muhammad. (1998). The Social Background of Makerere
University Students and the Potential for Cost Sharing. Higher
Education, 36 (1), 21-41.
The article assesses the social background of Ugandan students at
85
Makerere University who are given subsidy to cover part of the costs
of higher education. The findings were that students from well-to-do
affluent families from prosperous districts were enjoying the performance-based subsidy (PBS) and the privately sponsored places
and programs (PSSP) introduced by Makerere University. The study
recommended that while the government must have the primary
responsibility for funding higher education, the public subsidy must
become more sensitive to equity and if need be the government
should introduce cost sharing based on positive discrimination.
Mayhew, Ken, Cecile Deer and Mehak Dua. (2004). The Move to Mass
Higher Education in the UK: Many Questions and Some Answers.
Oxford Review of Education, 30(1), 65-82.
This paper describes the course and causes of the expansion of higher
education in the UK since the 1960s. While the number of university
students from modest social backgrounds has increased, they comprise much the same proportion of the university population as they
did 40 years ago. Though personal rates of return from higher education are generally substantial, there is still doubt about the extent
of the returns to society and how productively new graduates will be
employed in the labor market. The paper considers the impact of this
expansion with tight public funding since the early 1980s and of the
increase in compliance and audit costs. Finally it suggests that the
incentive structures applied by the government may have made the
different parts of the sector more homogenous than is desirable.
McEwan, Patrick J. and Martin Carnoy. (2000, Fall). The Effectiveness
and Efficiency of Private Schools in Chiles Voucher System. Educational
Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 213-239.
This article evaluates the relative effectiveness and efficiency of
private and public schools under Chiles voucher system that was
introduced in 1980. The findings show mixed results in terms of
effectiveness (academic achievement) and efficiency (cost per specified level of outputs) among non-religious voucher schools, Catholic
voucher schools, public schools and Catholic schools.
McKeown-Moak, Mary. (2002). Financing Higher Education in the New
Century, The Third Annual Report from the States. Denver, CO: State
Higher Education Executive Officers (SHEEO).
This report summarizes trends in financing higher education in the
United States based on various reports of states appropriations and
a survey of state higher education finance officers.
86
McMahon, Walter W. (1988). Potential Resource Recovery in Higher

Education in Developing Countries and the Parents Expected
Contribution. Economics of Education Review, 7(1), 135152.
The first published article to note the great difficulty of cost-effectively determining family incomes, and the difficulties this poses
for all financing schemes that purport to be need based.
McPherson, Michael S. and Morton Owen Schapiro. (2001). The
Blurring Line Between Merit and Need in Financial Aid. Stanford, CA:
National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.
Available at: http://www.stanford.edu/group/ncpi/documents/pdfs/
the_blurring_line.pdf
This paper looks beyond the merit and need labels to provide
empirical evidence on the sensitivity of aid awards to both need
and merit, understood as evidence of academic achievement or
potential. It shows that even need-based grant awards are measurably
sensitive to students academic promise, while the responsiveness
of award levels to income is less than a purely need-based system
would produce. A focus solely on so-called non-need or merit
aid significantly understates the role that academic promise and
achievement play in the distribution of institutional grant aid. The
paper concludes that the greater transparency provided by common
standards of need measurement is a considerable virtue, and is also
probably about as far as the anti-trust laws might properly allow
cooperation on aid policy to go.
McPherson, Michael S. and Morton Owen Schapiro. (1998). The
Student Aid Game: Meeting Need and Rewarding Talent in American
Higher Education. Consortium for Policy Research in Education,
Madison, WI. Finance Center. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
This book examines issues in the provision of student financial aid
within the context of continuing changes in government student aid
policies and private sector decisions resulting in larger and larger
shares of the cost of higher education being borne by individuals and
their families. Part I reviews the role student aid has played in the
past and the changing way colleges and universities approach student aid. Part II examines how undergraduate education is financed
in the United States. Implications of recent financing trends for
access and choice of undergraduate college are reviewed. Part III
focuses on how various categories of colleges and universities have
been changing their financing patterns both in their sources of revenue and pattern of expenditure. Part IV highlights merit aid from
87
the view of both students and institutions. Part V addresses policy

implications at the government level and for individual schools.
Principles for decision-making are offered.
McPherson, Michael S., Morton Owen Shapiro and Gordon C. Wilson.
(1993). Paying the Piper, Productivity, Incentives and Financing in U.S.
Higher Education. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
Revenue shortfall and expenditure pressures are forcing higher
educational institutions to be economical and accountable to their
products. The theme of this book is whether institutions of higher
learning meet production requirements in terms of input and output measures without losing sight of the broader mission of higher
education. The book argues that they meet efficiency requirements
at the same time that they produce the desired outcome through the
application of incentives. By deciding who pays the bill, the financial
system in US higher education creates a set of incentives that determine the productivity of the system. The book explores important
policy issues such as the impact of federal aid on the enrollment
behavior of students from low-income families, and the effect of
government financing on the institutional behavior of colleges and
universities. The book concludes with a discussion of the next frontier in higher education economics.
Merisotis, Jamie and Dianne S. Gilleland. (2000). Funding South
African Higher Education: Steering Mechanisms to Meet National Goals.
Washington, DC: The Institute for Higher Education Policy. Available at:
http://www.ihep.org/Pubs/PDF/SouthAfrica.pdf
This comprehensive research-based paper discusses funding mechanisms that are designed to encourage or steer South African higher
education towards meeting certain economic and social goals. These
mechanisms can be included either as a part of a base formula funding that is provided to institutions or as part of non-base funding
provided by the government to continue the basic operation and
maintenance of higher education.
Metcalf, Hilary. (2005). Paying for University: The Impact of Increasing
Costs on Student Employment, Debt and Satisfaction. National Institute
Economic Review. 191(1), pp. 106-117.
The article reviews findings from a student survey on the effects of
tuition fees in the UK on debt, term-time employment and student
satisfaction. The survey found that while fees have led to an increase
in student debt and a decline in student satisfaction, they did not
appear to impact term-time employment.
88
Min, Weifang. (2004). Historical Perspectives and Contemporary

Challenges: The Case of Chinese Universities. Beijing, China: Center on
Chinese Education.
This paper reviews the Chinese higher education system in a historical perspective. The author gives particular attention to changes in
its financing system that were the result of the countrys economic
reforms and the growing demand for higher education that accompanied them.
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. Republic of Kenya.
(2005). Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on A Policy Framework for Education,
Training and Research. Nairobi, Kenya: Government Printer.
The paper, written to provide a policy framework for the Kenyan
education and training sector in the 21st century, reviews the
evolution of education policy in Kenya since independence and
sets out a number of goals and objectives. In terms of higher
education, the goal is to expand public universities to have a
capacity of at least 5,000 students each by 2015 and to increase
the proportion of all students studying science related courses to
50 percent, with at least one third of these being women by the
year 2010. Among the strategies for reaching these goals include
the creation of incentives for increased investments in university
education, the creation of an all-embracing national accreditation system with credit transfer; increases in the Government
contribution to the loan scheme and mobilization of resources
from the private sector so the loan program can give loans to all
categories of students.
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. (2002).
Palestinian Higher Education Financing Strategy. Palestinian National
Authority. Washington, DC: World Bank.
This paper discusses the main challenges facing Palestinian
Higher Education in terms of financial hardship. Chapter one
reviews the problems of increasing demand, financial sustainability, efficiency, equity, and management. Chapter 2 discusses the
development of financing strategies. Chapter 3 focuses on assessing the success of the financing strategies and different scenarios
in meeting their goals. The last chapter addresses the implementation of administrative and regulatory measures that are needed
to supplement the financing policies.
Minxuan, Zhang. (2000). Differential or Flat? A Comparative Study
of Tuition Policies in the World. A Consultant Report to the University
89
Grants Committee of Hong Kong University, March 2000.

Prepared for the University Grants Committee of Hong Kong, the
report reviews tuition fee policies throughout the world and their
rationales from a historical perspective giving particular attention
to the rationales for differential versus flat tuition fees. It then looks
at the factors involved in tuition policies in Hong Kong and, given
their widespread acceptance there, focuses on the arguments for a
differential versus flat tuition fee policy. While Hong Kong has had
a flat tuition policy for the past twenty years, the author reviews the
recent arguments or rationales for a differential policy (based on
course unit costs, expected returns to the students, or students and
families ability to pay). The author reviews these rationales, but
concludes that it is not the right time to introduce differential fees
in higher education in Hong Kong with the exception of medical
studies whose higher unit costs and higher expected returns call for
higher tuition fees.
Mizikaci, Fatma. (2006). Higher Education in Turkey. UNESCO-CEPES
Monographs on Higher Education. Bucharest, Romania: UNESCO.
A detailed description of the higher education sector in Turkey, its
history and future challenges. Contains many interesting statistics
that are not available in English from the countrys higher education authorities.
Mkude, Daniel. (2003). Contracting Non-Academic Services to Private
Providers: The Dar Es Salaam Experience. Case study prepared for a
Regional Training Conference on Improving Tertiary Education in SubSaharan Africa, Accra, September 2003.
This article prepared for the Regional Training Conference on
Improving Tertiary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa held in Accra,
Ghana in September 2003 looks at the experience of the University
of Dar es Salaam in contracting out non-academic services (general
cleaning, gardening and landscaping, security of off campus hostels
and catering) as a way of reducing student unit cost, allowing the
university to focus its attention on its core business and increasing
the efficiency of these services. The report outlines the non-tangible
and tangible benefits of the privatization exercise and recommends
that all universities in Africa identify their core mission and the services that belong to it and those services that could be better operated
by others outside the university.
Mkude, Daniel, Brian Cooksey and Lisbeth Levey. (2003). Higher
Education in Tanzania, A Case Study. Oxford, UK and Dar es Salaam,
90
Tanzania: James Currey and mkuku n Nyota.

Published in association with the Partnership for Higher Education in
Africa, an initiative of Carnegie Corporation of New York, The Ford
Foundation, The John D. and Catherine T. McArthur Foundation,
and the Rockefeller Foundation, the book outlines the major
higher education reforms undertaken by the University of Dar es
Salaam, Tanzanias oldest and largest public university, through its
Institutional Transformation Program. The book mainly focuses on
financial reforms (including the introduction of cost sharing), curricula reforms, and governance, administration, and planning reforms
undertaken by the University from 1988 to present.
Mok, Ka-Ho and Jason Tan. (2004). Globalization and Marketization
in Education. A Comparative Analysis of Hong Kong and Singapore.
Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Using findings from recent research projects conducted by the
authors, this book looks at the strategies used by Hong Kong and
Singapore to reform their education systems in response to globalization. Particular attention is paid to education financing, provision
and regulation and the extent to which the two countries have
changed their education governance models from one of state control to market-led models. The authors conclude, using the example
of the education sector, that instead of bringing about an end to
the state, globalization may instead be driving the modern state to
change the way the public sector is managed resulting in a more
activist state.
Mokgwathi, G.M.G. (1992). Financing Higher Education in Botswana.
Higher Education, 23(4), 425-31.
The article describes the current system of university finance in
Botswana and considers alternative options, including the introduction of student loans recommended by the Presidential Commission
in 1990.
Monks, James. (2001). Loan Burdens and Educational Outcomes.
Economics of Education Review, 20, 545-550.
This study investigates the relationship between student debt levels
and the likelihood of pursuing a graduate degree. It focuses on the
educational outcomes of graduating seniors from a set of private,
highly selective colleges and universities in the USA. The central
conclusion the author draws is that students do not appear to be significantly influenced by their debt in regards to their post-graduation
91
choices. However, a sizable minority of borrowers do feel adversely

affected by their student loans.
Mora, Jose-Gines and Michael Nugent. (1998). Seeking New Resources
for European Universities: the Example of Fund-raising in the US.
European Journal of Education, 33(1), 113-131.
With Government revenue declining on the one hand, and the
demand for higher education increasing on the other, European
universities are facing the need to diversify their sources of financial
support. The article describes several alternative sources of income
including tuition fees and fees for research and service contracts
that are being introduced in European universities today. However,
with the state budget for higher education ever declining, the article
argues that there is a need to look for additional alternative financial schemes. It then explores the applicability of voluntary support
and institutional advancement that are common in the US to the
European context. The article concludes that European universities
can and should initiate both voluntary support and institutional
advancement following the US model.
Mumper, Michael. (1995). Removing College Price Barriers: What
Government Has Done and Why It Hasnt Worked. New York: SUNY Press.
Mumper explores federal and state efforts to achieve universal college affordability, and explains why those efforts have failed. Rising
costs and constrained budgets are the easy answers, however, shifting federal government policies toward grants and loans made the
real difference. Though Pell Grants were increased, a larger percentage of totals went to awarding grants to those with higher incomes
rather than providing more for the most disadvantaged. Likewise, a
larger percent of the total student aid budget went towards funding
loans to finance, in large part, middle and upperincome students.
Recommendations are made.
Musisi, Nakanyike B. and Nansozi K. Muwanga. (2003). Makerere
University in Transition, 1993 2000. Oxford, UK and Kampala, Uganda:
James Currey and Foundation Publishers.
Published in association with the Partnership for Higher Education in
Africa, an initiative of Carnegie Corporation of New York, The Ford
Foundation, The John D. and Catherine T. McArthur Foundation,
and the Rockefeller Foundation, the book documents the major
higher education reforms undertaken by Makerere University,
Ugandas oldest and largest public university, from 1993-2000. In
92
particular, the book describes the cost sharing and revenue diversification policies implemented at Makerere University that brought it
from near bankruptcy and total dependency on government financing in the early 1980s to raising over 60 percent of its annual budget
by the 1999/ 2000 academic year.
Mwamila, Burton L.M., Issa Omari and Eva Mbuya. (2002). Proceedings
from the International Conference on Financing Higher Education. Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania: University of Dar es Salaam.
Proceedings from the ten-nation conference, Financing Higher
Education in Eastern and Southern Africa: Diversifying Revenue
and Expanding Accessibility, held in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,
in March 2002 and co-hosted by the University of Dar es Salaam
and the International Comparative Higher Education Finance and
Accessibility Project of the State University of New York at Buffalo.
In addition to the keynote papers, the proceedings include highlights
from the discussions and a list of findings and recommendations
that reflect the views of the majority of participants. Among the
latter is the recognition that cost-sharing in some fashion is almost
certainly an imperative for African higher education and that tuition
fees are an important component of cost sharing.
Nanzaddorj, Buluut. (2001). Educational financing and budgeting
in Mongolia. Financial management of education systems. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning- UNESCO.Available at:
Prepared as part of the IIEPs research project on capacity building in
budgetary processes for education in Central Asia and Mongolia, the
book analyses the financial management and budgeting procedures
used in Mongolia against a backdrop of its educational system and
recent history. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Mongolia
has experimented with market reforms in education and introduced
cost sharing in higher education.
Narayana, M.R. (2005). Student Loan by Commercial Banks: A Way to
Reduce State Government Financial Support to Higher Education in
India. Journal of Developing Areas, 171-187.
This study aims to find plausible answers to the ongoing policy
debate about financing higher education through public subsidies
versus student loans. It focuses specifically on the financing of
collegiate education, which is part of general higher education,
in Karnataka State in South India. This study provides interesting data about the development of student lending in India, as
93
well as the structure of higher education finance. The results of

this study imply that the student loan may not be a perfect substitute for budgetary subsidies to the poor but deserving student in
collegiate education. Thus, the paper recommends a mix of governmental and private funds in supporting students through collegiate
education.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2004). Paying for College:
Changes between 1990 and 2000 for Full-time Dependent Undergraduates.
Findings from the Condition of Education 2004. Washington, DC: United
States Department of Education. Available at:
http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2004/2004075.pdf
The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is the part of the
US Department of Education responsible for collecting and analyzing data that are related to education in the US and abroad. In terms
of higher education, the NCES collects information on a variety of
issues from postsecondary institutions (Integrating Postsecondary
Data System) and students (National Postsecondary Student Aid
Studies NPSAS - and National Education Longitudinal Study
NELS) and publishes the Condition of Education and the Digest of
Education Statistics each year. This report examines changes in student financing of undergraduate education between 1989-90 and
1999-2000, focusing on full-time students who were considered
financially dependent on their parents for financial aid purposes.
The results of the changes enacted by the 1992 higher Education
Amendments are pointed out, and comparisons are made by using
data for the 1989-98 and 1999-2000 NPSAS years by type of institutions and family income quarters.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2003). Congressionally
Mandated Studies of College Costs and Prices. Washington, DC: United
States Department of Education.
This monograph discusses the major findings of the three NCES
publications that were prepared in response to the Congressional
mandate in Section 131 of the 1998 Amendments to the Higher
Education Act. These include the Study of College Costs and Prices,
1988-89 to 1997-98; What Students Pay for College: Changes in Net Price
of College Attendance Between 1992-03 and 1999-2000; and A Study of
Higher Education Instructional Expenditures: The Delaware Study of
Instructional Costs and Productivity. The report looks at the extent to
which spending patterns contribute to tuition increases; the extent
to which increases in financial aid have helped students and their
families meet the increasing price of postsecondary education; and
94
the direct instructional expenditures within the disciplinary mix of

