Solar Energy: Technologies

and Project Delivery for

Buildings

SAME
Pikes Peak Post
Energy Workshop

Andy Walker PhD PE

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Andy.walker@nrel.gov
 Open Door Web Site ( ODWS www.saburchill.com
Cheetah catching Thompsons Gazelle, Serengeti

Dr. Verna Case (vecase@davidson.edu)

Davidson College Biology Department
UBS Enegy Trading Floor
www.advancedtrading.com
4th Fighter Wing over Kuwait, 1991. Picasa.google.com.
 Annual Energy (Quad Btu)

100
120

20
40
60
80

0
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013

Gas
Coal
Solar
Wind

Petrol
Hydro
Nuclear
Biomass

Geothermal
Solar Energy Use in the US is Small. But

Solar 0.3 Q
 But Solar Energy is growing fast.
U.S. Generation Capacity Additions by Source 2013 & Jan. May 2014
Jan - May 2014 2013
(Total 3.9 GW) (Total 18.8 GW)
Other, 106 ,
3%

Distributed Other, 2,503

Solar*, 714 , Distributed , 13%
18% Solar*, 1,587
Gas, 1,437 , , 9% Gas, 7,285 ,
37% 39%

Utility Solar, Utility Solar,

907 , 24% 3,897 , 21%
Coal, 0 , 0%
Wind, 678 , Wind, 1,559 ,
18% Hydro, 8 , 0% 8%
Hydro, 387 , Coal,
2% 1,543 , 8%
As of May 14, solar represented 42% of total U.S. generation capacity additions
Largest source of U.S. capacity additions this year
In 2013 solar represented approximately 30% of capacity additions

Sources: Sources (except distributed PV) FERC: "Office of Energy Projects Energy Infrastructure Update for May 2014.
Distributed PV, GTM/SEIA, U.S. Solar Market Insight Q1 2014. Note: Distributed PV converted to AC using .8333 derate
factor.
*Distributed PV installations for April & May 14 have not been reported. Jan-March 14 distributed PV installations
averaged 150 MW/month. It is assumed that there was an increase in installations in Q2 14, therefore it was 7
estimated that April & May 14 had distributed PV installations of 200 MW/month.
 Solar Energy Applications
Concentrating Solar Solar Water Heating
Photovoltaics
Heat/Power

Passive Solar Heating

Solar Vent Air Preheat Daylighting

9
 Reasons to Consider Solar Energy
Cost-effective: least cost alternative in many cases
Compliance with laws and executive orders
Zero emissions on site
Avoids fuel delivery and handling risks
Reliability: redundant power supplies
Energy Security: no fuel supply interruptions
No fuel cost fluctuations
Employs local trades rather than exporting jobs to import
energy into a community
As mitigation involved in environmental compliance
Reduce water used by thermoelectric plants

10
Statutes and Executive Orders for Renewable Energy
EPAct 2005
Defines RE; 7.5% RE electricity by 2013

EISA 2007
Net Zero Carbon by 2030; 30% solar hot wtaer

E.O. 13423
At least half of RE must be new (<1999)

E.O 13514
20% Carbon Reduction by 2020

Presidential Memo 2013

20% RE electricity by 2020
PIX 5690
 2007-2009 2010-2012 2013-beyond

105.77%
EPA
GSA 46.28%
DOS 36.64%

All Other 23.56%

Treasury 20.30%
SSA 18.09%
DOE 17.69%
OPM 17.49%
SI 16.51%
RRB 15.00%
VA 13.73%
USDA 12.28%
USACE 12.07%
DOL 11.06%
HHS 10.93%
DOI 10.09%
TVA 9.38%
Total Gov't 9.17%
DOT 9.16%
NARA 8.16%
NASA 7.61%
DHS 7.59%
HUD 7.50%
DOC 6.16%
DoD 5.00%
DOJ 4.00%
USPS 0.02%

0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10%11%12%13%14%15%16%17%18%19%20%21%22%23%24%25%
FY 2013 Renewable Electric Energy as a % of Electricity Use
 Federal Renewable Energy Use (2013)
7,000,000
Conventional Hydropower
6,000,000 Ocean (Thermal, Wave, Tidal,
other)
5,000,000 Geothermal
Energy Delivery (MWh)

