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 DECEMBER 2016

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
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For Info, go to aws.org/adindex

For Info, go to aws.org/adindex
For Info, go to aws.org/adindex
December 2016 Volume 95 Number 12 CONTENTS
FEATURES
32 Makers Motivate a ContinuingtoCreate Community
The Makers Movement inspires creativity and 32
challenges fabricating knowhow K. Campbell

38 Plasma Gouging Fundamentals

Plasma arc is a viable process for gouging when
its technology is understood C. Darrow

44 Preparing for a Future of Global Engagement

The American Welding Society keeps the
roadmap fresh with ideas to steer its Global
Strategy A. Cullison

THE AMERICAN WELDER

82 The Hidden Hazard of Transparent Blue Welding
Screens 86
Follow these guidelines to take the guesswork out
of selecting a protective welding screen
The AWS Safety & Health Committee

86 How to Select Cutting Wheels

A cutting wheel that provides a clean cut is a first
step in producing a good weld R. Hopkins

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

451s NiWC Hardfacing by Gas Metal Arc Welding
A controlled short circuiting gas metal arc process was
evaluated for its hardfacing capabilities P. Yu et al.
467s Influence of Flux Composition on the
Performance of a NickelBased Alloy Covered
Electrode for 9% Ni Steel Welding
Basic and acid slag systems for coated electrodes were
compared for weldability and mechanical properties
H. Wang and G. He
479s Failure Mode Transition of TripleThinSheet
Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot Welds under
TensileShear Loads
Tensile shear tests were performed on four different
joint designs to develop an analytic model
Y. Li et al.
491s Optical and Spectroscopic Study of a Submerged
Arc Welding Cavern
A thin-gauge steel tunnel was inserted into the
flux to observe and record four different welding
modes G. Gtt et al.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 3

DEPARTMENTS
6 Editorial 56 Tech Topics
8 Press Time News 56 Errata D1.5M/D1.5:2015
10 Washington Watchword 62 Section News
12 International Update 76 Guide to AWS Services
14 News of the Industry 78 Personnel
18 Business Briefs The American Welding
20 Book Review 90 Fact Sheet
22 Aluminum Q&A 92 Learning Track
26 Product & Print Spotlight 97 Welding Journal Index
46 Coming Events 110 Classifieds
On the cover: Speed and durability
52 Certification Schedule 111 Advertiser Index must be considered when selecting
55 Society News cutting wheels. (Photo courtesy of
Weiler Abrasives Group, Creco, Pa.)

M. Sherman (Dist. 10), SW&E, LLC D. Levin, Airgas

OFFICERS
President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Vice President John R. Bray
Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
Vice President Dale Flood
Tri Tool, Inc.
Vice President Thomas J. Lienert
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Treasurer Carey Chen
Cincinnati, Inc.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
DIRECTORS
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Welding North America
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Subsea Global Solutions
D. J. Burgess (Dist. 8), Alstom Power
D. A. Desrochers (Dist. 1), Old Colony RVTHS
D. L. Doench (At Large), Hobart Bros. Co.
D. K. Eck (At Large), Praxair Distribution, Inc.
K. Fogleman (Dist. 16), Consultant
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Sandia National Laboratories
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
J. Jones (Dist. 17), The Harris Products Group
M. Krupnicki (Dist. 6), Mahany Welding Supply
D. J. Landon (Past President), Vermeer Mfg. Co.
S. Lindsey (Dist. 21), City of San Diego
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
J. T. Mahoney (Dist. 5), American Arc, Inc.
S. M. McDaniel (Dist. 19), Big Bend Community College
W. R. Polanin (At Large), Illinois Central College
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Airgas USA, LLC,
NorthCentral Region
R. W. Roth (At Large), RoMan Manufacturing
M. Sebergandio (Dist. 3), CNH America
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
M. Skiles (Dist. 9), Consultant
W. J. Sperko (At Large), Sperko Engineering Services
J. Stoll (Dist. 18), The Bohler Welding Group U.S.
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), UL, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), Consultant
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
D. R. Wilson (Past President), Wilson and Associates
WELDING JOURNAL
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Sr. Editor Cindy Weihl
Features Editor Kristin Campbell
Associate Editor Katie Pacheco
Peer Review Coord. Sonia Aleman
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Assistant Production Manager Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
Sr. Advertising Sales Exec. Sandra Jorgensen
Sr. Advertising Sales Exec. Annette Delagrange
Manager of Sales Operations Lea Owen
Sr. Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Evelyn Andino
eandino@aws.org
MARKETING ADVISORY COUNCIL
(MAC)
D. L. Doench, Chair, Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair, ESAB Welding
& Cutting Prod.
Lorena Cora, Secretary, American Welding Society
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
C. Coffey, Lincoln Electric
D. DeCorte, RoMan Manufacturing
S. Fyffe, Astaras, Inc.
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, WeldAid Products
D. Wilson, Wilson and Associates
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman
Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
American Welding Society
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 331666672
(305) 4439353 or (800) 4439353
Welding Journal (ISSN 00432296) is published monthly by
the American Welding Society for $120.00 per year in the United
States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and $10.00 per single
issue for nonmembers and $14.00 single issue for international.
Not available for resale in either print or electronic form. Ameri
can Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St., # 130, Miami,
FL 331666672; telephone (305) 4439353. Periodicals postage
paid in Miami, Fla., and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER:
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Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of articles for
personal, archival, educational or research purposes, and which
are not for sale or resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of authors and sources
is made. Starred (*) items excluded from copyright.
Copyright 2016 by American Welding Society in both
printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for
any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data and infor
mation developed by the authors of specific articles are for infor
mational purposes only and are not intended for use without inde
pendent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.