an institution and by discipline across institutional types.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2002). Student Financing
Undergraduate Education, 1999-2000. Statistical Analysis Report,
National Postsecondary Student Aid Study. Washington, DC: United
States Department of Education.
This report describes the tuition, total price of attendance, and
financial aid received by undergraduates who were enrolled in U.S.
postsecondary institutions during the 1999-2000 academic year,
based on data from 1999-2000 National Postsecondary Student Aid
Study. It begins with a discussion of the percentage of undergraduates receiving various types of financial aid, the sources of the aid,
and the average award amounts in 1999-2000. The focus is on loans
and grants at the four major types of institutions where undergraduates are enrolled. This report also includes a compendium of tables
that describe tuition, total price of attendance and the various types
and sources of financial aid in more detail by institutional and student characteristics.
National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education. (2004).
Measuring Up 2004. The National Report Card on Higher Education. San
Jose, CA: The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education.
Available at: http://www.highereducation.org
The third in the Measuring Up series, the report evaluates and
grades the 50 states based on their higher education performance
in terms of higher school student preparation, higher education participation and affordability, completion rates, and benefits.
National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education. (2002). Losing
Ground, A National Status Report on the Affordability of American Higher
Education. San Jose, CA: The National Center for Public Policy and
Higher Education. Available at: http://www.highereducation.org
The National Center for Public Policy in Higher Education has been
an independent watchdog over higher educational policy at both
the federal and state levels--independent from the institutional
associations in Washington, DC as well as the various associations of institutions at the state level. Directed by Patrick Callan,
the staff has taken upon itself to provide excellent, well-researched,
and frequently provocative comparisons of the 50 states on various
dimensions, including quality, accountability and affordability. This
report is the 2002 report on affordability, considering both state and
national policies. The five national trends identified in the report
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include: (1) the high rate of tuition increases that have made US
higher education less affordable for most American families; (2)
the failure of both federal and state financial aid to keep pace with
these tuition increases; (3) the striking increase in borrowing to pay
for college; (4) the juxtaposition of steep increases in public college
tuition with a serious flattening of earnings on the part of the bottom income deciles of the American public; and (5) the fact that
tuition has been increased at such high rates in part to compensate
for the failure of state support to maintain its share of the increasing
costs of higher education.
National Commission on the Cost of Higher Education. (1998). Straight
Talk About College Costs and Prices. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press
This book includes facts and figures on federal student aid, student
aid and tuition, real costs, and college costs in addition to sociological
surveys, one example being the perceived costs of higher education.
Terms and concepts are also neatly identified and described in easy
language as it is written for highlevel policy makers, not specialists.
An excellent reference for US higher education.
National Union of Students. (2000). Equal access or elitist entry? The
Impact of Student Funding on Access to Higher Education. London, UK:
National Union of Students.
This monograph from the UK National Union of Students is a predictably partisan and critical, but nonetheless well researched and
written, answer to the UK governments increasing drift in the late
1990s toward increasing reliance on markets, tuition fees, and student loans. The National Union of Students has always opposed
these trends, seemingly in the hope of restoring and even enhancing
an earlier period in the UK where higher education was free of any
tuition fees and students were supported by generous means-tested
maintenance grants that allowed them to pursue their studies full
time, without the distractions either of part-time employment or the
burden of borrowing. The monograph is partly an examination of
Australia, Germany, and the US, and in particular an attempt to find
fault with both Australia and the United States, both of which continue to move in the direction of cost sharing and a higher education
finance system that places a portion of the burden on both parents
and students. The report is well written, but predictably selective
both in its citations and its conclusions, finding both the Australian
and the American systems injurious to students and participation
(contrary to much evidence presented elsewhere, such as Chapman
and Johnstone).
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National Union of Students. (1968). The Case Against Loans, NUS Policy
on Student Support. London: National Union of Students.
This pamphlet written in 1968 is dated, but is still of considerable historic interest, presenting the British students case against
loanswhich case is actually an affirmation of their case for no
tuition fees and for generous mandatory grants covering the costs
of student living. This was written before there was any tuition fees
and before there were any student loans in the UK. The absence of
any general available student loan program in Britain was almost
certainly a hardship for older students, part-time students, further
education students, and others who were not eligible for the thengenerous mandatory grants. However, the opposition to loans was
predicated on a strategic assumption that the British Government
would be politically constrained from adopting tuitions or allowing an erosion of mandatory grants as long as there were no loans
to accommodate the students. The corollary assumption was that
the existence of a generally-available student loan program would
be a precursor to either the advent of tuition fees or to an erosion
of student grantsboth of which, of course, began occurring in
the late 1990s.
Netherlands Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis and the Center for
Higher Education Policy Studies. (2001). Higher Education Reform:
Getting the Incentives Right. Enschede, the Netherlands: Center for
Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0284sp.pdf
The volume provides an overview of the various options for organizing higher education systems that involve governments as well
as markets. In addition to the description of higher education policy in several countries, the book includes a concise discussion of
the economics of higher education. In regards to particular policies,
it focuses on the Dutch higher education sector and suggests what
are the lessons from international experiences that Dutch policymakers can draw upon to get the incentives in higher education
right. The Australian Higher Education Contribution Scheme is
examined in great detail as is the decentralized higher education
sector in the United States. The volume also looks at the Danish
taximeter-model in which the financial flows are directly linked
to student performance. The UK system is studied in regards to
public research funding allocations, while the US is examined in
terms of the impact of university and industry ties on academic
research.
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New Zealand Vice-Chancellors Committee. (1999). Discussion Paper:

Student Loan Scheme. Wellington, New Zealand: Vice-Chancellors
Committee.
Available at: http://www.nzvcc.ac.nz/pubaffpol/loans.html
The report focuses on developments related to the New Zealands
student loans program, which was introduced in 1992. It discusses
the administration of the program, loan interest rates, repayment
mode, rates of borrowing, macroeconomics impacts of student borrowing, as well as changes in the program prior to 1999. Separate
discussion in this study is devoted to the higher education rates of
return and the issue of student debt aversion. This discussion paper
provides suggestions for student loan program reform, as well as
indicates areas where more research is needed in order to make an
informed policy decision.
Ngethe, Njuguna, NDri Assie-Lumumba, George Subotzky and Esi
Sutherland-Addy. (2003). Higher Education Innovations in Sub-Saharan
Africa: With Specific Reference to Universities. New York: Partnership for
Higher Education in Africa.
A regional survey of higher education innovations in sub-Saharan
Africa that reviews the problems facing the continent and examines
the extent to which innovations are taking place in African universities to address these challenges. The information in the report
is based on responses to questionnaires administered to university
Vice Chancellors, Rectors, Presidents and Chancellors, and site visits
following the return of the questionnaires. They survey found that
financial contracts appear to be the most important explanation of
innovations in most African universities and cautions that innovations in this area may be in conflict with innovations aimed at
addressing educational needs.
Njeuma, Dorothy L. (1999). Reforming a National System of Higher
Education: the Case of Cameroon. Washington, DC: Association for the
Development of Higher Education in Africa (ADEA) Working Group on
Higher Education. Available at:
http://www.adeanet.org/publications/wghe/wghe_cameroon.pdf
In 1993, the government of Cameroon launched a major reform of
its higher education system. The reform was the outcome of several
factors including the exponential rise in the student population at
the countrys only university (i.e. the University of Yaounde) and
the relative stagnation in infrastructure. Six regional universities
were created to increase access to higher education in under-served
98
regions. The reform also includes the granting of more academic

and management autonomy to universities, the redeployment of
teachers and students to the different universities, the introduction
of registration fees, the elimination of bursaries, the re-organization
of the academic year and teaching programs and the professionalization of teaching programs. The major impediments to the reform
include the limited number of programs available in the new universities, the lack of sustainable sources of funding, restrictions on
the introduction of tuition fees, and the absence of administrative
staff with appropriate managerial skills. The paper emphasizes the
importance of political will, societal support, financial sustainability,
appropriate information management, and liberalized revenue generation as critical factors in the success of the educational reforms.
Obasi, Isaac N. and Eric Eboh (2002). Cost Sharing Crises in Nigerian
Universities: Policy Lessons from an Empirical Study. Accra, Ghana:
Association of African Universities Study Program on Higher Education
Management in Africa Research Paper Series. Available at:
http://www.aau.org/studyprogram/notpubl/OBASI.pdf
A well documented empirical study that provides a clear picture of the
attitudes of students and parents towards cost sharing in higher education and the reasons behind these attitudes. It also provides detailed
suggestions that should be taken into consideration when formulating
successful policies for cost sharing in higher education.
Odebiyi, Adetanwa and Olabusi I. Aina. (1999). Alternative Modes of
Financing Higher Education in Nigeria and Implications for University
Governance. Unpublished research report. Accra, Ghana: Association of
African Universities Study Program on Higher Education Management
in Africa. Available at: http://www.aau.org/studyprogram/notpub/odebaina.pdf
The report describes the various income-generating activities
adopted by Nigerian universities to address the under-funding that
had led to inadequate infrastructures and facilities. It discusses the
implications of these strategies for universities, parents and the public. The report provides insightful recommendations for the use of
alternative modes of financing higher education in Nigeria.
Oketch, Moses O. (2003). Affording the Unaffordable: Cost Sharing in
Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Peabody Journal of Education.
78(3), 88-106.
The article discusses the financing of higher education in Africa in
the 21st century in the face of decreasing government subsidization
99
and rapidly increasing demand. It traces the cost sharing policies

(most notably the introduction of tuition fees where hitherto there
were none) undertaken by universities in recent years to deal with
shortfalls in funding for critical inputs and stem the deterioration of
the universities physical facilities. The article emphasizes the importance of flexible tuition fees, well-designed student loan schemes
and proactive measures to promote access and quality.
Oketch, Moses. (2000). Costing and Financing Higher Education
for Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: Kenyas Case. International
Education Journal, 4(3), 1-10.
Possible alternatives through which Kenya can cost and finance her
higher education are discussed in this article. Attention is given to
the high level of expenditure that has already been reached, the constant rise in unit costs, increasing rates of graduate unemployment
and the increasing competition within sector budgets themselves
that higher education has to compete with. Other issues addressed
in the paper include problems of debt servicing, other unpredictable
expenditures, and donor fatigue.
Olivas, Michael A. (Ed.) (1993). Prepaid College Tuition Plans, Promise
and Problems. New York: College Examination Board.
Collection of papers presented at a 1992 symposium on prepaid
tuition plan. The papers look at the reasons for the popularity of
these plans, the impact of certain program features on participation
by different socio-economic groups, and their tax implications. All
of the papers agree that such plans have been underpriced, which
undermines their long-term financial viability unless the programs
bank is able to generate positive real returns in its portfolio operations; something that is almost impossible to accomplish year after
year. Time has shown the validity of the authors concerns. As of 2003,
five states had to suspend or close their prepaid tuition plans due to
inadequate investment returns and rampant tuition inflation.
Oliveira, Tania and Pedro Telhado Pereira. (1999). Who Pays the Bill?
Costs and Students Income in Portuguese Higher Education. European
Journal of Education, 34(1), 111-121.
This paper introduces the higher education system in Portugal, and
provides an overview of student expenditures, direct public financial
support for students (the national support scheme, total amount of
national economic support, and other economic support schemes)
and other direct and indirect support for students (general direct
and indirect support, health insurance, discounts, low-cost accom-
100 annotated bibliography
modation, living costs, culture and leisure, and the role of higher
education institution in student support). It also analyzes financial
support from parents and relatives and the students financial contribution, and compares the students income and expenditure (student
support by social background, general assessment of the effects of
the system of study costs and student finance, and developments in
study costs and support for students in the last two decades).
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and
UNESCO. (2002). Financing Education Investments and Returns, Analysis
of the World Education Indicators. Executive Summary. Paris: OECD.
This is an executive summary of the complete report that seeks to
analyze the education indicators developed through the OECD/
UNESCO World Education Indicators (WEI) program. The report
addresses the financing of education systems by examining spending and investment strategies in WEI countries (Argentina, Brazil,
Chile, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Jordon, Malaysia,
Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, the Russian Federation, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Tunisia, Uruguay and Zimbabwe). It looks at the rationale
for public spending, how public resources are distributed across levels of education and the role of the private sector both as a provider
of educational services and a source of educational expenditure.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (1999a).
Financing Lifelong Learning in Tertiary Education, Alternative Approaches
to Financing Lifelong Learning. Paris, France: OECD.
This report outlines the financial issues that arise in implementing
the lifelong learning society, and the strategies that the public and
private sectors are pursuing to achieve it. It deals with issues such
as individual learning accounts, recognition of non-formal learning,
and measures to raise rates of return to lifelong learning. The aim of
the report is to provide a basis for continued in-depth discussion by
public authorities and their social partners. It aims to inspire future
actions that ensure that lifelong learning serves as a sustainable and
equitable strategy for human development.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (1999b).
Financing Higher Education. In Tertiary Education and Research in the
Russian Federation (pp. 139-156). Paris, France: OECD.
The chapter on financing higher education in Russia looks at a) the
current status of higher education and its major sources of revenue
(sponsored research, research collaboration with industry, entrepreneurial earnings, student tuition and fees, and regional and
marcucci and johnstone 101
community support); b) the major reasons for government intervention and the forms of intervention; and c) key policy issues. The
paper explains the importance of broad based demand side government intervention including information provision, vouchers,
targeted subsidies, loan assistance and general tuition subventions as a vehicle to capture positive externalities from the sector.
Key policy issues discussed in the paper include the aggregate fiscal challenge faced by higher educational institutions, the loss of
institutional focus due to the conflict among major stakeholders,
managerial problems, the unpredictability of government support,
the lack of management budgetary control systems within institutions, and the diseconomies of scale.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (1999c).
Tertiary Education: Extending the Benefits of Growth to New Groups.
Education Policy Analysis, 6483. Paris, France: OECD.
This study considers the three main components involved in decisions to invest in tertiary education: (1) the degree to which the visible
costs are being borne by students and their families compared to the
past; (2) the patterns of how these costs point to important variation according to the situation of each student; and (3) the impact
of private financing on participation and overall spending levels. It
describes a complex picture that does not clearly show the effects
of the imposition of costs on studies and households. The study
includes comparative data on private contributions to tertiary higher
education. The study concludes that caution should be used in shifting the burden of financing higher education from the government
to students and their families, so that it does not reduce the opportunity for some groups to study.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (1998a).
Paying for Tertiary Education: The Learner Perspective. Education Policy
Analysis, 5782.
The paper discusses the issue of access to higher education as a
function of financial and educational resources. It examines the
participation issue in tertiary education by looking at patterns and
trends of access to different study options, learning resources and
financial support.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (1998b).
Redefining Tertiary Education. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
This is a comparative review of the first years of tertiary education
in ten member countries: Australia, New Zealand, Norway, Japan,

Belgium (Flemish community), Denmark, Germany, Sweden, the
United Kingdom and the United States. The term first years refers
to those programs leading to initial qualification recognized as being
of value in the labor market. This study addresses the challenges of
higher education and discusses the need to reform tertiary education to increase accessibility, quality, efficiency and responsiveness.
The conclusion suggests a framework for reforming tertiary education in different countries, taking into consideration each countrys
priority queue.
Otieno, Wycliffe. (2004). Student Loans in Kenya: Past Experiences,
Current Hurdles and Opportunities for the Future. Journal of Higher
Education in Africa, 2(2), 75-100. Available at: http://www.bc.edu/bc_
org/avp/soe/cihe/africaHEjournal/journal_home.htm
This article provides a description of the history and administration
of the Kenyan loan scheme by the Higher Education Loans Board
(HELB). It also discusses the challenges facing the board while highlighting strategies for improving equity and access.
Palacios Lleras, Miguel. (2004). Investing in Human Capital: A Capital
Markets Approach to Student Funding. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
The capital markets approach is a recent expression of the policy
generally attributed to conservative economist Milton Freedmans
work from the 1950s and 60s advocating greatly diminished or
even the elimination of most public subsidy to higher education,
pricing college and university education on a full or near-full cost
reimbursement basis and financing the expensesto be borne
principally by studentsthrough income contingent loans. While
income contingent loans are the chosen form of student loans in
Australia, New Zealand, UK, South Africa, and elsewhere and exist
as an infrequently selected option in the US, these income contingent loans--featuring a repayment obligation expressed as some
percentage of either earnings or income--are nevertheless subsidized
for all earners, with those high earners repaying at something less
than the borrowers cost of money, and the low earners repaying ultimately even less, but with the shortfall covered by government. The
Palacios capital markets approach, however, is quite different, and
abdicates a total equity approach to higher education financing,
where shortfalls from low lifetime earners are made up by profits,
or surplus effective interest, paid by borrowers who turn out to have
high lifetime earnings.
Palfreyman, David. (2004). The Economics of Higher Education:

Affordability and Access: Costing, Pricing and Accountability. Oxford, UK:
Oxford Centre for Higher Education Policy Studies. Available at: http://
oxcheps.new.ox.ac.uk/MainSite%20pages/Resources/EconHEprot.pdf
Palfreyman is Bursar and Fellow of New College, Oxford University,
and Director of the Oxford Centre for Higher Education Policy
Studies (OXCHEPS). This is a book length monograph written about
the debates surrounding the UK 2003 White Paper on Education,
and preceding the enactment in the summer of 2004 of UKs Higher
Education Act. This work discusses the economics and politics surrounding the issues of cost sharing and marketization of higher
education drawing on many European and especially American
examples. While clearly in favor of a more liberal approach to
higher education, providing some cost sharing and allowing more
market forces to enter, Palfreyman gives a balanced accounting of
some of the objections both in the UK and in the United States to
the increasing cost of higher education and the increasing portions
of that increasing cost being passed on to parents and especially on
to students.
Passi, F. O. (1994, October). Implementing Change to Improve the
Financial Management of Makerere University, Uganda. IIEP Occasional
Papers. UNESCO. Paris: International Institute for Educational
Planning.
A documented case study of Makerere Universitys bold attempt to
improve financial management by adopting self-accounting, decentralization and multiple approaches of cost sharing, and the book
bank system. This report provides good insights to policy makers
in their decisions when implementing changes that strive to promote cost effectiveness and efficiency in universities in developing
countries.
Patrinos, Harry Anthony and David Lakshmanan Ariasingam. (1997).
Decentralization of Education: Demand-side Financing. Washington, DC:
The World Bank.
The book defines demand-side financing in public education as the
mechanisms through which public funds are channeled directly to
the individual or institutions based on some expression of demand.
Example of such mechanisms include vouchers, public assistance
to private schools, targeted bursaries etc. The authors review World
Bank projects in the mid-1990s that included demand-side financing components.
Payne, Joan and Claire Callender. (1997). Student Loans, Who Borrows,
and Why? London: Policy Study Institute.
This book on student borrowing in the UK was written in the context
of changing student aid policy that increased the use of loans. The
publication concentrates on the impact of borrowing on students.
Among other findings, looking at student behaviors related to the
take-up of student loans, the study concludes that women were
less likely to take out loan than men. The same was true for Asian
students in comparison to members of other ethnic groups. At the
same time having dependent children may possibly have increased
take-up, and students who were single parents had a high loan
take-up rate. The likelihood of taking out a student loan increased
with each subsequent year of study, and the level of loan take-up
differed between different age groups. The authors suggest that decisions about whether to take out a loan are likely to be influenced
by expected future earnings. Analyzing the reasons for borrowing
and not borrowing, the authors refer to different rationales for students from poorer families and students from more prosperous
backgrounds. They conclude that because students from poorer
backgrounds incur bigger debts than students from more wealthy
families, the fear of debt might deter some young people from entering higher education.
Pechar, Hans. (1998). Funding Higher Education in Austria: Present
Mechanisms and Future Trends. European Journal of Education, 33(1),
41-53.
The article reviews the evolution of higher education finance in
Austria and recent strategies for dealing with cuts in public expenditure in its different sectors. Written four years before tuition fees
were introduced in Austria, the article discusses the cost sharing
measures that the government had undertaken at that point including cuts in indirect and direct student assistance and goes on to
identify strategies for coping with continued and increasing financial stringency. The article concludes by looking at the arguments for
and against the imposition of tuition fees in higher education.
Pell Institute for the Study of Opportunity in Higher Education. (2004).
Indicators of Opportunity in Higher Education. Fall 2004 Status Report.
Washington, DC: The Pell Institute.
The report seeks to measure the opportunities for low-income students to access and success in higher education, to track progress
and improvement over time and to use the findings to advocate for
increased understanding and support of programs that improve

