ASSIGNMENT 1

Q1) What are the merits and demerits of trussed roofing system over other
long span structures?

A1) MERITS

1) Trussed roofing systems are much more light weight. Hence it reduces
the time to get to the site and also substantially reduces the dead load.
2) Additionally, steel is non-combustible which makes it much more likely
to resist devastating events such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and fires.
3) Being light, earthquake load is not an issue in truss roof.
4) Trusses can typically be installed in a single day speeding up the
construction process.
5) Trusses are comparatively cheaper than conventional roofing system
due to labor and material saving.
6) Trusses can be customized thereby increasing their aesthetic appeal.
7) Roof trusses can span much longer distances without the need of load
bearing interior walls.
8) When it comes to strength and durability required in building materials,
steel trusses cannot be matched. Out of all materials used in
construction, steel has the maximum strength to weight ratios.
9) Metal roof trusses are environment friendly and can be recycled.

DEMERITS

1) Trusses are difficult to work with and hence skilled labor is required.
2) It allows heat to escape from the structure and hence is not energy
efficient.
3) It is prone to expansion and contraction due to temperature
fluctuations. Hence it is advisable not to use truss roofs in areas having
extreme climate.
4) Metal truss roofing allows sound to be easily transmitted.
5) Rust can be a problem hence corrosive measures should be adopted.
6) The owner ends up with less usable space in the attic area.

Q2) Compare angle trusses and tubular trusses.

Trusses can be constructed either with angular members or tubular steel

members. The choice of members depends upon the following: -
 1)

1) Magnitude of internal forces.

2) Ease of connection between members.
3) Aesthetic appeal
4) And particular necessity to connect prefabricated members on site.

ANGLE TRUSS CONNECTION: - In a typical detail of connection of angle truss,

the members at a joint should be connected such that their center of gravity
intersects at a particular point without any eccentricity. Shop connections are
welded and all field connections maybe either bolted or welded. Usually all
the hollow sections are welded and open sections are bolted. The 9-12m
span trusses are completely fabricated in the shops as one single unit. The
18-24m trusses are fabricated in two units and are assembled on the field in
the form of the desired truss. Whereas the 30m span trusses are fabricated
in 3 units and then transported to the site where they are assembled as a
single unit. For smaller spans T sections are generally used for chords with
angles used as internal members. Back to back members are used for longer
span or heavier loads with gusset plate used at the node to connect the
members. The gusset plate thickness is calculated on the basis of fastener
bearing requirement and is present in table 221 of IS.SP.38.1987.

TUBULAR TRUSS CONNECTION: - All shop and field connections are welded in
this case. The 9-12m span trusses are fabricated as a one unit and
transported to the site, 18-24m span trusses are fabricated in 2 units and
then are assembled on site and 30m span truss is fabricated in 3 units that
are transported to the site and are then assembled in the form of the desired
truss. All the shop connections between the tubular members except at the
rafter-tie junction and at junctions with overlapping members, direct
connection is done with weld on all sides of the perimeter of the joining
tubes. The field connections, tie-rafter junction and overlapping junction are
made using gusset plate.

Q3) Explain a truss.

A3) A truss is essentially a triangulated system of (usually) straight
interconnected structural elements; it is sometimes also referred to as an
open web girder.

The individual elements are connected at nodes; the connections are often
assumed to be nominally pinned, bolted or welded.

The external forces applied to the system and the reactions at the supports
are generally applied at the nodes. When all the members and applied forces
are in a same plane, the system is a plane or 2D truss. A principle force in
each element in a truss is axial tension or compression.

Steel trusses supported on columns are one of the structural systems

commonly used in industrial buildings, airport terminals, stadiums,
auditoriums etc. These are basically framed assemblies generally carrying
load in the plane of the frame.

The individual members are primarily in tension or compression and

sometimes accompanied by some bending moment.

There are two types of trusses: - A type truss and Lean-to type truss.

The standard span to depth ratio is 1:6 or 1:8. 1:6 is considered more
economical because as the depth decreases the truss becomes heavier and
expensive.

The steel trusses have been analyzed as simply supported on columns. The
rafter/top chord and the tie members shall be adequately braced laterally
thus preventing out-of plane buckling. All the joints between the members of
a truss should be hinged.

Q4) What loads govern the design of a truss and why?

A4) The steel trusses have been designed as simply supported on columns
and are subjected to dead load, live load, wind load, earthquake load and
crane load through purlins (beams carrying roof sheeting and supported on
the truss), girts (beams carrying side sheeting and supported on the
columns) and girders.

