Module 4 Bibliography Conley WEEK 4

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Clark, J.M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual Coding Theory and Education. Educational
Psychology Review, 3, 149-210.

Article explains the theory of understanding human behavior of verbal and non-verbal
representations called Dual Coding Theory (DCT) and shows how these mental imagery
representations are associated with symbolic modes. (p.150). The verbal system contains visual,
auditory, articulatory, and other modality-specific codes. Nonverbal representations include
shapes, environmental sounds, actions, skeletal or visceral sensations related to emotion, and
other nonlinguistic objects (p.151). These codes are arbitrary symbols and abstract ideas from
information that play a major role in the comprehension of knowledge, learning and memory of
school material, effective instruction, individual differences, motivation, test anxiety, and the
learning of motor skills. (p.152-156). The DCT explains strategies and beliefs in determining
teacher-student behavior. With the purpose of education being to transmit knowledge, DCT
emphasizes this contribution of both nonverbal and verbal systems as a mechanistic framework
(p. 158). DCT assumes that people vary in skill with which they use imagery processes but is
part of the structure of knowledge needed for comprehension (p.162). The successful
transmission of new skills and knowledge depends on student learning and memory processes.
Comprehension and memory are similar tasks derived through study skills. These diverse
findings demonstrate the practical memorization benefits of imagery used by educators. (P.168-
169).

Individual student differences are seen by effects of instructions, materials, and research. Testing
to determine these differences is a major activity in education and allows for student selection
into special programs. A large part of educational assessment involves tests of intelligence,
achievement, and related cognitive processes. DCT provides a useful framework of cognitive
systems that corresponds to these distinctions of intelligence. (p.179). DCT use of images
conceptualizes motor skills for perceptual patterns and movements, relevant verbal codes, and
associative processes that are highly relevant to teaching in regular classroom activities.
Educational psychology furthers our understanding through this research. (P.189-193).

Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 91-110). Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon.

This Chapter discusses specific unique experiences or just general shared knowledge does have
distinctions called episodic and sematic memory theories. Episodic is for specific events and
sematic is all the other general information recalled in long-term memory. Four models that
account for how this information is represented are the Network Model, Feature Comparison
Model, Propositional Model, and Parallel Distributed Processing Model. Once the information is
stored, than retrieval occurs which is the difference between recall and recognition. The two
different principles present at recall are the encoding specificity and the failure to encode. We all
forget things at one time or another and this occurs during the failure to retrieve information.
Before this principle was developed entirely, interference was proposed as the original cause of
forgetting information. However, Cognitive Information Processing has four recommendations
to overcome any memory failures: Providing organized instruction, Arranging extensive and

1
Module 4 Bibliography Conley WEEK 4

variable practice, Enhancing learners encoding and memory, and Enhancing learners self-
control of information processing. The chapter touches on these metacognitive skills but confirm
ways in which learners encode, store, and retrieve information.

Mayer, R.E., Sims, V.K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words?
Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 86, 389-401.

Article derives computer technology exists for implementing an interactive, multimedia

encyclopedia or textbook using words and pictures. Research identifies this role of the student's
spatial ability in learning from this type of system. The power of visual instructional aids is not
new in teaching. The primary independent variable is whether an animation and narration about
how a system works are presented concurrently or successively. (p.389). The use of multimedia
learning occurs when students use information presented in two or more formatssuch as a
visually and verbally presented narration. Visual and verbal processing refers to two different
sense modalities; animation and narration refer to two different presentation media. According
to DCT, instructional methods that promote both are more likely to promote problem-solving
transfer, whereas instructional methods that fail to promote are less likely. (p. 390). Two
important characteristics for success are learners prior experience related to the specific domain
and cognitive abilities that they bring to the learning situation Experiments were conducted for
each to determine performance. The results show the contiguity effect: Inexperienced students
were better able to transfer what they had learned when visual and verbal explanations were
presented concurrently than when the images were separated. Results are consistent with
previous research concerning the role of specific knowledge on the contiguity effect (p.399).

Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2003). Return of the mental image: Are there really pictures in the brain?
Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 113-118.

Article derives a renewed interest in neuroscience, the idea that mental imagery involves a
special format of thought, one that is pictorial in nature. Historically, this picture theory over the
past 300 years still exist, yet the article cites reasons why the theory is resistant to counter
arguments and suggest ways in which non-pictorial theories might account for the spatial nature
of images. It states the difference between pictorial and other forms of reasoning is primarily
what different thoughts are about, rather than the form that they take.

There is clearly a difference between thinking about how something looks and thinking about
what it means. Research continues to show problems with the hypothesis where claims are
denied and evidence that supports a mental image is to project two-dimensional moving pictures
onto the surface of your visual cortex. (p.114). Picture theorists relish that different mental image
sizes have a cortical counterpart where larger mental images appear to be associated with more
activity than the correspondence between image size and brain. Picture-theory explanations
define shorter reaction times arise because details in bigger pictures are easier to understand, not
because of the location. Facts show images cannot be reinterpreted visually. One can figure out
what a pattern might look like, but only when the combinations are easy to infer from a
description of the shapes. (p.116).

2
Module 4 Bibliography Conley WEEK 4

A plausible explanation that is unique to mental imagery is its spatial character where objects in
an image seem to be in some spatial relation relative to one another. This spatiality of images
might also explain why blind people exhibit such phenomena of mental imagery abilities. The
article argues supporting the picture theory, and that experiments tell us nothing about the format
of images and what it means for something to look like what we describe in words (p.177).

Schraw, Gregory & Matthew McCrudden. Information Processing Theory. Jul 12, 2013.
www.Education.com

Humans process information with amazing efficiency and often perform better than computers in
problem solving and critical thinking. Thus, 20th century researchers have developed systematic
models of memory, cognition, and thinking, such as the information processing model (IPM). It
consists of three main components, sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory and working memory enables people to manage limited amounts of information during
processing, whereas long-term memory is a permanent repository for knowledge. Terms
developed to describe this efficient cognitive processing in working memory are limited
attentional resources and automaticity. Effective information processing in sensory memory
requires a high degree of automaticity when utilizing familiar stimuli such as spoken or printed
words, faces, and sounds. Long-term memory is not constrained by capacity or duration of
attention limitations. It provides an unlimited repository for facts and knowledge held for very
long periods of time. Research has identified two key aspects of long-term memory: what types
of information are represented, and how information is organized Encoding and retrieval of
information in long-term memory is increased due to efficient organizational strategies. The IPM
provides a conceptual three-component model which explains these different functions and
constraints on human memory and provides an excellent framework for understanding principles
of effective learning.