access to higher education. Four key questions are used as indicators
of access: who goes to college, where do they go, what do students
pay for college and who graduates from college. It was found that
relative to other groups, low income students have less opportunity
for post-secondary education, have a lower college participation rate,
more frequently attend for-profit institutions and two-year institutions and take longer to complete their degrees.
Ping, Charles. (1995). African Universities Beset by Financial, and Social
Calamities. Black Issues in Higher Education, 12 (15), 34-7.
The article examines the major financial problems besetting African
universities. For example, there has been an 85 percent drop in
library books acquisition since the 1980s and a 30 percent decrease
in faculty salaries. In the face of these and other issues, the author
calls for immediate action.
Pillay, Pundy. (1989). Reassessing Strategies for Financing Education in
South Africa. Social Dynamics, 15(2), 25-39.
After describing the inequity and inefficiency of present educational
financing methods in developing countries, some alternatives are
suggested. Policy options to address these problems are discussed:
user fees, loans, block grants & categorical grants, education vouchers, tax-related financing, foreign aid & donor dependence, &
decentralized education. The similarities between patterns of education financing in developing countries & South Africa are reviewed.
Crucial areas in the formulation of new policy options in South
Africa are identified, including (1) cost recovery, (2) more effective
use of grants and subsidies, (3) designing an appropriate student
loan program, (4) establishing an education bank, & (5) private &
community schools. The role of the South African state in providing
education to its citizens is examined.
Postiglione, Gerard A. (Ed.). (2006). Education and Social Change in
China. Inequality in a Market Economy. Armonk, New York and London,
England: M.E. Sharpe.
The book describes the findings from a sociological study of the
effects of government policies and market reforms on the education
system in China in terms of equity and access. Its eight chapters
(each by a different author) illustrate that critical educational inequalities continue to be present with the rural poor, ethnic minorities,
girls and migrants suffering from low enrollment and high dropout
rates, despite the fact that access to schooling has never been more
widespread.
Powar, K.B. and K.L. Johar. (Eds.). (2004). Private Initiatives in Higher
Education. Yamuna Nagar, India: Sneh Prakashan.
This book examines Indias large and growing private sector for
higher education including its legal environment and its commercialization. The book also includes discussion of international private
higher education trends.
Prairie Research Associates. (2005). Canadian College Student Finances
(3rd ed.). Montreal, Canada: Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation
and the Canadian College Student Survey Consortium. Available at:
ca/images/Publications/colleges-2004_en.pdf
This paper examines the results of a second survey of about 9,900
Canadian college students in 27 colleges, conducted by the Canadian
College Student Survey Consortium (CCSSC), in terms of the
students academic and personal profiles, financing strategies, expenditures, debt, and use of time. This paper concludes that students
financial situations and time use vary greatly by program type as
well as by region. Many of the differences arise because students
personal characteristics are correlated with the program they are
enrolled in. The fact that some programs are more predominant in
certain regions adds another dimension to this variation.
Price, Derek V. (2003). Borrowing Inequality: Race, Class, and Student
Loans. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
This book critically looks at current student loan programs in the
United States and argues that they reproduce the very patterns of
inequality among races, ethnic groups, genders and classes that they
were intended to alleviate. It concludes with financial aid proposals
that the author feels would address these problems and support
higher educations role as a vehicle for individual opportunity and
social change.
Psacharopoulos, George and Harry Anthony Patrinos. (2004). Returns
to Investment in Education: A Further Update. Education Economics,
12(2), 111-134.
Psacharopoulos, a Greek Parliament member in the early 2000s, was
also a senior economist in the World Bank. He is identified with the
Banks reliance in the 1970s and 80s on rate rate-of-return analyses
to show the relatively low payoff to public investments in higher as
opposed to elementary and secondary education. This article presents the latest estimates and patterns on social and private returns
to investment in education.
Psacharopoulos, George. (2002). The Social Cost of an Outdated Law:
Article 16 of the Greek Constitution. Paper presented at the 19th Annual
Conference European Association of Law and Economics, Athens,
Greece.
The paper argues that Article 16 of the Greek Constitution, which
guarantees free public higher education and prohibits private
universities, has resulted in limited access, declining quality,
unemployment, brain drain, foreign exchange loss, misallocation
of resources, reduced human capital investment and social agony.
The paper concludes that article 16 is an economically inefficient
and social inequitable law, but that public opinion continues to be
against private universities.
Public Funding and Private Returns to Education. (2001). Final Report.
Helsinki, Finland: Public Funding and Private Returns to Education
(PURE). Available at: http://www.etla.fi/PURE/
The Final report on the public funding and private returns to education project in 15 European countries. The project found that the
private returns to education vary across Europe and there is no sign
of a convergence of returns. In addition, project research revealed
that while enrollment in higher education is strongly influenced by
public funding, entry exams in the high-school system and tuition
fees, current returns to education and current unemployment rates
do not appear to affect current enrollment.
R.A. Maltest and Associates Ltd. (2004). Aboriginal Peoples and PostSecondary Education, What Educators have Learned. Montreal, Canada:
Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation.
This article examines Aboriginal post-secondary education in Canada
and discusses the barriers to their participation in, and completion of, post-secondary education. The author discusses the federal
governments Post-Secondary Student Support Program and its
shortcomings in terms of the quantity of funding and the process
used to award grants. Finally, the article outlines five main strategies
to make post-secondary education more accessible for Aboriginal
peoples: Access Program, Community Delivery, Aboriginal Control
of Education, Partnerships between Aboriginal Communities and
Mainstream Educational Institutions, and Student Support that
Addresses Aboriginal Needs.
Redd, Kenneth E. (2000). Discounting Toward Disaster: Tuition

Discounting, College Finances, and Enrollments of Low-Income
Undergraduates. USA Group Foundation New Agenda Series, Volume 3,
Number 2. Indianapolis, IN: USA Group Foundation.
Available at: http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/discoun
tingtowarddisaster.pdf
Using data from the National Association of College and University
Business Officers(NACUBO) annual Institutional Student Aid
Survey database, the report evaluates the results of tuition discounting plans (whereby colleges provide grants to students to help them
pay their tuition and fee charges) in terms of tuition revenue and the
profile of students who receive such awards. It finds that for at least
one quarter of private colleges and universities use of discounting
strategies resulted in large losses of tuition revenue. While many
institutions are looking to raise their academic profiles and rankings,
the research indicates that tuition discounting did not appear to have
made much of an impact on academic profiles, though it did appear
to have helped institutions get more low-income undergrads and to
have made it possible for more students from all income levels to
enter higher education.
Rees, Teresa. (2002). The Independent Investigation Group on Student
Hardship and Funding in Wales: Reflections from the Chair. Welsh
Journal of Education (Special International Issue on Paying for Learning:
The Debate on Student Fees, Grants and Loans in International
Perspective), 11(1), 10-17.
A first hand account of the Welsh government inquiry into student
hardship and funding that took place in early 2001 and that culminated in a well-documented report that included 54 recommendations
for the UK government and the National Assembly for Wales. The
committee found that the Welsh higher education funding system
favors wealthier students who are able to enjoy the benefits of publicly
subsidized student loans, while poorer students receive only a fraction
of the money that they need and this only after applying to several different and uncoordinated programs. The committee recommended
that upfront tuition fees be replaced with deferred fees to be paid by
graduates once they reached a certain income level.
Rhoads, Robert A. and Carlos Alberto Torres. (Eds.). (2006). The
University, State, and Market. The Political Economy of Globalization in
the Americas. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
The book uses critical theory and political economy approaches to
look at the direct and indirect impact of globalization and marketization on colleges and universities in the United States and Latin
America (Argentina, Brazil and Mexico). Particular attention is paid
some of the expressions of globalization such as privatization that
the authors argue jeopardize access for the poor.
Richards, Ken. (2002). Reforming Higher Education Student Finance
in the UK: The Impact of Recent Changes and Proposals for the
Future. Welsh Journal of Education (Special International Issue on
Paying for Learning: The Debate on Student Fees, Grants and Loans in
International Perspective), 11(1), 48-63.
Ken Richards, of the University of Wales, Aberystwyth, served
(along with Journal editor Maureen Woodhall), on the Independent
Investigation Group on Student Hardship and Funding in Wales [The
Rees Report] in 2001, designed to move toward a possible distinctive system of student finance in Wales, similar to what was brought
to Scotland through the CUBIE Report in 2000. This article is an
excellent example of the problems in the current (as of 2002) UK
system of student finance, particularly the parental means test and
its reliance only on income and not at all on assets or wealth, and on
the complex and at least partly unintended effects of the changes in
Scotland that replaced the upfront tuition fees with an income contingent loan. Richards illustrates, how, in Scotland, the abandonment of
an upfront, but means-tested, tuition fee was to the substantial financial advantage to upper middle income families who formerly paid
tuition but were now excused from doing so, and to the disadvantage
to all students, who now were assessed the tuition, albeit in the form
of a loan, and a special disadvantage to low income students, who
heretofore (or whose families were heretofore) excused from tuition
via the means test, but who now had to pay the full amount of tuition.
It is also a good treatment of the complexity of means testing, presenting, in the end, proposals for reform both for Wales and for the
remainder of the UK (England and Northern Ireland).
Rodrigues, Anthony J., and Shim O. Wandiga. (1997). Cost Sharing
in Public Universities: A Kenyan Case. Higher Education Policy Journal,
(1997) 10 (1), 55-80.
Using the Kenya case, this article discusses government policies
and existing cost sharing mechanisms within a framework of the
key policy issues (access, equity and educational quality) involved
in the cost and financing of university education. Based on simulations of loan schemes at the micro and macro levels the article
recommends that the Higher Education Loans Board strengthen its

means-testing procedures, development an efficient loan recovery
system and retain interest below the market rate. It also recommends that universities set aside 5 percent of the income that they
receive from tuition fees to award scholarships based on academic
merit.
Rozada, Martin Gonzalez and Alicia Menendez. (2002). Public
University in Argentina: Subsidizing the Rich. Economics of Education
Review, 21, 341-351.
The article points out that given that 90 percent of the students in
the tuition free higher education sector have higher than median
per capita family income and that the poor tend to be excluded from
higher education, there is an implicit transfer of wealth to the rich.
The authors argue that charging tuition fees and implementing
mean-tested scholarships and student loan programs would improve
the systems equity and efficiency.
Ruch, Richard S. (2001). Higher Ed, Inc. The Rise of the For-Profit
University. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
The book examines the rise of the for-profit higher education sector
and specifically those colleges and universities that are regionally
accredited, degree-granting institutions that offer associate, bachelors, masters and doctorate degrees and are owned and operated
by publicly traded for-profit corporations. The author identifies 10
distinctions between private for-profit and non-profit higher education institutions including, most importantly, the fact that private
institutions are tax paying rather than tax exempt, have investors
versus donors, and have private investment capital instead of endowment. He shows that for-profits institutions have leaned much from
traditional non-profit institutions and have taken the traditional
model of higher education and subjected it to modern principles
of operations management, cost accounting, financial management
and marketing. He theorizes that non-profit colleges and universities could learn from the for-profit sector in terms improving their
responses to market forces, adapting their organizational structure,
redefining their governance structure, and developing a strong customer orientation.
Ruppert, Sandra S. (2003). Closing the College Participation Gap, A
National Summary. Denver, CO: Center for Community College Policy.
The report identifies three warning signs for the future of US higher
education. The first is that the US is falling behind other developed
nations in terms of college participation. The second is evidence

that adults, low-income populations and members of certain ethnic
groups are most at risk for losing access to higher education. The
third is the fact that demographic and economic forces are limiting
states ability to protect, much less expand, college access. The report,
which is aimed in particular at state policy makers, outlines five
priorities that can help them address these challenges.
St. John, Edward P. (2003). Refinancing the College Dream, Access, Equal
Opportunity, and Justice for Taxpayers. Baltimore, MD and London: The
Johns Hopkins University Press.
The book argues that the growing gap in higher education participation rates between low- and high-income groups over the past
thirty years is due to the decreased availability of federal funds. The
author suggests that improved coordination between state and federal agencies and better targeting of grant aid can improve access for
low-income students without penalizing taxpayers.
St. John, Edward P. (1994). Prices, Productivity, and Investment: Assessing
Financial Strategies in Higher Education. ASHE ERIC Higher Education
Reports, no. 3, pp. 1135.
College costs are extremely controversial. St. John explains why and
assesses differing financial strategy contributions and deterrents
to the major issues in higher education finance, one of the most
important being how to mediate the negative effects of increased
privatization.
St. John, Edward P., Choong-Geun Chung, Glenda D. Musoba, Ada B.
Simmons, Ontario S. Wooden and Jesse P. Mendex. (2004). Expanding
College Access: the Impact of State Finance Strategies. Indianapolis, IN:
Lumina Foundation for Education Research Report. Available at:
http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/fiscalindicators/
FiscalIndicators.pdf
The report looks at the impact of state finance strategies (tuition,
need-based grants and non-need grants) on academic preparation
for, and access to, higher education. Using NCES, NASSGAP and
other data for the 1992, 1994, 1996, 1998 and 2000 fiscal years, the
study found that college enrollment rates for high school graduates
were influenced by system capacity and state financial strategies.
The findings support the case for coordination of need-based state
grants with public sector tuition charges and for state-federal
collaboration.
St. John, Edward P. and Michael D. Parsons (Eds.). (2004). Public

Funding of Higher Education, Changing Context and New Rationales.
Baltimore, MD and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
The editors argue that the rationale for public funding of higher
education has broken down in recent years and that both liberals
and conservatives are questioning its legitimacy, albeit for different
reasons. Contributors describe the changing nature of the politics
of higher education and the ways in which policy decisions are
informed more by political rationales that are in line with specific
interests than by policy research. In the final chapter, St. John argues
that three steps are necessary to generate policy research. The first
is to recognize that there are divergent claims about policies and
outcomes. The second is to design studies that test these claims. The
third is to avoid interpreting all information in terms of a single priority (be it the basic right for education, the equity aspects of college
finance or the efficiency aspect of finance and education reform) and
instead use it to facilitate debate about the interactions and potential
balance between the three issues.
Salerno, Carlo. (2004). Rapid Expansion and Extensive Deregulation:
The Development of Markets for Higher Education in the Netherlands.
In Pedro Teixeira, Ben Jongbloed, David Dill and Alberto Amaral
(Eds.), Markets in Higher Education. Rhetoric or Reality? (pp. 271-290).
Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
The paper looks at the transformation of the Dutch higher education
system from one characterized by state control to one guided by the
market resulting in more choice for students, more institutional
autonomy, increased competition among institutions and retained
quality. The paper points out that there are still some regulatory policies, like tuition setting, that should be phased out and that some
results of rapid deregulation need to be looked at.
Salerno, Carlo. (2002). Higher Education in Sweden. Country Report.
Higher Education Policy Studies. Available at:
http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/sweden.pdf
Country study for Sweden produced as part of the CHEPS Higher
Education Monitor, an ongoing research project that aims at providing education policy makers with current information on national
higher educational systems. The study provides information on the
structure of the Swedish tertiary education sector and on institutional finance and student support.
Salmi, Jamil. (1999). Student Loans in International Perspective: The

World Bank Experience. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Available at:
www1.worldbank.org/education/lifelong_learning/publications/student_loans.pdf
This report reviews the international experience with student loan
schemes in terms of (a) types of ownership and purpose of the institution managing the program, (b) scope of the program in terms of
geographical or institutional eligibility, and (c) the organizational
setup. It points out common problems in student loans, and discusses the World Banks experience of and suggestions about the
principal challenges in the course of developing or strengthening
student loan schemes.
Samoff, Joel and Bidemi Carrol. (2004). Conditions, Coalitions, and
Influence: The World Bank and Higher Education in Africa. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Comparative and International
Education Society, March 8 12 in Salt Lake City.
Prepared for UNESCOs Forum on Higher Education, Research
and Knowledge and presented at the 2004 CIES conference, the
paper addresses the view that the World Bank is partially accountable for the deterioration of Africas universities and the decline in
its higher education sector in general. The paper traces the World
Banks higher education policy shifts over the past thirty years and
concludes that while it has both directly and indirectly influenced
higher education in Africa, its policies have generally also responded
to significant local interests. The authors caution that accepting
World Bank funding also implies accepting an external orientation
that can undermine intellectual independence.
Sanyal, Bikas C. (1998). Diversification of Sources and the Role of
Privatization in Financing Higher Education in the Arab States Region.
IIEP Contributions No. 30. Paris, France: International Institute for
Educational Planning UNESCO. Available at:
Despite the economic weakness of 16 Arab countries discussed in
the book, the region continues to expand its higher education facilities. Most striking about this expansion is that it is done at a time
that the share of the public purse allocated to higher education is
decreasing. To enable the higher education system to educate as
many students as possible, several policies could be adopted, but
different modes of privatization, the book argues, would appear to
be the most effective. The advantages and disadvantages of privati-
zation are discussed, and the strategies that Arab states could adopt
regarding privatization are outlined.
Sanyal, Bikas and Michaela Martin. (1998). Managing Higher Education
with Special Reference to Financial Management in African Universities.
In UNESCO Regional Office (Dakar-Senegal) Higher Education in Africa:
Achievements, Challenges, and Prospects. Paris: UNESCO.
This article presents diverse concepts and issues encompassing
financial management in African universities. Included in the article
are: the context of financial management, mechanisms of government finance, functions and practices of financial management,
acquisition and mobilization of resources, management of cash
reserves, allocation of resources, and evaluation and auditing.
Sawyerr, Akilagpa. (2004). Challenges Facing African Universities, Selected
Issues. Accra, Ghana: Association of African Universities.Available at:
http://www.aau.org/english/documents/asa-challengesfigs.pdf
A wide-ranging overview of the issues facing African universities
in the context of globalization, rising demand for enrollment and
decreasing government resources. The challenges of access and
social equity, quality and relevance, and system diversification are
explored and the coping strategies that universities adapt in the face
of these challenges are described.
Schaferbarthold, Dieter. (1999). The Financing and Cost of Studies in
Germany. European Journal of Education, 34(1), 69-74.
This paper analyzes the cost of postsecondary studies in Germany,
direct public support for students, other forms of financial support
to students and their parents, and parental support and the financial contribution of students. It summarizes the different models
currently under discussion. Priority seems to be given to an arrangement whereby each student would receive a contribution of some
DM 400, independent of parental income and a second amount (half
of which would be a grant and half an interest free loan) related to
parental income. This public system of financial support would also
cover periods spent studying abroad.
Scherschel, Patricia M. (2000). Student Debt Levels Continue to Rise,
Stafford Indebtedness: 1999 Update. USA Group Foundation New
Agenda Series, Volume 2, No. 3. Indianapolis, IN: USA Group. Available
at: http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/debtburden.pdf
This report is based on a series of statistical reports drawn from the
borrower account database of USA Group Loan Services, and there-
fore does not cover any Stafford loans served by other companies,
Federal Perkins loans, private education loans, or credit card debts. It
presents the indebtedness figures for four different categories of borrowers (graduate students, undergraduates, proprietary students, and
students enrolled in community college and other two- and three-year
institutions), as well as several payment-stress indicators.
Schofield, Allan. (1996). Private Post-Secondary Education in Four
Commonwealth Countries. UNESCO/ACU-CHEMS Joint Action Plan in
Higher Education Management. Paris, France: UNESCO.
This study report is aimed at providing updated information about
private post-secondary education in selected Commonwealth countries (Australia, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Malaysia), and in particular
at examining both trends and operational issues in some detail.
The study was undertaken to design, disseminate and analyze
an international survey in private post-secondary education, and
to prepare a report containing summaries of country data, and
the criteria used by governments to authorize the establishment,
accreditation and monitoring of private post-secondary education
institutions.
Schrag, Philip G. (2001). The Federal Income-Contingent Repayment
Option for Law Student Loans. Hofstra Law Review, 29(3), 771-772.
Aimed at exploring the potential of the income contingent loan
repayment (ICR) option to help law students with high-debts, this
study describes the objectives and history of ICR legislation and
analyzes findings from a survey of law students and their financial
advisors. The study identifies the advantages and disadvantages of
ICR compared with standard repayment and with other long-term
repayment plans and concludes with recommendations on ICR for
students, financial aid advisors, and policy makers.
Shattock, Michael (Ed.). (2004). Entrepreneurialism and the
Transformation of Russian Universities. Paris: International Institute for
Educational Planning. Available at:
A series of case studies by Russian and non-Russian authors that
document the financing and management transformations that are
taking place in Russian higher education.
Shen, Hong and Wenli Li. (2003). A Review of the Student Loans Scheme
in China. Policy Research and Dialogue, Student Loan Schemes in Asia,
Vol. 1, N. 2. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional
Bureau for Education and Paris: IIEP. Available at: http://www2.