The columns have been designed as cantilevers tied together resisting wind
load and other loads acting perpendicular to the ridge.

The lateral load resistance of this system maybe derived either by the
cantilever action of the supporting columns fixed at the bottom or by the
combination of horizontal wind girders at the truss tie level and the vertically
braced end bays.

Individual members of a truss experience axial tension or compression

COMPRESSION AXIAL
FORCE

TENSION AXIAL
FORCE

Q5) What is spacing of a truss and depth of truss?

A5) SPACING OF A TRUSS is the center line distance between two trusses in
the longitudinal direction. The roof truss spacing standard is very important
as 80% of the construction of trusses is prefabricated as per standards.

This means if you are in charge of installation or repair work you should be
well aware of the standards. Typical standard roof truss spacing is 2 or 24
from center to center.

This means at the centre of one truss, there will be a two-foot gap, or twenty-
four-inch gap, until the centre of the next truss.

For efficient structural performance, the ratio of span to truss depth should
be chosen in the range 10 to 15, lower the depth heavier the truss, more
uneconomical it would be.

The architectural design of the building determines its external geometry

and governs the slope(s) given to the top chord of the truss. The intended
use of the internal space can lead either to the choice of a horizontal bottom
chord, e.g. where conveyors must be hung under the chord, or to an inclined
bottom chord, to allow maximum space to be provided.

Some important points in designing a truss are: -

 The inclination of the diagonal members in relation to the chords
should be between 35 and 55
Point loads should only be applied at nodes
The orientation of the diagonal members should be such that the
longest members are subject to tension (the shorter ones being subject to
compression).
Q6) what is north light truss?
A6) North light trusses were traditionally used for short span in industrial
type areas. Nowadays however the North Light Roof Truss is suitable for the
larger spans that go over 20m and get up to 30m.
This happens because its cheaper to add a truss that has a wide, larger set
of lattice girders that include support trusses.
They allow maximum benefit to be gained from natural lighting by the use of
glazing on the steeper pitch which generally faces north or north-east to
reduce solar gain. Along with natural light it facilitates natural ventilation and
is more economical.
On the steeper sloping portion of the truss, it is typical to have a truss
running perpendicular to the plane of the North Light truss, to provide large
column-free spaces.
The use of north lights to increase natural day lighting can reduce
the operational carbon emissions of buildings although their impact should
be explored using dynamic thermal modeling.
Although north lights reduce the requirement for artificial lighting and can
reduce the risk of overheating, by increasing the volume of the building they
can also increase the demand for space heating.
This type of truss is extremely durable and versatile in nature.
 ASSIGNMENT 2

Q1) what is pre-stressing? What is pre-stressed and post tensioned concrete?

Differentiate between the two? How is pre-stressed concrete different from
RC?

A1) Stretching a collection of helically bound high tensile steel wires by

hydraulic, electrical, mechanical or chemical force to provide compressive
force of desirable amount is known as prestressing.

In a conventional RCC slab, the concrete is responsible for taking the

compressive loads and the steel is responsible for taking the tensile loads. If
an initial compression is provided to the slab prior to its use to counter the
external load arising during its service period, to a desirable extent, then the
amount of concrete in a slab will decrease substantially thereby saving on
cost and also thickness of the slab will also decrease.

Pre-stressing wire is a single unit made up of 2 or more steel wires that are
wound to form a strand. A group of strands or wires are wound together to
form a tendon. A group of tendon forms a cable. A tendon can be made of a
single steel bar. The diameter of the bar is larger than the wire.

NATURE OF CONCRETE STEEL INTERFACE: -

BONDED TENDON: - When there is adequate bondage between the

prestressing tendon and the concrete it is called bonded tendon. In case of a
pre-tensioned member the tendon is always bonded. For a post-tensioned
member if it is fully grouted then it is a bonded tendon.

UNBONDED TENDONS: - When there is no bond between the concrete and

the prestressed tendon it is called unbounded tendon. When grout is not
applied after post tensioning the tendon is not bonded to the concrete. Force
is transferred to the concrete by anchors provided at the ends.

Prestressing of concrete is done in two ways: -

Pre-tensioning: - When the tension is applied to the tendons before casting

the concrete it is called pretensioning. The pre-compression is transmitted
from steel to the concrete through bond over the transmission length near
the ends. In pre-tensioning a jack pulls the reinforcement bars until the
youngs modulus limit and after that the concrete is poured. The jacks are
released after the hardening of the concrete.
Post- tensioning: - The tension is applied to the tendons after the hardening
of the concrete. The pre-compression is transmitted from steel to the
concrete by an anchorage device at the end blocks. Post tensioning
members is made when concrete is poured first and a PVC duct is left in
which the prestressed wires are later inserted.

