VISITOR GUIDED VEHICLE AND MATERIAL

HANDLING

ABSTRACT

The aim of the project is to fabricate visitor guided vehicle and

material handling system. Automated Guided Vehicle or AGV is one of

material handling equipment that has been widely used in most

manufacturing industry today as it provides more flexibility to the systems.

The basic concept of the AGV incorporates battery-powered and driverless

vehicles with programming capabilities for path selection and positioning.

Nowadays, the AGV are equipped to navigate that can be easily modified

and expanded.

Then, this project will be focusing on the mechanical design concept of

the AGV which combines knowledge on mechanical parts such as the

electric motor, relay, lifting, jack & structure of the AGV and others

mechanical parts that are essential for this project.

 INTRODUCTION

An automated guided vehicle or automatic guided vehicle (AGV) is a

mobile robot that follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses vision or

lasers. They are most often used in industrial applications to move materials

around a manufacturing facility or a warehouse. Application of the automatic

guided vehicle has broadened during the late 20th century and they are no

longer restricted to industrial environments

Automated guided vehicles (AGVs) increase efficiency and reduce costs by

helping to automate a manufacturing facility or warehouse. The first AGV

was invented by Berrett Electronics in 1953. The AGV can tow objects

behind them in trailers to which they can autonomously attach. The trailers
can be used to move raw materials or finished product. The AGV can also

store objects on a bed. The objects can be placed on a set of motorized

rollers (conveyor) and then pushed off by reversing them. Some AGVs use

fork lifts to lift objects for storage. AGVs are employed in nearly every

industry, including, pulp, paper, metals, newspaper, and general

manufacturing. Transporting materials such as food, linen or medicine in

hospitals is also done.

An AGV can also be called a laser guided vehicle (LGV) or self-

guided vehicle (SGV). In Germany the technology is also called Fahrerlose

Transportsysteme (FTS) and in Sweden frarlsa truckar. Lower cost

versions of AGVs are often called Automated Guided Carts (AGCs) and are

usually guided by magnetic tape. AGCs are available in a variety of models

and can be used to move products on an assembly line, transport goods

throughout a plant or warehouse, and deliver loads to and from stretch

wrappers and roller conveyors.

The first AGV was brought to market in the 1950s, by Barrett Electronics of

Northbrook, Illinois, and at the time it was simply a tow truck that followed

a wire in the floor instead of a rail. Over the years the technology has

become more sophisticated and today automated vehicles are mainly Laser
navigated e.g. LGV (Laser Guided Vehicle). In an automated process, LGVs

are programmed to communicate (via an offboard server) with other robots

to ensure product is moved smoothly through the warehouse, whether it is

being stored for future use or sent directly to shipping areas. Today, the AGV

plays an important role in the design of new factories and warehouses, safely

moving goods to their rightful destinations.

In the late 20th century AGVs took on new roles as ports began turning to

this technology to move ISO shipping containers. The Port of Rotterdam

employs well over 100 AGVs.

AGV applications are seemingly endless as capacities can range from just a

few pounds to millions of tons.

Flexible manufacturing system

To begin to understand AGV it is necessary to understand the

fundamentals of flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). FMS is a means by

which to manufacture a product. FMS is more of a philosophy rather than a

tangible item. FMS is the idea that faster is better and uses machines to

produce their products. Rather than using humans to perform repetitive tasks

a machine is used to perform that task 24 hours a day. FMS uses computer
numerical controlled machines (CNC) to form a work cell. Each cell

performs a specific task to assist in the manufacturing of a product.

Although FMS is fast and efficient it is not cheap as it requires a lot of

expensive machines in order to work. Typically, it costs millions of dollars to

introduce an FMS into a factory. Rather than using a complete FMS, most

companies use part of an FMS called a flexible manufacturing cell. This is

used to produce part of a product by machine and maybe part by other

methods. Often one or more AGVs are used in FMS to connect work cells

together.

Navigation

The wired sensor is placed on the bottom of the robot and is placed facing

the ground. A slot is cut in the ground and a wire is placed approximately 1

inch below the ground. The sensor detects the radio frequency being

transmitted from the wire and follows it.

Guide Tape
Many light duty AGVs (some known as automated guided carts or AGCs)

use tape for the guide path. The tapes can be one of two styles: magnetic or

colored. The AGC is fitted with the appropriate guide sensor to follow the

path of the tape. One major advantage of tape over wired guidance is that it

can be easily removed and relocated if the course needs to change. It also

does not involve the expense of cutting the factory or warehouse floor for

the entire travel route. Additionally, it is considered a "passive" system since

it does not require the guide medium to be energized as wire does. Colored

tape is initially less expensive, but lacks the advantage of being embedded in

high traffic areas where the tape may become damaged or dirty. A flexible

magnetic bar can also be embedded in the floor like wire but works under

the same provision as magnetic tape and so remains unpowered or passive.

Another advantage of magnetic guide tape is the dual polarity; "control tags"

of small pieces of magnetic tape may be placed alongside the track to change

states (speed, on/off/auto, etc.) of the AGC based on polarity and sequence

of the tags.

Laser Target Navigation

The wireless navigation is done by mounting retroreflective tape on walls,

poles or machines. The AGV carries a laser transmitter and receiver on a

rotating turret. The laser is sent off then received again the angle and

(sometimes) distance are automatically calculated and stored into the AGVs

memory. The AGV has reflector map stored in memory and can correct its

position based on errors between the expected and received measurements. It

can then navigate to a destination target using the constantly updating

position.