Hydrokinetic (non-ocean)
4,000,000
Incremental Hydropower

3,000,000 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)

Solar Photovoltaic
2,000,000
Wind
1,000,000
Biogas (captured methane)

0 Agricultural byproducts

Wood and wood residuals

MSW for Electricity, Input BTUs

 Issues involving Presidential Memo
20% RE Goal
Challenge in achieving Presidential
Memo 20% RE Goal
Find large number of cost-effective
project opportunities
Leverage economy of scale into lower
costs of development and financing
Technical barriers to high penetration of
RE at sites
Ability of market that is now 4.7 GW to
scale to additional 5 GW
System performance does not achieve
goals of program
FEMP Initiative
Comprehensive analysis; Federal-wide
prescreening and multi-site optimization
Collaborative Procurement;
programmatic compliance process;
standard analysis
Energy Systems Integration Tools;
Microgrid tools
Support to institutions that make
standards; credible data on performance
to stoke investor confidence
Technical support to establish O&M
programs for systems at sites and
maximize performance
 RE Project Process

Acceptanc
Request
e and Performan
Screening Feasibility for Contract Design Construct Closeout
Commissio ce Period
Proposals
ning
 Project Delivery
Screening
Process
Agencies should consider a sites:
Solar resource
Utility rates
Potential incentives from utilities and states
Market conditions (PV system costs)
Screening identifies and prioritizes project opportunities
Consider using GIS data
 Project Delivery
Feasibility Study
Economic Feasibility
Process
Initial Cost
Operation and Maintenance Cost
Utility Cost Savings, revenues from solar delivery
Life Cycle Cost (according to 10 CFR 436, BLCC Program)
property cost and future value
Engineering Feasibility
yield forecast
Roof strength and condition for roof mount; Ground soil conditions for ground-mount
Electrical Interconnect Locations
Electrical Interconnection Capacities (amps)
Compliance Issues
Environmental
Cultural/Historic
Legal: real property, utility agreements, operating, maintenance and insurance contracts.
Tax due diligence: income tax, trade tax, value added tax, tax on dividends, real property tax
and land transfer tax, tax incentives and depreciations.
 Project Delivery Process
Solicitation (Request for Proposals)
Selection Criteria
Technical Approach (products and configuration)
Qualifications (degrees, licenses, NABCEP, etc)
Past Performance (projects, references)
Statement of Work
Performance Requirements
Delivered energy, etc.
Interface Requirements
Roof, electrical
Other Requirements
Bonding, Insurance, etc
Buy American, etc
 Project Delivery Process
Land-Use Agreement
LUAs are frequently separate from the financing contract
LUAs cover site access, security, environmental, other provisions
License; Easement; Right of Way; Lease (license is the most common
option)
Work with real estate personnel to determine options, term, and
approval requirements
LUA length should be at least as long as the financing agreement
Interconnection with Utility
Required to connect a renewable project to the grid
Coordinate with utility early about interconnection process:
Application and fees
Study requirements and costs
Queue and timeframe
Determine required signatories owner, developer, both?
Request the utilitys ICA template for early legal review
Allow for adequate time and build in costs
 Financing Alternatives
Alternatives:
Appropriations (Outright Purchase)
Energy Savings Performance Contract (ESPC)
Power Purchase Agreement (PPA)
Utility Energy Service Contract (UESC)
Enhanced Use Lease (EUL)

Incentives
Federal, State Governments
Utilities required by regulators
Ownership of system is important consideration
See dsireusa.org
 Legislation
Rebates and Incentives
Federal Corporate Tax Credit
Technologies: Solar Water Heat, Solar Space Heat, Solar Thermal
Electric, Solar Thermal Process Heat, Photovoltaics, Wind, Biomass,
Geothermal Electric, Fuel Cells, Geothermal Heat Pumps,
CHP/Cogeneration, Solar Hybrid Lighting, Microturbines
30% for solar, fuel cells (0.5 kW or greater) and small wind (<100 kW);
Could go back to permanent 10% at the end of 2016
Incentive sources
www.dsireusa.org
 Power Purchase Agreement (PPA)