4 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

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EDITORIAL
2016 A Year of Building Bridges
As you may recall, I wrote about building
a Global Bridge to the Future in an edito-
rial published at the beginning of my 2016
American Welding Society (AWS) presiden-
cy. After a year of travels and talks, interact-
ing with many AWS members, and much-
appreciated guidance from the board of
directors, I feel we have come a long way
toward completing that bridge.
I am extremely proud to have served
as AWS president over the past year.
Through the hard work of AWS volunteers
and staff, we have accomplished many im-
portant things in 2016, not the least of
David L. McQuaid which is maintaining the strong loyalty and
AWS President support of AWSs most important asset: its
members.
One accomplishment very near and dear
to me is launching the new five-year cycle of
D1.1, Structural Welding Code Steel, and
D1.5, Bridge Welding Code, last year, with
momentum of the launch carrying over
nicely into 2016. It was great to see this ini-
tiative succeed, since I have spent much of
my career focused on these flagship codes.
Also, during 2016, we completed the
acquisition of COATech, a materials finish-
ing show in Mexico, with our FABTECH
partners.
We formed a special committee during
the year to assist our Executive Director,
Ray Shook, in the search for an AWS chief
operating officer (COO) who has executive
director capability, with the ultimate objec-
tive of accomplishing a smooth succession
upon Shooks retirement. I very much ap-
preciate the work of the Search Committee
Through the Chair and VP Elect Bob Roth and the rest of
hard work of AWS the committee. I can now state that we re-
cently completed that search, and our newly
volunteers and hired COO, Matt Miller, who comes to us
staff, we have ac from NACE International, will be joining
complished many the AWS staff in January 2017.
important things in Your Society continues its run of finan-
2016, not the least cial strength, which enables us to continue
Workforce Development initiatives within
of which is main the AWS Foundation, with an emphasis on
taining the strong scholarships for welding and many other re-
loyalty and sup lated scholarships. I appreciate the work of
port of AWSs most Foundation Chair Bill Rice, and that of
important asset: Foundation Executive Director Sam Gentry
its members. and Corporate Director of Workforce Devel-
opment Monica Pfarr. The financial viabili-
ty of the Society allows AWS, itself, to be
the largest contributor to the Foundation.
And, of course, we have continued our
focus to develop and market online courses
under the umbrella of AWS Learning.
6 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
In general, AWS has put forth a strong,
organized effort to create new programs
and improve existing ones in the following
areas: digital initiatives (organizational
database, website functionality, online
learning); marketing and sales (branding,
promotion, market research, marketing/
sales initiatives); membership value (new
products and services, AWS WeldLink,
member engagement opportunities, weld-
ing research, translations); global expansion
(new agents and in-country personnel
throughout the world, new alliances and
partnerships, mergers and acquisitions);
and, perhaps most important, human capi-
tal (AWS volunteers and staff, welding
workforce development).
Allow me to acknowledge the strong ef-
forts of a number of individuals who have
helped make my presidential year a success.
One group deserving mention is the organ-
izers of the AWS Detroit Section Ladies
Night for all their efforts. Dolly and I were
most honored to be invited to the Section
for this long-running annual event.
I would also like to acknowledge the AWS
Mobile Section and one of its most presti-
gious members, AWS Past President Ron
Pierce. At the meeting I visited, it was hard
to find anyone who was not a loyal friend,
employee, or past-employee of his company.
I would particularly like to mention the
AWS staff and say thanks for all they do to
make AWS the premier society that it is,
and for all they have done for me this year.
They have always been there when needed.
There are numerous places I have visited
this year that just happened to be areas
where I have been fortunate enough to work
in the past, like New Orleans, Jacksonville,
Atlanta, Tulsa, Houston, San Francisco/
Oakland, Fresno, Chicago, Greensboro
(N.C.), Seattle, and many more. Another of
these cities is Las Vegas, which recently
placed in operation the High Roller, a new
observation wheel. With some 2130 tons
of steel used in its construction, this
ride was fabricated by ZPMC of China;
American Bridge erected it in place, and I
consulted with them on the welding during
fabrication.
I would like to thank my wife, Dolly, for
traveling with me during the year. She rep-
resented AWS admirably, and she let me put
the Society first for the entire year.
Finally, thanks to all of you for your sup-
port, and for helping me make the most of
this very memorable year. WJ
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PRESS TIME NEWS
Airgas Celebrates Grand Opening of
Air Separation Unit in Illinois
Pictured at the ribbon cutting for Airgass new air separation unit
are (from left) Pascal Vinet, CEO, Airgas; Nancy Norton Ammer,
CEO, Grundy County Economic Development Council; Tom
Stringer, president, bulk and onsite ops, Airgas; Tom Thoman,
senior vice president, merchant gases, Airgas; Sue Rezin, Illinois
state senator; Michael Graff, chairman and CEO, American Air
Liquide Holdings; Patrick Brennan, Village of Minooka president;
and David Welter, Illinois state representative.
Airgas, Inc., an Air Liquide company, recently marked the
grand opening of its new air separation unit in Minooka, Ill.,
with a ribbon cutting ceremony and guided tours.
This air separation unit has the capability to produce
more than 500 tons per day of oxygen, nitrogen, argon, and
ultrahigh-purity oxygen, increasing the companys produc-
tion capabilities in the Chicago area. It is managed by Airgas
merchant gases division.
By building a new air separation unit in Minooka, Ill., we
are able to increase our capacity to serve our customers
throughout the Midwest, while also investing in the long-
term growth opportunities of this important region, said
Pascal Vinet, Airgas CEO.
In addition to Vinet, event attendees included Illinois
State Senator Sue Rezin, Illinois State Representative David
Welter, Village of Minooka President Patrick Brennan, CEO
of the Grundy County Economic Development Council Nan-
cy Norton Ammer, members of the Grundy County Board,
and Chairman and CEO of American Air Liquide Holdings,
Inc., Michael Graff.
KimberlyClark Professional, AWS Award
Jackson Safety Scholarship
Three experienced welding instructors have been selected
by the American Welding Society (AWS), Miami, Fla., to
receive Jackson Safety Scholarships from Kimberly-Clark
Professional, Roswell, Ga.
These awards were presented to Adam Lynnes of Lynnes
Welding Training, Inc., Fargo, N.D., who plans to use his
grant to become a Certified Higher Education Professional;
Dayton Block, a teacher with the Edmonton Catholic School
Board, St. Joseph High School, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada,
who plans to use his grant to complete his educational de-
gree and become a fully licensed teacher; and Chad Russell, a
welding professor at Merced College, Merced, Calif., who
plans to use the grant to take AWS online courses.
The scholarships come with a one-time $2500 continuing
education grant. They are given to welding educators with a
8 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
track record of demonstrating safe behaviors, fostering
those values in their students, and promoting continuous
safety improvements in their schools.
Welding instructors are in the unique position to influ-
ence the long-term safety and values of their students. This
grant rewards exceptional instructors who truly make a dif-
ference in the safety behaviors of the welders training under
them, said Kanchan Patkar, global safety leader, Kimberly-
Clark Professional.
Gestamp Chooses Ann Arbor Region for
New Chassis, Paint, and Laser Welding Lines
Madrid, Spain-based Corporacin Gestamp, an interna-
tional supplier of metal parts and assemblies for auto
manufacturers, has chosen to locate its new manufacturing
facility in Chelsea, Mich.
Gestamp Washtenaw, LLC, a new subsidiary of Gestamp,
will invest $68 million and create 195 new jobs over the next
four years. The company is not only building chassis assem-
bly and electronic coat paint lines but also adding a remote
laser welding 3D technology line.
Ann Arbor SPARK provided site selection assistance to
Gestamp as it looked for a facility in this region and con-
nected the company to resources at Michigan Works that
will help find skilled labor.
Metal Fatigue Solutions Awarded $250,000
National Science Foundation Grant
Metal Fatigue Solutions, Las Vegas, Nev., a producer of
advanced nondestructive examination technology systems
for civil and industrial infrastructure, has won a $250,000
grant from the National Science Foundation.
The grant funds the development and fusion of the com-
panys patented Fatigue FuseTM system designed to be af-
fixed to a metal structure to give indications of precalibrated
percentages of the structures fatigue life.
Work from this grant will provide a wireless fatigue life
indicator for critical structures such as military assets, ship-
ping cranes, accelerated bridge construction assets, wind
turbines, and oil/gas industry assets. The company is work-
ing with the University of California at Los Angeles to exe-
cute this Phase I Small Business Technology Transfer grant.
Massachusetts Governor Signs Legislation to
Support Public Fire Safety
Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker has signed
H.4455, An Act creating a special commission studying cutting,
welding and hot work processes regulated by the State Fire Code.
Under the new law, a special commission will be charged
to investigate and study the current requirements for any li-
censing or permits governing cutting, welding, and other
hot work processes to determine if the industry is adequate-
ly regulated to protect the public. It will study the use of su-
pervised details and fire watches, adequacy of fees for in-
spection and oversight, and the deterrent effect of penalties
for violations of rules and regulations, along with potential
cost recovery and assessment for damages resulting from
failure to comply with rules and regulations. WJ
For Info, go to aws.org/adindex
WASHINGTON WATCHWORD
OSHA to Change Lockout/Tagout and
17 Other Rules
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) is proposing 18 changes to the agencys recordkeep-
ing, general industry, maritime, and construction standards.
OSHA says this is part of an ongoing effort to revise provi-
sions in its standards that may be confusing, outdated, or
unnecessary.
Perhaps the most significant, and controversial, is a pro-
posed change to the current Lockout/Tagout (LOTO) Stan-
dard (29 C.F.R. 1910.147), which covers the servicing and
maintenance of machines and equipment wherein the unex-
pected energization or startup of the machines or equip-
ment, or release of stored energy, could harm employees.
This standard establishes minimum performance require-
ments for the control of such hazardous energy. OSHA is
proposing to remove the word unexpected from the phrase
unexpected energization. OSHA believes the term unex-
pected has been misinterpreted to exclude some operations
where employees are subject to injury from startup or the
release of stored energy. Opponents argue that the proposed
change will make the use of alternative methods more diffi-
cult for employers because OSHA will require lockout for all
energy sources.
Also among the 18 proposed rule changes is a clarifica-
tion of the personal protective equipment (PPE) standard.
This standard currently states that PPE shall be provided,
used, and maintained in a sanitary and reliable condition
wherever it is necessary. PPE must fit properly to provide
adequate protection to employees. According to OSHA, this
can be a particular issue for small-statured construction
workers, including some females, who may not be able to
use standard-sized PPE. While the standard implicitly pre-
cludes the use of ill-fitting equipment, OSHA plans to make
that explicit.
New Miscellaneous Tariff Bill Petition
Process Effective
The U.S. International Trade Commission (ITC) has
begun accepting petitions for duty suspensions and reduc-
tions pursuant to the new Miscellaneous Tariff Bill (MTB)
process, mtbps.usitc.gov/external.
MTBs reduce or suspend duties on imported products.
The goal of a MTB is to lower costs by reducing the tariff ob-
ligations on products or parts that are imported. Previously,
members of Congress would introduce MTBs based on re-
quests received from constituent companies. It was largely
an ad hoc process that produced mixed results. Under the
new process, petitions are now first made through the ITC,
an independent federal agency. The ITC will solicit com-
ments from the public and the administration and conduct
its own analysis and then issue a public report to Congress
with its analysis and recommendations regarding products
that meet the MTB standards. The next step is an examina-
tion by the House Ways and Means Committee, which would
then draft a MTB proposal for the full Congress to consider.
HUGH K. WEBSTER, AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at 1747 Pennsylvania
Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; email hwebster@wcb.com; FAX (202) 8350243.
10 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
BY HUGH K. WEBSTER
Feds Launch Employee Rights Website
The White House has launched a beta version of a new
website, worker.gov, intended to provide workers with infor-
mation on their rights and legal remedies under relevant
federal laws, including employment and occupational safety
and health statutes. The website includes information from
several federal agencies, including the Department of Labor,
Department of Justice, the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission, and the National Labor Relations Board.
According to the White House, Workers need access to
information about their rights that responds directly to
their challenges, and [e]ven the best government websites
can be difficult to navigate, especially for workers with little
knowledge of laws and government agencies. Part of the
genesis of the site is the simple truth that people do not
think about having an FLSA or FMLA or Title VII prob-
lem. They just know that they have an unfairness-on-the-
job problem. The current version of the site focuses on a
few particular types of workers, such as office employees,
day laborers, and workers in restaurants and nail salons, but
the plan is to expand the site to include jobs of all kinds.
Large Employers Will Have to Report Pay Data
According to a new rule issued by the U.S. Equal Employ-
ment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) beginning in March
2018, private employers (including federal contractors and
subcontractors) with 100 or more employees will be re-
quired to report certain employee compensation data on the
Employer Information Report, commonly known as the
EEO-1 report. That form already collects aggregate data
about employees gender, race or ethnicity, and job category.
Pay data will be categorized by sex, race, ethnicity, and job
category, and will be used by the EEOC and the Office of
Federal Contract Compliance Programs to initiate investiga-
tions of possible pay discrimination.
Emergency Pipeline Safety Rule Issued
An interim final rule implementing a new emergency
authority has been issued by the Pipeline and Hazardous
Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA). The rule sets
up a process for PHMSA to issue emergency orders to
pipeline operators to address unsafe conditions or imminent
hazards.
DOD Seeks to Limit Foreign Access to
Technical Data
A proposed rule by the Department of Defense prescribes
procedures for the dissemination and withholding of certain
unclassified technical data and technology subject to the In-
ternational Traffic in Arms Regulations and Export Admin-
istration Regulations. Applicable to Defense agencies, and
their contractors and grantees, this proposed rule is meant
to control the transfer of technical data and technology that
has military or aerospace applications. WJ
For Info, go to aws.org/adindex
INTERNATIONAL UPDATE
SAIT Hosts Centennial Celebration
On Oct. 16, the South-
ern Alberta Institute of
Technology (SAIT), Cal-
gary, Canada, marked its
100th anniversary with a
campus-wide celebration.
SAIT students, alumni,
staff, and executives, as
well as community mem-
bers and government
leaders, attended
throughout the day to
honor the occasion. The
festivities consisted of
family activities, a barbe-
A family practices welding at a cue, a 700-lb cake, guided
TryaSkill booth during SAITs tours of the school, Try-
100 th birthday celebration. a-Skill booths, and fire-
works.
The Alberta communi-
ty also showed their support of the 100-year-old institution.
Calgary Mayor Naheed Nenshi proclaimed Oct. 16 SAIT Day,
and both the Langevin Bridge and Calgary Tower were lit in
the schools colors of red, blue, and purple.
In preparation for its second century, SAIT announced
that the first baby born in a Calgary hospital on Oct. 16,
2016, will be awarded a full scholarship to the school. As we
celebrate our centennial, we do not only honor the past, but
embrace a future that will help us continue to deliver on our
promise to prepare students for success, stated SAIT Presi-
dent and CEO David Ross.
Damen Introduces 115Passenger Cruise Vessel
Damen Shipyards Group
recently unveiled its Expedi-
tion Cruise Vessel design,
which was made in collabo-
ration with Expedition Voy-
age Consultants, Ltd., and
Knud E. Hansen, a Danish
naval architect firm. The
115-passenger vessel offers
Damen Shipyards Group
approximately 1100 sq m of
launches a luxury vessel
public space and 2500 sq m
designed for long expedi
of outside deck space.
tions and varying climates. The ship is also suited for
operations in both remote
polar and tropical regions.
The vessels Polar Class 6 compliance and 30-days au-
tonomous cruising capability ensure she is globally capable
and able to tackle challenging, far-reaching itineraries, stat-
ed Product Director Hank Gunstra. To ensure safety, the
ship was made in compliance with SOLASs Safe Return to
Port requirements.
WorldSkills International Welcomes Romania
WorldSkills representatives from around the world as-
12 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
sembled in Niagara Falls, Canada, on Oct. 6 to welcome Ro-
mania as the 76th member of WorldSkills. As the member-
ship of WorldSkills continues to grow, so does the commit-
ment of our members to improving the world with the pow-
er of skills, stated President of WorldSkills Simon Bartley.
Romanias inclusion means the country can send welders
and other talents to the biennial WorldSkills competition.
We are excited and very hapy to become a full member be-
cause we have people who are eager to compete in the
WorldSkills Abu Dhabi 2017, said Mihail Cazacu, technical
delegate for Romania.
Shell Oil Advances Welding Production in Nigeria
Shell Oil Co. donated a laboratory worth $2 billion to the
Nigerian Institute of Welding (NIW) to increase research
and electrode production within the country. In a meeting
with the minister of Science and Technology, Ogbonnaya
Onu, NIW President Solomon Edebiri stressed the need
for research partnerships in agricultural equipment fabrica-
tions, electrodes, and waste management. Partnership in
these areas may produce greater yields of rice, a commodity
not many Nigerian families can afford. We must be able to
process cassava and grains locally, which can only be
achieved through welding, stated Edebiri.
NIW is also working with the Standard Organization of
Nigeria to implement and improve welding standards and
certifications, as well as help close the skills gap. The time
has come for us to pay sufficient attention to welding
tehnology because it is very important to the manufacturing
sector, said Onu.
EuroBLECH 2016 Unveils CuttingEdge
Technologies and Trends in Sheet Metal Working
From Oct. 25th through
the 29th, EuroBLECH 2016,
the 24th International Sheet
Metal Working Technology
Exhibition, showcased the
lastest gadgets and trends in
the industry. With its focus
on the digitization of pro-
duction processes and in-
Attendees crowd outside
creasing automation, the
the Hanover Exhibition
exhibitions overall theme
Centre in Germany for the
and motto was The New
EuroBLECH 2016 exhibition.
Generation of Sheet Metal
Working.
The event covered the entire gamut of sheet metal work-
ing, including welding, material handling, tube/section pro-
cessing, surface treatment, machine elements, quality con-
trol, CAD/CAM/CIM systems, factory equipment, research
and development, and additive manufacturing.
With 1503 exhibitors from 41 countries, the event took
up 88,000 square meters, surpassing its previous floor size
record. Fifty-four percent of exhibitors came from outside
Germany, an increase of 2% from past events. Italy, Turkey,
China, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Spain, Austria,
Denmark, and the USA were some of the biggest exhibitor
countries. WJ
For Info, go to aws.org/adindex
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