Modulated Lasers

The use of modulated laser light gives greater range and accuracy

over pulsed laser systems. By emitting a continuous fan of modulated laser

light a system can obtain an uninterrupted reflection as soon as the scanner

achieves line of sight with a reflector. The reflection ceases at the trailing

edge of the reflector which ensures an accurate and consistent measurement

from every reflector on every scan. The LS9 Scanner is manufactured by

Guidance Navigation Ltd and, by using a modulated laser; this system

achieves an angular resolution of ~ 0.1 mrad (0.006) at 8 scanner

revolutions per second.

Pulsed Lasers

A typical pulsed laser scanner emits pulsed laser light at a rate of

14,400 Hz which gives a maximum possible resolution of ~ 3.5 mrad (0.2)

at 8 scanner revolutions per second. To achieve a workable navigation, the

readings must be interpolated based on the intensity of the reflected laser

light, to identify the centre of the reflector.

Gyroscopic Navigation

Another form of an AGV guidance is inertial navigation. With inertial

guidance, a computer control system directs and assigns tasks to the

vehicles. Transponders are embedded in the floor of the work place. The

AGV uses these transponders to verify that the vehicle is on course. A

gyroscope is able to detect the slightest change in the direction of the vehicle

and corrects it in order to keep the AGV on its path. The margin of error for

the inertial method is 1 inch.

Inertial can operate in nearly any environment including tight aisles or

extreme temperatures.
Natural Features Navigation

Navigation without retrofitting of the workspace is called Natural

Features Navigation. One method uses one or more range-finding sensors,

such as a laser range-finder, as well as gyroscopes and/or inertial

measurement units with Monte-Carlo/Markov localization techniques to

understand where it is as it dynamically plans the shortest permitted path to

its goal. The advantage of such systems is that they are highly flexible for

on-demand delivery to any location. They can handle failure without

bringing down the entire manufacturing operation, since AGVs can plan

paths around the failed device. They also are quick to install, with less

down-time for the factory.

Steering control

To help an AGV navigate it can use two different steer control

systems. The differential speed control is the most common. In this method

there are two sets of wheels being driven. Each set is connected to a

common drive train. These drive trains are driven at different speeds in order

to turn or the same speed to allow the AGV to go forwards and/or

backwards. The AGV turns in a similar fashion to a tank. This method of

steering is good in the sense that it is easy to maneuver in small spaces.

More often than not, this is seen on an AGV that is used to transport and turn

in tight spaces or when the AGV is working near machines. This setup for

the wheels is not used in towing applications because the AGV would cause

the trailer to jackknife when it turned.

The other type of steering used is steered wheel control AGV. This type of

steering is similar to a cars steering. It is more precise in following the wire

program than the differential speed controlled method. This type of AGV has

smoother turning but cannot make sharp turns in tight spots. Steered wheel

control AGV can be used in all applications; unlike the differential

controlled.Steered wheel control is used for towing and can also at times

have an operator control it.

Vision-Guidance

Vision-Guided AGVs can be installed with no modifications to the

environment or infrastructure. They operate by using cameras to record

features along the route, allowing the AGV to replay the route by using the
recorded features to navigate. Vision-Guided AGVs use Evidence Grid

technology, an application of probabilistic volumetric sensing, and was

invented and initially developed by Dr. Moravec at Carnegie Mellon

University. The Evidence Grid technology uses probabilities of occupancy

for each point in space to compensate for the uncertainty in the performance

of sensors and in the environment. The primary navigation sensors are

specially designed stereo cameras. The vision-guided AGV uses 360-degree

images and build a 3D map, which allows the vision-guided AGVs to follow

a trained route without human assistance or the addition of special features,

landmarks or positioning systems.

Path Decision

AGVs have to make decisions on path selection. This is done through

different methods: frequency select mode (wired navigation only), and path

select mode (wireless navigation only) or via a magnetic tape on the floor
not only to guide the AGV but also to issue steering commands and speed

commands.

Frequency select mode

Frequency select mode bases its decision on the frequencies being emitted

from the floor. When an AGV approaches a point on the wire which splits

the AGV detects the two frequencies and through a table stored in its

memory decides on the best path. The different frequencies are required only

at the decision point for the AGV. The frequencies can change back to one

set signal after this point. This method is not easily expandable and requires

extra guide cutting meaning more money.

Path select mode

An AGV using the path select mode chooses a path based on

preprogrammed paths. It uses the measurements taken from the sensors and

compares them to values given to them by programmers. When an AGV

approaches a decision point it only has to decide whether to follow path 1, 2,

3, etc. This decision is rather simple since it already knows its path from its
programming. This method can increase the cost of an AGV because it is

required to have a team of programmers to program the AGV with the

correct paths and change the paths when necessary. This method is easy to

change and set up.

Magnetic Tape mode

The magnetic tape is laid on the surface of the floor or buried in a

10mm channel; not only does it provide the path for the AGV to follow but

also strips of the tape in different combos of polarity, sequence, and distance

laid alongside the track tell the AGV to change lane, speed up, slow down,

and stop. This is used by TOYOTA USA and TOYOTA JAPAN.

Traffic Control

Flexible manufacturing systems containing more than one AGV may require

it to have traffic control so the AGVs will not run into one another. Methods

include zone control, forward sensing control, and combination control each

method has its advantages and disadvantages.

Zone control

Zone control is the favorite of most environments because it is simple

to install and easy to expand.Zone control uses a wireless transmitter to

transmit a signal in a fixed area. Each AGV contains a sensing device to

receive this signal and transmit back to the transmitter. If the area is clear the

signal is set at clear allowing any AGV to enter and pass through the area.

When an AGV is in the area the stop signal is sent and all AGV attempting

to enter the area stop and wait for their turn. Once the AGV in the zone has

moved out beyond the zone the clear signal is sent to one of the waiting

AGVs. Another way to set up zone control traffic management is to equip

each individual robot with its own small transmitter/receiver. The individual

AGV then sends its own do not enter message to all the AGVs getting to

close to its zone in the area. A problem with this method is if one zone goes

down all the AGVs are at risk to collide with any other AGV. Zone control

is a cost efficient way to control the AGV in an area.