PPA provider owns, installs and maintains system

Customer agrees to purchase power at competed rate for term of PPA
Involves land lease or other land use agreement (easement, license, other)
Requires OMB notification and review
Advantages:
No capital expense or O&M to government
Performance guaranteed by contractor (pay only for energy)
Private ownership may be eligible for tax incentives (credit and
MACRS)
Disadvantages
Not all states allow PPAs check
http://www.dsireusa.org/documents/summarymaps/3rd_Party_PPA_
map.ppt
Private Sector and Government requirements sometimes at odds:
termination for convenience; indemnification; etc.
FEMP PPA Quick Guide:
www.nrel.gov/docs/fy11osti/51662.pdf.
Power Purchase Agreement Examples

Nellis Air Force Base

NREL

Fort Carson USCG Station, Petaluma

Most Solar Energy Projects Involve Sophisticated
Tax Equity Financing Arrangements
 Solar Resource Definitions
I
Irradiance or Insolation (W/m2). Incoming solar power.
Full Sun= 1000 W/m2

DNI
Direct Normal Irradiance is the amount of solar radiation received per unit area by a surface that
is always held perpendicular (or normal) to the rays that come in a straight line from the
direction of the sun at its current position in the sky. Typically, you can maximize the amount of
irradiance annually received by a surface by keeping it normal to incoming radiation. This quantity
is of particular interest to concentrating solar thermal installations and installations that track the
position of the sun.

DIF
Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance is the amount of radiation received per unit area by a surface (not
subject to any shade or shadow) that does not arrive on a direct path from the sun, but has been
scattered by molecules and particles in the atmosphere and comes equally from all directions.

GHI
Global Horizontal Irradiance is the total amount of shortwave radiation received from above by a
horizontal surface. This value is of particular interest to photovoltaic installations and includes
both Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) and Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DIF).
25
 Total Radiation, I (insolation)

Clouds, Dust, Etc

Diffuse (DIF)
Incident angle
Direct Normal (DNI)
Full Sun= 1000 W/m2
Ground Reflected

Global Horizontal (GHI)

Ic (W/m2) = solar radiation on the collector
I c = Direct + Diffuse + Ground Reflected
26
 Optimal Fixed Tilt Angle

Optimal Tilt = Latitude w

Map of values of w

Proceedings of Solar Forum 2001: Solar Energy: The Power to Choose April 21-25, 2001, Washington, DC
EFFECTS OF TILT AND AZIMUTH ON ANNUAL INCIDENT SOLAR RADIATION FOR UNITED STATES LOCATIONS
Craig B. Christensen, Greg M. Barker
Tracking versus Fixed Tilt

28
 Effect of Orientation
10
9 Horizontal 4.6
8
7 Tilt=Latitude 5.5
6
5 Vertical 3.8
4
3
1 N_S axis tracking 6.4
2
1
2-axis tracking 7.4
0

Average daily solar radiation (kWh/m2/day); data for Boulder CO

29
Seasonal Solar Resource

Source: NASA LARC SSE

 NREL Solar Maps

Tilt=Latitude Insolation (kWh/m2/day)

31
 Forecasting Performance
1) Astronomical Forecast: time-of-day; day-of-year; latitude; (well-known)
2) Weather Forecast

Modeling Weather Forecast Data

Sky Imaging

172 hour forecast example

http://weatheranalytics.com/renewableforecast.html
44
 Quiz Time!
What is the peak value of Solar Power for Full Sun?
a) 1 kW/m2
b) 3 kW/m2
c) 5 kW/m2
d) 7 kW/m2
How much Solar Energy can you Expect on a Winter Day?
a) 1 kWh/m2/day
b) 3 kWh/m2/day
c) 5 kWh/m2/day
d) 7 kWh/m2/day
How much Solar Energy can you Expect on a Summer Day?
a) 1 kWh/m2/day
b) 3 kWh/m2/day
c) 5 kWh/m2/day
d) 7 kWh/m2/day
Photovoltaic Module Nameplate Rating

ASTM E1036-96, Standard Test Method for Electrical

Performance of Nonconcentrator Terrestrial Photovoltaic
Modules and Arrays Using Reference Cells
Example Nameplate
Types of Photovoltaic Devices