Metabo Holds Its First Industrial Tool &
Safety Symposium
Participants were given an
opportunity to try Metabos
products. Pictured cutting a
guard rail is a 36V, 9in. non
locking paddle switch angle
grinder.
The first Metabo Industrial Tool & Safety Symposium,
held Sept. 20 at The Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.,
Uwe Hilsenbeck from Metabo
Germany uses a nonlocking
paddle switch bevelling tool
on 7in.diameter pipe.
not only honored the 50th anniversary of the companys
safety clutch, which reduces kickback and exploding wheels
if a jam occurs, but also let guests use its power tools.
Joseph S. Smith, president/CEO, Metabo USA, kicked off
the event. This is a historic day for us, Smith said. He not-
ed safety is a big part of the companys culture along with
choosing the correct tool for the application. To celebrate 50
years of safety innovations, the company produced limited-
edition angle grinders featuring gold finishes. The future
will focus on strengthening/expanding core metalworking
tools.
Horst W. Garbrecht, CEO and president, Metabo, detailed
the companys history from its beginnings to now having
1800 employess worldwide and its heritage of creating tools
such as the first one-hand angle grinder. The new vision is
that we have a cordless construction site, Garbrecht said.
Its LiHD battery pack technology is a step in that direction.
A comprehensive product review was given by Terrence L.
Tuerk and Antoine Derch, product managers, Metabo USA.
Afterward, attendees gathered outside to watch demon-
strations and try the companys power tools including met-
alworking, cordless power, and concrete systems. Among the
products used were the WPB 36 LTX BL 230, a 36-V, 9-in.
nonlocking paddle switch angle grinder with a brake, and
KFMPB 15-10 F, a nonlocking paddle switch bevelling tool
with a brake (both pictured).
In the evening, guests enjoyed music, dinner, tours, and a
canon firing aboard the historic WWI vessel USS Olympia.
Kristin Campbell (kcampbell@aws.org), features editor

For info, go to aws.org/adindex

14 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
LeTourneau University Patents Microwave
Welding, Soldering, and Brazing Device
Dr. Yoni Adonyi, pictured
above, is one of the coinven
tors behind a new patent es
tablishing a method for joining
two dissimilar materials and a
microwave system for accom
plishing the same.
This system can be used to
solder, braze, or weld combi
nations of metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composites (as
displayed).
Professors and students
at LeTourneau University,
Longview, Tex., have
patented a new microwave-
based system capable of
joining difficult-to-weld
dissimilar combinations of
advanced metals to ceram-
ics and/or polymers.
Enhanced by use of pre-
dictive simulation software,
the plasma-less closed-loop
controlled system can be
used to solder, braze, or
weld combinations of met-
als, ceramics, polymers, and
composites.
Engineering Professors
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
Yoni Adonyi and Seung Kim
along with two of the uni-
versitys engineering alum-
ni, Allen Worcester and
Ithamar Glumac, are coin-
ventors of U.S. Patent
#9,374,853.
Scaled-up models of our
prototype are expected to
be developed for joining ad-
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 15
 vanced ceramic-matrix composites for elevated temperature
and wear applications in the aerospace, oil and gas, and elec-
tronics industries, Adonyi told the Welding Journal. Ongo-
ing discussions with potential R&D partners revolve around
the extreme reproducibility and reliability of this closed-
loop controlled noncontact heating method.
The closed-loop controller uses a movable backwall slid-
ing along the waveguide and magnetron power modulation
to control the sample temperature. The system can be used
to adjust microwave power to a range of target types, sizes,
morphologies, and orientations.
For more details, read Microwave Joining Part 1:
Closed-Loop Controlled Microwave Soldering of Lead Tel-
luride to Copper in the April 2016 Welding Journal Research
Supplement (pages 141-s to 145-s).

AREVA NP Deploys Ultrasonic Testing Technique

During a recent U.S. outage, AREVA NP, Charlotte, N.C.,
demonstrated new ultrasonic testing techniques. This con-
sisted of off-axis inspection for cracks in a boiling water re-
For info, go to aws.org/adindex

actors core shroud welds. The approach pairs a phased-array

technique and a multiaxis manipulator.
According to Craig Ranson, senior vice president of in-
stalled base services at AREVA, Inc., this will save customers
examination time and personnel radiation exposure. We
are the first supplier to implement a fully demonstrated
and documented method for off-axis flaw detection and
characterization, he said.
The company developed the tool to generate ultrasonic