unescobkk.org/ips/ebooks/documents/studentloan/index.htm
Part of a new series on government-sponsored student loan schemes
in Asia, the monograph reviews the student loans scheme in China.
The monograph provides background on Chinas aggressive entry
into cost sharing with its 1997 imposition of fees on all students
throughout the country and describes its attempts to introduce some
kind of student loans in order to maintain accessibility in the face
of tuition charges that are quite high, given the per capita income
of most Chinese families. The monograph describes the two principal student loan schemes: the General Commercial Student Loan
Scheme (GCSLS) and the Government Subsidized Student Loan Scheme
(GSSLS). Although the GSSLS program is very new, the monograph
identifies major problems including the absence of government
guarantees, and very short repayment periods that will likely limit
its ability to make much of a difference in the enhancement of tertiary-level educational participation in China. A useful and detailed
report on Chinas initial attempts to implement their own version
of what is always a complex program of capitalization, cost recovery,
and attempts to expand university participation.
Shouxin, Li and Mark Bray. (1992). Attempting a Capitalist Form of
Financing in a Socialist System: Student Loans in The Peoples Republic
of China. Higher Education, 23(4), 375387.
Written in 1992 just five years after the initiation of the first student loan program in China, the article looks at what it calls a very
capitalist form of financing higher education and its operation in
a socialist system. The main characteristics of the loan program
are reviewed and several problems pointed out. While the loan program was ostensibly created to allow for some recovery of higher
education costs, the authors argue that given its fairly relaxed terms
(interest free, one year grace period, and provisions for cancellation),
the program in fact puts more emphasis on non-economic objectives. The program in no longer operative and has been superceded
by the government-subsidized student loan program begun experimentally in several cities in 1998, and then nationwide in 2000. The
new program is described in Shen, Hong and Wenli Li (2002) A
Review of the Student Loan Scheme in China, Final Report prepared
for UNESCO-Bangkok.
Ssebuwufu, John P. M. (2002). University Financing and Management
Reforms: The Experience of Makerere University. In Mwamila, Burton,
Issa Omari and Eva Mbuya (Eds.), International Conference on Financing
Higher Education in Eastern and Southern Africa (pp. 86-95). Dar es

Salaam, Tanzania: University of Dar es Salaam.
The article gives a historical background of Makerere University in
Uganda from the time it was established as a technical school to its
present status as one of best universities in East Africa. It further
discusses the administrative, academic, and financial reforms that
the university has carried out in its transformation from a publicly
funded to a partially private institution.
State PIRGs Higher Education Project. (2002). Private Loans: Whos
Borrowing and Why: Private Label Borrowing by Students Outside the
Federal Loan Programs. Washington, DC: State PIRGs Higher Education
Project. Available at:
http://pirg.org/highered/highered.asp?id2=9609&id3=highered&
This report analyzes private borrowing by students, using data from
the 1999-2000 Department of Educations National Postsecondary
Student Aid Survey (NPSAS), to better understand what factors drive
students to take out private education loans. Family income, students
costs of attendance, and borrowing in the federal programs are some
of the factors discussed in this analysis. The report presents three
key findings: small percentages of students took out private loans:
3.6 percent of students overall took on private debt, and among
Stafford borrowers, only 10 percent borrowed privately. Nearly 24
percent of students with private debt did not borrow any Stafford
loans, and 26 percent borrowed less than the available maximum
Stafford loan; nearly three quarters of private borrowers did not have
demonstrated financial need, defined by the federal government as
additional costs of attendance beyond federal loan, work-study and
grant assistance.
Steyn, Gert and Pierre de Villiers. (2006). The Impact of Changing
Funding Sources on Higher Education Institutions in South Africa. Pretoria,
South Africa: The Council on Higher Education.
This research report, prepared as part of a larger Rockefeller
Foundation funded project, describes the different sources of higher
education funding in South Africa, how they have changed over
time and the impact of these changes on the institutions and the
students. It concludes that even in light of the global trend of decreasing government investment in higher education, the level of higher
education funding by the South African government is low compared
to international standards, that higher education institutions are
increasing tuition fees to compensate for lower government funding,
and that both trends have worrying implications for access.
Stringer, William L., Alisa F. Cunningham with Jamie P. Merisotis, Jane

V. Wellman and Colleen T. OBrian. (1999). Cost, Price and Public Policy:
Peering into the Higher Education Black Box. USA Group Foundation
New Agenda Series, Vol. 1, No. 3. Indianapolis, IN: USA Group
Foundation. Available at: http://www.luminafoundation.org/publications/blackbox.pdf
This report is intended to serve as a primer on costs (the overall
expenditure patterns, or what institutions spend in support of their
missions) and prices (the charges to students and other consumers).
It includes a conceptual framework for analyzing costs and prices
by evaluating the higher education production function, and the
determinants of both prices and costs. The analysis suggests that
greater use of available data will enhance understanding of cost and
price structures within higher education and help individual institutions ensure that their financing decisions are compatible with
institutional goals. In addition, it can inform decisions about public
finance strategies, such as aligning subsidies with other resources
to achieve the greatest good.
Stumpf, Rolf. (1996). An Overview of Financing the Higher Education
System in Education Reform in South Africa. A Salzburg Seminar Special
Report of Reform Recommendations of the South African National
Commission on Higher Education, May 4-11, 1996.
In this overview, three issues related to financing of higher education in Africa are discussed. The issues in question are: cost
sharing principles, private provision of higher education, and earmarked funding, all of these discussed in the context of redress
and equity. Regarding cost sharing principles, it is recommended
that it is appropriate for South Africa to continue financing higher
education through state subsidy, tuition, and other fees because of
the widely-accepted notion that private and public benefits accrue
from higher education. On private provision of higher education
and funding, the report raises concern about subsidization of private higher education through public funds. An argument that
state subsidization of private higher education may degenerate into
state control and interference is also raised.
Sundt, Melora. (1993). Postsecondary Education Financing:
International Comparative Models. In Background Papers and Reports.
Washington, DC: National Commission on Responsibilities for
Financing Postsecondary Education.
This chapter is in a volume of background papers and reports
complied and published by the National Commission on
Responsibilities for Financing Postsecondary Education as a supplement to its main published report, which was requested by the
US Congress and reported in 1993. The National Commission,
while independent, was clearly expected by a partisan Republican
congress to find considerable fault with US higher education and
its presumed profligacy. The commission did not find the expected
(and presumably hoped for) wastefulness, although it did caution universities to make more effort both to contain costs and to
preserve accessibility. Sundts chapter provides some interesting
perspectives on European countries facing similar dilemmas in
higher education finance, including increasing costs and growing
demand.
Sutherland, Carla. (2001). The Limits of Marketization of Higher
Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. A Case Study of Student Financing
at Makerere University in Uganda. Paper presented at Conference on
Globalization and Higher Education: Views from the South. Cape Town,
South Africa, March 27-29, 2001.
This paper primarily based on fieldwork undertaken in 1998,
explores the impact of marketization of higher education in Uganda,
and questions of equity and efficiency. The paper also addresses the
question of sustainable marketization of higher education by looking at the way in which students are currently financing their studies
through costs bone to themselves and their families.
Swail, Watson Scott. (2003). The Affordability of University Education,
An Analysis of Higher Education in Canada and the United States.
Washington, DC: Educational Policy Institute supported by the Canada
Millennium Scholarship Foundation. Available at:
http://www.educationalpolicy.org/pdf/Affordability.pdf
The study deals with two questions: how do Canadians differ in
access to postsecondary education, specifically at the university level,
compared to Americans, and how affordable is the Canadian system
compared to that of the United States. Data in this report confirm
that access rates in Canada and the United States are strikingly
similar. With respect to affordability, tuition and fee charges and
total costs of attendance are considerably lower in Canada. However,
American students receive almost twice as much grant aid as do
Canadian students, and have access to significantly more loan aid.
When compared with costs of attendance, total aid covers 33 percent
of the bill in Canada, and 60 percent in the United States. The study
finds that the net cost for a university education in Canada is 32
percent higher than in the United States.
Swail, Watson Scott and Donald Heller. (2004). Changes in Tuition

Policy, Natural Policy Experiments in Five Countries. Washington, DC:
Educational Policy Institute. Available at:
http://www.educationalpolicy.org/pdf/tuitionpolicy.pdf
This study is focused on the relationship between tuition pricing and
enrollment trends in ten regions of five countries. The researchers
collected data from each jurisdiction to analyze the impact of fees on
enrollment. Five policy strategies in ten international jurisdictions
are elaborated in this report: 1) Tuition freezes in Quebec and British
Columbia, 2) tuition reductions in Manitoba and Newfoundland and
Labrador, 3) abolition of tuition fees in Ireland, 4) introduction of
tuition fees in UK and Australia, and 5) tuition in a competitive, free
environment in USA. This report concludes with discussions and
implications for public policy.
System Three. (1999). Attitudes to Student Financial Support Systems.
Interim report prepared for: Independent Committee of Inquiry into
Student Finance, Edinburgh, Scotland: Independent Committee of
Inquiry into Student Finance.
This qualitative study explores the experience of being a student
in Scotland, and more specifically, it focuses on student attitudes
towards, and experiences of, student loans, tuition fees and debt.
In exploring these issues, the study examines which factors influence the students decisions to enter higher education. There are a
number of different groups included in the research on this question school pupils, students, parents, and rejecters (the name
given by researchers for those young people who, despite having
sufficient qualifications to enter further or higher education had
opted for paid employment). In addition, the study looks at actual
and perceived costs of being a student, and how students meet these
costs. Separate sections in the study are devoted to student debt, and
the perceived value of education in terms of income foregone, debt
and potential earnings.
Task Force on Financial Sustainability of Higher Education in Tanzania.
(1998). Financial Sustainability of Higher Education in Tanzania. Ministry
of Science, Technology and Higher Education, Dar es Salaam.
The report grew out of the research and consultative work carried out
over a period of five months in 1998 by the Task Force on Financial
Sustainability of Higher Education in Tanzania. The reports recommendations address both demand and supply side reforms in order
to address what they define as the precarious state of higher education. These recommendations include an increase in the proportion
of GDP spent on education and an increase in the portion of the

education budget allocated to higher education, a decrease in unit
costs by higher education institutions and use of an output based
allocation strategy and the introduction of cost-sharing Phase III to
increase student contributions.
Task Force on Higher Education and Society. (2000). Higher Education
in Developing Countries, Peril and Promises. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Available at: http://www.tfhe.net/report/readreport.htm
Convened by the World Bank and UNESCO to examine the current
state of higher education in developing countries and its expected
future, the Task Force produced this report based on two years
of research and intensive discussion and hearings. The report
emphasizes the critical, and often under-recognized, importance
of higher education to national social and economic development
and reviews the continuing problems and new challenges that it
faces (poor quality faculty, overcrowding, inadequate infrastructure,
insufficient resources and autonomy, rapidly increasing enrollments etc.) The report goes on to identify four main areas where
immediate action is needed including funding, resources, governance and curriculum development in science and technology and
general education. Although not an official report of the World
Bank, this report continues the Banks efforts since the mid 1990s
to seem more supportive of public investments in higher education
in developing countries.
Task Force on Improvement of Higher Education. (2002, March).
Improvement of Higher Education in Pakistan: Challenges and
Opportunities. Islamabad, Pakistan: Task Force on Improvement of
Higher Education.
This report identifies some prominent issues afflicting higher education in Pakistan: ineffective governance and management structures
and practices, inefficient use of available resources, inadequate
funding, poor recruitment practices and inadequate development
of faculty and staff, inadequate attention to research and support
for it, and politicization of faculty, staff and students. Some recommendations are made for both public and private institutions.
Teekens, Hanneke and Ben Jongbloed (Eds.). (2000). The Financing
of Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Utretch, the Netherlands:
Lemma.
This book contains the proceedings of a two-day conference (The
Hague, March 21-23, 2000) held under the auspices of NUFFIC and
CHEPS that focused on the financing of higher education in subSaharan Africa. The book proposes changes in funding policies and
strategies for managing and generating resources that are required
for stimulating African universities to make a greater contribution
to the development of their nations.
Teferra, Damtew and Philip Altbach (Eds.). (2003). African Higher
Education Reference Guide and Handbook. Bloomington, IN: Indiana
University Press.
This book is a basic source and guide on various themes in African
higher education. The major portion of the book consists of chapters
on each African nation. Financing and funding patterns of higher
education are among the major themes discussed in this book.
Teixeira, Pedro, Bruce Johnstone, Maria Joao Rosa and Hans
Vossensteyn (Eds.). (2006). Cost-Sharing and Accessibility in Western
Higher Education: A Fairer Deal. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer
Science + business Media (formerly Klewer Academic Publishing).
A collection of papers on cost-sharing in the so-called mature economies (essentially the countries of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development [OECD]), written for the Fourth
Annual Douro (Portugal) Seminar held in August 2004, organized
under the auspices of the Center for Higher Education Policy Studies
in Matosinhos Portugal and HEDDA, a consortium of European
centers on higher education research based at the University of
Oslo. Chapters are by Per Olaf Aamodt (Norway), Alberto Amaral
(Portugal), Claire Callendar (UK), Bruce Chapman (Australia),
Ross Finnie (Canada), Donald Heller (US), Ben Jongbloed (the
Netherlands), Bruce Johnstone (US), Pedro Teixeira (Portugal), Alex
Usher (Canada), Hans Vossensteyn (the Netherlands), Maureen
Woodhall (UK), Frank Ziegele (Germany).
Teixeira, Pedro, Ben Jongbloed, Alberto Amaral and David Dill (Eds.).
(2004). Markets in Higher Education. Rhetoric or Reality? Dordrecht, the
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
A collection of papers that were presented at the Douro III: Markets
in Higher Education Mature Economies seminar held in Portugal
in September 2003. The papers review the advantages and disadvantages of the markets introduction into higher education and its
implications for access, equity and quality.
Tekleselassie, Abebayehu and D. Bruce Johnstone. (2004). Means
Testing: The Dilemma of Targeting Subsidies in African Higher
Education. Journal of Higher Education in Africa. 2(2), 135-158. Abstract

available at: http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/africaHEjournal/
journal_home.htm
The article explores the difficulties inherent in the use of means
testing, a form of subsidy targeting, to distribute higher education
subsidies based on need or ability to pay in Africa. Given that income
in Africa is often hidden due to the nature of the economy, the use of
categorical indicators such as race/tribe/ethnicity, parents education,
assets, etc. is often used to determine a students ability to pay for
higher education. The article argues that while these measures are
not perfect, they do provide some rough justice that is preferable to
equal subsidies to all regardless of their ability to pay.
Theisens, Henno. (2003). Higher Education in the United Kingdom.
Country Report. Higher Education Monitor. Enschede, the Netherlands:
Center for Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS). Available at:
http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/unitedkingdom.pdf
Country study for the United Kingdom produced as part of the
CHEPS Higher Education Monitor, an ongoing research project that
aims at providing education policy makers with current information on national higher educational systems. Each study provides
information on the structure of the tertiary education sector. The
reports provide excellent information on institutional finance and
student support.
Thomas, Phil and Ashima Arora. (2002). Poverty, Privilege and
Access to the Legal Profession: Barriers to Equality of Access for Law
Students. Welsh Journal of Education (Special International Issue on
Paying for Learning: The Debate on Student Fees, Grants and Loans in
International Perspective), 11 (1), 95-106.
The article looks at the influence of poverty and student financial
support on access to higher education and law training, student
performance and subsequent employment. It finds that the overwhelming majority of law students come from wealthier families
and that those less privileged student who must work during the
semester generally receive lower results. It also finds that students
from wealthier families, especially those that attended the older
more prestigious universities, tend to find higher paying, more
prestigious, jobs. Based on these findings, the author calls for measures that would increase the number of poorer student enrolled
in prestigious universities and provide adequate financial support
during their studies.
Tight, Malcolm (Ed.). (2003). Access and Exclusion. International

Perspectives on Higher Education Research Series, Volume 2, JAI,
Elsevier Science.
The volume features some of the variety of research being undertaken on higher education systems and issues outside of North
America. It covers developments in selected European countries,
South Africa and Australia. The volume examines the impact of differential access to, or exclusion from, higher education based on
students social class, wealth, ethnicity, sex, age, religion, and location on the students themselves, on academics and higher education
managers, on the content of the curriculum and on teaching and
learning approaches. It examines how access and exclusion relate
to disciplines and what counts as academic knowledge; and how the
issues of higher education are treated in mass media.
Tilak, Jandhyala B.G. (1997). The Dilemma of Reforms in Financing
Higher Education. Higher Education Policy, 10 (1), 72 1.
Higher education in India is at cross roads. It has started experiencing significant stress with respect to financing, particularly since
the introduction of adjustment policies in India in 1990. Hence the
need for mobilization of additional resources for higher education
becomes more urgent. Tilak proposes measures/ solutions that
can be experimented with caution. According to him, attempts can
be made to mobilize non-governmental resources from students
in the form of marginal increase in fees, student loan programs
can be revitalized to generate some resources, and attempts may
be made to augment resources from the private corporate sector
by forging effect university- industry relations. Tilak cautions that
these measures can be successful only if the government does
not reduce its role in funding higher education significantly and
if none of the measures aim to reduce the demand for higher
education.
Tilak, Jandhyala B.G. and Geetha Rani (Eds.). (2000). University
Finances in India: A Profile. New Delhi, India: National Institute of
Educational Planning and Administration.
This book consists of a selection of papers presented at a National
Seminar on Education Finance, organized by the National Institute
of Education Planning and Administration (NIEPA). In the first
chapter Pattern of Financing Education, Jandhyala Tilak provides a
detailed statistical and analytical profile of various public education
expenditure trends in India and Shailbala Debi reviews the trends
and problems of state financing of elementary education in Orissa.