Forward sensing control

 Forward sensing control uses collision avoidance sensors to avoid

collisions with other AGV in the area. These sensors include: sonic, which

work like radar; optical, which uses an infrared sensor; and bumper, physical

contact sensor. Most AGVs are equipped with a bumper sensor of some sort

as a fail safe. Sonic sensors send a chirp or high frequency signal out and

then wait for a reply from the outline of the reply the AGV can determine if

an object is ahead of it and take the necessary actions to avoid collision.[9]

The optical uses an infrared transmitter/receiver and sends an infrared signal

which then gets reflected back; working on a similar concept as the sonic

sensor. The problems with these are they can only protect the AGV from so

many sides. They are relatively hard to install and work with as well.

Combination control

Combination control sensing is using collision avoidance sensors as

well as the zone control sensors. The combination of the two helps to

prevent collisions in any situation. For normal operation the zone control is

used with the collision avoidance as a fail safe. For example, if the zone

control system is down, the collision avoidance system would prevent the

AGV from colliding.

System Management

Industries with AGVs need to have some sort of control over the

AGVs. There are three main ways to control the AGV: locator panel, CRT

color graphics display, and central logging and report.

A locator panel is a simple panel used to see which area the AGV is in. If the

AGV is in one area for too long, it could mean it is stuck or broken down.

CRT color graphics display shows real time where each vehicle is. It also

gives a status of the AGV, its battery voltage, unique identifier, and can show

blocked spots. Central logging used to keep track of the history of all the

AGVs in the system. Central logging stores all the data and history from

these vehicles which can be printed out for technical support or logged to

check for up time.

AGV is a system often used in FMS to keep up, Mohanraj transport, and

connect smaller subsystems into one large production unit. AGVs employ a

lot of technology to ensure they do not hit one another and make sure they

get to their destination. Loading and transportation of materials from one

area to another is the main task of the AGV. AGV require a lot of money to

get started with, but they do their jobs with high efficiency. In places such as

Japan automation has increased and is now considered to be twice as

efficient as factories in America. For a huge initial cost the total cost over

time decreases

VEHICLE TYPES

AGVS Towing Vehicles were the first type introduced and are still a

very popular type today. Towing vehicles can pull a multitude of trailer types

and have capacities ranging from 8,000 pounds to 60,000 pounds.

AGVS Unit Load Vehicles are equipped with decks, which permit unit load

transportation and often automatic load transfer. The decks can either be lift

and lower type, powered or non-powered roller, chain or belt decks or

custom decks with multiple compartments.

AGVS Pallet Trucks are designed to transport palletized loads to and from

floor level; eliminating the need for fixed load stands.

AGVS Fork Truck has the ability to service loads both at floor level and on

stands. In some cases these vehicles can also stack loads in rack.
Light Load AGVS are vehicles which have capacities in the neighborhood

of 500 pounds or less and are used to transport small parts, baskets, or other

light loads though a light manufacturing environment. They are designed to

operate in areas with limited space.

AGVS Assembly Line Vehicles are an adaptation of the light load AGVS for

applications involving serial assembly processes.

COMMON AGV APPLICATIONS

Automated Guided Vehicles can be used in a wide variety of applications to

transport many different types of material including pallets, rolls, racks,

carts, and containers. AGVs excel in applications with the following

characteristics:

Repetitive movement of materials over a distance

Regular delivery of stable loads

Medium throughput/volume

When on-time delivery is critical and late deliveries are causing inefficiency

Operations with at least two shifts

Processes where tracking material is important

Raw Material Handling

AGVs are commonly used to transport raw materials such as paper, steel,

rubber, metal, and plastic. This includes transporting materials from

receiving to the warehouse, and delivering materials directly to production

lines.

Work-in-Process Movement

Work-in-Process movement is one of the first applications where automated

guided vehicles were used, and includes the repetitive movement of

materials throughout the manufacturing process. AGVs can be used to move

material from the warehouse to production/processing lines or from one

process to another.

Pallet Handling

Pallet handling is an extremely popular application for AGVs as repetitive

movement of pallets is very common in manufacturing and distribution

facilities. AGVs can move pallets from the palletizer to stretch wrapping to

the warehouse/storage and/or to the outbound shipping docks.

Finished Product Handling

Moving finished goods from manufacturing to storage or shipping is the

final movement of materials before they are delivered to customers. These

movements often require the gentlest material handling because the products

are complete and subject to damage from rough handling. Because AGVs

operate with precisely controlled navigation and acceleration and

deceleration this minimizes the potential for damage making them an

excellent choice for this type of application.

Trailer Loading

Automatic loading of trailers is a relatively new application for automated

guided vehicles and becoming increasingly popular. AGVs are used to

transport and load pallets of finished goods directly into standard, over-the-

road trailers without any special dock equipment. AGVs can pick up pallets
from conveyors, racking, or staging lanes and deliver them into the trailer in

the specified loading pattern.

Roll Handling

AGVs are used to transport rolls in many types of plants including paper

mills, converters, printers, newspapers, steel producers, and plastics

manufacturers. AGVs can store and stack rolls on the floor, in racking, and

can even automatically load printing presses with rolls of paper.

Container Handling

Container terminals showing a container being loaded onto an

unmanned automated guided vehicle.

AGVs are used to move sea containers in some maritime container

terminals. The main benefits are reduced labour costs and a more reliable

(less variable) performance. This use of AGVs was pioneered by ECT in The

Netherlands at the Delta terminal in the Port of Rotterdam.