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16 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
testing at multiple orientations, helping to detect and char-
acterize all flaws surrounding the weld. It contains a rota-
tional and extending feature, which enables horizontal and
vertical weld examinations without removing the tooling
from the reactor for orientation.
ARC Specialties Donates $150,000 Welding Robot
to Texas State Technical College
Jim Walker (front, right) from ARC Specialties hands off the keys
to Texas State Technical College Welding Technology Instructor
Mark Watson (front, left) as students pose behind them.
Texas State Technical College in Wacos welding technolo-
gy program has received a KUKA welding robot valued at
$150,000 from ARC Specialties in northwest Houston, a de-
signer and builder of automated machinery for welding,
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
pipeline manufacturing, and oil/gas industries.
Its important that the students get access to the newer
technology, said Jim Walker, a welding technologist and
American Welding Society Certified Welding Inspector at
ARC Specialties.
Mark Watson, a Texas State Technical College welding
technology instructor, noted the robot will give students a
way to learn technology they may encounter in the industry.
I want them to be able to operate it, Watson said. You
also have to learn how to program and repair it.
His welding students are excited to start learning about
the machine. For Rhett Fuller, 20, of Cedar Park, the robot
combined his interests in welding and computers.
Walker, along with Dan Allford, the companys owner,
and Randy Ellington, project manager and process special-
ist, have associate degrees in welding technology from Texas
State Technical College in Waco.
Industry Notes
Welding program graduates of Lurleen B. Wallace Com-
munity College, Andalusia, Ala., have an improved path to
journeymen certification with the United Association
(UA) apprenticeship program. An articulation agreement
gives preference into the UA of Journeymen and Appren-
tices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry program for
the United States and Canada. It will also credit one to two
years off the apprenticeship length, based on the number/
types of certificates and work experience, according to
Lance Albin, international representative. WJ
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 17
BUSINESS BRIEFS
Alcoa Corp. Launches as an Independent
Industry Provider
Alcoa Corp. has completed the separation from its parent
company Alcoa, Inc. (now named Arconic, Inc.) and has be-
gun operating as an independent, publicly traded company
listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Its portfolio com-
prises six businesses across the aluminum value chain, in-
cluding bauxite, alumina, aluminum, cast products, rolled
products, and energy. The company projects global alu-
minum demand growth of 5% in 2016 and has expected
growth to double between 2010 and 2020.
For the fifteenth year, Alcoa has also been named as one
of the worlds top companies for sustainability on the Dow
Jones Sustainability Indices. It was recognized as the Alu-
minum Industry Leader on the Dow Jones World Index.
Pillar Induction Marks 50Year Milestone
Pillar Induction,
Brookfield, Wis., is cele-
brating 50 years of busi-
ness serving the thermal
processing industry. The
company manufactures
systems for many appli-
cations, including hard-
ening, brazing, soldering,
and forging. It is also part
of the Ajax Tocco Mag-
nethermic group of com-
panies.
After five decades in the induc Established in 1966,
tion industry, Pillar remains fo Pillar was based on the
cused on finding ways to utilize designs of Phil Landis,
advances in power devices and one of the founders. He is
controls. Pictured above is silver still with the company
brazing of a tube and fitting. and actively involved in
mentoring new design
engineers.
According to Landis, Pillars success is credited to unique
industry innovations, especially the development and appli-
cation of solid-state technology for industry requirements,
and a dedication to continuous improvement and customer
satisfaction.
TaylorWharton European Operations Starts
New Identity and Mission
Auguste Cryogenics SK s.r.o., Kosice, Slovakia, has ac-
quired Taylor-Wharton Internationals European Opera-
tions, including a cryogenic pressure vessel manufacturing
facility, Taylor-Wharton Slovakia s.r.o., and the related ware-
house/office complex of Taylor-Wharton Germany GmbH.
The newly restructured companys mission will focus on
reinvesting in nimble processes and smart innovation. The
facilities will also continue to operate under the Taylor-
Wharton brand while undergoing a name change to Auguste
Cryogenics. All employees have been retained.
The management team will be led by President Bobby
Cushman, an industry veteran who has been working with
18 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
the company since 2012, and General Manager Alex Soltis,
who has been a leader in the companys operation for more
than 15 years.
From the manufacturing hub of Taylor-Wharton Slovakia
s.r.o., the company will continue to produce bulk/microbulk
cryogenic storage vessels and modular piping skids serving
the industrial gas and energy markets.
ASTM International, ISO Unveil Framework for
Global Additive Manufacturing Standards
The International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), Geneva, Switzerland, and ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, Pa., have jointly crafted the Additive Manu-
facturing Standards Development Structure.
The new structure will help guide the work of global ex-
perts and standards development organizations in additive
manufacturing standardization; identify standards-related
gaps and needs in this industry; prevent overlap and du-
plicative efforts in additive manufacturing standards devel-
opment; ensure cohesion among additive manufacturing
standards; prioritize additive manufacturing standards ar-
eas; and improve usability/acceptance in the community.
Based on this structure, standards can be developed at
the following three levels: general standards, standards for
broad categories of materials or processes, and specialized
standards for a specific material, process, or application.
U.S. Secretary of Commerce Redesignates
12 Manufacturing Communities
U.S. Secretary of Commerce Penny Pritzker recently an-
nounced 12 diverse communities will be redesignated as
Manufacturing Communities, as a part of the Investing in
Manufacturing Communities Partnership (IMCP) initiative,
until 2018.
The communities are as follows: southwest Alabama,
southern California, northwest Georgia, Chicago metro re-
gion, south Kansas, greater Portland region in Maine, south-
eastern Michigan, New York Finger Lakes region, south-
western Ohio aerospace region, Tennessee Valley, Washing-
ton Puget Sound region, and Milwaukee 7 region.
These IMCP-designated communities are doing their
part to develop comprehensive strategies to strengthen the
local manufacturing sector and to attract business invest-
ment that makes our nation more globally competitive,
Pritzker said.
With support in federal economic development and tech-
nical assistance, plus matched/cluster funding from private
entities, the 12 communities will continue to receive coordi-
nated support for their strategies from 12 federal agencies.
Heico Adds Costello/April Design to Its Portfolio
The Heico Companies, LLC, Chicago, Ill., has acquired
Costello/April Design, Inc., Dover, N.H., a designer and
manufacturer of compact heat exchangers, CNC machined
components, and electronic enclosure products utilizing vac-
uum and dip brazing processes. It joins Heico entities Wake-
field Vette and Vette Technology (Dongguan), Ltd. WJ
For Info, go to aws.org/adindex
BOOK REVIEW
Understanding Welding Engineering
Welding Engineering: An Introduction
is by David H. Phillips. ISBN 9781118
766446. Publisher John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. (wiley.com). Hardcover $120,
Ebook $96.99. 290 pages.
Welding Engineering: An Introduc-
tion, written by David H. Phillips, pro-
vides a description of the welding en-
gineering field, introducing this sub-
ject to new engineering students.
The 290-page book is unique in its
objective to answer the following ques-
tion: What is welding engineering?
This is probably the first book to at-
tempt to answer that. The first chap-
ter also provides a high-level summary
of the curriculum for a welding engi-
neering major.
Overall, the book presents a view of
welding engineering and introduces
individuals without any knowledge of
welding to the subject. It consists of
two major sections welding
processes and other subjects an engi-
neer must understand to be a success-
ful welding engineer including
structural design, metallurgy, weld
quality, and heat transfer.
Chapter 1 begins by addressing the
subjects studied, but it ends without
providing the reader an answer to the
20 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
following question: Where and how
will these skills be used in industry? A
list of industries would have benefited
the reader by providing a few examples
describing jobs where welding engi-
neers are employed. A description
of the role welding engineers play in
various industries would be a positive
addition.
Chapters 26 are approximately
half the book and explain welding
processes typically used by industry.
Some of the processes are described in
adequate detail and others are barely
mentioned. A more even presentation
of the processes included would have
better served the readers. The
overview of the processes would have
benefitted from including the Ameri-
can Welding Societys (AWS) master
chart of welding and joining processes.
While the overview covers most of the
typical processes, some important
processes are not addressed in any de- eral metallurgy discussion, as this is a
tail or discussed at all. An example of
limited discussion regarding impor-
tant processes is the brazing and sol-
dering section, which is only two pages
in length; conversely, the plastics sec-
tion provides much more detail. The
author noted that his intent was to be
brief, but the disparity between vari-
ous process sections is puzzling.
The second half of the book ad-
dresses varied important topics. Chap-
ter 7, Design Considerations, is a well-
written summary of factors to consid-
er in preparing a welded design. The
symbols discussion presents a thor-
ough summary. However, Table 7.2
presents data relating to minimum fil-
let weld sizes and its inclusion is puz-
zling (as a novice reader might inter-
pret the table values as the size for
joining two metal sections without
consideration of the design loads im-
posed on the joint). It is correctly
identified as a rule of thumb, but a
design calculation is required to cor-
rectly size a weld for load-carrying
structures. This again raises the ques-
tion of why include this level of detail
for a high-level summary of the
subject?
BY PHILLIP I. TEMPLE
Chapters 8 and 9 summarize the
topics of residual stresses and basic
metallurgy in a concise, well-presented
manner. This reviewer was puzzled by
the phase diagrams selected for inclu-
sion. For an introductory book, the
complex diagrams seemed to be better
suited for a higher-level course, and
the more common, simpler carbon
steel diagrams would have been a
more appropriate choice. The author
even cited carbon steel as most impor-
tant for the average reader in the
opening sentence of Chapter 10.
Chapters 1012 are devoted to met-
allurgy explanations for carbon steels,
stainless steels, and nonferrous met-
als. The explanations contained herein
are concise summaries of the metals
and provide a basic introduction for
new engineering students. One sec-
tion in Chapter 10 regarding hydrogen
cracking seems out of place for a gen-
welding created defect, and would fit
better in Chapter 13, Weld Quality.
Chapters 13 and 14 on weld quality
and codes and standards round out
the introduction to achieving quality
products and the codes/standards that
ensure structural integrity.
Chapter 15 concludes the book with
an introduction to welding safety and
the importance the welding industry
places on a safe and healthy working
environment.
In summary, this book may be
used by colleges, community colleges,
or technical schools to introduce stu-
dents to the field. For the average
engineer looking for knowledge of
welding processes or metallurgy,
other books such as the AWS Welding
Handbook, Lincoln Electrics The Proce-
dure Handbook of Arc Welding, or Jef-
fersons Welding Encyclopedia would be
better suited and offer the in-depth
information necessary for practicing
engineers. WJ
PHILLIP I. TEMPLE (nwcllc_ptemple@
att.net) is president of eNergy Wise
Consulting, LLC, Canton, Mich.
For Info, go to aws.org/adindex
ALUMINUM Q&A
Q: Below are the questions and answers for the Aluminum Q&A quiz pub
lished in the October 2016 Welding Journal. I would like to thank everyone
who participated in this quiz. I received many comments as to how individu
als enjoyed researching the answers. The six winners, selected at random
from all who sent me 100% correct answers, are listed below in alphabetical
order.
1. Pedro Aranda, San Diego, Calif.
2. Steven Blevins, Richwood, Ohio
3. Eric Caswell, Ucluelet, BC, Canada
4. Billy Frazier, Atkins, Va.
5. Baljinder Singh (Deepak), Blainville, Qubec, Canada
6. Carolyn Tucker, Newport News, Va.
1. Who was the Danish profes- 2. According to AWS D1.2/
sor credited for the first isolation D1.2M:2014, Structural Welding
of the element aluminum by reduc- Code Aluminum, why is the
ing aluminum chloride with a wraparound guided bend jig the
potassium-mercury amalgam in preferred method for guided bend
1825? testing of aluminum weldments?
A Charles Martin Hall A It is less expensive.
B Paul T. Heroult B It is more tolerant of significant
C Karl Joseph Bayer variations in as-welded mechanical
D Hans Christian Oersted properties of some aluminum alloys.
C It uses a larger bending diameter
The answer is D. Hans Christian than the plunger type.
Oersted (17771851), portrayed be- D It is able to tolerate more varia-
low, is best known for his discovery in tion in plate thickness.
1820 that electricity and magnetism E It is not as sensitive to the rolling
are linked. The discovery of electro- direction of the test plate being tested.
magnetism set the stage for the even-
tual development of our modern tech- The answer is B. Look in AWS D1.2,
nology-based world. Oersted also Figure 3.13, Wraparound Guided Bend
achieved the first isolation of the Jig, Note 1. Wraparound guided bend
element aluminum in 1825. jig is the preferred method of bend
testing aluminum weldments (see C-
3.8). Clause C-3.8 indicates: Because of
significant variations in the as-welded
mechanical properties of some aluminum
alloys, the wrap-around bend test method
(see Figure 3.13) is the preferred method
of bend testing aluminum weldments.
The plunger test method is an alternative
method; however, it may prove to be un-
suitable for some base alloy-filler alloy
combinations addressed in this code.
It is not uncommon for a groove
weld to meet the minimum transverse
tensile strength during the reduced
section tension testing process, and
the same weld fail during the guided
bend test because the incorrect bend
fixture was used. It is always advisable
to specify that the wraparound test be
used when ordering guided bend tests
of aluminum weldments.
3. When plasma cutting alu-
minum on a water table, what is
Hans Christian Oersted
the gas that can be created
through a reaction of the water
22 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
BY TONY ANDERSON
and molten aluminum, become
trapped, and potentially cause an
explosion?
A Hydrogen
B Nitrogen
C Ozone
D Acetylene
E Propane
The answer is A. See the Aluminum
Associations Welding Aluminum Theory
and Practice, 4th Ed., Chapter 18:
Health and Safety Considerations
Explosion: Although publications and
standards dealing with weld safety cover
most of the possible causes of explosion,
there is one cause that is quite rare and
thus not well known. When aluminum is
plasma arc cut on a water table, molten
aluminum dropping into the water will
steal oxygen from the water and release
free hydrogen gas. If the hydrogen be-
comes trapped between the aluminum
and the water surface, an explosive mix-
ture can develop and be ignited by the
cutting arc. Forced air cross flow must be
used between the aluminum and the wa-
ter to avoid a buildup of hydrogen. Simi-
larly, when aluminum is plasma arc cut
under water, the molten aluminum reacts
with the water to release hydrogen. Dan-
gerous concentrations should be avoided
by inserting a perforated piping system in
the tank to aerate the water.
4. In accordance with the
requirements of AWS D1.2/
D1.2M:2014, Structural Welding
Code Aluminum, what is the
maximum preheat temperature
when welding base metal 5005?
A 150F
B 250F
C 350F
D It does not provide a max preheat
for this base metal.
The answer is D. As stated in AWS
D1.2, Clause 4.9, Preheat and Inter-
pass Temperatures: When fabricating
the heat-treatable aluminum alloys or the
5000-series aluminum-magnesium alloys
containing more than 3% magnesium, the
preheat and interpass temperatures shall
not exceed 250F. Holding time at this
temperature shall not exceed 15 min.
The 5005 base metal has a maximum
magnesium content of only 1.1%;
therefore, the code does not provide a
maximum preheat for this base metal.
 5. What is the most common
reason, when performing com-
plete-joint-penetration groove
weld procedure qualification test-
ing on a weld made in 6061-T6
base metal, for a transverse
tension test to fail in the heat-
affected zone and not meet the
minimum tensile strength require-
ments of the welding code?
A The preheat temperature was too
low.
B Overheating base metal during
welding
C Excessive porosity
D Base metal embrittlement from
rapid cooling
The answer is B. Porosity and base
metal embrittlement from rapid cool-
ing do not occur in the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) of aluminum welds, and a
lower or no preheat will tend to help
improve the strength of the HAZ, not
lower it. Overheating the base metal
during welding from slow travel
speeds, excessive preheating, and/or
high interpass temperature is the most
common reason for reducing the
strength of the HAZ in the 6xxx series
base metals. The higher the preheat,
interpass temperature, and heat input
during welding, and the longer the
HAZ is held at high temperature, the
greater the reduction in strength of
the HAZ. It is not uncommon for test
samples in this base metal to fail to
meet the minimum tensile strength
because of overheating the base metal
during welding.
7. When compared to steel, re- four digits in the designation of
sistance spot welding of aluminum aluminum base metals 6061 and
typically requires welding sched- 5052 indicate?
ules and equipment that deliver
the following: A The 1st and 2nd modification to
the original alloy, respectively
A Lower currents but much longer B The primary alloying element,
weld times Mg2Si and Mg, respectively
B Higher currents but much lower C An indication of the base alloy
weld times minimum tensile strength, 61 and 52
C Alternating current only ksi, respectively
D Direct current only D They have no special significance.
E Both A and C
The answer is D. In the Aluminum
The answer is B. As stated in the Associations Aluminum Standards and
AWS Welding Handbook, Ninth Edition, Data, Alloy and Temper Designation
Volume 5, Part 2, Materials and Appli- System for Aluminum (ANSI H35.1/
cations, Chapter 1, Aluminum and H35.1(M) 2013), Clause 2.2: In the
Aluminum Alloys, (page 96) Resist- 2xxx through 8xxx alloy groups the last
ance Spot Welding: The procedures and two of the four digits in the designation
equipment for spot welding aluminum have no special significance but serve
are similar to those used for steel; howev- only to identify the different aluminum
er, the higher thermal and electrical con- alloys in the group. Only in the 1xxx
ductivity of aluminum alloys require group do the last two of the four digits
some variations in equipment and weld- have significance. In the 1xxx group
ing schedules. For example, the weld cur- (pure aluminum) for minimum alu-
rent must be two to three times higher, minum purities of 99.00% and greater,
but only one-third the cycle time than the last two of the four digits in the
that required for a comparable joint designation indicate the minimum alu-
between steel sections. minum percentage. As an example,
1060 has 99.60% purity, while 1350
8. What do the last two of the has 99.50% purity.

