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THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
3. Handbook of combustion, Vol. 1-5, ed. by M. Lackner, F.Winter, A.K. Agarwal, Wiley-
VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, 2010 (in English)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Combustion an exothermic chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the
production of heat and conversion of chemical species.
Combustible mixture a mixture of a fuel and an oxidizer in which combustion is developing
after an ignition source vanishes.
Ignition the initiation of the combustion process in the combustible mixture. There are two types
of ignition:
- external ignition, caused by a local source introduced into the combustible mixture (e.g.
spark, pilot flame, etc.)
-self-ignition, caused by an even rise of temperature in the whole volume of the combustible
mixture above a certain value.
Flame the zone where the combustion process takes place.
Considering the preparation of a combustible mixture, there are two principal types of flames
- premixed flame in which the oxidizer has been mixed with the fuel before it reaches the
combustion zone, and the flame speed is determined by rules of chemistry
- diffusion flame in which the oxidizer combines with the fuel by diffusion and the flame
speed is limited by the rate of diffusion.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Fig 1.2. Concentrations (C) and temperature (T) versus position (x) in premixed laminar flame: 1
fuel, 2 flue gas, 3 oxidizer, 4 temperature, 5 premixed flame, 6 sec. diffusion flame
The diffusion flame is formed in the boundary layer between a flammable gas and an oxidizer.
Before combustion can occur, gases must be mixed by diffusion. The diffusion can be of molecular
or turbulent nature.
The intense reaction zone (flame front) of the diffusion flame is located where the ratio of air to fuel
is stoichiometric.
A gas burner is a device used to form a flame using a gaseous fuel. The basic function of gas
burners are:
- to prepare a combustible mixture with a proper air to fuel ratio;
- to ensure a continuous ignition of the mixture;
- to ensure total and complete combustion of fuel;
- to stabilize the flame front;
- to provide a desired shape and size of flame;
- to provide desired thermal power of flame.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
q gas
r=
q gas + q air
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Because the volumetric flow rate of gas is measured with a rotameter scaled for air, the correction
of the result is necessary (using the formula below)
air
q gas = q gas
gas
Check if the calculated content of the gas is within the flammability limits (see textbook for
reference).
c
w = 1 * 100 %
c100 %
where: w - burnout degree
c the content of combustible gas in a certain point of flame, measured by chromatographic
analysis of sample taken from the flame
c100% the content of combustible gas in fresh air/fuel mixture, measured by
chromatographic analysis of a sample taken before the burner.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Combustion of liquid fuels is most often based on their atomization (spraying) and then combustion
of droplets. Therefore the mechanism of the single droplet combustion (fig. 2.1.) is important.
The combustion of liquid fuels can be divided into two phases: evaporation, and then burning
vapours. Consequently, the rate of combustion of liquid fuels is determined by the following
factors:
- the rate of liquid evaporation, depending on the heat flux transferred into the fuel;
- the rate of mixing between air and fuel vapours;
- the chemical kinetics of fuel oxidation.
Combustion of heavy oil is more complicated because it forms bigger droplets and contains heavier
hydrocarbons. First, the lighter fractions evaporate and burn, then the heavier fractions are
decomposed and burned and finally the char residue burns.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Atomization of liquid fuels into small droplets provides a high intensity of evaporation and
therefore intense combustion. Proper atomization is essential for the quality and efficiency of
combustion. An improper spraying causes, among others, worse burnout (manifested by increased
CO and soot levels).
The disintegration of a liquid jet into a number of filaments and then into small droplets, requires
the surface tension forces of liquid to be overcome. It may happen in three ways:
- by the surface tension between moving liquid jet and steady air which destabilises the jet and
causes its disintegration;
- by centrifugal forces of swirled liquid jet;
- by outer mechanical and electrostatic forces and by supersonic acoustic.
Liquid fuel can be sprayed using the following forms of energy (fig. 2.3.):
- the energy of pressurized liquid ;
- the energy of pressurised additional gas (air or steam);
- the mechanical energy of rotation.
An atomiser is characterized by several parameters, among which the most important are (fig. 2.4.):
- output, kg/s;
- the angle of dispersion;
- droplets distribution in the sprayed stream.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
measurement measurement
of flame of flue gas
temperature temperature
flue gas
exhaust
2 1
6
3
5
2.4.2. Calculation of the normalized values of carbon monoxide content and nitrogen oxide content
(reference level of oxygen = 3%)
21 3
CO 3% = CO
21 O2
21 3
NO 3% = NO
21 O2
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
After getting into a flame, a coal particle is heated and dried, then the evaluation and combustion of
the volatile matter takes place and finally the burning of char (fig. 3.2.). The length of each stage
depends on the particle size, the conditions of the combustion, and the properties of coal
(composition, structure).