Primary Application Industries

 Efficient, cost effective movement of materials is an important, and

common element in improving operations in many manufacturing plants and

warehouses. Because automatic guided vehicles (AGVs) can delivery

efficient, cost effective movement of materials, AGVs can be applied to

various industries in standard or customized designs to best suit an

industrys requirements. Industrys currently utilizing AGVs include (but are

not limited to):

Pharmaceutical

AGVs are a preferred method of moving materials in the pharmaceutical

industry. Because an AGV system tracks all movement provided by the

AGVs, it supports process validation and cGMP (current Good

Manufacturing Practice).

Chemical
AGVs deliver raw materials, move materials to curing storage warehouses,

and provide transportation to other processing cells and stations. Common

industries include rubber, plastics, and specialty chemicals.

Manufacturing

AGVs are often used in general manufacturing of products. AGVs can

typically be found delivering raw materials, transporting work-in process,

moving finished goods, removing scrap materials, and supplying packaging

materials.

Automotive

AGV installations are found in Stamping Plants, Power Train (Engine and

Transmission) Plants, and Assembly Plants delivering raw materials,

transporting work-in process, and moving finished goods. AGVs are also

used to supply specialized tooling which must be changed.

Paper and Print

AGVs can move paper rolls, pallets, and waste bins to provide all routine

material movement in the production and warehousing (storage/retrieval) of

paper, newspaper, printing, corrugating, converting, and plastic film.

Food and Beverage

AGVs can be applied to move materials in food processing (such as the

loading of food and/or trays into sterilizers) and at the end of line, linking

the palletizer, stretch wrapper, and the warehouse. AGVs can load standard,

over-the-road trailers with finished goods, and unload trailers to supply raw

materials or packaging materials to the plant. AGVs can also store and

retrieve pallets in the warehouse.

Hospital
AGVs are becoming increasingly popular in the healthcare industry for

efficient transport, and are programmed to be fully integrated to

automatically operate doors, elevators/lifts, cart washers, trash dumpers, etc.

AGVs typically move linens, trash, regulated medical waste, patient meals,

soiled food trays, and surgical case carts.

AGV AS MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENTS

Material handling equipment is all equipment that relates to the movement,

storage, control and protection of materials, goods and products throughout

the process of manufacturing, distribution, consumption and disposal.

Material handling equipment is the mechanical equipment involved in the

complete system.

Material handling equipment is generally separated into four main

categories: storage and handling equipment, engineered systems, industrial

trucks, and bulk material handling.

Material handling equipment is used to increase throughput, control costs,

and maximize productivity

Types of material handling equipment

Storage and handling equipment

Storage and handling equipment is a category within the material handling

industry. The equipment that falls under this description is usually non-

automated storage equipment. Products such as Pallet rack, shelving, carts,

etc. belong to storage and handling.

Engineered systems

Engineered systems are typically custom engineered material handling

systems. Conveyors, Handling Robots, AGV and most other automated

material handling systems fall into this category. Engineered systems are

often a combination of products integrated to one system.

Industrial trucks

Industrial trucks usually refer to operator driven motorized warehouse

vehicles, powered manually, by gasoline or electrically. Industrial trucks

assist the material handling system with versatility; they can go where

engineered systems cannot. Forklift trucks are the most common example of

industrial trucks. Tow tractors and stock chasers are additional examples of

industrial trucks.
Bulk material handling

Bulk material handling equipment is used to move and store bulk materials

such as ore, liquids, and cereals. This equipment is often seen on farms,

mines, shipyards and refineries. This category is also explained in Bulk

material handling.

Pallet

Forklift truck

Conveyor belt

Automated Storage and Retrieval System

Carton flow

Mezzanine (architecture)

The Materials Handling Equipments are classified into four basic types, viz.,

conveyors, cranes and hoists, trucks and auxiliary equipment.

Conveyers:

These are gravity or powered devices, commonly used for moving loads

from point to point over fixed paths. The various types of conveyors are:
(a) Belt conveyor- Motor driven belt, usually made of rubberized fabric or

mental fabric on a rigid frame.

(b) Chain conveyor- Motor driven chain that drags materials along a metal

slide base.

(c) Roller conveyor- Boxes, large parts or units loads roll on top of a series

of rollers mounted on a rigid frame. The rollers may be powered or un

powered.

(d) Pneumatic conveyor- High volume of air flows through a tube, carrying

materials along with air flow. The other types of conveyors are bucket

conveyors, screw conveyors,

pipeline conveyor, vibratory conveyor, tube conveyor, trolley conveyor and

chute or gravity conveyors. Advantages of conveyors are that they do not

require operators, will move a large volume of products and are inexpensive

to operate.

Cranes, Elevators and Hoists:

These are overhead devices used for moving varying loads intermittently

between points within an area, fixed by supporting and binding rails:

(a) Cranes are devices mounted on overhead rails or ground level wheels or

rails. They lift, swing and transport large and heavy materials. Examples are

Gantry Crane, Jib Crane and Electrically Operated Overhead Crane (EOTC).
(b) Elevators are a type of cranes that lift materials- usually between floors

of building.

(c) Hoists are devices which move materials vertically and horizontally in a

limited area. They are used primarily, when materials must be lifted prior to

being moved from one point to another. Examples of hoists are air hoists,

electric hoist and chain hoists.

(d) Industrial Trucks: These devices are used for moving mixed or uniform

loads intermittently over variable paths. They are electric, diesel, gasoline or

liquefied petroleum, gas powered vehicles equipped with beds, forks, arms

or other holding devices. Examples are fork- lift trucks, pallet trucks, tractor

with trailers, hand trucks and power trolleys.

Auxiliary Equipments:

These are devices or attachments used with handling equipment to make

their use more effective and versatile. Examples are ramps, positioners,

pallets, containers and turn tables.

