Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to You By KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Wednesday, December 21, 2016

2005-01-2124

An Experimental Study on the Improvement of Engine

Performance and Exhaust Emissions from Small-scale PCCI
Engines Fuelled by Natural Gas
Kiyoshi Kawasaki, Akihiro Takegoshi, Koji Yamane
The University of Shiga Prefecture

Hiroyuki Ohtsubo, Tohru Nakazono, Kazuyuki Yamauchi

YANMAR CO., Ltd

Copyright 2005 SAE International

ABSTRACT
To characterize the suitable conditions for a natural gas
PCCI (premixed charge compression ignition) engine to
provide both high efficiency and low emissions, an
experimental study was demonstrated using a smallscale, single-cylinder engine. Engine tests were
systematically carried out with various parameters,
including compression ratio (18 to 22), intake-air
temperature (160 to 220 oC) and engine speed (800 to
2400 rpm). It was shown that the maximum specific
power can be improved in proportion to an engine speed
up to 2400 rpm, while both the indicated thermal
efficiency over 32% and the NOx emission below 100
ppm can be retained. However, an increase in engine
speed extends the combustion duration especially under
lean conditions, which decreases the indicated thermal
efficiency.

INTRODUCTION
The PCCI (premixed charge compression ignition)
engine fuelled by natural gas is expected to become a
new power source for co-generation systems, because it
has the potential to provide higher efficiency with low
emissions, especially low NOx, compared to ordinary SI
(spark ignition) gas engines.
This type of engine requires a high in-cylinder
temperature of approximately 1000 K at the end of the
compression stroke to initiate the heat release
successfully, due to the high auto-ignition temperature of
natural gas, of which the primary component is methane.
An ordinary SI engine can be modified to obtain such a
high temperature by introducing a diesel-like
compression ratio and intake-air heating devices [1].
However, the energy loss due to pre-heating is not
negligible. Furthermore, improving the mean effective

pressure up to the same level as the SI engine is not

readily done, because of the knock caused by the
abnormally large combustion rate under high load
conditions.
Recent work has shown that trapping the hot burned gas
in the cylinder is effective for the reduction of the
required intake temperature and ignition timing control
[2,3,4]. Kuzuyama et al. showed that by using a special
valve opening strategy, the natural gas HCCI
(homogeneous charge compression ignition) engine can
operate without intake-air heating, and therefore its
brake thermal efficiency exceeds that of the SI engine[5].
Some other researchers have been trying to utilize multifuel or fuel-additives to establish a feasible system. Yap
et al. demonstrated that the addition of hydrogen into
natural gas reduces the required intake temperature,
especially in low loads [6]. Kwoen et al. showed that the
optimum blend of methane and dimethyl ether can
produce larger specific power than either single fuel [7].
Another possible effect on auto-ignition is the heat loss
through the cylinder wall during a compression stroke.
The heat loss is reduced by the increase in the engine
speed, especially in a small-scale engine. However, the
speed effects on the natural gas PCCI engine have not
yet been investigated in detail. A recent small-scale
generating-system was equipped with an efficient
inverter device, which allows the engine to choose the
optimum speed for the required output power. So, if the
engine speed can be changed without a decrease in
efficiency, the available range of engine power can be
extended.
The objective of this study is to characterize the suitable
conditions for the natural gas PCCI engine for providing
both high efficiency and low emissions. The effects of

Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to You By KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Wednesday, December 21, 2016

basic parameters, including the compression ratio, the

intake temperature and especially the engine speed,
were experimentally examined using a single-cylinder
test engine.
Combustion
analysing system
Intake air

3kW Heater

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

T
T

The experimental apparatus is shown in Figure 1. A

four-cycle single-cylinder diesel engine (YANMAR
NFAD-5) was modified for HCCI operation. The main
specifications of the test engine are shown in Table 1.
The engine was coupled to an eddy-current
dynamometer.