Single Crystal Multi-Crystal CIGS Cadmium Telluride Thin Film Si

Best efficiency: 30.1% best efficiency best efficiency 24.8% best efficiency 22.1% (16% best efficiency 21.3%
(20.4% modules) 25.2% (16% (14% modules) modules) (9.5% modules)
modules)
Voltage: 0.706V Voltage: 0.713V Voltage: 0.845V Voltage: 0.645V
Voltage: 0.664 V
Temperature coefficient: Temperature Temperature Coefficient: - Temperature
-0.45%/C Temperature: Coefficient:-0.35%/C 0.20%/C Coefficient: -0.20%/C
Cofficient-0.45%/C
Degradation:0.36%/year Degradation: Degradation: 0.40%/year Degradation:
Degradation:0.64% 0.96%/year 0.87%/year
Mature technology; very little material use (high
/year
Material waste in cutting; band gap adjustable solar absorbtivity); good Mature technology;
assembly steps Mature from 1 to 1.7 eV by temperature coefficient; less material (1% of
technology; less mixture; little material best ratio of crystalline); low
time and energy in use; less exotic cost/performance temperature
crystal growing material use; glass or coefficient, flexible,
Disadvantages
step flexible substrates; low shading resistance due
cost manufacturing Cadmium is toxic and to tiny cells in series,
Grain boundaries
equipment requires custody over life- lightweight, easy to
resist current flow
cycle fabricate multiple
junctions; lowest cost.
Comparison of Efficiency of
Different Types of PV Cells

http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/47927_chapter4.pdf
 PV is Modular
Cell Module
String
 PV is Modular
String Array
System
 PV is Modular
Power Plant
 Deployment: PV Applications
PV applications evolve from high-value off-grid applications to widespread use as
the cost of PV comes down, and goals for carbon reduction and RE use go up.

Campground, Off-grid Campus, 7 kW

1 kW, NPS, NPS, WY, 2005 Alcatraz Micro-grid, 305 kW
Lighting, 96 W, CA, 2001 NPS, CA, 2011
GSA, HI, 1995

VA Hospital, 309 kW, CA,

2008

Small,
Remote Hybrid and
Loads Village Power Bulk Power
Micro-grid
Distributed
Generation
Utility
Power USAF Academy, 6,000 kW
CO, 2011
Simple Direct-Drive PV System
 Pump Controller
Simple Direct-Drive PV System with MPPT and GFCI

Fuse/CombinerBox
Float switch

disconnect

ground

Water Tank

PV Array

Water Pump
Simple DC PV System with Battery Storage
 charge controller with
Simple DC PV System with fuse/ MPPT and GFCI
combiner
Battery Storage box disconnect

batteries

low-voltage
disconnect

ground

DC load center
with main breaker
and breakers to
each DC load

PV Array
Hybrid PV/Generator System
Alcatraz Microgrid Hybrid Example:
305 kW PV Array
959 Sunpower E19 modules
318 W each
$2,623,809

1,900 kWh battery bank

480 cells
two strings
$1,495,660

Eight 100 kW inverters

$1,798,041 including elec.

Two 250 kW diesel

generators
$8.5 million cost
Alcatraz Microgrid Hybrid Example:

Results for 2013

Total Island Demand 621,173 kWh
Total PV Generated 325,429 kWh
Diesel Fuel Savings 31,903 gallon
Fuel Cost Savings $206,683
Utility-Connected (Line-Tie)
PV System
 inverter
combiner
box from utility
AC disconnect main breaker

DC disconnect breakers to AC loads

line 1
ground line 2

Alternating Current (AC) PV

AC panel
System with Inverter
 Veterans Administration
Jerry L. Pettis Memorial Medical Center
Loma Linda, CA

309 kWdc
1,584 Sanyo 195-watt
PV modules
SunLink racks
minimum roof
penetration.
Advanced Energy
Solaron 333kW inverter
Feasibility Study by
NREL estimates:475
MWh/year delivery;
$60k/year savings;
$2.9million cost without
any incentives
Procured off GSA
Schedule for complete
PV systems.
 Veterans Administration
Jerry L. Pettis Memorial Medical Center
Loma Linda, CA
Veterans Administration
Jerry L. Pettis Memorial Medical Center
Loma Linda, CA
Example: Coronado Island CA
924 kW, cost $7.7 million
 Coronado Island CA
PV System Performance
180,000 900