Miscellaneous Handling Equipments:

I. Pipe lines, which are closed tubes that transport liquids by means of

pumps or gravity.
II. Automated guided vehicle (AGV) systems- These devices do not require

operators and provide a great deal of flexibility in the paths they travel and

the function they perform. The AGVs are controlled by signals sent through

wires embedded in the floor or inductive tape on the floor surface. A remote

control computer is needed to control the movement of AGVs

III. Automatic transfer devices which automatically grasp materials hold

them firmly while operations are being performed and moved them to other

locations.IV. Industrial robots- A robot is a mechanism which has movable

arm like projection with a gripper on the end that can perform a variety of

repetitive tasks. Robots usually have a built in control that can be re-

programmed and hence they are very versatile.

The following are examples of material handling applications:

* Transferring parts from one conveyor to another

* Transferring parts from a processing line to a conveyor

* Loading bins and fixtures for subsequent processing

* Moving parts from a warehouse to a machine

* Transporting explosive devices

* Transfer of parts from a machine to an overhead conveyor

 The process design and the principles of efficient materials handling

provide the framework for selecting specific materials handling devices and

the core of the materials handling system. Each of the handling devices

discussed above has its own unique characteristics and advantages and

disadvantages.

Evaluation of Materials Handling Performance:

Like any other materials activity, materials handling function should

also be evaluated to judge its effectiveness. The performance of materials

handling function can be evaluated with the help of several ratios such as the

following:

1. Materials handling labor ratio.

2. Direct labor handling ratio.

3. Management/ Operation ratio.

4. Manufacturing cycle efficiency ratio

5. Space utilization efficiency ratio.

6. Equipments utilization ratio.

7. Ratio of total number of moves to the total number of operations.

8. Percentage of usable cubic footage usually occupied.

9. Materials handling costs as percentage of manufacturing expenses

Types of AGVS

AGVS towing vehicle

AGVS unit load carriers

AGVS pallet trucks

AGVS forklift trucks

AGVS light-load transporters

AGVS assembly-line vehicles

AGVS Towing Vehicles

First type of AGV introduced.

Towing vehicle is called an automated guided tractor

Flatbed trailers, pallet trucks, custom trailers can be used.

 Generally, used for large volumes (>1000 lb) and long moving

distances (>1000 feet).

AGVS Unit load Carriers

To transport individual unit load onboard the vehicle.

Equipped with powered or non-powered roller, chain or belt

deck, or custom deck.

Loads can be moved by Pallet truck, forklift truck, automatic

loading/unloading equipment, etc.

AGVS Pallet Trucks

No special device is needed for loading except the loads should

be on pallet

Limited to floor level loading and unloading with palletized

load

Widely used in distribution functions

Capacity 1000-2000 lb

Speed > 200ft/min

 Pallet truck can be loaded either manually or automatically

AGVS Forklift Trucks

Ability to pickup and drop palletized load both at floor level

and on stands.

Pickup and drop off heights can be different

Vehicle can position its fork according to load stands with

different heights

Very expensive

Selected where complete automation is necessary/required.

AGVS Light Load Transporters

Capacity < 500lb

To handle light and small loads/parts over moderate distances

Distribute between storage and number of workstations

Speed 100ft/min, turning radius 2ft

For areas with restricted space

AGVS Assembly-Line Vehicles

 Variation of an light load transporter

For serial assembly processes

As the vehicle moves from one station to another, succeeding

assembly operations are performed

This kind provides flexibility for the manufacturing processes

Lower expenses and ease of installation

Complex computer control and extensive planning is required

to integrate the system.

Important issues for AGV

Guidance system

Routing

AGVS control systems

Load transfer

Interfacing with other subsystems

AGVS Guidance system

The goal of an AGVS guidance system keep the AGV on

track/predefined path

Selection of AGV

One of the major advantage of AGV is ease in modification given by

the guidance system for changing the guide path at low cost compare to

conveyors, chains, etc.

Another benefit is: guide path is flexible which means intersection of path is

possible. Generally, guide path does not obstruct another systems.

The guidance systems can be selected based on the type of AGV selected, its

application, requirement and environmental limitation.

Wire-guided

Optical
 Inertial

Infrared

Laser

Teaching type

Wire-guided:

An energized wire is rooted along the guide path.

The antenna of the AGV follows the rooted wire.

Optical:

Colorless florescent particles are painted on the concrete/tiled floor.

Photosensors are used to track these particles.

Inertial:

The guide path is programmed on a microprocessor which is fixed on the

AGV

Sonar system is incorporated for finding obstacles.

Infrared:

Infrared light transmitters are used to detect the position of the vehicle.
Reflectors are affixed on the top of vehicle to reflect the light.

Laser:

Laser beam is used to scan wall-mounted

bar-coded reflectors.

Accurate positioning can be obtained.

Teaching type:

AGV learns the guide path by moving the required route.

Sends the information to the host computer.

AGVS Routing

A routing system is used to select the vehicle which is positioned with the

optimum path.

A network controller gives the destination, while the on-board controller

navigates the vehicle.

Commonly used methods:

Frequency select method

Path-switch select method

 Frequency select Method

At the bifurcation of path (decision point), the vehicle reads a code in the

floor in the form of metal plate, or coded device.

The vehicle selects one of the frequencies as per the direction required.

A continuous wire is used to loop the frequencies.

AGVS Control Systems

Computer controlled system

The path controller controls the guide path of AGVS.

Sends information to AGVS process controller.

Process controller directs movement of vehicles

Interchanges information with the host computer

Most Expensive and complex type of control.

AGVS Load Transfer

Load Transfer of the vehicle means loading/unloading. The two types of

load transfer operations are:

Manual Load Transfer

Manually loading and unloading the Vehicle.

Use of forklift trucks, pallet trucks, roller, etc.