The second chapter State Versus Markets in Education discusses the
changing roles of the public and private sectors in education. The
third chapter Financial Reforms in Higher Education examines better methods of mobilizing and allocating non-government resources.
The fourth chapter Grants-in-aid to Education reviews the pattern
of grants-in-aid to education in Uttar Pradesh, examines the levels
of grants-in-aid to local bodies for school education in several states
in India, and reviews the role of the local bodies and the state government in financing education in Tamilnadu. The final chapter
Household Expenditure on Education concentrates on various dimensions of household expenditures on education based on a national
survey conducted by the NCAER.
Tiron, Stefan et al. (2003). Higher Education in the Republic of Moldova.
UNESCO/European Center for Higher Education (CEPES). Bucharest,
Romania: CEPES/UNESCO. Available at: http://www.cepes.ro/publications/pdf/moldova.pdf
This volume is one in a series of monographs on higher education
in different countries. This particular edition describes the development of the higher education system in the Republic of Moldova.
Until the dissolution of Soviet Union, Moldovas education was
fully integrated into the Soviet system of education and science.
Transition, that began when Moldova became an independent state
in 1991, has led to market oriented changes in Moldovas higher
education enterprise. This volume discusses recent developments
and addresses such aspects as governance and finance of higher
education, institutional patterns and changes in student enrollments
and mobility, access to higher education, faculty structure and academic work.
Tres, Jaoquim and Francesco Lopez Segrera (Eds.). (2005). Higher
Education in the World 2006: The Financing of Universities. Barcelona,
Spain: Global University Network for Innovation (GUNI) published by
Palgrave Macmillan.
This book is timely and well-edited compilation of papers prepared for the World Report on Higher Education: The Financing
of Universities II international Barcelona Conference on Higher
Education, Barcelona, Spain, November 28-December 2, 2005.
Chapters include such international higher education finance experts
as: Arthur Hauptman, Bruce Johnstone, Jan Sadlak, Bikas Sanyal,
Jamil Salmi, Jandhyala Tilak, Maureen Woodhall and others.
Trombley, William. (2003). The Rising Price of Higher Education, College

Affordability in Jeopardy, A Special Supplement to National Crosstalk. San
Jose, CA: The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education.
The article focuses on divergent trends in financing higher education in the US that emerged after the recession struck in 2001. Data
presented in this article shows the worst fiscal news for the US public
higher education and their students in at least a decade. According to
this report state spending for public colleges and universities dropped
sharply while tuition and required fee charges rose significantly in
many states. In addition, many states reduced their student financial
aid programs. The article also includes a summary on state-by-state
appropriations for higher education, tuition and fees, and changes in
state per capita personal income for fiscal years 2002 and 2003.
UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Africa. (1998). Higher
Education in Africa: Achievements, Challenges and Prospects. Dakar,
Senegal: UNESCO.
A compilation of articles on higher education in Africa published by
the UNESCO Regional office in Dakar that covers such issues as relevance, quality, financing and accessibility. Case studies are included
for a number of countries and the issues of revenue diversification
and cost sharing are explicitly discussed.
UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (2003). Financing Education
Investments and Returns, Analysis of the World Education Indicators. 2002
Edition, Executive Summary, UNESCO and OECD.
This is an executive summary of the complete report that seeks to
analyze the education indicators developed through the OECD/
UNESCO World Education Indicators (WEI) program. The report
addresses the financing of education systems by examining spending and investment strategies in WEI countries (Argentina, Brazil,
Chile, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Jordon, Malaysia,
Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, the Russian Federation, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Tunisia, Uruguay and Zimbabwe). It looks at the rationale for public spending, how public resources are distributed
across levels of education and the role of the private sector both
as a provider of educational services and a source of educational
expenditure.
United States Department of Education. (2001). National Postsecondary
Student Aid Study: Student Financial Aid Estimates for 1999-2000.
Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
This report begins with a discussion of the percentage of undergrad-
uates receiving various types of financial aid, the sources of the aid,
and the average award amounts in 1999-2000. The focus is on loans
and grants at the four major types of institutions where undergraduates were enrolled: public 2-year, public 4-year, private not-for-profit
4-year, and private for-profit postsecondary institutions. In addition
to the loans received in 1999-2000, there is also a description of the
cumulative amount of federal loans that students had ever borrowed
as undergraduates. The report also includes a compendium of tables
that describe tuition, total price of attendance, and the various types
and sources of financial aid in more detail by institutional and student characteristics.
United States Department of Education and the U.S. General
Accounting Office. (2001). Alternative Market Mechanisms for the
Student Loan Program. Report GAO-02-84SP. Washington, DC: U.S.
General Accounting Office. Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.
items/d0284sp.pdf
A report by the US Department of Education and the US General
Accounting Office that summarizes and evaluates four market
mechanism models (loan origination rights auction, loan sale, federal funding and market-set rate) for use in determining lender
return on student loans. The report also reviews adjustments that
could be made to the current system and includes a chapter on the
income-contingent repayment option and its inclusion in the market
mechanism models.
United States General Accounting Office. (2002). Student Aid and
Tax Benefits, Report to Congressional Committees. Report GAO-02-751.
Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office. Available at: http://
www.gao.gov/new.items/d02751.pdf
The report reports on the use of the U.S. tax code (tax credits, allowed
deductions for interest on student loans, and income tax exclusions
for earnings of state sponsored college savings and prepaid tuition
plans) as a policy tool to assist students in financing higher education. The report concludes that more than 4 in 10 undergraduate
students were provided with benefits via the Lifetime learning and
HOPE tax credits and that 70 percent of undergraduate students are
assisted by title IV student aid (federal grant and loan programs) and
higher education tax credits taken together. Finally, the report points
to the critical need for additional research on the effects of higher
education tax credits on college attendance and choice, completion
and costs.
United States General Accounting Office. (1997). Direct Student Loans.

Analyses of Borrowers Use of the Income Contingent Repayment Option.
GAOHEHS-97-155. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office.
Available at: http://www.gao.gov/archive/1997/he97155.pdf
Report by the GAO on the extent to which borrowers are using
the income contingent repayment (ICR) plan compared with other
repayment plans available under the Federal Direct Loan Program,
and how their loan delinquencies, defaults and loan payments
compare to those of borrowers with other repayment plans. It was
found that only about 9 percent of borrowers were using ICR and
that 40 percent of those that were using it were placed into this
plan because they were in default on loans from the Federal Family
Education Loan Program, which largely explains why borrowers
using ICR tended to be delinquent or in default at higher percentages than other borrowers.
Usher, Alex. (2006). Grants for Students. What They Do, Why They Work.
Toronto, ON: Educational Policy Institute. Available at: http://www.educationalpolicy.org
This paper summarizes the literature on grants (defined as payments made to a student at the start of a period of schooling) and
their access to education. The author emphasizes that the ability of
grants to change cost-benefit ratios is a crucial indicator in evaluating their effectiveness. He concludes from the literature that grants
have significant and disproportionate access effects for low-income
students (compared to more well off students) because they are less
likely than wealthier students to see higher education in a positive
light and more likely to underestimate the returns to higher education. Therefore, grants more than loans tip the balance in favor of
higher education.
Usher, Alex. (2005a). Global Debt Patterns. An International Comparison
of Student Loan Burdens and Repayment Conditions. Canadian Higher
Education Report Series. Toronto, ON: Educational Policy Institute.
Available at: http://www.educationalpolicy.org
Based on research conducted for the Government of Canada, the
paper looks at the specific nature of the debt burden shouldered by
students in eight different countries (Australia, Canada, Germany,
the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, the United Kingdom and
the United States) in terms of what they owe, their loan repayment
conditions and the proportion of their post-graduation income that
they need to devote to repayment.
Usher, Alex. (2005b). Much Ado About a Very Small Idea: Straight Talk on
Income-Contingent Loans. Toronto, Canada: Educational Policy Institute.
This paper describes the concept of income contingent loans in
higher education finance and the (not necessarily accurate) claims
made for (they are more efficient and promote increased access to
education) and against (they tend to go hand in hand with tuition
increases and they force graduate into higher paying, less socially
useful careers) them. It goes on to point out that while Canada
already has an income contingent student loan system (albeit one
that the author would define as soft in that repayments revert
to mortgage-style repayment system once an income threshold is
reached) and, therefore, in its upcoming debate about ICR should
be discussing which, if any, additional ICR features it should adopt,
the general discussion is bound to miss these subtleties and focus
on the old pro and con positions stated above.
Usher, Alex. (2004a). A New Measuring Stick. Is Access to Higher
Education in Canada More Equitable? Toronto, Canada: Educational
Policy Institute. Available at: http://www.educationalpolicy.org
Making the distinction between type I access to post-secondary education (how many people are attending) and type II access (who attends
post-secondary education), the author argues that while type I access
is fairly easy to measure using raw enrollment numbers and participation rates and also fairly easy to compare across jurisdictions, type
II access is more problematic as different measures (income level,
race, socio-economic status) are used within and across countries
making comparisons of inequality and evaluations of the relative
effectiveness of government funding policies almost impossible. The
author proposes using parental educational attainment as a new measure of equality of education opportunity given that it is reliable, easy
to collect, easy to use and understand, can be easily categorized, can
be collected in all jurisdictions and has the same meaning in all jurisdictions. He uses this measure to calculate Educational Equity Index
scores by multiplying the ratio between the percentage of males (or
females) ages 45-64 in the general population (of a particular jurisdiction) with university credentials to the percentage of the student body
(of a particular jurisdiction) whose fathers (or mothers) have university credentials by 100. The higher the Index, the more equitable the
participation in higher education. The author goes on to use this tool
to look at educational equity in Canada and test popular assertions
that education equity rises as costs decline.
Usher, Alex. (2004b). Are the Poor Needy? Are the Needy Poor? The
Distribution of Student Loans and Grants by Family Income Quartile in
Canada. Educational Policy Institute, Canadian Higher Education Report
Series. Stafford and Toronto, Canada: Educational Policy Institute.
The report examines the assumption at the root of Canadas student
financial assistance system that high need students are also lowincome students. The author argues that several of the need-based
criteria (attending a more expensive program, living away from home
and being independent of parents) actually favor students from
upper-income families and funnel aid away from low-income students.
Using national income, loan and grant data, the author shows that
while children from poorer families receive more assistance than children from richer families, students from higher income backgrounds
still receive over 40 percent of loan expenditures and 40 percent of
student grants and proposes that to reach more low-income students
a more direct income-targeting methods should be adopted.
Usher, Alex. (2004c). Who Gets What? The Distribution of Government
Subsidies for post-Secondary Education in Canada. Educational Policy
Institute, Canadian Higher Education Report Series. Stafford and
Toronto, Canada: Educational Policy Institute. Available at:
http://www.educationalpolicy.org
In this report the author argues that the distribution of Canadas
student financial assistance (via need-based loans and grants and
universal benefits including tax credits and the Canada Education
Savings Grant) is slightly regressive overall (with over 40 percent of
grants and loans and 62 percent of the universal benefits going to
students from families with above median incomes) and inconsistent with Canadas strategy of assisting low income students.
Varghese, N.V. (2001a). The Limits to Diversification of Sources of
Funding in Higher Education. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for
Educational Planning. Available at:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001292/129279e.pdf#xml
=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?database=ged&set
=43F8E77A_0_33&hits_rec=3&hits_lng=eng
Presented at the IMHE General Conference, Beyond the
Entrepreneurial University? Global Challenges and Institutional
Responses, at the OECD in Paris in 2000, the paper analyzes the
ability of institutions to create and sustain income-generating
activities, and overcome shortfalls in public contributions to higher
education. The paper concludes that entrepreneurial universities are

desirable as long as the resources that they raise do not substitute,
but rather supplement, government funds.
Varghese, N.V. (2001b). Impact of the Economic Crisis on Higher
Education in East Asia: Country Experiences. Paris: IIEP/UNESCO.
Available at:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001261/126192e.
pdf#xml=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ulis/cgibin/ulis.
pl?database=ged&set=43F8E70D_0_31&hits_rec=4&hits_lng=eng
This volume, including three papers, is based on an International
Institute for Educational Planning Policy Forum in 2001. The first
paper by Varghese provides an overview of the major changes in
the higher education sector in selected countries stemming from
the economic crisis in East Asia. The impact of the crisis on higher
education is analyzed at the household, institutional and macro
levels. The other two papers analyze the crisis and its impact on
higher education in Indonesia and Korea. In general, these changes
include: 1) increases in student drop out rates, 2) shrinking of private
universities, 3) decreases in study-abroad fellowships, 4) regulation
changes, 5) inflows of study-abroad students, and 6) budget cuts in
many universities.
Vossensteyn, Hans. (2005). Perceptions of Student Price-Responsiveness.
Enschede, the Netherlands: The Center for Higher Education and Policy
Studies (CHEPS). Available at: http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/publications/downloadable_publications/downloadablesenglish.doc/
Using a behavioral economics framework to move beyond the traditional economic theories of price theory and human capital theory,
the author studies the relationships between financial incentives like
tuition fees, grants and loans, students socio-economic status, other
background variables, students perceptions of financial incentives
and their actual study-related choices and explores the extent to which
subjective perceptions play a role in these relationships. The study
found that students from different socio-economic backgrounds do
have different perceptions of financial incentives with students from
lower SES backgrounds finding investment in higher education more
risky, grants more important and expected future earnings lower.
However, the study also found that these perceptual differences do
not automatically lead to different choices and that there is no empirical data in the Netherlands to support the argument that cost sharing
has harmed access for disadvantaged students.
Vossensteyn, Hans. (2004a). Portability of Student Financial Support,

An Inventory in 23 European Countries. Enschede, the Netherlands: The
Center for Higher Education and Policy Studies (CHEPS). Available at:
http://www.minocw.nl/documenten/bhw-106-bgo106.pdf
The report reviews the current practices in 23 European countries
in terms of a students being permitted to carry his/her student aid
abroad. The study found that student aid is much more portable for
short-term study visits than for full-degree study abroad and that
indirect support is much easier to use for study abroad than direct
support.
Vossensteyn, Hans. (2004b). Student Financial Support, An Inventory
in 24 European Countries. Enschede, the Netherlands: The Center for
Higher Education and Policy Studies (CHEPS).
Available at: http://www.minocw.nl/documenten/bhw-107-bgo107.pdf
Background report for the project on the portability of student financial support that provides descriptions of the national tuition and
student support arrangements in 24 countries.
Vossensteyn, Hans. (2003). Higher Education in Denmark, Country
Report. The Higher Education Monitor. Enschede, the Netherlands: The
Center for Higher Education and Policy Studies (CHEPS). Available at:
http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/denmark.pdf
The study provides up-to-date information on higher education
policy in Denmark and background information on the countrys
educational infrastructure. Statistics and data analysis presented in
the report highlight trends in Denmarks higher education sector in
the 1990s. It looks at access and selectivity, describes short, medium,
and long cycle higher education, as well as the structure of post-graduate education. The study also describes the way higher education
is financed in Denmark, paying special attention to student support
policy. Separate parts of the report are devoted to research infrastructure, higher education governance structures and quality assurance
in Danish higher education.
Vossensteyn, Hans. (2002). Shared Interests, Shared Costs: Student
Contributions in Dutch Higher Education. Journal of Higher Education
Policy and Management, 24(2), 145-154.
The article reviews the growing importance of the cost sharing
phenomenon in the Netherlands in terms of rising tuition fees,
decreased general grants, increased means-tested supplementary
grants, the increased role of loans and the increased emphasis on
parental contributions and students own resources and looks at
the impact of such cost sharing policies on student enrollment

behavior. Similar to findings in a number of other countries, the
article confirms that Dutch students (including those from lower
socio-economic backgrounds) are not very sensitive to changes in
financial arrangements in relation to their enrollment decisions and
that student choice is more affected by level of parental education,
performance in secondary education, and distance between home
and higher education institutions.
Vossensteyn, Hans. (2001). Vouchers in Dutch Higher Education, from
Debate to Experiment. Paper presented at FiBS-Conference 2001:
Demand-led Education Financing, Cologne, Germany. Available at:
http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/engpap01vouchers.pdf
Building on the assertion that demand driven funding of higher education institutions is becoming a fact in the Netherlands, Vossensteyn
describes the discussion of, and ultimately experimentation with,
vouchers, defined as the right of students to use a predetermined
quantity of publicly funded education services, in higher education
in the Netherlands. The experiment initiated in early 2001 involves
ten institutions for professional higher education, six medium and
small-scale business organizations and 1,000 students in the final
two years of their programs. Vossensteyn reports on the varied public reactions to the current proposals and experiment.
Vossensteyn, Hans. (2000). Cost Sharing and Understanding Student
Choice: Developments in Western Europe and Australia. Global Higher
Education Exchange Conference: Paying for Higher Education:
Emerging Trends, Challenges and Solutions. Enschede, the
Netherlands: Center for Higher Education Policy Studies. Available at:
http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/org/inthigheredfinance/publications2.html
The paper describes the major cost sharing trends in higher education in Europe and Australia and their impact on access. Based on
the literature, it concludes that while students are relatively unresponsive to changes in financial arrangements in relation to their
enrollment decisions, the results are ambiguous. For example, some
studies have found that students from underprivileged backgrounds
may be more likely to be deterred by price increases than students
from middle- and high-income groups, that students may be more
response to increases in tuition fees than to the increases in grants
and that despite positive private rates of return to higher education,
students and especially those from poorer backgrounds - may be
reluctant to take out loans. The paper proposes using a behavioral
economic perspective that includes concepts such as loss aversion,
reference levels and the endowment effect to help explain the way
that people react to financial incentives.
Vossensteyn, Hans. (1999a). Where in Europe Would People Like to
Study? The Affordability of Higher Education in Nine Western European
Countries. Higher Education, 37(2), 15976.
The focus of this article is the accessibility of higher education and
the financial positions of students. In many countries, the affordability of higher education is an issue, particularly within those
countries which have proposed to implement cost sharing policies.
Within this context, nine Western European are examined representing various systematic approaches to higher education and their
impact on students and accessibility.
Vossensteyn, Hans. (1999b). The Financial Situation of Students in the
Netherlands. European Journal of Education, 3(1), 59-68.
The article looks at the financial situation of students in the
Netherlands in the late 1990s using data on student expenditure
and sources of income (direct and indirect public support, support
from parents, and student employment) from government and other
institutional research. While it is difficult to provide an overview
of the financial situation of all students in the Netherlands given
the great variations between and within them, the data reveals that
the income and expenses of students living at home comes closest
to the norms used by the Ministry in their normative budget and
that those living on their own have higher income and expenditure
levels. It also reveals positive causal relationships between the participation of women and children from disadvantaged background
in higher education and the introduction of the Student Finance Act
in 1986 and between completion rates and duration of studies and
the change toward an output-oriented funding of higher education
institutions.
Vossensteyn, Hans and Carlo Salerno. (2002a). State Subsidence from
the Federal Budget to Citizens of the Russian Federation to Cover Education,
Tuition Fees, Considerations Regarding the Proposal for a System of State
Subsidence for Education in the Russian Federation. Enschede, the
Netherlands: Center for Higher Education Policy Studies.
A short summary of the authors conclusions regarding the Russian
Federations plan to offer interest-free loans to tuition fee paying
students in secondary professional or higher education. While
impressed with the innovative nature of the plan, the authors are
concerned by its complex nature and recommend the development
of a more transparent organization. They also recommend considering scrapping the interest-free nature of the loan and adding a partial
adjustment of outstanding debt for inflation.
Vossensteyn, Hans and Carlo Salerno. (2002b). State Subsidence in
the Field of Education. A Commentary and International Reflection to the
Proposal for a System of State Subsidence for Education in the Russian
Federation. Enschede, the Netherlands: Center for Higher Education
Policy Studies.
The paper analyzes the plan of the Russian Federation to offer interest-free loans to tuition fee-paying students (i.e. those students who
do not qualify for free higher education) in secondary professional
or higher education. These loans could be forgiven (or partially forgiven) in the future if students study in certain locations or study
certain subjects or if they accept certain jobs in particular areas after
graduation. The loan system is aimed at widening access to students from particular areas and increasing participation in particular
subjects. Regional and local authorities, education institutions, companies and public organizations would apply for the money and,
in turn, pay the tuition fees (or part of the tuition fees) for particular students who agree to repay that amount to the Federal Budget
after graduation. Based on experiences in other countries, the paper
reviews the strengths and weaknesses of the plan and concludes that
some of the parameters of the loan program should be adjusted to
strengthen its sustainability. These include limiting the number of
loans that are forgiven, charging an interest rate equal to the rate
of inflation and considering a more centralized system in which
students only have to apply to one entity to avoid administrative
confusion and politicization of the program.
Wagner, Alan. (1998). From Higher to Tertiary Education: Evolving
Responses in the OECD Countries to Large Volume Participation. LCSHD
Paper Series No. 34, The World Bank, Latin America and the Caribbean
Regional Office.
Part of a series designed to offer policy options for Brazilian education, the paper looks at the responses of OECD countries to the
expansion in tertiary education participation and demand in terms
of meeting this demand (extending provision under current structures, opening up the tertiary education sector to private providers,
encouraging cross boarder enrollment etc.), overcoming persistent
gaps in access (by socio-economic background, by region, and by
age) and meeting the challenges in teaching and learning brought
about by enrollment increases.
Wagner, Leslie. (1998, January). Dearing is DeadBlunkett is Born? The