Surge
tank

Exhaust
gas

T
FT-IR analyzer
THC analyzer

Laminar
flow meter
Flow
controller

Dynamometer

The fuel was natural gas for commercial use, and was
composed of approximately CH4 (88%), C2H6 (6%), C3H8
(4%) and C4H10 (2%). The fuel was introduced
continuously into the suction pipe through the nozzle,
which was mounted 155mm before the cylinder head.
The electric heater (max. power 3 kW) was installed to
control the temperature of the fuel-air mixture between
160 and 220 oC.
For the exhaust emission analysis, an FT-IR (Fourier
transform infrared) analyzer (HORIBA MEXA4000FT)
was used to measure NOx and CO. The total unburned
hydrocarbons (THC) were measured by a heated flameionization detector (FIRMTECH EXLII-311).
The in-cylinder pressure was recorded using the
piezoelectric transducer and the charge amplifier
(KISTLER 6053C/5011) coupled with the dataacquisition unit (YOKOGAWA WE7000). The heatrelease rate, gas temperature and some combustion
characteristics were calculated from the pressure
indicators. In addition, for detecting the knock caused by
the abnormally large combustion rate, the high-pass
filtered pressure was monitored. The knock limit was
defined as the case in which a high-frequency pressure
vibration over 4 kHz was detected.
Engine tests were systematically carried out for various
combinations of compression ratios and engine speeds.
The compression ratios were 18, 20 or 22 and the
engine speeds were 800, 1200, 1800, or 2400 rpm. For
all operations, the cooling water temperature was kept at
approximately 80 oC and the oil was kept at 60 oC.
Table 1 Engine specifications
Engine type
Rated speed
Bore
Stroke
Comp. ratio
Combustion chamber

4cycle/water cooled/N.A.
2600 rpm
70 mm
72 mm
18:1, 20:1, 22:1
Dog-dish type

CNG

Fig.1 Layout of experimental setup

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

EFFECT OF INTAKE TEMPERATURE AND
COMPRESSION RATIO
The effects of the intake temperature and compression
ratio on engine performances and exhaust emissions
were first examined for a constant engine speed of 1200
rpm. The test results are shown in Figure 2. IMEP is the
indicated mean effective pressure calculated from the
indicator diagram over 720 degrees, Ki is the indicated
thermal efficiency. T q max is the crank-angle timing
(ATDC ; after top dead center) for the maximum heat
release rate. GIMEP is the cycle-to-cycle variation of IMEP.
T q max is roughly equal to the center of the heat release,
since the heat release histories have almost a symmetric
shape as shown in Figure 4, which will be discussed
later. The intake temperature Ti was kept in the range of
160 to 220 oC. The results for compression ratios H of 20
and 22 are displayed. Figure 3 shows the emissions of
THC, CO and NOx for the same cases shown in Figure
2.
These figures show that the larger the equivalence ratio
is, the earlier the heat release timing and the higher the
IMEP. But, eventually a large amount of NOx is emitted
and the knock is occurred. The minimum intake
temperature of 180 or 160 oC for each compression ratio
permits operation at an equivalence ratio higher than 0.5
without the knock and without a significant increase in
NOx emissions, thereby producing the largest IMEP.
However, a slight drop in the equivalence ratio causes a
rapid increase in THC, CO and a cycle variation of
IMEP, so that the operational range of an equivalence
ratio is restricted within quite narrow limits.

Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to You By KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Wednesday, December 21, 2016

=22

15
10
5

IMEP MPa

T i = 220oC
200oC
180oC
160oC

T i = 220o C
200o C
180o C

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.2

0.3
0.4
0.5
Equivalence ratio

0.2

0.3
0.4
0.5
Equivalence ratio

30

40

20

.
qmax
A TDC

20
15
10
5
T DC
0
-5

IMEP %

=20

10

0.6

Fig.2 Effects of intake temperature and compression ratio on engine performances (1200rpm)
=20

=22
Ti = 220oC
200oC
180oC
160oC

Ti = 220 C
200oC
180oC

400
200
0

6000
4500
3000

C O ppm

NOx

ppm

600

THC

ppmC

1500
16000

12000
8000
4000
0.2

0.3
0.4
0.5
Equivalence ratio

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
Equivalence ratio

0.6

Fig.3 Effects of intake temperature and compression ratio on exhaust emissions (1200rpm)
The next discussion
compression ratio. A
high pressure and
compression stroke,

is focused on the effect of the

large compression ratio provides
high temperature during the
thereby assisting auto-ignition

under a low intake temperature or lean condition.