6. Does the AWS D1.2/

D1.2M:2014, Structural Welding
Code Aluminum, allow welding
anodized aluminum surfaces?

A Yes, but only if it is thin-coat an-

odizing.
B Welding of anodized aluminum
surfaces is not allowed.
C Welding on anodized aluminum
is not addressed by the code.
D Only if a special gas tungsten arc
welding technique is used.
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E Only if the anodized thickness is

less than 18 microns.

The answer is B. AWS D1.2, Clause

4.12, Preparation of Base Metal, clear-
ly states in 4.12.4 Oxides: Thick oxide,
anodizing, and water stains shall be re-
moved from the surface to be welded and
surface adjacent to the weld.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 23

 9. Which of the listed aluminum
filler metal classifications would
be the most appropriate to weld
the 5052 base metal going to be
used in a service environment
with a sustained elevated temper-
ature of 250F?
A ER5356
B ER4043
C ER5556
D ER5183
The answer is B. Sustained elevated
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24 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
temperature for aluminum alloys is
recognized as being between 150 and
350F. If 5xxx series base metal or
filler metal with more than 3% magne-
sium (Mg) content is subjected to pro-
longed exposure to these tempera-
tures, precipitate can form within it
that is highly anodic to the aluminum-
magnesium matrix. This continuous
grain boundary network of precipitate
produces susceptibility to stress corro-
sion cracking (SCC) and the potential
for premature component failure. The
5052 base metal contains less than 3%
Mg and is, therefore, suitable for use
at prolonged elevated temperature.
ER5356, ER5556, and ER5183,
however, are all filler metals that con-
tain more than 3% Mg (around 5%
Mg). While they could be used to weld
5052 base metal, none are suitable for
prolonged elevated temperature serv-
ice. Filler metal ER4043 contains no
Mg and is, therefore, suitable for use at
an elevated temperature. Arguably, the
ER5554 filler metal could be a good, or
even the better choice, for this applica-
tion as it has a maximum Mg content
of 3%, making it suitable for prolonged
elevated temperature service, and it
also has improved strength and tough-
ness when compared to ER4043 (un-
fortunately, it was not one of the an-
swer options given for this question).
10. What is the principal alloy-
ing element(s) in the 8xxx series
alloy group?
A Copper
B Lithium
C Zinc and Tin
D Any other element than the 1xxx
through 7xxx series
The answer is D. ANSI H35.1, Alloy
and Temper Designation System for Alu-
minum, is clear in defining the 8xxx se-
ries alloys as being those with princi-
pal alloying elements other than the
1xxx through 7xxx series. The series
consists of 1xxx pure aluminum, 2xxx
copper, 3xxx manganese, 4xxx silicon,
5xxx magnesium, 6xxx magnesium
and silicon, and 7xxx zinc. The 8xxx
series alloys are comprised of some
aluminum/lithium (Li) alloys that con-
tain higher Li content than copper
(Cu), unlike the 2xxx series Li alloys
that contain more Cu than Li. Also,
some aluminum/ferrite (Fe) alloys are
included in the 8xxx series. The 8xxx
series is often described as the catch-
all series because it contains any alloy
that does not fit the principal alloy
category of the 1xxx to 7xxx series. WJ
TONY ANDERSON is director of aluminum
technology, ITW Welding North America. He
is a Fellow of the British Welding Institute
(TWI), a Registered Chartered Engineer with
the British Engineering Council, and holds
numerous positions on AWS technical com
mittees. He is chairman of the Aluminum As
sociation Technical Advisory Committee for
Welding and author of the book Welding
Aluminum Questions and Answers currently
available from the AWS. Questions may be
sent to Mr. Anderson c/o Welding Journal,
8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166
6672; tony.anderson@millerwelds.com.
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 Makers Motivate a
Continuing-to-Create
Community

Fig. 1 Impressive creations were found all around the 5th Annual Maker Faire Orlando, including this bike that accommodates
four people. On its roof is an 18-ft-long alligator, along with #bikegator and MiM Kinetic (menagerieinmotion.org) signs. Pulling
levers makes the reptiles mouth chomp and tail sway.

BY KRISTIN CAMPBELL
Talented tinkerers recently traveled to
Orlando to display their masterpieces
and inspire others

F
rom a bike with an 18-ft-long
gator on its roof that could
chomp and sway its tail, to a
life-size wheel where you could be the
hamster by running to crush ice for a
snow cone, eye-catching creations
were everywhere during the 5th Annual
Maker Faire Orlando Fig. 1.
The event took place on October 22
and 23 at the Central Florida Fair-
grounds. It played host to more than
300 exhibits, hands-on workshops,
talks, races, and competitions. More
than 1300 individuals worked to make
everything possible.
Popular attractions included
Combat Robotics, complete with a
full-size arena, where teams small and
large robots battled in various rounds
Take-it-Apart area where electron-
ic devices could be dismantled
Nerdy Derby stations for making
cars from recycled materials, then rac-
ing them on a new long track, and
Make-a-Shirt Workshop for pro-
ducing a t-shirt by silkscreening ink.
Thousands of attendees were not
only entertained and educated but also
inspired.
Keynote speakers left a positive im-
pact as well. You have every reason to
make your dreams real, said Omar
Khateeb, an artistic scientist and co-
founder of p.s. mister: Inc. He offered
tips for overseas manufacturing, en-
couraged professionals to show up and
put in the work every week, and cham-
pioned attendees to be the makers
who have both a start and a finish.

32 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016


Fig. 2 Steven Miller prepares to use
a hammer for striking a piece of steel
that he heated in a home-made blast
forge.
Diverse trades, including black-
smithing, 3D printing, and soldering,
with handiworks from copper-wire
sculptures to circuit board jewelry,
were on display.
Blacksmith Turns Metal
and Wood Scraps Into
Usable Objects
Steven Miller, an environmental bi-
ologist who is now semiretired and
works with a builder on high-end
Fig. 3 Among Millers creations are an artistic piece made from a horseshoe (top),
vegetable choppers (left), and knives (right).
homes, lets his creativity flow through
blacksmithing Fig. 2.
Visitors at Millers booth, Knot
Square, Inc. (knotsquare.com), Orlando,
Fla., watched him heat steel in a home-
made blast forge, then move this piece
to a surface where he hammered the
metal and brushed it to remove excess
carbon.
Its just a personal interest, Miller
said of the craft, noting that years ago
blacksmiths made everything they
used, such as nails and screws, for
farm work or fixing carriage wheels.
Son Jon, a drafting manager at an
engineering firm, assisted his father at
this event. He does it cause he has
fun with it. I share in that with helping
him. Hes been teaching me my whole
life, Jon proudly said.
Miller focuses on recycling, repur-
posing, and preserving resources.
He heats and stretches horseshoes
to create artistic pieces; forms veg-
etable choppers with handles from
heating, cutting, shaping, and sharp-
ening car brake pads; and much more
Fig. 3.
Building upon his familys carpenter-
ing history, he also custom-makes furni-
ture and trays. When you cut a tree,
theres so much value to that wood,
Miller explained. Discarded wood be-
comes attractive and has a living use
now with making bowls and boxes.
He always wonders what to make
next. When the opportunity arises, I
salvage items. If someone does not
want something, I will take it, he said.
3D Printing Real Metal
Parts and Various
Shapes
Several booths highlighted 3D
printing, including Ability3D
(ability3d.com), Casselberry, Fla.
Company President Ben Willard
said, I was born a tinkerer. He start-
ed welding at age 14. He also has a
manufacturing background and
worked for NASA.
Willard spent 112 years inventing
the Ability3D 888. This machine is
for 3D printing metal parts, including
aluminum, steel, and stainless steel, at
home Fig. 4. Its build volume is 200
200 200 mm.
The model on display had a gas
metal arc welding machine attached
and used Alloy ER4043 0.030-in. wire.
I want to see American manufac-
turing again, Willard emphasized. He
noted if you can quickly print a part by
leveraging existing technology, such as
gas metal arc welding, getting that
into homes is empowering.
The ability to 3D print plastics is
possible as well. So is engraving with a
rotary bit for circuit boards, plastic/
nonferrous metals, and wood/foam.
The engraving area is 200 200 mm,
up to 25 mm deep.
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 33
 Fig. 4 Ben Willard stands beside his creation, the Ability3D
888, which offers the ability to 3D print your own metal parts Fig. 5 SeeMeCNC made this large-format design as part of
at home. the companys 3D printing demonstration.