160,000 800
Power Production, kWh/month

140,000 700

120,000 600

Peak Power, kW
100,000 500

80,000 400

60,000 300

40,000 200

20,000 100

0 0
Jan- Feb- Mar- Apr-03 May- Jun-03 Jul-03 Aug- Sep- Oct-03 Nov- Dec-
04 04 04 03 03 03 03 03
Month
829 kW AC maximum delivery
1,228,658 kWh/year delivery
 Alamosa Photovoltaic
(PV) Solar Plant
8.2 MW-dc
80 acres
Provide Xcel Energy with Solar Renewable Energy Credits (SRECs) to meet
Colorado`s Renewable Energy Portfolio Standard (RPS)
Financed, built and maintained by SunEdison, under a Solar Power Services
Agreement (SPSA) 20 years.
Three types of solar technologies:
Single axis tracking array
Fixed-mount array
1 MW of dual axis tracking concentrator array
Project constructed by 70 tradesmen.
Maintained by 2 full-time employees.
Operating since April 2007
 Utility Interconnection- Where to land
the power?
Backfeed Breaker in
Building Panel (Sum of
Main Breaker and PV
100 breaker not to exceed
120% of panel rating for
commercial building, 100%
for residential)
Too big?- Survey Loads
and reduce main breaker
Line 1
rating
Line 2 225A max Too big?- Upgrade Panel
Too big?- Line-side-tap
Too big?- Upgrade
Electrical Service
Net Metering

Solar Power in excess of

the Load flows TO
Utility
Load in excess of Solar
Power flows FROM
Utility
Utility Bill is calculated
on the net difference
between the two on a
monthly or yearly basis
 Net Metering in an Incentive for solar
power in Utility Regulatory Policy.
www.dsireusa.org / February 2013

43 states,
+ Washington DC
& 4 territories,have
adopted a net
metering policy.

Note: Numbers indicate individual system capacity limit in kilowatts. Some limits vary by customer type, technology and/or application. Other limits might also apply.
This map generally does not address statutory changes until administrative rules have been adopted to implement such changes.
Limits of Net Metering
Problems with Net Metering
Limits to Fuel Savings (spinning
reserve)
Doesnt save any other utility
operating costs
RE may be curtailed; limits on
installations (eg 15% in HI)
Socio-economic problem: foists
utility costs on those least able
to afford it.
Utility Cost Recovery
Retail/buy-back spread (c/kWh)
Stand-by Charges
($/kW/month)
Challenges of Integrating PV with the
Utility System (Grid)
Spinning Reserve
-affects voltage regulation
-affects overcurrent protection
requires reactive power (power factor)

Levels of renewable generation that affect grid stability?
Site specific study: depends on flexibility of generation assets, transmission system and
load
10% of PV generally seen as insignificant impact on minimum load
Regional Energy Deployment System (ReEDS) type model for planning expansion of
electric generation & transmission capacity (http://www.nrel.gov/analysis/reeds/)
 Voltage Regulation

transformer voltage set by Line Drop transformer voltage reduced by LDC

Voltage (VRMS) Compensation (LDC) based on circuit load Voltage (VRMS) because circuit load reduced
low voltage
High Limit High Limit)
Low Limit Low Limit

Voltage Regulation: a PV generator on the distribution system can affect

the existing voltage regulation scheme.
Overcurrent Protection

Solar 1A
Max 100A for length of line Max 100A Max 101A

Fuse 100A Fuse 100A

Overcurrent Protection: A PV generator on the distribution system

can affect the existing overcurrent protection scheme.
Power Factor

Reactive Reactive
Power (kW) Power (kW)
Power factor

Real Power (kW) Real Power (kW)