Figures 2 and 3 show that the cycle variation of IMEP
and CO or THC emissions for the compression ratio of
22 remains lower than those of the compression ratio of

Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to You By KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Wednesday, December 21, 2016

1600

= 22
o
T = 220 C
i

= 20
Ti=220oC

1200
9.0

800

MPa

Temperature

2000

Rate of heat release

J /deg

3.0

= 0.47

55

= 0.49

0.43

0.43

0.37

35

Pressure

6.0

0.37

0.31

0.29

15
0

-5

-20

-10

TDC

10

20

Crank angle degree

30

40 -20

-10

0
TDC

10

20

30

40

Crank angle degree

Fig. 4 Behavior of in-cylinder temperature, pressure and rate of heat release (I is the equivalence ratio)
Figure 5 shows the range of equivalence ratios meeting
the conditions of NOx below 100ppm and cycle variation
of IMEP below 10% for various combinations of intake
temperatures and compression ratios. As the intake
temperature or compression ratio becomes lower, both
the minimum and maximum limit of the equivalence ratio
become higher, and the available range is restricted
within more narrow limits.

0.6
ne = 1200 rpm
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

T i = 220oC
200oC
180oC
160oC
18

20
Compression ratio

EFFECT OF ENGINE SPEED

22

Fig.5 Available range of equivalence ratio

(NOx < 100ppm and GIMEP<10%)
20, especially at a low equivalence ratio. As a result, the
minimum intake temperature to enable stable operation
for the compression ratio of 22 (160 oC) is lower than
that of 20 (180 oC).
However, the ignition timing at the compression ratio of
22 is earlier than that of 20 for constant equivalence
ratio, as shown in Figure 4; this earlier timing reduces
the knock-limit equivalence ratio. As a result, if the
intake temperature is constant, an increase in the
compression ratio reduces the maximum value of the
IMEP.

The feasibility of the improvement in a specific power by

the increase in engine speed was next investigated.
Figures 6 and 7 show the profiles of engine performance
and exhaust emissions against the equivalence ratio for
engine speeds of 1200, 1800 and 2400 rpm. The
compression ratio was set for 20 and the intake
temperature for 200 oC. Under these conditions stable
operation can be produced in a relatively wide range of
equivalence ratios for 1200 rpm, as mentioned above.
Figure 6 shows that for any speed, knock-free operation
can be provided up to the equivalence ratio of about 0.5,
at which a maximum IMEP of about 0.4 MPa is
produced. In addition, as shown in Figure 7, the NOx
concentration remains below 100 ppm for 1800 and
2400 rpm at a maximum IMEP, wherease the NOx
concentration is over 600 ppm for 1200 rpm. These
results suggest that the power of this type of engine can
be improved by increasing the engine speed while
keeping a certain level of indicated thermal efficiency
and exhaust emissions.

Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to You By KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Wednesday, December 21, 2016

However, for 1800rpm and 2400rpm, a small difference

in the equivalence ratio makes a remarkable change in
the IMEP and indicated thermal efficiency. For example,
the indicated thermal efficiency for 1800rpm is about 10
% lower than that for 1200rpm at the equivalence ratio of
0.4, in which case the CO concentration for 1800 rpm
(4500 ppm) is three times as large as that for 1200rpm.

the change of engine speed can be explained from their

combustion histories. The ignition timing of HCCI engine
varies according to the time history of the gas
temperature and pressure in the cylinder. Assuming that
the behaviors of pressure and temperature against a
crank angle are not affected by engine speed, it is
possible that the ignition timing is retarded by the
increase in engine speed when the equivalence ratio is
constant. In fact, an increase in the engine speed can