Manually coupling/uncoupling towed vehicles

Automatic Loading and unloading

Efficient system

Use of Powered roller, belt, and chain

Powered lift/lower devices, push/pull devices

Automatic couple/uncouple

Interfacing with other subsystems

AGVS system can be interfaced with other subsystems through the

distributed processing network or using Host computer. Such subsystems

are:

Automated storage and retrieval system

Flexible Manufacturing systems

Computer Numerical control (CNC)

 Process Control Equipment

Shop Floor control system

AGVS SYSTEM DESIGN

Many issues must be considered before designing system for an AGVS:

Selection of guidepath and vehicle

Guidepath layout / Flow path design

Number of vehicles

There are several other issues regarding timing of AGVs, dispatching rules,

routes, etc. Also, there must be interaction between design and operational

issues for system design.

Attributes for selection of guidance & AGVS

Vehicle Related attributes:

Cost of the vehicle system

Cost of guidance system

Vehicle dimensions

Load capacity

Maximum weight
 Maximum Volume (depending on AGV inner dimensions)

Maximum speed at loaded/unloaded condition

Maintenance facilities: Modular components for maintenance, self

diagnosis, etc.

Charging related attributes such as charging time, on-line charging.

Turning Radius

Position sensors

Loading system i.e. unit load, pallet, or other attachments required.

Flow path design

Type of flowpath within the layout i.e. unidirectional, bidirectional or

combination

Type of guidepath layout

Position of load transfer or loading /unloading stations

Number of stoppage stations

Storage space of the stations

COMPONENTS OF AGV
DC motor

A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC)

electricity. DC motors were used to run machinery, often eliminating the

need for a local steam engine or internal combustion engine. DC motors can

operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for

the first electric vehicles. Modern DC motors are nearly always operated in

conjunction with power electronic devices.

Brushed DC electric motor

This is a brushed DC electric motor generating torque directly from

DC power supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary

permanent magnets. Torque is produced by the principle of Lorentz force,

which states that any current-carrying conductor placed within an external

magnetic field experiences a force known as Lorentz force. The commutator

consists of a split ring 80 degree shows the effects of having a split ring.

The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power

supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets

(permanent or electromagnets), and rotating electrical magnets.

Like all electric motors or generators, torque is produced by the principle of

Lorentz force, which states that any current-carrying conductor placed

within an external magnetic field experiences a torque or force known as

Lorentz force. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost,

high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high

maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves

regularly replacing the brushes and springs which carry the electric current,

as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are

necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the

spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor.

Brushless

Brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet or soft magnetic core

in the rotor, and stationary electrical magnets on the motor housing. A motor

controller converts DC to AC. This design is simpler than that of brushed

motors because it eliminates the complication of transferring power from

outside the motor to the spinning rotor. Advantages of brushless motors

include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency.

Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed

controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as

"synchronous motors" although they have no external power supply to be

synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC synchronous

motors.

Uncommutated

Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

Homopolar motor A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis

of rotation and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the

magnetic field. The name homopolar refers to the absence of polarity

change.

Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to

very low voltages. This has restricted the practical application of this type of

motor.

Ball bearing motor A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that

consists of two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a

common conductive shaft, and the outer races connected to a high current,
low voltage power supply. An alternative construction fits the outer races

inside a metal tube, while the inner races are mounted on a shaft with a non-

conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating rod). This method has

the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel. The direction of rotation is

determined by the initial spin which is usually required to get it going.

Connection types

There are three types of connections used for DC electric motors: series,

shunt and compound. These types of connections configure how the motor's

field and armature windings are connected together. The type of connection

is significant because it determines the characteristics of the motor and is

selected for speed/torque requirements of the load

Series connection

A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a

common D.C. power source. This motor has poor speed regulation since its

speed varies approximately inversely to load. However, a series DC motor

has very high starting torque and is commonly used for starting high inertia
loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists.With no mechanical load on the

series motor, the current is low, the magnetic field produced by the field

winding is weak, and so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient

counter-EMF to balance the supply voltage (and internal voltage drops). For

some types of motor, the speed may be higher than can be safely sustained

by the motor. In a no-load condition, the motor may increase its speed until

the motor mechanically destroys itself. This is called a runaway condition.

The speed/torque characteristic is also useful in applications such as dragline

excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly when unloaded but slowly

when carrying a heavy load.

Series motors called "universal motors" can be used on alternating current.

Since the armature voltage and the field direction reverse at (substantially)

the same time, torque continues to be produced in the same direction. Since

the speed is not related to the line frequency, universal motors can develop

higher-that-synchronous speeds, making them lighter than induction motors

of the same rated mechanical output. This is a valuable characteristic for

hand-held power tools. Universal motors for commercial power frequency

are usually small, not more than about 1 kW output. However, much larger

universal motors were used, fed by special low-frequency traction power

networks to avoid problems with commutation under heavy and varying

load.

Shunt connection

A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or

shunt with a common D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed

regulation even as the load varies, but does not have as high of starting

torque as a series DC motor. It is typically used for industrial, adjustable

speed applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines and

tensioners.

Compound connection

A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt

and a series combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series

DC motor. This motor is used when both a high starting torque and good

speed regulation is needed. The motor can be connected in two

arrangements: cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors

connect the series field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting
torque but less speed regulation. Differential compound DC motors have

good speed regulation and are typically operated at constant speed. They are

commonly used in elevators, air compressors, conveyors and punch presses.

A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity.