Power Factor: By delivering only real power, a PV generator on the

distribution system can worsen the power factor seen by the utility.
 Strategies for Increasing amounts of Intermittent
Renewable Energy Generation on the Utility Grid
Reconfigure circuits, network protectors, voltage regulation, and overcurrent protection
Distribute PV over a larger geographical area to smooth cloud cover
Tracking mounts and different PV orientations to smooth daily delivery
Advanced inverter features
Low voltage ride-through
Low frequency ride-through
Power-factor correction
Curtail RE output
Forecasting of RE plant output
Control of demand for non-critical
loads
Energy Storage
Evolving ways for utility companies and regulators to allocate cost of operating the utility system
U.S. Installation Breakdown
U.S. PV Installations by Market Segment U.S. PV Installations by State (MWDC)
2.5 Q1 '14
2.11
Quarterly PV Installed (GWDC)

Utility
2.0
Non- Residential Other
Residential 284
1.5 1.31 1.33
1.4

0.94 0.96 Next Five

1.0 0.79 0.82 States*
0.69 0.9 0.74 0.9 204 California
0.48 0.4 0.55 0.5 0.5 959
0.37 0.5 0.3 0.3
0.5 0.28 0.1 0.4
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.0
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3
0.3 0.2
0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1
'11 '11 '11 '11 '12 '12 '12 '12 '13 '13 '13 '13 '14
U.S. had second largest quarter for PV installations at 1.3 GW
This is despite a very harsh winter which slowed installations
California projects represented 66% of installs
First quarter since 2002 in which there has been more residential than non-residential installs
If GTM projections are correct, U.S. will install a PV system every 2.4 minutes in 2014
82

Note: Next five States: NJ, AZ, NC, HI ,NV. energy.gov/sunshot

Sources: GTM/SEIA, U.S. Solar Market Insight Q1 2014.
 Average System Pricing by Size & Region
100 kW 500 kW & 500kW 2 MW
100 kW - 500 kW 500 kW - 2 MW
$8.00 $8.00
CA, Host-owned
Avg. System Price (Nominal $/WDC)

Avg. System Price (Nominal $/WDC)

CA, Host-owned
$7.00 $7.00 CA, 3rd-party
CA, 3rd-party
MA, Host-owned
MA, Host-owned
$6.00 $6.00

$5.00 $5.00

$4.00 $4.00

$3.00 $3.00

$2.00 $2.00
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 H1 '14 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 H1 '14
System prices in the above states, of the above sizing, fell on average 10 20% between 13 & H1
14
Many large-scale systems going in below $3/W
Consistent to declines experienced in previous 5 years
Systems 500 kW 2 MW were, on average, $1.3-$1.7/W cheaper (or 30-35%) than 2.5 -10 kW
systems in same area
H1 14 MW: (100-500kW) CA H.O. (25); CA 3rd-P (8); MA H.O.(1); (500kW-2MW) . CA H.O. (15); CA 3rd-P (11); MA H.O.(12). 83
Sources: CSI Database, accessed 07/02/14; MA SREC Program, accessed 07/09/14.
Note: MA does not report whether a system is 3rd-party owned therefore it was estimated using the applicant entity
or installer for the following organizations: SolarCity, CPF Capital, SunRun, Vivint, Sungevity.
 PV Operation and Maintenance
Cleaning
Most rely on rain to keep the array clean.
Cleaning in Sacramento improved output by 6%
Depend on local sources of dirt (diesel soot, dust, construction, etc)
Annual inspection: tighten all electrical connections, remove any
insect nests from boxes, clean any persistent soiling from PV array.
Unscheduled maintenance includes inverter replacement (most
have 10 year warranty), replacement of boxes that have rusted, and
repair of damage caused by theft, vandalism or animals that have
gotten into enclosures.
Inverters:
37% of incidents
59% of down-time
Degradation over time
Modules degrade at about of 1% per
year, but some defects can cause
immediate performance reductions.
These include:
Thermal Fatigue
Discoloration Thermal Fatigue
Cracking Reference: Degraff presentation

Cracking

Discoloration
 Types of Warranties

Stepped Warranty Linear Warranty

90% power warranty for 12 years Starts at 97% in year one
80% power warranty for 25 years. Maximum annual degradation rate is ~ 0.5%
to 0.7%/year