Future Funding of Higher Education. Higher Education Quarterly, 52, 6476.
The Dearing Reports proposal for higher education funding was
not adopted in favor of a different approach. However, the reports
proposals provide the case for cost sharing based on equity arguments. Wagner suggests more relevant proposals for funding may
have been achieved within a life long learning model of education.
Weidman, John C. (1995). Diversifying Finance of Higher Education
Systems in the Third World: The Case of Kenya and Mongolia. Education
Policy Analysis Archives, 3(5).
Available at: http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v3n5.html
Drawing on some examples from Kenya and Mongolia, this paper
suggests several strategies for reducing government expenditures
on higher education, including direct cost recovery, grants, contracts
with external agencies, voluntary private contributions, income
producing enterprises, and expansion of the private sector. Policy
implications of the above strategies are also presented for both developing and developed countries.
Welch, Anthony. (1997). Class, Culture and the State in Australian
Education, Reform or Crisis? Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Peter Lang
Publishing.
The author offers a critical analysis of the reforms in Australian
higher education over the last decade that, he argues, like reforms in
all public sector services, have been characterized by the ascendance
of economic and efficiency priorities at the expense of equality and
social justice.
Wellman, Jane. (2002). Accounting for State Support Aid, How State
Policy and Student Aid Connect, prepared for the New Millennium
Project on Higher Education Costs, Pricing and Productivity.
Washington, DC: Institute for Higher Education Policy. Available at:
http://www.ihep.org/Pubs/PDF/StateAidRptFINAL.pdf
This report focuses on two main issues in state student aid: 1) the
ways that states are using state-funded student aid in the current
funding climate, and 2) whether and how states are adapting their
policies and accountability structures for state-funded aid. State policies and accountability strategies for student aid are examined in
eleven states. Research for this report was accomplished by reviewing the published literature on the structure of these eleven state-aid
programs, including annual reports, budget submissions, evaluations of effectiveness, and state accountability reports. Profiles for
each of the states were developed and used as the basis for interviews with officials from each of the states to learn more about their
approaches to aid. Opening with a general discussion of trends in
state funding for student aid and rising college tuitions, the report
then summarizes the findings from the survey of states and concludes with recommendations for state policymakers.
Wellman, Jane V. (2001). Looking Back, Going Forward: The Carnegie
Commission Tuition Policy. The New Millennium Project on Higher
Education Costs, Pricing, and Productivity. Washington, DC: Institute
for Higher Education Policy.
Prepared for the New Millennium Project on Higher Education
Costs, Pricing and Productivity, the report reviews the policy framework for higher education presented by the Carnegie Commission
on Higher Education in the 1970s and the influence that it had
on the policy debate and outcomes. The report proposes that one
of the most important effects of the Commissions work was its
conceptualization of higher education finance in terms of prices
(what students and families pay), costs (what institutions spend)
and subsidies (general purpose revenues either from government
or endowment sources). The report concludes that while it would
not make sense to construct a new framework for the 21st century
given the shift in focus from questions of social purpose or roles and
responsibilities between the states, individuals and governments to
technical and methodological issues and the much greater role that
the private sector now plays in higher education, the basic questions
that were addressed by the Commission remain vitally important
and deserve continued attention by todays leaders.
Wellman, Jane V. (1999). The Tuition Puzzle: Putting the Pieces Together.
The New Millennium Project on Higher Education Costs, Pricing, and
Productivity. Washington, DC: Institute for Higher Education Policy.
Available at: http://www.ihep.org/Pubs/PDF/Puzzle.pdf
This report reviews two decades of trends in college tuition, the
effects on student access and college choice, and how government
institutions have responded. The report reveals its major finding
and recommendations for planning and budgeting in response to
higher prices.
Wilkinson, Rupert. (2005). Aiding Students, Buying Students. Financial
Aid in America. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press.
The book examines the social and economic history of student aid
(including grants, loans and jobs) in the United States and its three
main strands: the variety of motives for student aid, the struggle
between need based aid and other educational spending and the
entwining of mission and market (i.e. promoting access, but also
promoting enrollment and helping to establish a reputation of social
responsibility that is useful for fundraising). The final part of the
book examines the lessons that can be learned from this history,
and the author makes several proposals concerning student loans,
student/program grants, use of rankings to measure institutional
commitment to better access for low-income students, and revised
antitrust legislation.
Williams, Gareth. (2004). The Higher Education Market in the United
Kingdom. In Pedro Teixeira, Ben Jongbloed, David Dill and Alberto
Amaral (Eds.), Markets in Higher Education. Rhetoric or Reality? (pp. 241276). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
This chapter, prepared for the Duoro III conference in Portugal held
in September 2003, looks at the higher education market in the UK
and how it has changed through the years. The author concludes
that the marketization of British higher education has increased
efficiency, expanded and lessened the boundaries of universities and
higher education in general, contributed to simultaneous diversification and standardization, changed management arrangements
within higher education and institutions and changed the social and
economic position of academic staff.
Williams, Gareth. (1998). Current Debates on the Funding of Mass
Higher Education in the United Kingdom. European Journal of Education,
33(1), 77-87.
A discussion of the debates concerning higher education funding
in Britain. The paper introduces the debates and developments
in British higher education from 1988 to 1997, and discusses new
policies and key proposals. The conclusions made by the Dearing
Committee on the issue emphasize the necessity of funds from
students/parents.
Williams, Gareth. (1992). Changing Patterns of Finance in Higher
Education. Buckingham, UK: Society for Research into Higher Education
and Open University Press.
Chapters 7 and 9 are of particular relevance to a higher education
finance bibliography. Chapter 7: Effects of Funding Changes in
Continuing Education covers a broad range of related issues that
include finance and costing issues and modes of delivery. Chapter
9 looks at the British Experience in an international context high-
lighting Japan and US models along with a discussion on fees and

formulae taken by Britain in recent years.
Williams, Gareth and Gregory Light. (1999). Student Income and Costs of
Sudy in the United Kingdom. European Journal of Education, 34(1), 2341.
Part of a special issue on student costs and financing in Europe, the
article discusses the financing of higher education in Great Britain
during the 1990s. Data pertaining to teacher costs per student and
per graduate and to the financial position of British students in the
last years of the old system are provided, and the implications of this
data within the countrys new developing system of higher education
financing are discussed.
Winston, Gordon C. (1998). Higher Education Subsidies: Why All
College Students Pay Less for their Education than it Costs. Connection:
New Englands Journal of Higher Education & Economic Development,
13(1), 1315.
College and universities sell education at a price that is far less than
the cost of its production. Student subsides are a permanent feature of higher education economics, representing a large part of
total costs. Cross-subsidizing, with one activity supporting another,
is common, and even students who pay full costs and do not get
direct government aid are subsidized. The author explains how this
process occurs.
Wolanin, Thomas R. (2001). Rhetoric and Reality, Effects and
Consequences of the HOPE Scholarship. Working Paper, The New
Millennium Project on Higher Education Costs, Pricing and Productivity.
Washington, DC: The Institute for Higher Education Policy. Available at:
http://www.ihep.org/Pubs/PDF/Hope.pdf
A unique, comprehensive examination of the impact of the HOPE
Scholarship Program through the eyes of several key players in the
higher education financing process: students and their families; colleges and universities; the states; federal higher education policy;
and federal tax policy. The research concludes that, contrary to the
rhetoric of the Clinton administration when the HOPE Scholarship
was enacted, it does not fulfill its objectives and claimed goals. The
HOPE scholarship is not justified by either of the two basic rationales for federal support of students in higher education as it neither
increased the enrollment of those who would not otherwise attend
nor contributes to making the United States a more fair and equitable society.
Wolanin, Thomas R. and Jamie P. Merisotis. (2001). Paying for

Higher Education in Mozambique. Achieving the Goals of the Strategic
Plan for Higher Education. Washington, DC: The Institute for Higher
Education Policy.
The Strategic Plan for Higher Education in Mozambique for the
period 2000-2010 focuses on several strategic goals for the future
of higher education in Mozambique. These include expanded
capacity in higher education; providing access to higher education on a more equitable basis; linking education needs to the labor
market; and improving internal efficiency of public higher education. This report suggests specific policies for financing higher
education.
Woo, Jennie, Jason Barnhart and Kathy Beasley. (2005). Missing the Boat.
Why Some Make it to College and Others Dont. Rancho Corova, CA:
EdFund. Available at: https://www.edfund.org/pdfs/i-53.pdf
Based on research involving a random sample of high school students in California, the study identifies two main differentiators
between those students who went on to enroll in college and those
who did not. These differentiators were, not surprisingly, lower
household income and lower academic achievement. Other significant factors that affected college enrollment identified by the
research were parental influence and exposure to information about
college during the high school years.
Woo, Jennie and Jason Barnhart. (2003). Borrowing Trouble, Examining
the Indebtedness of College Students in California. Rancho Corova, CA:
EdFund. Available at: https://www.edfund.org/pdfs/i-96.pdf
The study explores whether students are borrowing higher amounts
from sources other than guaranteed student loans to meet tuition
and living expenses in college. It compares the levels of student
borrowing in 1998 and 2002. The study found that borrowers surveyed had significantly higher debt from all credit sources combined
in 2002 than those in 1998. It also reports borrowing levels by the
source, student enrollment status (i.e., part-time and full-time), and
study program.
Woodhall, Maureen. (2003). Financing Higher Education: Old
Challenges and New Message. Journal of Higher Education in Africa, Vol.
1, No. 1, 78-100. Abstract available at: http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/
soe/cihe/africaHEjournal/journal_home.htm
This article highlights the World Banks 2002 policy paper,
Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary Education,
and the UK Governments 2003 White Paper, The Future of Higher

Education, and points out parallels and similarities between them.
Both reports assert that higher education is changing and needs
to cope with financial and equity challenges. The author looks at
international experiences with tuition fees and student financial support systems and concludes that student support schemes need to
be flexible in order not to discourage disadvantaged students from
enrolling in higher education.
Woodhall, Maureen (Ed.). (2002). Welsh Journal of Education Special
International Issue on Paying for Learning: The Debate on Student Fees,
Grants and Loans in International Perspective, 11(1).
This special international issue of the Welsh Journal of Education edited
by Maureen Woodhall addresses a variety of issues surrounding higher
education funding in a time of financial austerity. The journal begins
with an editorial by Woodhall in which she places the debate on paying for higher education in Wales and the UK within an international
context arguing that Wales must draw on lessons learned in other
countries. Articles by Rees, Johnstone, Ziderman, Richards, Chapman
and Ryan, Jackson and Thomas and Arora look at higher education
student finance systems throughout the world and offer examples of
successful and unsuccessful higher education finance policies.
Woodhall, Maureen. (2001). Financing and Economics of Higher
Education in Africa. In Teferra, Damtew and Philip G. Altbach (Eds.),
African Higher Education, An International Handbood and Reference Guide
(pp. 44-52). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Throughout the world, higher education has been experiencing major
economic and financial challenges. Especially in Africa, these challenges are severe, as higher education institutions have faced budget
cuts and severe staff shortages, and the demand for higher education
has been increasing. This article identifies key economic and financial issues facing African higher education and considers proposals
mainly by the World Bank to reform higher education financing. It
reviews the changing patterns of financing higher education and
examines African experience in mobilizing new sources of income.
Woodhall, Maureen. (1993). Student Loans in Higher Education: 4. Latin
America and the Caribbean. Educational Forum Series No. 4. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.
Woodhall, Maureen. (1991a). Student Loans in Higher Education:
3. English Speaking Africa. Educational Forum Series No.3. Paris:
Woodhall, Maureen (1991b). Student Loans in Higher Education: 2.

Asia. Educational Forum Series No.2. Paris: International Institute for
Educational Planning.
Woodhall, Maureen. (1990). Student Loans in Higher Education: 1.
Western Europe and the USA. Educational Forum Series No. 1. Paris:
These reports, divided by geographical region, cover the following
themes on student loans in higher education: existing sources and
methods of finance for higher education; systems of financial support for students; reasons for introducing student loans including
arguments for and against loans; design and administration of student loan programs; and feasibility of student loans.
Woodhall, Maureen. (1989). Financial Support for Students: Grants,
Loans, or Graduate Tax? London, UK: Kogan Page.
Edited by Maureen Woodhall, this book examines the reasons for
sharing higher education costs among stakeholders and the variety of issues involved in the cost sharing debate. The authors, who
include Nicholas Barr, Janet Hansen, Bruce Johnstone, Martin Moris,
and Maureeen Woodhall, look at the US experience with cost sharing, as well as student financial support models from other countries
including Sweden and the UK.
World Bank. (2006). Word Development Report 2006. Equity and
Development. Washington, DC and New York: The World Bank and
Oxford University Press.
The 2006 World Development Report focuses on the relationship
between equity and sustainable development and the degree to
which the former contributes to the latter. The report is divided
into three sections. The first reviews evidence of inequality of
opportunity in terms of health, education, work and income and
political power, within and across countries. The second discusses
why and illustrates how equity impacts development. The final section looks at how public policy can level the political and economic
playing fields.
World Bank. (2003). Tertiary Education in Colombia, Paving the Way for
Reform. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
This sector study examines the current state of the tertiary education system in Colombia describing the economic benefits that it
provides to society and the individual students and the functioning
of the higher education market. The study notes that the coverage of
the sector is constrained by the rationed number of university places

in the public sector and the oversupply of places in the private higher
education sector, which can be addressed by either expanding the
number of seats available in the public sector (via increased funding or increased efficiency) or addressing the stifled demand in the
private sector (student finance programs). The final section outlines
strategies and recommendations for tertiary education in Colombia.
The study also includes seven appendices by various experts that
provide additional information about the Colombian higher education sector in terms of its composition and governance, problems
and challenges, position in the global market, and student assistance
structure. This latter appendix, written by Arthur Haupman reviews
the existing student aid structure (government scholarships, loans
and institutional discounts) and its strengths and weaknesses and
makes recommendations for reform.
World Bank. (2002). Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges
for Tertiary Education. A World Bank Report. Washington, DC: World
Bank. Abstract available at:
http://www1.worldbank.org/publications/pdfs/15143execsum.pdf
This 2002 official report from the World Bank is an effort to reestablish a more comprehensive, constructive, and visible World
Bank approach to the support of tertiary education the Banks client countries. In the 1970s, 80s and through the early 90s the
Bank had earned a reputation of non-interest in tertiary education,
based in part on its policy stance that scarce Bank resources were
better devoted to basic education, as well as a corollary perception
that tertiary education in many developing countries was inefficient,
frequently inappropriate, and inequitably financed. The 1994 Bank
report, entitled Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience, began
to profess more interest in higher education, but it was a slim and
internally-contested report that did little to overcome the sense
that the Bank was insufficiently interested in tertiary education.
The 2000 Task Force on Higher Education and Society report, cosponsored by the World Bank and UNESCO, Higher Education in
Developing Countries: Peril and Promise, further established a positive
view toward the role of tertiary education in the economic, political,
and social development of countries but was not an official World
Bank report. This 2002 report, constructed under leadership of
World Bank senior officer Jamil Salmi, is the Banks official declaration both of the importance of tertiary education to the economic
and social development of the World Banks client countries, but
also an attempt to set a comprehensive agenda for these countries

and for the World Banks potential role in helping to develop and
reform their higher education systems. Most of the elements are
the familiar ones, emphasizing efficiency, accountability, sector
diversity, and cost-sharing, but the range of discussion is indeed
comprehensive and positive, and constitutes an effective overview
of what needs to be done in the critical realm of tertiary education
in the developing world.
World Bank. (2001). A Chance to Learn: Knowledge and Finance for
Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sector Assistance Strategy, Regional
Human Development Family, Africa Region. Washington, DC:
World Bank.
World Bank strategy paper based on two years of internal analysis
and discussion on the impact of the Banks assistance in the education sector in Africa and on extensive consultation with African
governments, civil society and UN agencies. The paper sets out a program of action for the Africa Region of the World Bank that would
involve increases in the effectiveness of its nonlending services
(knowledge sharing and support of local analytical and planning
skills), more emphasis on its key priorities for the education sector
(including equitable access) and design of education investments as
part of poverty reduction programs.
World Bank. (1997). Republic of Tunisia Higher Education: Challenges and
Opportunities. Human Development Group, Middle East and North
Africa Region, Report No. 16522-TUN. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Problems of higher education in Tunisia and various methods for
rectification of these problems are discussed in this report.
World Bank. (1994). Higher Education: Lessons of Experience. Washington,
DC: The World Bank.
The report, based on a review of World Bank country experiences in
the previous fifteen years, describes the crisis facing higher education in developing countries in the mid-1990s (dramatically increasing
enrollments coupled with reduced government spending that led to
a serious reduction in per student expenditures and the inefficient
use of those resources that are available) and outlines four primary
strategies for reform that the World Bank supports. These include the
encouragement of greater differentiation of institutions at the postsecondary level, including the development of private institutions;
the provision of incentives to institutions to diversify their sources of
funding, including cost-sharing with students; the redefinition of the