Fig. 3.2. Stages of single coal particle combustion (with a smudge photography of a burning coal particle)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Processes occurring during the combustion of a single coal particle can be divided into two groups:
physical, such as:
- evaporation of water (drying),
- swelling (dilation) of coal particles,
- formation of porous structure of char,
- physical transformation of mineral matter;
chemical, such as:
- pyrolisis of coal,
- combustion of volatile matter,
- combustion of char,
- chemical transformation of mineral matter.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
a) b)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
air
measurement +
C
of temperature dust
with
A setup for the thermocouple
observation of burner
a dust flame
and
measurement
measurements of temp. with
of temperature pyrometer dust
to fume container
extractor
Task to do:
Compare the temperatures of the flame measured with a thermocouple and a pyrometer and explain
why they are different.
to fume
flue gas probe extractor
cyclonic
separator
[O] [CO]
[NOx] [SO]
A setup for the
observation of flue gas return
analyser of dust from
combustion in separator
the fluidized
bed furnace
fuel
feeder
fluidized bed
furnace, power supply
electrically for feeder
heated
power supply
for heaters fluidizing air
with temp. control
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
rozdrobnione
fuel (inpaliwo
formstaeof dust)
(wgiel, biomasa)
and primary air
dust
Palnik powietrze wtrne
burner
pyowy
secondary air
A setup with
the drop
furnace for
electrically heated
drop furnace
measurements
of emissions
to fume
wycig spalin
extractor
8 8 8
power supply (with temp. control)
analizator flue gas
for the heaters of the furnace dust
separator
pyu spalin
8 8
separator analyser
21
21 O2
3.4.2. Calculation of the normalized values of carbon monoxide content and nitrogen oxide content
(reference level of oxygen = 6%)
21 6
CO 6% = CO
21 O2
21 6
NO 6% = NO
21 O2
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
3.4.3. Preparation of charts showing the normalized content of carbon monoxide (CO6%)
)
and the normalized content of nitrogen oxide (NO6%) versus the excess air coefficient (
mass flow
vol. flow
of fuel
composition of flue gas
of air
No
O2 CO NO
- g/s /h % ppm ppm
1
2
3
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
4. Combustion of biomass
4.1 Introduction
The recent years have brought about some climate changes, which may be caused by the constant
growth of the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. CO2 as a greenhouse gas plays the main role in
the absorption of heat radiation. This phenomenon may find its reason in a constant growth of fossil
fuels consumption. In order to reduce the future growth of CO2 concentration, the use of renewable
energy should be increased. One possibility could be increasing the participation of biofuels in the
general fuel balance, with a special emphasis on producing heat energy in small holdings. Biomass
absorbs carbon dioxide during growth, as such biofuels are regarded as neutral in CO2 emission.
The main components of wood are: cellulose (45-55wt%), hemicellulose (12-20wt%) and lignins
(20-30wt%). Moreover, it includes resins, tannins, fats, proteins and mineral substances. The main
components of wood are carbon (50%), oxygen (43%) and hydrogen (6%). Wheat and rape straws
contain slightly less carbon, 45% and 47% respectively.
Biomass contains small amounts of sulphur compounds, max. 0.5% (wt% of dry fuel). In
comparison the dried coal substance contains 0.5-7.5% (wt% of dry fuel). In the ash from biomass
combustion the amount of K2O content (4-48wt% of dry ash) was noted to be significantly lower
compared to coal burning (2-6 wt% of dry ash). The amounts of the Al2O3 and Fe2O3 were noted to
be approximately twice lower. Biomass contains also chlorine - while wood contains little of it
(approx. 0.01wt% of dry fuel), straws contain more (rape straw 0.63 and wheat straw 0.477 wt% of
dry fuel).
The high content of chlorine is the reason for exploitation problems of boilers, which is chloride
corrosion. Even if biomass does not contain chlorine, high levels of potassium in ligninocellulose
biomass ash cause increased slugging. This may intensify the corrosion and proper boiler functions
may be impaired.
Similarly to other solid fuels, biomass combustion consists of three stages:
drying and preheating of a fuel;
pyrolytic release of volatile flammable gases;
combustion of pyrolytic gases and solid residue tar and char.
Biomass thermal decomposition starts above 220C. Individual components subject to
decomposition at 220-320C for hemicellulose, 320-370C for cellulose and 320-500C for lignin .
Combustion technology and conditions, furnace construction and fuel quality affect the composition
of pollutants emitted during wood combustion. Biomass generally has a lower heating value (14-21
MJ/kg) than coal (23-28 MJ/kg) due to its higher moisture. The higher amount of organic matter
content in biomass causes lower ignition temperature (for biomass 145-153C and for coal 217-
223C). Biomass combustion and co-combustion with coal helps to reduce most of the gaseous
pollutants emissions such as CO, CO2, NOx and SO2.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
According to Directive 2001/77/EC, biomass is the biodegradable fraction of products, waste and
residues from agriculture (including vegetal and animal substances), forestry and related industries,
as well as the biodegradable fraction of industrial and municipal waste.
Biomass can be obtained from:
- agriculture and agri-food industry residues: straw, hay, husks, shells, seeds, pomace, etc.;
- energy crops (willow, rose, sunflower, miscanthus, prairie cordgrass and many others);
- forest wood and residues from wood, furniture and paper industry;
- residues from gardening and other wood or plants residues;
- residues from animal breeding (manure) and meat industry (fat, bones, etc.).