Source: SolarWorld

86
 Solar Hot Water Solar Hot Water
Types
Types

Unglazed EPDM Glazed Flat Plate

Evacuated Tube Parabolic Trough

Direct, Open Loop Swimming Pool Heater Schematic

VacuumBreaker
TemperatureSensor

Controller

Thermometer

Isolation
Drain
Valves

Diverter To Pool Heater

Valve
From Pool Filter
Temperature Check
Sensor Valve
 Low Temperature Example:
Barnes Field House, Fort Huachuca, AZ

2,000 square feet of

unglazed collectors
3,500 square feet
indoor pool
Installed cost of $35,000
Meets 49% of pool
heating load
Saves 835 million Btu/
year of natural gas
Annual savings of
$5,400
Installed by the Army in
June, 1980.

89
Direct, Closed Loop Solar Water Heater Schematic
Pressure/Temperature
Relief Valve Air Vent
TemperatureSensor

Controller

Thermometer

Check TemperingValve
Valve
Pump strainer Di-electric
Hot WaterOut
Unions

System
Flush
Valves
ElectricHeatingElement

Storage
Tank

Cold Water In
Mid Temperature Example:
USCG Housing, Honolulu HI

62 units installed 1998

Active (pumped), Direct
systems
Average cost $4,000 per
system
80 sf per system
$800 per system HECO
rebate
Energy Savings of 3,008
kWh/year
Demand Savings of 1.62
kW/house
Solar Fraction 74%
Efficiency 24%
Mid Temperature Example:
USCG Housing, Honolulu HI
Indirect, Closed Loop, Drain-back Solar Schematic
Pressure/Temperature
Relief Valve
Air Vent

TemperatureSensor

Controller

DrainBack
TemperingValve
Flow Tank
Meter Thermometer PressureGauge Sight Air Vent
Air Purge
Glass Hot Water
Pump
Out
Pump
Flush&
Expansion Fill Valves Electric
Tank Heating
Element

TemperatureSensor

ConventionalWater Cold Water

Storage
Heater In
Tank
 Mid Temperature Example:
Chickasaw National Recreation Area, OK

Small Comfort Stations Large Comfort Stations

195 square feet of flat plate
484 square feet of flat plate
collectors collectors
500 gallon storage volume
1000 gallon storage volume
Cost $7,804
Cost $16,100
Delivers 9,394 kWh/year
Delivers 18,194 kWh/year
Saves $867 / year
Saves $1,789 / year
94
Direct, Open Loop Solar Water Heater Schematic

Pressure/Temperature
Relief Valve
Air Vent
TemperatureSensor

Controller Thermometer

Flow Pressure
Meter Gauge Check
Thermometer Valve

Pump Temperature
Sensor
Recirculation Recirculation Loop
Loop Returnto Heating
Plant
 Solar Water Heating Case Study:
Social Security Administration Building, Philadelphia, PA

Reheats recirculation loop

180 evacuated heat-pipe collector tubes
27 m2 gross area
Cost $37,500
Delivers 38 GJ (36 million Btu)/year
Installed 2004
Energy/Month (MJ/month)

6000

4000

2000

0
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
 Solar Water Heating System Schematic Diagram

Air Vent
Pressure/Temperature Relief Valve

TemperatureSensor
Air Vent

Isolation
Controller
Valves
Thermometer Air Vent
TemperingValve
Flow Pressure Heat
Meter Gauge Air Purge Exchanger
Thermometer strainer Hot
strainer
Water
Pump Out
Pump
Flush
Electric
Expansion & Fill
Heating
Tank Valves
Element
TemperatureSensor

Cold
Storage Conventional Water
Tank WaterHeater In
 High Temperature Example:
Phoenix Federal Correctional Institution

17,040 square feet of parabolic trough

collectors
23,000 gallon storage tank
Installed cost of $650,000
Delivered 1,161,803 kWh in 1999
(87.1% of the water heating load).
Saved $77,805 in 1999 Utility Costs.
Financed, Installed and Operated under
Energy Savings Performance Contract
with Industrial Solar Technology, Inc.
The prison pays IST for energy delivered
at a rate equal to 90% of the utility rate
(10% guaranteed savings), over 20
years.