governments role in higher education; and the introductive of policies
designed to give priority to quality and equity objectives.
Wright, Cream. (1998). Financing Higher Education and Partnerships
with Production and Service Sectors. In UNESCO Regional Office
(Dakar-Senegal) Higher Education in Africa: Achievements, Challenges,
and Prospects. Paris: UNESCO.
Many higher educational institutions in Africa depend on governments for the provision of finances necessary to cover their recurrent
and development expenditures (capital budgets). Following ever
deteriorating and stagnant economies in many African countries,
universities failed to meet their financial expectations. Taking the
University of Sierra Leone as an example, the article shows the gap
between budget estimates put forward by the university and the
actual government grant made available to the university. In the
context of the above budget deficiencies, the article recommends
diversification of sources of income for higher education institutions in Africa.
Zeleza, Paul Tiyambe and Adebay Olukoshi (Eds.). (2004). African
Universities in the Twenty-first Century. Volume I: Liberalisation and
Internationalisation and Volume II: Knowledge and Society. Oxford:
African Books Collective.
This two volume series addresses some of the critical issues facing
African higher education institutions in a context of increasing liberalization and privatization. These issues include the competing
demands of autonomy and accountability, expansion and excellence,
equity and efficiency, diversification and differentiation, and internationalization and indigenization. Among other topics, Volume
I looks at higher education finance and cost sharing policies in a
number of countries and Volume II addresses the issue of gender
equity in higher education in Africa.
Ziderman, Adrian. (2004). Policy Options for Student Loan Schemes:
Lessons from Five Asian Case Studies. Policy Research and Dialogue,
Student Loan Schemes in Asia, Vol. 1, N. 6. Bangkok, Thailand:
UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education and Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP). Available at:
http://www2.unescobkk.org/ips/ebooks/documents/studentloan/
index.htm
This synthesis study of five in-depth case studies of student loan
schemes in Mainland China and the Special Administrative Region

of Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, the Philippines and Thailand
reviews the schemes in terms of their objectives, organizational
structure, funding, allocation, and repayment. It also assesses the
financial viability of the individual loan schemes, the role of subsidies and the schemes use of targeting to ration limited funds or to
reach poor students. After identifying the principle strengths and
weaknesses of each scheme, the study reviews a number of lessons
learned and issues that need to be considered when designing student loan schemes.
Ziderman, Adrian. (2003). Student Loans in Thailand: Are They Effective,
Equitable and Sustainable? Policy Research and Dialogue, Student Loan
Schemes in Asia, Vol. 1, N. 1. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Asia and
Pacific Regional Bureau for Education and Paris: International Institute
for Educational Planning (IIEP).
Available at: http://www2.unescobkk.org/ips/ebooks/documents/
studentloan/index.htm
The first in a new series on government-sponsored student loan
schemes in Asia, the monograph reviews the student loans scheme
in Thailand and assesses its success in meeting its objectives of
increasing the poors educational opportunities, increasing equality
among the population, and enhancing the countrys human capital, competitiveness and development. The monograph outlines
organization and financial reforms that could address some of the
schemes weaknesses.
Ziderman, Adrian. (2002). Alternative Objectives of National Student
Loan Schemes: Implications for Design, Evaluation and Policy. Welsh
Journal of Education (Special International Issue on Paying for Learning:
The Debate on Student Fees, Grants and Loans in International
Perspective), 11(1), 37-47.
The article explains the differences across student loan schemes
throughout the world as being the result of the different objectives
they are designed to pursue. The author identifies five main categories of objectives including budgetary objectives (income generation),
university expansion objectives, social objectives (equity/access),
manpower needs and student assistance. Given these differing
objectives, the article argues that it is not possible to use a standard
approach to evaluate the efficacy of all loan schemes as they can
only be evaluated in terms of the individual objectives that they were
designed to achieve.
Ziderman, Adrian. (2000). Financing Student Loans in Thailand:

Revolving Fund or Open-Ended Commitment. Economics of Education
Review, 21, 367-380.
The recently launched student loan scheme in Thailand covers both
upper and tertiary level schooling. The average repayment ratio on
loans is only about 20 percent, while the overall loan recovery, taking into account repayment defaults and administrative costs, is 10
percent or less. In his paper, Ziderman recommends that the loans
scheme for the upper secondary schooling be converted into to a
grants scheme, and that alternative reforms be implemented to raise
the average repayment and recovery ratios on loans for tertiary level
students, more in line with international experience.
Ziderman, Adrian and Douglas Albrecht. (1995). Financing Universities in
Developing Countries. Bristol, PA: The Falmer Press.
This book deals head on with the major dilemma facing almost all
governments in both developing and industrialized countries too:
how to continue to expand university provision to meet the ever
growing demand for higher education, in the absence of sufficient
additional public funding to sustain the growth. He authors survey
the financial problems and constraints confronting higher education in developing countries, as well as exploring a variety of policy
options to address these problems. Data is provided on a variety of
countries throughout the world.
Ziyaev, Muzafar K., Ahadjon Rakhmonov and Murtazo S. Sultanov.
(2000). Educational financing and budgeting in Uzbekistan. Financial
management of education systems. Paris, France: International
Institute for Educational Planning UNESCO. Available at:
The volume describes changes within the education sector in
Uzbekistan that have taken place since 1991. It outlines institutional
reforms, changes in curriculum, enrollment dynamics, as well as
education finance policies. The volume also provides detailed statistical data that illustrates developments in education sector in
Uzbekistan during the last decade of the 20th century.
Zumeta, William. (1996). Meeting the Demand for Higher Education
Without Breaking the Bank: A Framework for the Design of Higher
Education Policies for an Era of Increasing Demand. The Journal of
Higher Education, 67, 367425.
This article outlines models for state policy making for private higher
education. The first is the laissezfaire model whereby states take a

hands-off approach to private colleges. The second is the central
planning strategy whereby the state heavily regulates both finance
and planning, and thirdly, a market competitive situation that straddles the former two by utilizing but not.
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Vossensteyn, Hans
Weidman, John C.
Wellman, Jane V.
Wellman, Jane V.
Wilkinson, Rupert
Williams, Gareth and Gregory Light
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
2002
1997
1998
1999
2004
2002
2001
2004
2006
2004
2004
2001a
2004a
2004b
2002
2001
2000
1999b
1995
2001
1999
2005
1999
2001
2003
2002
109
109
113
114
115
116
119
119
122
122
122
130
132
132
132
133
133
134
136
137
137
137
139
139
140
141
A4 Student Loans
author
year page
Ahmed, Eliza
Albrecht, D and A. Ziderman
Andrews, Les
Archibald, Robert B.
Anthony, Susanne
Avery, Christopher and Caroline M. Hoxby
Baum, Sandy and Saul Schwartz
Baum, Sandy and Marie OMalley
Berkner, Lutz and Larry Bobbitt
Callender, Claire
2000
1991
1999
2002
1999
2003
2006
2003
2000
2003
5
5
9
9
9
10
13
13
15
22
Callender, Claire and Martin Kemp

2000
Caliber Associates
2003
2001
Cervenan, Amy and Alex Usher
2004
Chapman, Bruce
2006
Chapman, Bruce
2004
Chapman, Bruce
1999
Chapman, Bruce
1997
Chapman, Bruce and Chris Ryan
2002
2003
Chung, Yue Ping
2003
Chuta, E.J.
1998
Chuta, E.J.
1992
Colclough, Christopher
1999
College Board (2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005)
2004b
Council of Australian Postgraduate Associations
2003
Department for Education and Skills
2004a
EKOS Research Associates
2003
Finnie, Ross
2002
Fossey, Richard and Mark Bateman
1998
2004
Glennerster, Howard
2003
Guill, Marianne
2001
Harding, Ann
1995
Hauptman, Authur
1999
Heller, Donald E.
2001b
2005
Institute for Higher Education Policy et. al.
1997
Jackson, Roy
2002
Johnstone, D. Bruce
2006
Johnstone, D. Bruce
2005a
Johnstone, D. Bruce
2004a
Johnstone, D. Bruce
2004b
Johnstone, D. Bruce
2004d
Johnstone, D. Bruce
1972
Kim, Anna and Young Lee
2003
King, Jacqueline
2003a
King, Tracey and Ellynne Bannon
2002
22
21
23
24
25
25
25
26
26
26
28
28
28
29
31
32
33
36
39
40
42
42
44
45
46
47
49
54
57
59
59
60
61
61
62
66
73
74
75
Kirshstein, Rita et al.

Kitaev, Igor and Teresita Nadurata, Virginia Resurrection,
LaRocque, Norman
LaRocque, Norman
Metcalf, Hilary
Monks, James
Narayana, M.R.
National Union of Students
New Zealand Vice-Chancellors Committee
Otieno, Wycliffe
Payne, Joan and Claire Callender
Price, Derek V.
Salmi, Jamil
Scherschel, Patricia M.
Schrag, Philip G.
Shen, Hong and Wenli Li
Shouxin, Li and Bray, Mark
State PIRGs Higher Education Project
Teckleselassie, Abebayehu A. and D. Bruce Johnstone
US Department of Education
US Department of Education and the the US General
US General Accounting Office
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Vossensteyn, Hans and Carlo Salerno
Woo, Jennie and Jason Barnhart
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
Ziderman, Adrian
Ziderman, Adrian
Ziderman, Adrian
Ziderman, Adrian
2004
2003
2003
2001
2005
2001
2005
2000
1968
1999
2004
2004
1997
2003
1999
2000
2002
2003
1992
2002
2004
2001
2001
1997
2005a
2005b
2004b
2002a
2002b
2005
1993
1991a
1991b
1990
1989
2004
2003
2002
2000
76
77
78
78
87
90
92
95
96
97
102
102
104
106
113
114
115
115
116
117
122
126
127
127
128
129
130
134
135
140
141
141
142
142
142
145
146
146
147
A5 Grants and Other Forms of Student Assistance Other than

Loans
author
year page
Abraham, Katherine and Melissa Clark

2003
Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance
2002
2001
2005
Anthony, Susanne
1999
2003
Choy, Susan P.
2004
College Board
2003
College Board (2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005)
Cunningham, Alisa, Christina Redmond and Jamie Merisotis 2003
Davis, Jerry Sheehan
2000
Deutsches Studentenwerk
1997
2003
Eurydice
1999
2004
1986
2004
2003
Gladieux, Lawrence E. and Arthur Hauptman
1995
Hansen, Janet S.
1990
Hauptman, Authur M.
1990
Heller, Donald E.
2001a
Herbert, Alicia and Claire Callender
1997
2005
Ifill, Roberto M. and Michael S. McPherson
2004
Scholarship American
2004
Johnstone, D. Bruce
2006
Johnstone, D. Bruce
2004a
Johnstone, D. Bruce
1987
Johnstone, D. Bruce
1986
Jongbloed, Ben and Jos Koelman
2000
Junor, Sean and Alex Usher
2002
Junor, Sean and Alex Usher
2004
Kezar, Adrianna
2000
King, Jacqueline E.
2003b
3
3
4
7
9
10
27
30
31
34
35
37
39
40
40
42
43
43
44
46
47
49
51
54
55
56
59
61
65
65
68
69
69
72
74
Kirshstein, Rita J. et al.

McPherson, Michael S. and Morton Owen Shapiro
McPherson, Michael S. and Morton Owen Shapiro
Mumper, Michael
National Commission on the Cost of Higher Education
Olivas, Michael A.
Redd, Kenneth E.
St. John, Edward P. et al
Swail, Watson Scott
Trombley, William
United States Department of Education
United States General Accounting Office
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Wellman, Jane
Wilkinson, Rupert
Williams, Gareth
Winston, Gordon C.
Wolanin, Thomas R.
Woodhall, Maureen
2004
2001
1998
1995
2002
1998
1993
2000
2004
2003
2003
2001
2002
2006
2004b
2004c
2004a
2004b
2001
2002
2005
1998
1998
2001
1989
76
86
86
91
94
95
99
108
112
119
126
126
127
128
130
130
132
132
133
136
137
138
139
139
142
A6 Privatization and Private Forms of Higher Education

author
year page
Altbach, Philip G.
American Council on Education
Banya, Kingsley
Belfield, Clive and Henry M. Levin
Breneman, David and Chester E. Finn Jr
Correia, Fernanda, Alberto Amaral and Antonio Magalhaes
European Centre for Higher Education (CEPES)
International Finance Corporation
Kinser, Kevin and Daniel C. Levy
Kitaev, Igor
1999
2004b
2004c
2001
2002
1998
2002
1999
1999
2005
1999
6
7
8
11
15
20
32
39
58
76
77
Kruss, Glenda and Andre Kraak

Levy, Daniel C.
Levy, Daniel C.
Levy, Daniel C.
Levy, Daniel C.
Mabizela, Mahlubi and George Subotzky
Maldonado, Alma, Yingxia Cao, and Philip G. Altbach
Marginson, Simon
Massy, William F.
McEwan, Patrick J. and Martin Carnoy
Mkude, Daniel
Powar, K.B. and K.L. Johar
Ruch, Richard S.
Salerno, Carlo
Sanyal, Bikas C.
Schofield, Allan
Williams, Gareth
Zumeta, Willism
2003
2004
2003
2002
1986
2002
2004
1997
2003
2000
2003
2004
2002
2001
2004
1998
1996
2004
1996
77
80
80
81
81
83
83
83
84
85
89
106
106
110
112
113
115
138
147
A7 Access and Participation

author
year page
Abraham, Katharine G. and Melissa A. Clark

Barr, Nicholas
Bekhradnia, Bahram
Boezerooy, Petra & H. Vossensteyn
Bowen, William G, Martin A. Kurzweil and Eugene M. Tobin
Boxall, Mike, Shahid Amin and Aamir Baloch
Bray, Mark
Brown, Richard and Wendy Piatt
Cloete, Nico, Pundy Pillay and Saleem Badat
Congressional Report
Cunningham, Alisa, Christina Redmond and Jamie Merisotis
Davis, Jerry S.
De Dios Jimenez, Juan and Manuel Salas-Velasco
2003
2002
2001
2004a
2003
2002
2003
1999
2005
2002
2001
2001
2004
2004
2003
2000
2000
3
3
4
7
10
12
14
17
18
19
19
21
29
32
34
35
35
Eisemon, Thomas Owen and Jamil Salmi

European Centre for Higher Education
Fiske, Edward B. and Helen F. Ladd
Gladieux, L.E. and A.M. Hauptman
Guhr, Daniel
Hauptman, Arthur
Heller, Donald E.
Heller, Donald E.
Heller, Donald E.
Heller, Donald E.
Herbert, A. and C. Callender
Herz, Barbara
Horn, Laura J., Xianglei Chen and Chris Chapman
Huang, Lihong
Ikenberry, Stanley and Terry W. Hartle
Independent Committee of Inquiry into Student Finance
Johnes, Geraint
Junor, Sean and Alexander Usher
Kane, Thomas J.
Kasozi, A.B.K.
King, Jacqueline E.
King, Jacqueline E.
King, Jacqueline E.
Kipp, Samuel M., Derek V. Price and Jill K. Wohlford
LaRocque, Noorman
Lee, W.O.
Lewis, D.R. and H. Dundar
Li, Wenli and Weifang Min
Looker, E. Dianne
Matthews, Rebecca
Mayanja, Muhammad
Mayhew, Ken, Cecile Deer and Mehak Dua
2002
2003
1999
2004
2004
2004
1999
1995
2001
1998a
2001a
2000
1997
1999
1997
2005
2003
2005
1998
2000
2004
2003
2000
2004
2002
1995
2003
2004
2002
1999
2002
2001
2002
1999
2000
2004
2001
1998
2004
39
39
39
42
42
43
44
44
45
47
49
50
50
50
51
51
53
53
55
56
56
59
68
69
69
71
72
73
75
75
76
78
79
81
82
82
84
84
85
McPherson, Michael S. and Morton Owen Schapiro

Mumper, Micheal
National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education
Palfreyman, David
Pell Institute for the Study of Opportunity in
Higher Education
Postiglione, Gerard A.
R.A. Malatest and Associates Ltd.
Rees, Teresa
Rhoads, Rober A. and Carlos Alberto Torres
Rozada, Martin Gonzalez and Alicia Menendez
Ruppert, Sandra S.
St. John, Edward P.
St. John, Edward P. et al.
Swail, Watson Scott
System Three
Thomas, Phil and Ashima Arora
Tight, Malcolm
Trombley, William
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Wagner, Alan
Welch, Anthony
Woo, Jennie, Jason Barnhart and Kathy Beasley
World Bank
2001
1996
2002
2004
2002
2000
1999c
1998a
2004
86
91
94
94
94
95
101
101
103
2004
2006
2005
2004
2002
2006
2002
2003
2003
2004
2003
1999
2004
2002
2003
2003
2004b
2004c
2005
1999a
1998
1997
2005
2006
104
105
106
107
108
108
110
110
111
111
119
120
122
123
124
126
130
130
131
134
135
136
140
142
Section 3
Cross Referenced by
Geographical Area
B1 No Setting: General, Theoretical, Universal or Conceptual

author
year page
Barr, Nicholas
Barr, Nicholas
Bray, Mark
Carnoy, Martin
Eisemon, Thomas Owen and Jamil Salmi
Glennerster, Howard
Johnes, Geraint
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D.B., Alka Arora and Experton, W.
Leslie, Larry and Paul Brinkman
Levy, Daniel C.
Levy, Daniel C.
Lund, Helen
Maldonado, Alma, Yingxia Cao, Philip G. Altbach, Daniel C.
Patrinos, Harry A. & David L. Ariasingam
Ruch, Richard S.
Salmi, Jamil
Sundt, Melora
2000
2001
2003
2001
1995
2001
2002
2003
2003
2006
2005a
2005b
2004b
2004c
2003
2002
2001b
1999
1992
1991
1987
1972
1998
1989
2002
1986
1999
2004
1999a
1999c
1998a
1998b
2004
1997
2001
1999
1993
12
12
15
19
23
23
39
44
59
59
60
60
61
62
62
62
63
64
64
64
65
66
67
79
81
81
82
83
100
101
101
101
102
103
110
113
118
Varghese, N.V.
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
World Bank
Ziderman, Adrian
Zumeta, William
2001a
2003
2002
1994
2002
1996
130
140
141
144
146
147
B2 Comprehensive or Encyclopedic
author
year page
Altbach, Philip G. and D. Bruce Johnstone

Belfield, Clive and Henry M. Levin
Lebel, Philip
Levy, Daniel C.
Maldonado, Alma et al.
Psacharopoulos, George and Harry Anthony Patrinos
Schofield, Allen
Tres, Jaoquim and Francesco Lopez Segrera
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
World Bank
1993
2002
1999
2004
2004
2002
2004
1996
2004
2005
2003
2006
6
15
79
80
83
100
106
115
122
125
126
142
B3 High-Income/Industrialized Other than United States

author
year page
Ahmed, Eliza
Andrews, Les
Anthony, Susanne
Barr, Nicholas
Barr, Nicholas
Beerkens, Eric
Bekhradnia, Bahram
Boezerooy, Petra
Boezerooy, Petra & H. Vossensteyn
Boxall, Mike and Shahid Amin, Aamir Baloch
Brown, Nigel and Charles River Associates
Brown, Richard and Wendy Piatt
Brown, Roger
Callender, Claire
Callender, Claire and Martin Kemp
Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation
2000
1999
1999
2005
2000
2003
2003
2003
1999
2002
2003
2001
2004
2003
2000
2002
5
9
9
12
11
14
14
17
17
19
21
21
20
22
22
23
Cerdeira, Maria Luisa and L. Pereira