40

3000
1500

ppmC

10

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

20000

20

16000
12000

THC

ne = 800rpm
1200rpm
1800rpm
2400rpm

8000
4000

0.3
0.4
0.5
Equivalence ratio

0.2

0.6

Temperature

Fig. 6 Effects of engine speed on performances

2000
1600

0.3

0.4
0.5
Equivalence ratio

0.6

Fig.7 Effects of engine speed on exhaust emissions

ne = 1200rpm
= 20

ne = 2400rpm

Ti = 200oC

1200
9.0

800

M Pa

0.2

6.0

Rate of heat release

J/deg

3.0
55

Pressur e

MPa

6000
4500

n = 800rpm
e
1200rpm
1800rpm
2400rpm

30

IMEP

200

qmax

ATDC

20
15
10
5
T DC
0

-5

= 20
T = 200oC
i

400

ppm

600

CO

10

NOx ppm

= 20
T = 200oC
i

IMEP %

These differences in performances and emissions due to

15

0
= 0.52
0.47
0.44
0.40

35

= 0.50
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.42

15
0

-5

-20

-10

0
TDC

10

Crank angle degree

20

30

-20

-10

TDC

10

20

30

40

Crank angle degree

Fig. 8 Behavior of in-cylinder temperature, pressure and rate of heat release for 1200 and 2400rpm

Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to You By KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Wednesday, December 21, 2016

2000

Tmax

= 20
T = 200oC
i

1600

n = 800rpm
e
1200rpm
1800rpm
2400rpm

1200

800
0.3

0.4
0.5
Equivalence ratio

0.6

Fig.9 Effects of engine speed on maximum temperature

reduce the heat loss through the cylinder wall during the
compression stroke. So, it is also possible that an
increase in engine speed shortens the ignition-delay
time, and ignition timing is advanced. Figure 8 shows the
combustion histories for 1200 rpm and 2400 rpm with
different equivalence ratios. At the equivalence ratio of
approximately 0.48, the ignition timing for 1200 rpm and
2400 rpm is about 3 degrees, while the in-cylinder
pressure and temperature in the compression stroke for
2400rpm are higher than those for 1200rpm. This result
indicates that the reduction in the ignition-delay time by
the thermal effect is canceled out by the increase in the
angular velocity.
On the other hand, the profile of the heat release after
ignition varies with the engine speed. Under the same
9
8

= 20
Ti = 180oC

The difference of NOx concentration caused by the

engine speed can also be explained based on the
combustion histories. Figure 9 shows the maximum incylinder temperature against the equivalence ratio for
engine speeds from 800 rpm to 2400 rpm. The NOx
production rate is greatly dependent on the maximum incylinder temperature. This figure shows that the
temperature reaches approximately 1800 K for any
speed at the equivalence ratio of 0.5, in which case the
NOx concentration is over 600 ppm for 1200 rpm while it
stays below 200 ppm for 1800 rpm and 2400 rpm. This
result suggests that the maximum production rate of
NOx does not vary with engine speed, but the time for
NOx formation, namely the high-temperature duration, is

Ti = 220oC

Ti = 200oC

knock
32

knock

7
Indicated specific power kw/l

equivalence ratio condition, the period of heat release

for 2400 rpm is longer than that for 1200 rpm. The
smaller the equivalence ratio, the more significant this
difference becomes. This can be explained as follows. It
is supposed that the reaction time after auto-ignition in
HCCI combustion depends on the in-cylinder pressure,
temperature and fuel concentration. If each condition is
constant, the combustion duration expressed through
the crank angle becomes longer in proportion to the
engine speed. So, the difference in the combustion
duration due to engine speed becomes significant
especially under the low equivalence rate condition in
which a long reaction time is required for the combustion
process. For example, at the equivalence ratio of 0.42,
the heat release for 2400 rpm continues for 30 degrees,
which lowers the gas temperature at the last stage of
combustion. As a result, the combustion is frozen and a
large amount of CO is exhausted, as shown in Figure 7.