Fig. 6 Volunteer Dr. Geo Chico (left) slides in the battery on a Fig. 7 Jonathan Thompson forms copper wire into unique fig-
Makey robot pin put together by 11-year-old Jason Tenczar, so ures. He poses here beside Orlando Skyline. This wall-hanging,
its LED eyes would blink, as his father Joe Tenczar watches. rolling-ball sculpture took him 250 h to make.

This machine will be on Kickstarter
in January 2017. It is expected to cost
between $2000 and $3000.
SeeMeCNC (seemecnc.com), based
in Goshen, Ind., showed live 3D print-
ing. The PartDaddy Delta 3D printer
was actively making a large-format
stars/gear bearing design that would
nearly be a foot tall when completed
Fig. 5. It was performing this act
using extruded resin pellets at about 2
lb/h with a 4-mm nozzle.
The Eris Delta desktop 3D printer
RTP for small-scale 3D printing was
also on display and making objects.
Ive always automated, said Presi-
dent and CEO Steve Wygant. 3D
printing is powerful because you de-
sign what you are going to build vs.
how you are going to build.
Learn-to-Solder
Workshop Let Guests
Construct a Pin
More than 900 people participated
in the Learn-to-Solder Workshop.
After emphasizing not to touch the
soldering irons hot tip, volunteers
guided participants in how to use this
process. By holding the iron with your
dominant hand and the wire in your
other hand, then joining them to sol-
der various points, and cleaning the
tip when needed, the Makey robot pin
with blinking LED eyes (thanks in part
to a battery) got assembled.
Dr. Geo Chico, a local podiatrist
who joined his children in volunteer-
ing at the event, helped to teach soler-
ing. Being a handy guy, he had per-

34 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

formed this process before, so he liked
paying back.
Its a great opportunity for kids to
explore new things and abilities, and
lose the fear of being able to use tools,
like a hot soldering iron, Chico said.
His father worked with steel, so he
also previously learned construction
skills, and oxyacetylene welding.
Joe Tenczar from Orlando, Fla., ob-
served his 11-year-old son Jason try
soldering for the first time Fig. 6.
It was fun, Jason said. He an-
swered definitely to doing the
process again. He might even be a
maker when he grows up. I liked all
the 3D printers, virtual reality, and
laser etching, Jason added regarding
what he saw while walking around.
This was the duos first time at a
Maker Faire. We didnt know what to
expect, Joe said, but seeing makers do
so much and how far things have come
both amazed and interested him.
What is the Maker Movement?
With introducing MAKE magazine in 2005, Dale Dougherty and his team
sparked the tech-influenced, do-it-yourself community that has come to be
known as the Maker Movement.
Makers including tech enthusiasts, crafters, homesteaders, scientists,
garage tinkerers, and many other individuals share a love for innovation,
creativity, and inspiring others to make something to make people happy.
As the movement has collected momentum, makers created their own mar-
ket ecosystem, forming new products/services.
My goal is that all people, young and old, come to see themselves as mak-
ers, creators, and doers because I know that the people who have the skills and
knowledge to make things have the power to make the world a better place,
Dougherty said.
Maker Faire, hailed as the Greatest Show (and Tell) on Earth, is a family-
friendly showcase of invention, creativity, and resourcefulness. It also repre-
sents a celebration of the Maker Movement. Since launching in the Bay Area
in 2006, it has expanded all around the world.
Maker Faire Orlando, featured in this article, is produced as a program of
The Maker Effect Foundation.
Information on the websites makerfaire.com and makerfaireorlando.com were used in com-
piling this text.

Copper Wires Turned

Into Sculptures
Kinetic Artist Jonathan Thompson,
a middle school band director by day,
cleverly crafts copper-wire sculptures
that marbles travel on Fig. 7.
I found getting into metal has
opened me to endless possibilities of
what I can create. I have so many
ideas. The learning process itself has
been exciting, Thompson said.
At his booth, Marbles in Motion
(facebook.com/marblesinmotion), chil-
dren and adults played with various
models. The Harvey sculpture with a
large skull and LED lights was popular.
Finding inspiration in the move-
ment of balls on tracks, but also want-
ing pieces to look beautiful while still,
he forms wire by using his hands and
needle-nose pliers.
At its core, Orlando Skyline (shown
in the picture) featured just that with
the citys backdrop cut by a local
source using a computer numeric con-
trol machine. The idea was born from
a client in Pennsylvania who wanted a
skyline of his city, and in turn wanting
to create something representative of
this Maker Faire. Sketched before fab-
rication and designed with mechanical
switches, it contained hand-bent cop-
per cable and a pipe frame. This wall-
hanging, rolling-ball sculpture stood
59 in. wide 39 in. tall and 9 in. deep.
This infographic highlights the Maker Movements powerful
Thompson spent 250 h making it. impact. (Courtesy of The Grommet.)
The process of building his other

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 35


Fig. 8 Amanda Preske holds one of
her newer creations, a mondo neck-
lace with its charm made from a yel-
low circuit board, that can be worn as
a statement piece. She has been
making jewelry since childhood.
table-top exhibits was similar. Howev-
er, for the Wine Bottle Holder, he ap-
plied a clear coat of lacquer to keep the
copper wire from tarnishing, and used
soldering on certain parts, which he
learned from watching videos.
In the future, Thompson would like
to work with steel and purchase a gas
tungsten arc welding machine.
Circuit Boards Encourage
Jewelers Creations
Amanda Preske, the force behind
Circuit Breaker Labs (circuitbreaker-
labs.etsy.com), Rochester, N.Y., travels
the country attending Maker Faires.
She holds a PhD in chemistry, loves
science, and specializes in handmaking
recycled circuit board jewelry (ear-
rings, necklaces, bracelets, rings, cuff
links) and accessories (keychains, mag-
nets) Fig. 8. Pieces are finished with
a durable epoxy resin, which produces
a magnification effect.
Inspired by color, her creations can
be red, green, yellow, purple, and blue.
Its neat to hunt those down,
Preske said about finding vibrant
scrap circuit boards. I dont break
apart anything new.
She solders sterling silver pieces, in-
cluding jump rings on necklaces, and
learned that process by taking a class
and reading books on the subject.
Its difficult to solder well, Preske
pointed out, especially when working
with 22-gauge silver, because it easily
melts if shes not careful.
She also has a computer-controlled
routing machine to cut fancy shapes,
including star, bulb, and finial designs,
for her circuit board ornaments.
I need to be busy and productive,
Preske said. Along with transforming
things, she feels making is important
and thinks this movement is vital for
children. It allows them to be creative
and use problem-solving skills, she
added. WJ
KRISTIN CAMPBELL
(kcampbell@aws.org) is features
editor of the Welding Journal.

February
y 2122, 2017

Hilton Houston No
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Houston TX USA
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 Plasma Gouging
Fundamentals

While standard and best practices for plasma gouging are

only now starting to develop, it offers a safe, cost-effective,
efficient option for when theres a need for gouging.

While yet to find widespread use, plasma BY CLIFF DARROW

offers a safe, efficient, and cost-effective

way to make a gouge

W
elding came into its own in
the 1930s during the period
leading up to WWII. Born out
of a need to fuel the war effort, firms
that supplied equipment rich in weld-
ed features needed to find more effi-
cient ways of manufacturing. It was
during this era that welding processes
and welding engineering saw signifi-
cant levels of evolution. As specifica-
tions drove engineers to design better
products, more strength and durability
in welded joints was required. By ne-
cessity, innovation in welding followed
suit. By applying engineering princi-
ples and experimental techniques,
technologists learned a great deal
more about materials, interactions,
and processes.
Welding evolved quickly from a
trade to a science. Although much
more sophisticated than it had been in
the past, welding still required both
preparation and repair. To address this
process step, the need to gouge away
material was identified. Early methods
consisted of mechanical means of ma-
terial removal (i.e., grinding and chip-
ping). Myron Stepath developed car-
bon arc gouging in the 1940s, using
the welding machine itself and a car-
bon electrode to melt metal. Over
time, this became the default method
for gouging.
In the last decade, plasma gouging
has come into its own in terms of be-
ing a viable solution. Even so, indus-
try-wide adoption of plasma over oth-
er technologies has not taken hold on
a large scale. The reason for this can be
largely attributed to a lack of under-
standing of both how the technology
works and how it can be adapted to
applications-based solutions. This
article aims to bridge that knowledge
gap.
Defining an Ideal Gouge
An ideal gouge is relative to the ap-
plication. What may be ideal for one
situation may be unsuitable for anoth-
er. In general terms, the quality of a
gouge can be evaluated by determining
if an operator has removed the correct
amount of material in a controlled
manner. Shape may or may not play a

38 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016


Fig. 1 Example of positive feature removal.
Fig. 2 Example of negative feature removal.
Fig. 3 Anatomy of a typical negative feature gouge.
vital role in the process. More specifi-
cally, removal of the material can be
characterized in two ways: Positive
feature removal (Fig. 1) or negative
feature removal (Fig. 2). Positive fea-
tures are those that exist in space and
are not surrounded by other material.
Negative features exist in space but are
surrounded by other material. Follow-
ing are some common applications
that illustrate the difference.
Typical positive feature removal ap-
plications include
Casting sprue removal
Seized bolt or nut removal
Removal of other protruding surface
features, such as a fillet weld.
Typical negative feature removal
applications include
Backgouging
Excavation of weld defect
Spot weld removal.
Positive feature removal is fairly
straightforward. In most cases, the re-
sults are directly related to the highest
speed at which one can remove the
feature while protecting the workpiece
from collateral damage. In positive
feature removal, there is no require-
ment for a profile shape.
Negative feature removal can be
more complex depending on the appli-
cation. In many cases, the gouge pro-
file is more important than the rate at
which one can remove material. The
profile (cross-sectional shape of the
gouge) must reveal enough access for
the subsequent weld. Of course, this
can be highly situational depending on
the orientation of the workpiece,
thereby making it difficult to define an
ideal gouge without a context. Howev-
er, a few general assumptions can be
made regarding characterization of a
gouge profile:
The width of a gouge should always
be greater than its depth.
The profile should be as close to
symmetric as possible.
The width-to-depth ratio can be
expressed as a unitless ratio.
Furthermore, there are other fea-
tures of the gouging process that are
of importance:
Slag buildup should not affect the
base material and should be easily
removed.
The surface texture of the gouge
should be relatively smooth such
that it does not present adverse
conditions to the subsequent weld-
ing process.
If the gouging process results in
surface hardening, then removal of
the hard surface material will be
required.
Additionally, note that cutting tools
can be used to gouge and gouging
tools can be used to cut. Therefore, a
distinction should be made between a
cut and a gouge.
A gouging process removes any
amount of material from a body or
bodies regardless of shape or rate such
that piercing or severing of that body
does not occur. Conversely, a cutting
process is defined by piercing and/or
severing a body or bodies.
Last, Fig. 3 details the anatomy of a
negative feature gouge. This would be
a typical gouge used for weld prepara-
tion or removal. The suitability of the
geometric condition of a gouge is high-
ly situational and can vary depending
on the application. Nominal dimen-
sions and other specifications can be
found in a variety of welding specifica-
tions, such as those published by the
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 39
American Welding Society (AWS),
ASME, and ISO.