The major difference between the two is that in case of post tensioning the
steel is tensioned after the concrete is hardened. Once the steel is tensioned,
the wedges are placed. The jack is then released, and the steel sets on the
concrete member through the anchorage blocks, which thus transfers the
prestress to the concrete.

ASSIGNMENT 3

Q1) what is one way slab and two way slab? What is the difference between
the two? How is loading done on the two?

If the ratio of the longer side of the slab (b) to the shorter span (a) is equal
or greater than 2 i.e. a: b> 2, then the slab is known as one-way slab.

In this slab, the main reinforcement is given in only one direction i.e. on the
longer side.

In a 2 way slab, the ratio of the longer side of the slab (b) to the shorter span
(a) is less than 2 i.e. a: b<2.

In a two way slab the reinforcement is provided on both the sides of the slab
as load will be carried in both the directions.

The major difference between one way and two way slab is that in case of
simply supported slab the effective span will be l/20 for one way slab and
l/25 for two way slab.
a

b
Q2) Explain beam slab floor system?

This system consists of beams framing into columns and collectively

supported on slabs spanning in between beams. Deeper the beam, thicker
will be the column, longer will be the span.

The complication of beam-slab formwork, coordination of services and overall

depth of the floor has led to the decrease in popularity of this system.

The traditional reinforced concrete beam-slab system has an economical

span L which is 15 times the depth of the slab and beam together.

Basically this system consists of a solid slab panel supported over rigid
beams. The general span range is 6-8 meters.

MERITS: -

1) This system can be adopted for any shape and size of building.
2) It is usually the most economical system.
3) Large openings for staircases and lift shafts can be easily formed.
4) This system can conveniently support partition walls and concentrated
loads.
5) It is light weight and long spans system.
6) It has good seismic resistance.
7) This type of system can be easily analyzed and designed.

DEMERITS: -

1) In order to provide large span, deeper depth of beams will be required.

Hence this may pose problems for headroom and aesthetics.
2) In some cases, the aesthetics of the interior dictate the floor system
other than beam-slab system.
3) Penetrations through beams for large ducts and services are difficult to
handle.

Q3) what are space frames?

Space frame is a three dimensional structure of a truss. A truss has two sides
and hence it is coplanar. When another member in the z-axis is added on the
top, it forms a space frame. This additional member is known as purlin.

A space frame is made up of steel, aluminum and galvanized iron. It is in

some cases made of concrete also example, Hall of nations.
The members of the space frame are connected together by a ball-shaped
joint with holes having threading. The members are inserted into these holes
and tightly wounded together. In some cases, welding is also done to join the
members of the space frame.

The space frame is generally supported on two sides. The joints, if fixed on
one side, the other side should be a roller joint so that the expansion and
contraction due to temperature variations does not pose any threat to the
structure.

Q4) what is flat plate slab and waffle slab?

Flat plate slab is basically a one way or two way slab that is directly
supported on load bearing columns or walls. Its principle feature is its
uniform thickness.

MERITS: -

1) For this system, simple formwork is required and hence it is easy to

construct.
2) There are no beams required in this system therefore simplifying the
under floor horizontal services like ducting.
3) Minimum structural depth resulting in greater floor to floor height.

DEMERITS: -

1) Limited lateral load capacity.

2) May be subjected to long term deflection that can be a controlling
factor.
3) May not be convenient to support masonry partition walls.
4) Not suitable for heavy load construction.

Waffle system is also known as ribbed system. It consists of ribs at close

intervals that act as T beams. There are 2 types of waffle slabs: -

1) waffle slab with wide shallow beams around the periphery.

2) waffle slab with solid panels around column.

MERITS: -

1) Reduced dead weight due to formation of ribs hence it is a light weight

system.
2) Architecturally and aesthetically pleasing.
3) Lighting fixtures can be easily concealed within the ribs.
4) Can be used for long spans up to 10m or so without excessive beam
projections.

DEMERITS: -

1) The cost of shuttering is appreciably more. The overall cost is 20%

more than the conventional beam-slab system.

Examples: - NBCC house, Bhikaji Cama Place, New Delhi

Laboratory Block, JNU campus.