98
 High Temperature Example:
Phoenix Federal Correctional Institution

Month Energy and Cost Savings

500

400
Total Delivered Heat (million Btu)

300 1999
2000
2001
2002

200 2003

100

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
 O&M Survey of 185
Solar Water Heating Systems
Problems
Temp. Sensor Mount
,
Expansion Tank

Pump Winding

Pump Capacitor

Leaks

Valves

Collector

PC Board

Relay

DC power supply

Temp. Sensor Open

Working Fine
Solar Ventilation Air
Preheating System
kWh/m2/year
Natural Gas @ $7.50/Mbtu & 70% eff = $0.032/kWh

Energy
Cost
$/kWh
 Case Study:
NREL Chemical Storage

300 ft2
3,000 CFM
$6000 cost
63% measured efficiency
Saves 14,310 kWh/year
Saves $726/year of
electric heat (no flames
allowed in building)
Payback = 8.3 years
 Case Study:
US Bureau of Reclamation

Water treatment
facility in Leadville,
Colorado.
Estimated savings
are more than
$4,000 per year
7 year simple
payback.
 Defense Logistics Agency's
(DLA) Eastern Distribution Center
1.7 Msf building in New Cumberland PA
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Engineering
and Support Center, Huntsville, Baltimore
District
55,263 square feet of transpired solar
collector; glazed; unglazed
When the wall reaches 180 degrees, the
dampers at the top portion open up to
allow the heat to enter the warehouse
$3.4 million ECIP Funding, installed
Summer 2012
It is estimated that this solar wall will save
DLA $350,000 in annual energy costs.

http://solarwall.com/posts/going-green-u.s.-army-corps-builds-largest-induction-
solarwall-in-the-country-220.php
 Additional Information Resources
Solar Energy Resources
NREL http://www.nrel.gov/rredc/
Firstlook: http://firstlook.3tiergroup.com/
TMY or Weather Data
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/old_data/nsrdb/1991-2005/tmy3/

State and Utility Incentives and Utility Policies

http://www.dsireusa.org

Solar PV Analytical Tools

Solar Advisor Model (SAM): https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/sam/
HOMER: https://analysis.nrel.gov/homer/
PVWatts: http://www.nrel.gov/rredc/pvwatts/
RETScreen: http://www.retscreen.net/
IMBY: http://www.nrel.gov/eis/imby/
 Solar Ventilation Air Preheat Resources

FEMP Federal Technology Alert

http://www.eere.energy.gov/femp/technologies/techdemo_publications.cfm
RETScreen International Simulation Software www.retscreen.net
The Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE)
www.dsireusa.org
Conserval Engineering, Inc www.solarwall.com
American Solar http://www.americansolar.com/
InSpire ATAS International Inc. www.atas.com
National Renewable Energy Lab www.nrel.gov
 Solar Water Heating Resources
FEMP Federal Technology Alert Solar Water Heating call 1-800-DOE-EREC or
www.eree.energy.gov/femp.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA):

NFPA 70 National Electrical Code

Solar Rating and Certification Corporation (SRCC)

SRCC OG-100-06 Operating Guidelines For Certifying Solar Collectors
SRCC OG-300-08 Operating Guidelines and Minimum Standards for
Certifying Solar Water Heating Systems

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE):

SEI-7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures

National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA):

Guidelines for Roof-mounted Photovoltaic System Installations
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA):
Guidelines related to metal work including ductwork, CAD standards, and through-penetration
sealing and firestopping.
 Solar Water Heating Resources
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE):
ASHRAE Central Solar Hot Water Systems Design Guide
ASHRAE 90003 Active Solar Heating Design Manual
ASHRAE 90336 Guidance for Preparing Active Solar Heating Systems
Operation and Maintenance Manuals
ASHRAE 90342 Active Solar Heating Systems Installation Manual
ASHRAE 93 Methods of Testing to Determine the Thermal
Performance of Solar Collectors

International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO):

Uniform Solar Energy Code Safe Solar System Requirements (2006)

American Water Works Association (AWWA):

AWWA C651 Disinfecting Water Mains

Factory Mutual Engineering and Research Corporation (FM):

FM P7825 Approval Guide Fire Protection Tests for Solar
Component Products