Lead Acid Car Battery

Specific energy-30-40 Wh/kg

Energy density-60-75 Wh/l

Specific power-180 W/kg

Charge/discharge Efficiency 50%-92%

Self-discharge rate 3%-20%/month

Cycle durability 500-800 cycles

Nominal cell voltage 2.105 V

Electrochemistry
In the charged state, each cell contains electrodes of elemental lead (Pb) and

lead(IV) oxide (PbO2) in an electrolyte of approximately 33.5% v/v (4.2

Molar) sulfuric acid (H2SO4).

In the discharged state both electrodes turn into lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4) and

the electrolyte loses its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water.

Due to the freezing-point depression of water, as the battery discharges and

the concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte is more likely to

freeze during winter weather.

The chemical reactions are (discharged to charged):

Anode (oxidation):

Cathode (reduction):

Because of the open cells with liquid electrolyte in most lead-acid batteries,

overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen

gas by electrolysis of water, forming an explosive mix. The acid electrolyte

is also corrosive.

Practical cells are usually not made with pure lead but have small amounts

of antimony, tin, calcium or selenium alloyed in the plate material to add

strength and simplify manufacture.

Voltages for common usages

These are general voltage ranges for six-cell lead-acid batteries:

Open-circuit (quiescent) at full charge: 12.6 V to 12.8 V (2.10-2.13V

per cell)

Open-circuit at full discharge: 11.8 V to 12.0 V

Loaded at full discharge: 10.5 V.

Continuous-preservation (float) charging: 13.4 V for gelled

electrolyte; 13.5 V for AGM (absorbed glass mat) and 13.8 V for flooded

cells

1. All voltages are at 20 C (68 F), and must be adjusted -0.022V/C for

temperature changes.

2. Float voltage recommendations vary, according to the manufacturer's

recommendation.

3. Precise float voltage (0.05 V) is critical to longevity; insufficient

voltage (causes sulfation) which is almost as detrimental as excessive

voltage (causing corrosion and electrolyte loss)

Typical (daily) charging: 14.2 V to 14.5 V (depending on

manufacturer's recommendation)

Equalization charging (for flooded lead acids): 15 V for no more than

2 hours. Battery temperature must be monitored.

 Gassing threshold: 14.4 V

After full charge, terminal voltage drops quickly to 13.2 V and then

slowly to 12.6 V.

Portable batteries, such as for miners' cap lamps (headlamps) typically have

two cells, and use one third of these voltages.

Measuring the charge level

A hydrometer can be used to test the specific gravity of each cell as a

measure of its state of charge.

Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction,

this battery has one major advantage over other chemistries. It is relatively

simple to determine the state of charge by merely measuring the specific

gravity (S.G.) of the electrolyte, the S.G. falling as the battery discharges.
Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored floating

balls of differing density. When used in diesel-electric submarines, the S.G.

was regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to

indicate how much longer the boat could remain submerged.

A battery's open-circuit voltage can be used to estimate the state of

charge, in this case for a 12 volt battery.

Construction

The lead acid cell can be demonstrated using sheet lead plates for the

two electrodes. However such a construction produces only around one

ampere for roughly postcard sized plates, and for only a few minutes.

Gaston Plant found a way to provide a much larger effective surface

area. In Plant's design, the positive and negative plates were formed of two

spirals of lead foil, separated with a sheet of cloth and coiled up. The cells

initially had low capacity, so a slow process of "forming" was required to

corrode the lead foils, creating lead dioxide on the plates and roughen them

to increase surface area. Initially this process used electricity from primary

batteries; when generators became available after 1870, the cost of

production of batteries greatly declined. Plant plates are still used in some

stationary applications, where the plates are mechanically grooved to

increase their surface area.

 Faure pasted-plate construction is typical of automotive batteries.

Each plate consists of a rectangular lead grid alloyed with antimony or

calcium to improve the mechanical characteristics. The holes of the grid are

filled with a paste of red lead and 33% dilute sulfuric acid. (Different

manufacturers vary the mixture). The paste is pressed into the holes in the

grid which are slightly tapered on both sides to better retain the paste. This

porous paste allows the acid to react with the lead inside the plate, increasing

the surface area many fold. At this stage the positive and negative plates are

similar, however expanders and additives vary their internal chemistry to

assist in operation. Once dry, the plates are stacked with suitable separators

and inserted in the battery container. An odd number of plates is usually

used, with one more positive plate than negative. Each alternate plate is

connected.

The positive plates are the chocolate brown color of Lead (IV) Oxide,

and the negative are the slate gray of 'spongy' lead at the time of

manufacture. In this charged state the plates are called 'formed'.

One of the problems with the plates is that the plates increase in size

as the active material absorbs sulfate from the acid during discharge, and

decrease as they give up the sulfate during charging. This causes the plates

to gradually shed the paste. It is important that there is room underneath the
plates to catch this shed material. If it reaches the plates, the cell short-

circuits.

The paste contains carbon black, blanc fixe (barium sulfate) and

lignosulfonate. The blanc fixe acts as a seed crystal for the leadtolead

sulfate reaction. The blanc fixe must be fully dispersed in the paste in order

for it to be effective. The lignosulfonate prevents the negative plate from

forming a solid mass during the discharge cycle, instead enabling the

formation of long needlelike crystals. The long crystals have more surface

area and are easily converted back to the original state on charging. Carbon

black counteracts the effect of inhibiting formation caused by the

lignosulfonates. Sulfonated naphthalene condensate dispersant is a more

effective expander than lignosulfonate and speeds up formation. This

dispersant improves dispersion of barium sulfate in the paste, reduces

hydroset time, produces a more breakage-resistant plate, reduces fine lead

particles and thereby improves handling and pasting characteristics. It

extends battery life by increasing endofcharge voltage. Sulfonated

naphthalene requires about one-third to one-half the amount of

lignosulfonate and is stable to higher temperatures.

About 60% of the weight of an automotive-type lead-acid battery rated

around 60 Ah (8.7 kg of a 14.5 kg battery) is lead or internal parts made of

lead; the balance is electrolyte, separators, and the case.