1) stack; 2) expansion vessel; 3) pressure gauge; 4) exhaust pipe; 5) boiler controller; 6) fuel container;
7) air heater; 8), 9) water thermometers; 10), 11) pressure gauges;12) pump;13) boiler; 14) air fan;
15) screw feeder; 16) motor; 17) exhaust gas analyzer; 18) exhaust gas thermometer; 20) flow meter
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Bb = m/
*The kind of burned biomass and its properties will be given at the laboratory.
21
21 O2
4.4.3. Calculation of the normalized values of the carbon monoxide content and the nitrogen oxide
content (reference level of oxygen = 10%)
21 10
CO10% = CO
21 O2
21 10
NO10% = NO
21 O2
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
The major pollutants present in the exhaust gases from an internal combustion (IC) engine are CO,
NOX, SO2, hydrocarbons (HC) and soot. The amount of the pollutants depends on the composition
of the air/fuel mixture and the engine operating conditions (fig. 5.1.). For 1,1 the content of CO
and HC in the exhaust gas is minimal but then the amount of NOX reaches the maximum. For =
0,8-0,9 the amount of NOX is minimal, but the amounts of CO and HC reach their maximum. It
means that these pollutants cannot be decreased simultaneously just by controlling the combustion
in the engine. A solution to this problem is to apply a catalytic converter, in which NOx is reduced
and CO and CH are oxidated.
Fig. 5.1. The relationship between the excess air and pollutants concentrations in a spark-ignition IC engine
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
1. The core is often a ceramic honeycomb in modern catalytic converters, but stainless steel foil
honeycombs are also used. The honeycomb surface increases the surface area available to
support the catalyst.
2. The washcoat (usually a mixture of silica and alumina), when added to the core, forms a rough,
irregular surface, which has a far greater surface area than the flat core surfaces do. The catalyst
is added to the washcoat (in suspension) before being applied to the core.
3. The catalyst itself is most often a precious metal. Platinum (Pt) is the most active catalyst and
is widely used. Palladium (Pd) and rhodium (Rh) are two other precious metals applied.
Platinum and rhodium are used as a reduction catalyst, while platinum and palladium are used
as an oxidization catalyst.
To achieve the maximum efficiency of catalytic pollutants removal, the near stoichiometric aif/fuel
ratio must be provided(fig.5.3.a)). It is achieved with a system which measures the content of
oxygen in flue gas (lambda probe) and controls combustion in an engine (fig.5.3.b)). The efficiency
of catalytic converters is >90%.
conversion efficiency
a) b)
Fig. 5.3. a) Optimal air/fuel ratio for catalitic conversion b) Contol system with lambda probe
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
5.4.2. Calculation of the normalized value of the carbon monoxide content (both for CObefore and
COafter), reference level of O2 = 3%
21 3
CO 3% = CO
21 O2
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
5.4.4. Preparation of the charts (each chart should contain 3 curves one for each load setting):
a) the efficiency of CO content reduction (ECO) versus the additional air flow (qair)
b) the efficiency of CO content reduction (ECO) versus the excess air coefficient ( )
c) the temperature of a catalytic converter (tcat) versus the additional air flow (qair)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
6.1.1. Pyrolisis
Fig. 6.1. Process of coal pyrolisis Fig. 6.2. Volatile matter evaluation for different coals
Pyrolisis plays an important role in combustion as an independent fuel technology and also as a
stage of combustion process or gasification process. It is also used in chemical industry.
6.1.2. Gasification
Gasification is a process that converts organic materials (coal, biomass, wastes, etc.) into gas, by
reacting the raw material with a gasifying medium (usually steam, oxygen, air). The resulting gas
mixture, containing mainly carbon monoxide and hydrogen (and nitrogen if air was used), can be
used as a fuel (for gas turbines, IC engines, boilers) or as raw material for a further fuel conversion
or chemical processing.
Gasification of most of solid fuels has two stages (fig 6.2):
- degassing of the solid fuel,
- gasification of the char residue.
high temperature
gas
mixture
fuel
char
gasifying medium
Fig. 6.3. Stages of gasification
Project co-financed by European Union within European Social Fund 25
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POTENTIAL AND ACADEMIC PROGRAMMES OF WROCAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
7 6
2
1
3
4
1. Oven supply with a temperature controller 5. Inlet of gas for filling the oven
2. Oven for sample heating 6. Sample mass measurement
3. Basket with a sample 7. Computer for control and result analysis
4. Thermocouple
6.4.1. Calculation of the speed of mass loss (a derivative of mass change with respect to time).
6.4.2. Preparation of a chart showing the change of quantities listed below with respect to time
(each should have its own scale of values)
- the temperature of the process - the relative loss of mass
- the speed of mass loss - the mass of the sample
6.4.3. Determining the content of volatile matter in a sample and the speed of volatile matter
evaluation
loss of
No time temperature mass
mass
o
- s C g %
1
2