30

knock

i=30%

NOx=100ppm

NOx=100ppm

28

5
26

IMEP = 10%
24

28
26
24
22

NOx=100ppm

32

30

IMEP = 10%

idle

IMEP = 10%

0
800

1200

1600

2000

800

1200
1600
Engine speed

2000
rpm

800

1200

1600

2000

Fig.10 The maps of indicated thermal efficiency against engine speed and indicated specific power

2400

Downloaded from SAE International by Brought to You By KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Wednesday, December 21, 2016

reduced by the increase in engine speed.

Figure 10 shows maps of the indicated thermal
efficiency against engine speed and indicated specific
power for the compression ratio of 20 and the intake
temperatures of 180 oC, 200 oC and 220 oC. The upper
limit of power for each speed is defined based on the
NOx concentration (100 ppm) or the occurrence of a
knock, and the lower limit is defined based on the cycle
variation of IMEP (10%). It is shown that the combination
of a lower intake temperature and a higher engine speed
is effective for producing a larger indicated power. At an
intake temperature of 180 oC, the maximum specific
power increases in proportion to an engine speed up to
2400 rpm, in which case the specific power can reach
8.5 kW/liter, while the indicated thermal efficiency over
32% can remains constant. However, the available
range of power for each speed is restricted within a
narrow limit.

CONCLUSION
The objective of this study was to characterize the
effects of basic parameters, including the compression
ratio, intake temperature and engine speed on natural
gas PCCI operation. Based on the experimental results,
the following conclusions can be drawn.
An increase in the compression ratio assists stable
auto-ignition under low intake temperature and a
lean condition. However, if the intake temperatures
are the same, an increase in the compression ratio
reduces the maximum value of the indicated mean
effective pressure (IMEP), because this decreases
the knock-limit equivalence ratio.
The maximum indicated specific power increases in
proportion to the engine speed up to 2400 rpm,
while both the indicated thermal efficiency over 32%
and NOx emission below 100 ppm are maintained.
The NOx concentration for a high equivalence ratio
is reduced by the increase in engine speed. Thus
reduction probably occurs because the time for the
high-temperature duration in the combustion stroke
is shortened.

An increase in the engine speed extends the

combustion duration, especially under a lean
condition, and so the oxidation reaction is frozen at
the last stage of combustion, and the indicated
thermal efficiency decreases compared to the lowspeed condition.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work has been executed as part of the joint
research project with New Energy and Industrial
Technology Development Organization. Special thanks
are due to Mr. K. Taguchi and Mr. K. Hirota, both at the
University of Shiga prefecture, for their commitment to
this experiment.

REFERENCES
1. Christensen M., Johansson B., Einewall P.,
Homogeneous charge compression ignition(HCCI)
using isooctane, ethanol and natural gasA
comparison with spark ignition operation, SAE
Paper 972874, (1997)
2. Yap D., Megaritis A., et al., Residual gas trapping
for natural gas HCCI, SAE Paper 2004-01-1973
(2004)
3. Chen R., Milovanovic N., A computational study into
the effect of exhaust gas recycling on homogeneous
charge compression ignition combustion in internal
combustion engines fuelled with methane, Int. J. of
Thermal Sciences, vol.41, 805813, (2002)
4. Law D., Kemp D., et al., Controlled combustion in
an IC-engine with a fully variable valve train, SAE
Paper 2000-01-0251, (2000)
5. Kuzuyama H., Aoki S., et al., A study on natural gas
fueled homogeneous charge compression ignition
engine, Proc. 2004 annual congress of JSAE,
No.13-04, 9-12, (2004) (in Japanese)
6. Yap D., Megaritis A. S., et al., Effect of hydrogen
addition on natural gas HCCI combustion, SAE
Paper 2004-01-1972, (2004)
7. Kweon S., Yamashita D. and Iida N., Improving the
maximum IMEP of knocking limit on homogeneous
charge compression ignition engine using 2
component mixing fuel, Proc. 2004 congress of
JSAE in autumn, No.105-04, 17-22, (2004)