Mechanics of Plasma
Gouging
Plasma is essentially a superheat-
ed, electrically conductive, ionized
gas. First developed in the late 1960s
as a cutting technology, plasma has
long since gained mainstream accept-
ance as a viable cutting alternative to Fig. 4 Plasma gouging system diagram.
oxyfuel, laser, electro-discharge ma-
chining, or waterjet. Plasma can be
used effectively for a variety of com-
mon gouging applications that have
traditionally been reserved for tech-
nologies such as carbon arc gouging
(CAG) or mechanical grinding.
At a system level, plasma shares
several key features with CAG. Ele-
ments such as high-current arc melt-
ing and high air flow are common be- Fig. 5 Typical plasma cutting nozzle bore.
tween both CAG and plasma. Figure 4
diagrams a typical high-frequency-
start plasma system:
Unlike with CAG or grinding, plas-
ma consumables do not directly inter-
act with the workpiece. As a result,
there is no contamination of the base
material by the consumable material.
Speeds are comparable depending on
the application.
To illustrate the primary difference Fig. 6 Typical plasma gouging nozzle bore.
between cutting and gouging with
plasma, the mechanics can be viewed
simply. Like other fluid systems, the
plasma can be constricted in its cross-
sectional area to increase its velocity
and resultant energy density. Typical
velocities in the nozzle bore reach su-
personic speeds, though this parame-
ter can vary significantly depending
on the bore design.
In theory, as the plasma stream be-
comes more constricted and velocity
increases, the higher its cutting capa-
bilities are in terms of material thick-
ness, speed, and kerf minimization.
The inverse is true with gouging. Less
constriction will result in less air ve-
locity but a higher volumetric flow
rate. This will limit the cutting action.
Figures 5 and 6 illustrate a simplified
cold flow computational fluid dynam-
ics analysis showing the differences in
the velocity profiles of the respective
nozzle bores.
In gouging, a diffuse plasma
stream coupled with a high shield gas
flow rate provides the correct combi-
nation of elements to produce partial Fig. 7 Cold flow computational fluid dynamics analysis of a plasma cutting nozzle.

40 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016


Fig. 8 Cold flow computational fluid dynamics analysis of a gouging nozzle bore.
melting and effective subsequent
clearing of slag. To accomplish this,
the plasma gouging nozzle bore diam-
eter will be greater than two times the
diameter of a cutting nozzle bore,
while much shorter in length. Addi-
tionally, there will be a sizable coun-
terbore in the nozzle to encourage re-
laxation of the flow. Lastly, a shielding
gas at high flow rates is necessary to
evacuate the molten material to reveal
the gouge.
In Figs. 7 and 8, the same input and
output parameters were used for each
simulation (pressures, temperatures,
densities). While not reflective of a
true plasma stream profile (i.e., a heli-
cal vector field in the nozzle cavity),
the contrast is obvious. Note that the
difference in respective velocities is
roughly 40%.
Process Variables
Many process variables influence
the features and characteristics of the
gouge. Naturally, these relationships
play a large role in understanding how
to match plasma gouge features to ap-
plications. Note that many of these
relationships are inversely proportion-
al. Table 1 relates general input
process parameters with gouge output
features:
A key influencing factor on gouge
shape is system amperage. As the am-
perage increases, so will the gouge
depth in a proportional fashion. In one
example where the amperage was be-
tween 35 and 50 A, a fixed gouge
width of -in. was created at a static
speed, while the amperage increased
by steps to influence the depth of the
gouge.
Another key process parameter that
influences gouge shape is the angle of
the torch relative to the workpiece.
While a primary angle is used to gain a
basic gouge shape, a second angle can
be introduced to increase the gouge
width. This is known as offset angle
gouging. In this case, the torch is ro-
tated about the z axis such that it is
positioned at an offset angle relative
to the vertical plane of the gouge cen-
terline. When = 0, this is referred to
as straight-line gouging. As increas-
es, the gouge widens.
However, as approaches 90 deg,
the gouge profile tends to become an
asymmetric shape. Furthermore, there
will be a pronounced tangent surface
feature on the near side of the gouge.
This feature will exhibit a flat face as

Table 1 Process Input/Output Parameters

Inputs Outputs

Width Depth Groove Tangent Surface Transfer Arc

Angle Surface Area Texture Height Stretch

Amperage Decreases Increases Increases n/a n/a Increases Increases

Increases

Linear Travel n/a Decreases n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a