Cervenan, Amy and Alex Usher
Chapman, Bruce
Chapman, Bruce
Chapman, Bruce
Chung, Yue Ping
Clancy, Patrick and Deirdre Kehoe
Clark, Burton
Correia, Fernanda et. al.
Council of Australian Postgraduate Associations
Cunningham, Alisa, Christina Redmond and Jamie Merisotis
Daniel, Hans-Dieter, Stefanie Schwarz & Ulrich Teichler
De Dios Jimenez, Juan and Manuel Salas-Velasco
Deutsches Studentenwerk
Dill, David D. and Maarja Soo
Dobson, Ian
Eicher, Jean-Claude
European Centre for Higher Education (CEPES)
Eurydice
File, Jon and Leo Goedegebuure
Finnie, Ross
Finnie, Ross
Greenaway, David and Michelle Haynes
Guhr, Daniel
Guille, Marianne
Harding, A.
Harmon, C., I. Walker and N. Westergard-Nielsen
Hochschul-Informations-System (HIS)
Holtta, Seppo
2003
2004
2006
2004
1997
2003
2002
2003
1999
1998
2002
2003
2003
2001
2000
2004a
2004b
2003
1997
2003
2001
1998
2003
1999
1999
2003
2004
2004
2002
2004
2004
2003
2000
2002
2001
1995
2001
2002
1998
24
24
25
25
26
26
26
28
29
29
32
33
34
34
35
36
36
36
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
40
41
41
42
43
43
45
45
45
46
46
52
52
Huisman, Jeroen
Independent Committee of Inquiry into Student Finance
Ipsos Reid
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Jongbloed, Ben
Jongbloed, Ben
Jongbloed, Ben and Carlo Salerno
Kaiser, Frans
Kaiser, Frans et. al.
LaRocque, Norman
LaRocque, Norman
Levy, Jan S.
Looker, E. Dianne
Marginson, Simon
Massey, William F.
Matthews, Rebecca
Metcalf, Hilary
Minxuan, Zhang
Mizikaci, Fatma
Mora, Jose-Gines and Michael Nugent
Netherlands Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis and
CHEPS
New Zealand Vice-Chancellors Committee
Oliveira, Tanya and Pedro Telhado Pereira
Palfreyman, David
Payne, Joan and Claire Callender
Pechar, Hans
2003
2005
2000
2004
2005b
2005c
1986
2004
2003
2002
2000
2004
2002
2002
2003
2001
1999
2003
2001
2004
2004
1997
2004
2001
2005
2000
2006
1998
2000
1968
54
54
56
58
60
60
65
67
67
68
68
69
69
69
70
70
71
78
78
80
82
83
84
84
87
88
89
91
95
96
2001
1999
1999
1999a
1998a
1998b
2004
1997
1998
96
97
99
100
101
101
103
104
104

Public Funding and Private Returns to Education
R.A. Maltest and Associates Ltd.
Rees, Teresa
Richards, Ken
Salerno, Carlo
Salerno, Carlo
Swail, Watson Scott
Swail, Watson Scott and Donald Heller
System Three
Theisens, Henno
Thomas, Phil and Ashima Arora
Tight, Malcolm
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Vossensteyn, Hans
Wagner, Alan
Wagner, Leslie
Welch, Anthony
Williams, Gareth
Williams, Gareth
Williams, Gareth
Williams, Gareth and Gregory Light
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
2005
2002
2001
2004
2002
2002
2004
2002
1999
2003
2003
1999
2006
2003
2002
2003
2006
2005a
2005b
2004a
2004b
2004c
2005
2004a
2004b
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999a
1999b
1998
1998
1997
2004
1998
1992
1999
1990
1989
106
106
107
107
108
109
112
112
114
119
120
120
122
123
123
124
123
128
129
129
130
130
131
132
132
132
132
133
133
134
134
135
136
136
138
138
138
139
142
142
B4 United States Only

author
year page
Abraham, Katharine and Melissa Clark

2003
2002
2001
Alexander, F. King and Ronald G. Ehrenberg
2003
Altbach, P.G., P.J. Gumport and D.B. Johnstone
2001
2005
2004a
2004b
2004c
Archibald, Robert B.
2002
2003
Baum, Sandy and Saul Schwartz
2006
Baum, Sandy
2004
Baum, Sandy and Marie OMalley
2003
2003
Berkner, Lutz and Larry Bobbitt
2000
Bowen, William G., Martin A. Kurzweil and Eugene M. Tobin 2005
Breneman, David and Chester E. Finn Jr
1998
Caliber Associates
2003
Callan, Patrick M. & Finney, Joni
1997
Cheeseman Day, Jennifer and Eric C. Newburger
2002
Choy, Susan P.
2004
College Board
2004
College Board
2003
College Board (2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005)
Collins, Susan E., Leitzel, Thomas C. and
Morgan, Samuel D.
1994
2004a
2004b
Congressional Report
2004
Davis, Jerry S.
2003
Davis, Jerry S.
2000
Ehrenberg, Ronald G.
2000
1986
Fossey, Richard and Mark Bateman
1998
Gladieux, Lawrence E. and Arthur M. Hauptman
1995
Guhr, Daniel
2002
3
3
4
5
6
7
7
7
8
9
10
13
13
13
15
15
18
20
21
22
27
27
30
30
31
31
32
32
32
35
35
38
42
42
44
45
Hansen, Janet S.
Hauptman, Arthur
Hauptman, Arthur
Hauptman, Arthur
Hauptman, Arthur
Hearn, James C.
Heller, Donald E.
Heller, Donald E.
Heller, Donald E.
Heller, Donald E.
Herbert, Alicia and Claire Callender
Horn, Laura J., Xianglei Chen and Chris Chapman
Ifill, Roberto M. and Michael S. McPherson
Ikenberry, Stanley O. and Terry W. Hartle
Institute for Higher Education Policy
Institute for Higher Education Policy and Scholarship
Institute for Higher Education Policy et al.
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Kaiser, Frans, Hans Vossensteyn and Jos Koelman
Kane, Thomas J.
Kane, Thomas J. and Peter R. Orszag
Kezar, Adrianna J.
King, Jacqueline E.
King, Jacqueline E.
King, Jacqueline E.
King, Jacqueline E.
King, Jacqueline E.
King, Tracey and Ellynne Bannon
Kinser, Kevin and Daniel C. Levy
Kipp, Samuel M., Derek V. Price and Jill K. Wohlford
Kirshstein, Rita J. et al.
Levy, Daniel C.
McKeown-Moak, Mary
McPherson, Michael S., Morton Owen Shapiro and
Gordon C. Wilson
1990
1999
1998a
1998b
1990
2003
2001a
2001b
1999
1997
1997
2003
2004
1998
2000
2004
1997
2001a
1999
1986
2001
2001
1995
2003
2000
2004
2003a
2003b
2002
1999
2002
2005
2002
2004
1986
2002
2001
1998
46
47
47
48
48
48
49
49
50
50
51
53
55
55
57
56
57
63
64
65
66
70
71
71
72
73
74
74
75
75
75
76
76
76
81
85
86
86
1993
87
Monks, James
Mumper, Michael
National Commission on the Costs of Higher Education
Olivas, Michael
Palfreyman, David
Pell Institute for the Study of Opportunity in
Higher Education
Price, Derek V.
Redd, Kenneth E.
Rhoads, Robert A. and Carlos Alberto Torres
Ruppert, Sandra S.
St. John, Edward P.
St. John, Edward P.
St. John, Edward P. et. al
St. John, Edward P. and Michael D. Parsons
Schrag, Philip G.
State PIRGs Higher Education Project
Stringer, William L. et al.
Sundt, Melora
Swail, Watson Scott
Swail, Watson Scott and Donald Heller
Trombley, William
US Department of Education
US Department of Education and the the US General
Usher, Alex
Usher, Alex
Wellman, Jane V.
Wellman, Jane V.
Wilkinson, Rupert
Winston, Gordon C.
Wolanin, Thomas R.
2001
1996
2004
2003
2002
2004
2002
1998
1993
2004
90
91
93
93
94
94
94
95
99
103
2004
2003
2000
2006
2003
2003
1994
2004
2004
2000
2002
2002
1999
1993
2003
2004
2006
2003
2001
2001
2002
1997
2006
2005a
2001
1999
2005
1998
2001
104
106
108
108
110
111
111
111
112
114
115
117
118
118
119
120
122
126
126
127
127
128
128
128
137
137
137
139
139
Woo, Jennie, Jason Barnhart and Kathy Beasley

Woo, Jennie and Jason Barnhart
Woodhall, Maureen
2005
2003
1990
140
140
142
B5 Low and/or Middle Income Other than Transitional

author
year page
Adams, Don
Agarwal, Pawan
Albrecht, Douglas and Adrian Ziderman
Altbach, Philip G.
Amonoo-Neizer, Eugene
Association of African Universities
Babaloloa, Joel B.
Balan, Jorge
Banya, Kingsley
Banya, Kingsley and Juliet Elu
Blair, Robert D.D.
Blair, Robert D.D.
Bollag, Burton
Bouapao, L., O. Sengchandavong and S. Sihavong
Bray, Mark
Bray, Mark
Mark, Bray and R. Murray Thomas
Chapman, Bruce
Chapman, David
Chudgar, Amita
Chuta, E.J.
Chuta, E.J.
Cloete, Nico, Pundy Pillay, and Saleem Badat
Colclough, Christopher
Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals in Tanzania
Court, David
Daka, J.S.J. et al.
Fiske, Edward B. and Helen F. Ladd
Gill, T.K. and S.S. Gill
Hauptman, Arthur
Heath, Julia A.
Herz, Barbara
2002
2006
1991
1999
1998
1997
1998
1993
2001
2001
1998
1992
2003
2000
2002
2001
1998
1999
2002
2004
1992
1998
2004
1999
1997
1999
2000
2004
1999
2000
1998a
1998
2005
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
11
11
17
17
18
18
19
19
20
25
26
27
28
28
29
29
31
33
34
42
44
44
47
49
51
Heyneman, S.P. and Alan J. De Young

Hinchliffe, Keith
Hoffman, Adonis
International Finance Corporation
Ishengoma, Johnson
Jackson, Roy
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Johnstone, D. Bruce
Kagia, Ruth
Kajubi, Senteza
Kasozi, A.B.K.
Kaul, Rekha
Kiamba, Crispus
Kiiza, Julius
Kim, Anna and Young Lee
Kitaev, Igor
Kitaev, Igor et al.
Kruss, Glenda and Andre Kraak
Lee, W.O.
Levy, Daniel C.
Lewis, Darrel R. and Halil Dundar
Mabizela, Mahlubi, George Subotzky and Beverly Thaver
Mayanja, Muhammad K.
McEwan, Patrick J. and Martin Carnoy
McMahon, Walter W.
Merisotis, Jamie and Dianne S. Gilleland
Ministry of Higher Ed and Scientific Research, Palestinian
Mkude, Daniel
Mokkgwathi, G.M.G.
Musisi, Nakanyike B. and Nansozi K. Muwanga
Mwamila, Burton et al.
Narayana, M.R.
Ngethe, Njuguna et. al.
Njeuma, Dorothy L.
Obasi, Isaac and Eric C. Eboh
Odebiyi, Adetanwa I. and Olabisi I. Aina
Oketch, Moses O.
Oketch, Moses O.
2004
2002
1995
1999
2002
2002
2004a
2004d
1997
1992
2004
1993
2004
1997
2003
1999
2003
2003
2002
2003
1999
2002
1998
2000
1988
2000
2005
2002
2003
1992
2003
2002
2005
2003
1999
2002
1999
2003
2000
51
52
52
58
58
59
61
62
69
71
72
72
72
73
73
77
77
77
79
80
81
83
84
85
86
87
88
88
89
90
91
92
92
97
97
98
98
98
99
Otieno, Wycliffe
Passi, F.O.
Pillay, Pundy
Ping, Charles
Powar, K.B. and K.L. Johar
Rhoads, Robert A. and Carlos Alberto Torres
Rodrigues, Anthony J., and Shim O. Wandiga
Rozada, Martin Gonzalez and Alicia Menendez
Samoff, Joel and Bidemi Carrol
Sanyal, Bikas C.
Sanyal, Bikas and Michaela Martin
Sawyerr, Akilagpa
Schofield, Allan
Ssebuwufu, John P.M.
Steyn, Gert and Pierre de Villiers
Stumpf, Rolf
Sutherland, Carla
Task Force on Financial Sustainability of Higher Education in
Task Force on Higher Education and Society
Task Force on Improvement of Higher Education in Pakistan
Teckleselassie, Abebayehu A. and D. Bruce Johnstone
Teekens, Hanneke and Ben Jongbloed
Teferra, Damtew and Philip G. Altbach
Tight, Malcolm
Tilak, Jandhyala B.G.
Tilak, Jandhyala B.G. and Geetha Rani
UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Africa
Varghese, N.V.
Varghese, N.V.
Weidman, John C.
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
Woodhall, Maureen
World Bank
World Bank
2004
1994
1989
1995
2004
2006
1997
2002
2004
1998
1998
2004
2000
1996
2002
2006
1996
2001
1998
2000
2002
2004
2000
2003
2003
1997
2000
1998
2001a
2001b
1995
2001
2003
2001
1993
1991a
1991b
2003
2002
102
103
105
105
106
108
109
110
113
113
114
114
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
121
122
121
122
124
124
124
126
130
131
136
140
140
141
141
141
142
142
143
World Bank
World Bank
World Bank
Wright, Cream
Zeleza, Paul Tiyambe and Adebay Olukoshi
Ziderman, Adrian
Ziderman, Adrian
Ziderman, Adrian
Ziderman, Adrian and Douglas Albrecht
2001
1997
1994
1998
2004
2004
2003
2000
1995
144
144
144
145
145
145
146
147
147
B6 Transitional Countries
author
year page
Adams, Don
Bain, Olga
Berryman, Sue E.
Bray, M. and N. Boresvskaya
Huang, Lihong
Huang, Lihong
Kusherbaev, Krymbek et al.
Li, Wenli and Weifang Min
Mateju, Petr and Natalie Simonova
Min, Weifing
Mok, Ka-Ho and Jasan Tan
Nanzaddorj, Buluut
Postiglione, Gerard A.
Shattock, Michael
Shen, Hong and Wenli LI
Shouxin, Li and Bray, Mark
Tiron, Stefan et. al.
Ziyaev, Muzafar K., Ahadjon Rakhmonov &
Murtazo S. Sultanov
2002
2001
2000
2001
2005
2002
2004
2001
2001
2000
2003
2004
2004
2001
1999b
2006
2004
2003
1992
2003
2002a
2002b
3
10
16
20
53
54
56
66
78
82
84
88
90
92
100
105
115
115
116
125
134
135
2000
147
author biographies
pamela n. marcucci
Pamela Marcucci is the Project Manager for the International
Comparative Higher Education Finance and Accessibility Project
(ICHEFAP) at the State University of New York at Buffalo. Working
closely with Bruce Johnstone, the project director, Ms. Marcucci coordinates the project workflow, supervises project graduate students, edits
project reports, and writes certain of the country studies. Ms. Marcucci
handles the project budget and all official communication with both the
University Office of Sponsored Programs Administration and the Ford
Foundation and was the principal US coordinator of the March 2002 conference in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; the June 2003 conference in Prague,
Czech Republic; and the July 2006 conference in Nairobi, Kenya. She has
co-authored papers with Bruce Johnstone on tuition policies worldwide
and their impact on access to higher education and has presented on this
topic at several international higher education conferences.
Prior to moving to Buffalo and commencing work at the project, Ms.
Marcucci spent two years living and working in New York City and more
than eight years living and working in Rome, Italy. Her experience at
the Italian Association for Women in Development (AIDOS) in Rome
and at the African American Institute (AAI) in New York focused on
program development, and international education and training.
d. bruce johnstone
D. Bruce Johnstone is SUNY Distinguished Service Professor of Higher
and Comparative Education Emeritus at the State University of New York
at Buffalo. He retired from active teaching in July 2006, but continues
to direct Ph.D. dissertations and to direct the International Comparative
Higher Education Finance and Accessibility Project (ICHEFAP). He
is presently the Distinguished Scholar Leader of the Fulbright New
Century Scholars Program (part time July 2006 2008) and Lecturer, at
the University of Oslos Erasmus Mundus European Masters in Higher
Education.
In a 25-year administrative career, Dr. Johnstone has held posts of
vice president for administration at the University of Pennsylvania,
president of the State University College of Buffalo, and chancellor of
the State University of New York system, the latter from 1988 through
1994. From 1995 through 2006, he taught courses in higher education
finance, governance, curriculum, and international comparative higher
education and directed the Center for Comparative and Global Studies
in Education.
Dr. Johnstone has written more than 70 books, monographs, articles,
chapters, and book reviews. He is best known for his works on the financial condition of higher education, the concept of learning productivity,
student financial assistance policy, system governance, and international comparative higher education finance.

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International Higher Education

Finance: An Annotated Bibliography

Alma Maldonado-Maldonado, Yingxia Cao, Philip G. Altbach, Daniel C. Levy

International Higher Education

Center for International Higher Education

International Comparative Higher Education Finance and

2006. Boston College Center for International Higher Education

A2. Higher Education Finance

A3. Higher Education Finance: Cost-Sharing and

A4. Student Loans

A5. Grants and Any Other Forms of Student

A6. Privatization and Private Forms of Higher Education

A7. Access and Participation

section iii: cross-referenced by geographical area

B3. High Income-Industrialized Other Than United States

B4. United States Only

B5. Low and/or Middle Income Other than Transitional

of the politics and management issues affecting implementation of

Higher Education Finance: Cost Sharing and Revenue Diversification

marcucci and johnstone

Abraham, Katharine G. and Melissa A. Clark. (2003). Financial Aid

the importance of ongoing efforts to increase academic preparation

marcucci and johnstone

Altbach, Philip G. (Ed.). (1999). Private Prometheus: Private Higher

marcucci and johnstone

and Hulfactor, Firstenbach, and Psacharopolous, remain useful.

has been reached. All participants acknowledged that the implicit

marcucci and johnstone

Avery, Christopher and Caroline M. Hoxby. (2003). Do and Should

marcucci and johnstone

changes leading up to the highly-contested 2004 legislation that

marcucci and johnstone

1997. However, the average undergraduate student loan debt has

marcucci and johnstone

Belfield, Clive R. and Henry M. Levin. (Eds.). (2003). The Economics of

marcucci and johnstone

ing 10 to 30 percent of the instructional costs of higher education

European countries on the basis of the concepts of selectivity and

marcucci and johnstone

between governments and households in primary and post-primary

marcucci and johnstone

tained in the UKs Higher Education Bill that introduces variable

marcucci and johnstone

by Maureen Woodhall, one of the most recognized scholars of

marcucci and johnstone

Chapman, Bruce. (1997). Conceptual Issues and the Australian

marcucci and johnstone

Research Centre of the University of Hong Kong, this book looks

marcucci and johnstone

Nigeria, including its past problems and attempts of the Nigerian

tional resources to finance educational expansion in developing

marcucci and johnstone

reauthorization. Taken together, these research reports present, as

menting incentive schemes and reforming retirement benefits and

marcucci and johnstone

Portuguese higher education was more the result of institutional

ings maintenance, and most important, for raising staff salaries,

marcucci and johnstone

authors examine the extent to which the theoretical determinants

marcucci and johnstone

of State for Education and Skills in January, London, United

marcucci and johnstone

transformations that have been accompanied by very great structural