Separators

Separators between the positive and negative plates prevent short-

circuit through physical contact, mostly through dendrites (treeing), but

also through shedding of the active material. Separators obstruct the flow of

ions between the plates and increase the internal resistance of the cell. Wood,

rubber, glass fiber mat, cellulose, and PVC or polyethylene plastic have been

used to make separators. Wood was the original choice, but deteriorated in

the acid electrolyte. Rubber separators were stable in the battery acid.

An effective separator must possess a number of mechanical

properties; such as permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, specific

surface area, mechanical design and strength, electrical resistance, ionic

conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service, the

separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation. The area of the

separator must be a little larger than the area of the plates to prevent material

shorting between the plates. The separators must remain stable over the

battery's operating temperature range.

DASH PAD WITH CONTROL UNIT

The Dash pad contains the Electric control circuit, and Buttons. The

button is activated at the time of we required, the control circuit gives the

control signal to the motor.

MICROCONTROLLER

A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small

computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory,

and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of

NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically

small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded

applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers

or other general purpose applications.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices,

such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices,

remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other

embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that

uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices,

microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices

and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating

analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems.

Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate

frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low power consumption (milliwatts or

microwatts). They will generally have the ability to retain functionality

while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt; power

consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be

just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery

applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles,

where they may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP), with

higher clock speeds and power consumption.

IR SENSOR

A Passive Infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic device that measures

infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view. PIR sensors are

often used in the construction of PIR-based motion detectors. Apparent

motion is detected when an infrared source with one temperature, such as a

human, passes in front of an infrared source with another temperature, such

as a wall. This is not to say that the sensor detects the heat from the object

passing in front of it but that the object breaks the field which the sensor has

determined as the "normal" state. Any object, even one exactly the same

temperature as the surrounding objects will cause the PIR to activate if it

moves in the field of the sensors.

All objects above absolute zero emit energy in the form of radiation. Usually

infrared radiation is invisible to the human eye but can be detected by

electronic devices designed for such a purpose. The term passive in this

instance means that the PIR device does not emit an infrared beam but

merely passively accepts incoming infrared radiation. Infra meaning

below our ability to detect it visually, and Red because this color

represents the lowest energy level that our eyes can sense before it becomes

invisible. Thus, infrared means below the energy level of the color red, and

applies to many sources of invisible energy.

 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AGV

BATTERY
ON/OFF
BUTTON
EMBEDDED RELAY
CONTROLLER DRIVER& RELAYS

SET
SWITCHES

DC
MOTOR

SENSOR
 MATERIAL HANDLING AGV

WORKING

Apparent motion is detected when an infrared source with one temperature,

such as a human, passes in front of an infrared source with another

temperature, such as a wall. This is not to say that the sensor detects the heat

from the object passing in front of it but that the object breaks the field

which the sensor has determined as the "normal" state. Any object, even one

exactly the same temperature as the surrounding objects will cause the PIR

to activate if it moves in the field of the sensors. microcontrollers may use

four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4 kHz, for low

power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally have the

ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button

press or other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and

most peripherals off) may be just nanowatts, making many of them well

suited for long lasting battery applications. Other microcontrollers may serve

performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a digital

signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.

The microcontroller gives signal to dc motor for moving the vehicle

ADVANTAGES OF AGV

Unobstructed movement

Flexibility
 Locations, path, P/D points can be reprogrammed

Easy to change guide path system

Number of vehicles can be altered depending on requirement

Greater reliability

Less environmental problems

AGV can be replaced by another, in case of failure.

Lower investment

Higher operating savings on long run

Minimal labor cost

Easy maintenance

Easy to interface with other systems

Best choice for FMS

COST ESTIMATION
 UNIT COST
SNO MATERIAL QUANTITY
Rs

1. Microcontroller 1 2000

2. Dc motor 1 500

3 battery 1 600

4 Ir sensor 1 1500

5 wheels 4 600

6 frame 1 500

7 Plywood, paint 1 400

8 Labour charges 1 900

Total 7000

REFERENCES

1. Automatic Guided Vehicle-Description. Swisslog. 5 March 2006

2. "Webb Automatic Guided Carts". Jervis B. Webb Company 2008

3. Flexible Manufacturing Systems. University of Kentucky. 5 March

2006

4.Nav 200 Absolute Navigation System. Mobile Platforms. 5 March 2006

5.The Basics of Automated Guided Vehicles. AGV Systems. Savant. 5

March 2006

6."Guidance options for AGVs" Jervis B. Webb Company, 2007.

7.Specifications for Platforms

8.http://www.seegrid.com "Seegrid Corporation, 2012"

9. Sonar sensor and mounting. University of Birmingham. 5 March 2006

10."Tow Type AGVs " Hi-Tech Robotic Systemz Ltd. India, 2009.

11. "Common AGV Applications: Raw Material Handling" JBT

Corporation. 18 March 2009

12. "Work in Process Movement with AGVs" JBT Corporation. 18 March

2009

13."Pallet Handling AGVs" JBT Corporation. 18 March 2009

14. "Finished Product Handling with AGVs" JBT Corporation. 18 March

2009

15. "Automated Trailer Loading AGVs" JBT Corporation. 18 March 2009

 16. "Common AGV Applications: Roll Handling" JBT Corporation. 18

March 2009

"The Appropriate Application of Automated Guided Vehicles ". HK

Systems, Inc. 01 October 2007

The Salmoiraghi Approach.. SALMOIRAGHI Automatic Handling. 5

March 2006

A Guide to Robotic Logistics LGVs (AGVs). Elettric 80 S.p.A. 26 April

2008