Speed Increases

TWPD Increases Increases Decreases Decreases n/a n/a n/a n/a

Primary Torch Decreases Increases Increases n/a n/a n/a n/a

Ang. Increases

Secondary Torch Increases n/a Decreases Increases n/a n/a n/a

Ang. Increases

Nozzle Bore Increases Decreases n/a n/a n/a Decreases n/a

Diameter Increases

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 41


Fig. 9 Offset angle method of gouging, top view (Z direc-
tion).
well as a groove angle relative to the
top surface of the workpiece and angle
of the torch. Figure 9 illustrates the
concept of offset angle gouging as
viewed from the top.
In summary, a wider gouge can be
accomplished by using the offset angle
gouging technique. Optimum profile
shapes can be gained by experimenta-
tion, the maximum allowable tangent
surface being determined to suit the
application.
Additionally, the effect of the torch-
to-workpiece distance (TWPD) can be
cited as a key influencing factor on the
gouge shape. In essence, the closer the
torch consumables are to the work-
piece, the deeper and narrower the
gouge will be. This is because the ener-
gy density will be higher as it reaches
the workpiece with a smaller TWPD.
Conversely, the further the plasma
travels without the aid of an imping-
ing device (i.e., a nozzle), the more dif-
fuse it will become. To reiterate, the
relationship of arc constriction to dis-
The relationship of arc
constriction to
distance traveled to
the workpiece is the
enabler of plasma
gouging
42 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
Fig. 10 Typical gouge profile shapes as a function of
TWPD.
tance traveled to
the workpiece is
the enabler of plas-
ma gouging. This
working distance is
commonly referred
to as arc stretch.
Varying the arc
stretch has a direct
effect on the gouge
profile shape and the ability to remove
material.
However, all plasma systems place a
limit on arc stretch as a function of arc
voltage. This is mainly attributable to
the duty cycle associated with the
power supply and its ability to manage
heat and energy loads on the system
components. Therefore, when the arc
reaches its maximum, the power sup-
ply will automatically break the circuit
and the arc will disconnect from the
workpiece. At this maximum distance,
the operator should be able to achieve
a theoretical maximum width gouge at
minimum depth for a given amperage
and primary torch
angle.
Examples 1, 2, and 3 in Fig. 10
show the variations in profile shape
that are typical when varying the
TWPD. It should also be noted that
similar effects can occur (though to a
lesser extent) by varying system am-
perage and linear travel speed. Width
X, depth Y, and groove angle , as well
as the scaling factors, will vary signifi-
cantly by make of system and its asso-
ciated system parameters.
Lastly, some discussion of the start-
ing transition region of the gouge is
required. This region can be referred
to as the lead-in region. When gouging
with plasma, the process requires
some linear distance to reach its full
depth. Since arc attachment occurs at
the surface of the workpiece and is
somewhat diffuse, a delay in complete
penetration is to be expected. Varia-
tions in system make and process pa-
rameters will vary this effect.
Furthermore, the angle tangent to
the curve of the lead-in region is typi-
cally about one-third the primary
torch angle, depending on process pa-
rameters. This effect is most evident
in mechanized applications when a
starting shim is used.
Conclusion
In todays welding and fabrication
markets, the operator has many choic-
es when it comes to selecting a goug-
ing solution. Established technologies
such as carbon arc gouging and grind-
ing are still todays preferred solutions
for many operators. However, user
feedback suggests gouging with plas-
ma offers a safe, efficient, and cost-ef-
fective way to make a gouge.
Standard and best practices for
plasma gouging are only now develop-
ing. To address this need, this article
has presented the basic relationships
between these key process parameters:
Amperage
Torch positioning
Torch motion.
With a basic understanding of how
these process parameters interact, a
user now has the building blocks to
design a plasma gouging process to
address specific applications. WJ
CLIFF DARROW (clifford.darrow@hyper-
therm.com) is engineering leader, Light
Industrial Torches and Consumables,
Hypertherm, Inc., Hanover, N.H.
For Info, go to aws.org/adindex
Preparing for a Future
of Global Engagement
The American Welding
Society has prepared
a Global Strategy for
the next three years
focusing on areas of
importance isolated
by a Stakeholders
survey of its members
BY ANDREW CULLISON
44 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
E
very viable organization has to look forward to its future; to antic-
ipate the challenges that lie ahead; and to project the actions nec-
essary to remain relevant and contemporary in a fast-changing
world. This forward-looking approach is exactly what the American
Welding Society (AWS), Miami, Fla., undertook when it outlined a
Global Strategy in 2012. A document was developed that isolated glob-
al challenges for the next five years and what actions were needed to
meet those challenges. This document provided a roadmap for the Soci-
ety, but it wasnt a rigid plan destined for obsolescence. Lets face it,
any plan that admits no modification is a bad plan, and in reality no
one can absolutely predict the future. This plan was meant to be a liv-
ing document whose adjustment along the way to unexpected curves or
speed bumps was encouraged and put into action.
Formulating the Strategy
To keep that roadmap fresh and on track, the Society assembled a
group of volunteers and staff to engage in two days of intense discus-
sions that would formulate the next iteration of the Global Strategy. It
was determined the next version should be a three-year plan rather
than the previous five-year plan.
Seeking Members Input
These advisory meetings were not conducted in a vacuum. The dis-
cussions and results relied heavily on a Stakeholder survey sent to AWS
members. This survey was conducted and tabulated by a nationally rec-
ognized independent third-party organization. The survey was sent to
a select group that was representative of the broad spectrum of AWS
membership. It was broken down to include individuals by job title or
function, geographic location, and age. Although response was highest
among domestic members, there was input from 10% of international
members. Overall, there was a statisti-
cally high response rate, adding to the
validity of information collected.
A series of questions was asked,
such as Do you think AWS is effec-
tively achieving its mission? with that
mission being to advance the science,
technology, and application of welding
and allied joining and cutting process-
es worldwide, including brazing, sol-
dering, and thermal spraying (90%
agreed); What are AWSs top strategic
opportunities? where certification
programs and to become the primary
information source for the industry
were highest rated; and What are
AWSs top external threats? By far,
the shortage of welding personnel was
the highest listed, with the U.S. econo-
my in second place, and noncompli-
ance with codes and standards placing
third.
Assemblying an
Advisory Group
Relying heavily on the responses
from our members, the AWS advisory
group met to work on developing the
next stage of the AWS Global Strategy.
This group was composed of AWS vol-
unteers in leadership roles, which in-
cluded David McQuaid, AWS presi-
dent; John Bray, Tom Lienert, and
Dale Flood, AWS vice presidents; Carey
Chen, AWS treasurer; Dean Wilson,
past AWS president and instrumental
in organizing this initiative; Dave Lan-
don, past president; Pierrette Gorman,
District 20 director; and Damian
Kotecki and Tom Mustaleski, both
heavily involved in the AWS commit-
tee system, and also past presidents.
In addition to this leadership group,
17 executive and managerial staff were
included.
Landon recognized the importance
of the survey to the whole initiative, I
was impressed with the amount of
work that AWS has done through the
process of soliciting input from its
many customers. Those responses
and comments were used to identify
the top areas of strategic focus.
Survey Provides the
Areas of Focus
Areas of importance isolated from
the survey included shortage of weld-
Planning the future of
AWS causes one to
anticipate the future of the
welding industry, and it gives
us an opportunity to position the
Society to be an asset.
ing personnel; professional develop- The Core of the
ment; certification; member and vol-
unteer support/customer service; and Global Strategy
global expansion.
The areas that were pinpointed
AWS Treasurer Carey Chen noted,
have been incorporated into the
The carefully selected initiatives will
Global Strategy moving forward.
direct AWS staff and volunteers on
Strategic planning is critical to our
what they should be working on, and
equally important, what they should success at AWS. We are a global organ-
not be working on. If the Global Strat- ization with almost 25% of our mem-
bership outside the continental U.S.
egy also narrowly defines vital few ac-
into 125 different countries, said
tivities, a focused road map will be
generated that concentrates our pre- Landon.
AWS has competition and business
cious and limited resources into fulfill-
ing the long-term mission and vision growth opportunities. It is important
as we plan for the future we are not
of the AWS. If the strategy is executed
properly, then AWS has the best po- only looking domestically, but we need
to look and think globally. As with any
tential of increasing its financial
strength and over time increasing company, we need to listen to the
voice of our customers. It involves vi-
its resources to accelerate future
activities. sion, mission, and outside-of-the-box
thinking. It describes where you want
A mix of volunteers and staff were
assigned to each area where it was in- AWS to go, not necessarily how we are
going to get there, he continued.
tensely discussed. The methodology
for the discussion was to isolate the
area of concern, come up with the Finalizing and Moving
causes for this concern, and propose Forward
solutions. Dale Flood viewed the plan-
ning session as a means of opening a After the initial advisory session
broader picture of the industry. Plan- was conducted, additional meetings
ning the future of AWS causes one to were held by an oversight committee
anticipate the future of the welding in- to prepare a document that included a
dustry, and it gives us an opportunity plan of action to address the five areas
to position the Society to be an asset of focus. These recommendations were
to everyone who works in metal join- folded into a presentation that was
ing, he said. given to the AWS Executive Commit-
John Bray considered the welding tee in August, and the AWS Board of
personnel initiative vital to the Socie- Directors for review and approval dur-
ty. The shortage of welders is the ba- ing FABTECH this past November.
sic key to everything. If there arent The timeline for implementing the
any welders, you dont need an AWS, Global Strategy is January 2017. WJ
or CWI, or other programs. The buck
stops here. That is why our discussion
group thought we need to step up our
aggressiveness in going out and taking
the message to the streets with ANDREW CULLISON (cullison@aws.org) is
publisher of the Welding Journal.
spokespersons and mass media.
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 45
COMING EVENTS
AWS-SPONSORED EVENTS
For more information on AWS conferences:
aws.org/w/a/conferences/index
(800/305) 4439353, ext. 455
Student Robotic Welding Competition. Dec. 58. Robotics
Technology Park, Huntsville, Ala. Student contestants have
the chance to show their robotic arc welding skills and
knowledge in a two-and-a-half day competition. Contact
Martica Ventura, (800) 443-9353, ext. 224.
National Robotic Arc Welding Conference. June 2017. Mil-
waukee, Wis. A call for papers has been issued for topics ad-
dressing robotic arc welding related challenges and successes
through innovation in part design, tooling, process opti-
mization, people skills, or other means. This conference is a
joint effort between the AWS Milwaukee Section, AWS D16
Robotic and Automatic Welding Committee, and Milwaukee
Area Technical College. All proceeds from the conference go
toward the J. F. Hinrichs Scholarship fund. To submit a
short abstract, please contact Jeffrey Noruk, j.noruk@us.
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U.S., CANADA, MEXICO EVENTS
Additive Manufacturing Americas 2016. Dec. 79. Pasadena
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
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46 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
Convention Center, Pasadena, Calif. This is a business-to-
business show for additive manufacturing/3D printing. This
years show will incorporate a 3D print show. Visit
amshow-americas.com.
INTERNATIONAL EVENTS
WIN EURASIA. February 912, 2017. Istanbul, Turkey. Three
trade shows under one roof metalworking, welding/cut-
ting, and surface treatment technology. For more informa-
tion, contact Monika Brandt, monika.brandt@messe.de.
4th UKP Workshop: Ultrafast Laser Technology. April 2627,
2017. Fraunhofer Institute for Laser Technology, ILT,
Aachen, Germany. More than 20 international speakers will
report on the most recent developments in laser beam
sources and optical systems for ultrafast laser technology.
The event is an opportunity for scientists, laser manufactur-
ers, and users to come together. Visit ultrafastlaser.com.
BLECH India. April 2729, 2017. Bombay Exhibition Center,
Mumbai, India. Business platform for Indias sheet metal
working industry. Visit blechindia.com.
19th International Conference on Joining Materials. May
710, 2017. Konventum LO-Skolen, Helsingr, Denmark.
The Institute for the Joining of Materials (JOM) in associa-
tion with the International Institute of Welding (IIW) pres-
ent a conference dedicated to the advancement of joining
and material technologies and fabrication techniques in all
the key industries. Contact +45 48355458 or e-mail
jom_aws@post10.tele.dk.

China Chongqing Machine Tool Show. Nov. 1316, 2017.

Chongqing International Expo Center, Yubei, Chongqing,
China. The Association for Manufacturing Technology and
the China Machine Tool and Tool Builders Assocation pres-
ent this expo to showcase the latest manufacturing technol-
ogy and bring buyers and sellers together from all over the
world. Visit imts.com.

EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
Advanced Blueprint Reading. Troy, Ohio. Learn design pro-
cedure, blueprint interpretation, shop drawings, the use of
measuring tools in layout and assembly, and more. Two-
week, 70-hour class. Class begins Dec. 19. $850. Hobart In-
stitute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; welding.org.

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ASME Section IX Seminar. Dec. 1214, New Orleans, La.;
Apr. 35, 2017, San Franciso, Calif.; and June 1214, 2017,
Houston, Tex. Visit asme.org and search PD 190 or contact
Marian Hess, hessm@asme.org; (212) 591-7161.

Business Electronics Soldering Technology. Classes held in

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ess to reliable,
re
accurate welding
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in
any timee you
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The AW
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DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 47

 Certified Welding Inspector/Educator Courses. Troy, Ohio.
Class begins Dec. 5. Exam given Dec. 16. Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; welding.org.

ECourses in Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of

American Welding Society
EDUCATION
aws.org
SAVE THE DATES
THE 2017 AWS CONFERENCE
LINE-UP IS HERE.
AWS WORKSHOP ON
WELDING/JOINING ADVANCED
MATERIALS FOR THE AUTOMOTIVE
INDUSTRY
Columbus, Ohio / January
COATINGS & ADVANCED INNOVATIONS
FOR INDUSTRIAL GAS TURBINES
SYMPOSIUM
Greenville, SC / March
2ND CODES AND STANDARDS
CONFERENCE
TBD / April
10TH SHIPBUILDING CONFERENCE
Portland, OR / May
Welds and Other WeldingRelated Topics. Online video
4TH WELDING EDUCATION, SKILLS &
CERTIFICATION CONFERENCE
Phoenix, AZ / June
WELD REPAIRS CONFERENCE
Portland, OR / August
20TH ANNUAL ALUMINUM
CONFERENCE
Portland, OR / September
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
CONFERENCE
TBD / October
TUBULAR STRUCTURES CONFERENCE
Chicago, IL / FABTECH / November
courses taken at ones own pace offer certificates of comple-
tion and continuing education units. Contact Hobart Insti-
tute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; welding.org/
product-category/online-courses/.
ESAB Welding and Cutting Distributor Instructor Lead
Training. Year-round training at Denton, Tex.; West
Lebanon, N.H.; Traverse City, Mich.; Hanover, Pa.;
and Salt Lake City, Utah. Online eLearning training
available at training.victortechnologies.com, e-mail
trainingteam@esab.com.
GE Industrial Computed Tomography (CT) Operator Course.
Learn to operate the 3D technology that is becoming more
prominent in industrial quality control and metrology.
Lewistown, Pa., (315) 554-2039; geinspectionacademy.com.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tutori-
als, interactive e-learning courses, discussion forums, webi-
nars, and blogs. Visit hypertherm.com; hyperthermcutting
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Industrial Laser Training. Technical training and support

Please visit aws.org/events/Conferences offered for users of industrial lasers in manufacturing,
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STTANDARDS
A
aws.org
aws.org

THE LA
ATTEST RELEASES
ARE HERE!
The AWS Volunteer Committeees work tirelessly to ensure
AWS Standards remain at the forefront
f of advancements
in welding technology. Each month,
m new or revised
standards are featured on the AWS Bookstore website.
This months featured releases incclude:
IMAGIN
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B4.0:2016, Standard Method ds for Mechanical Teesting of
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Keep an eye on the latest releaases on the AWS Bookstore
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at go..aws.orgg/awwsstandardds
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48 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

welding and laser cutting and drilling. HDE Technologies,
Inc.; (916) 7144944; laserweldtraining.com;
laser-cutting-drilling-training.com.
INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifica-
tions to Canadian General Standards Board or Canadian Nu-
clear Safety Commission. The Canadian Welding Bureau;
(800) 844-6790; cwbgroup.org.
Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical Laser
Safety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, Indus-
trial Laser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational Institu-
tions. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; lia.org.

Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI

Z136.1, Safe Use of Lasers. Orlando, Fla., or customers site.
Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; lia.org.
Laser U Online Education Portal. Offers practical infor-
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drilling, welding, wireless and optical product requirements,
and many others. Visit Laser Institute of America;
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Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly
and on request, include tutorials and practical training. Pre-
sented at Servo-Robot, Inc., St. Bruno, QC, Canada. For
schedule, cost, and availability, e-mail info@servorobot.com.

Machine Safeguarding Seminars. Rockford Systems, Inc.;

(800) 922-7533; rockfordsystems.com.
continued on page 51

American Welding Society

LEARNING
aws.org

1.1.17 - SENSE GOES

G DIGITA
AL!
This New Yeear AWS launches SENSE
S Online 2.0 - a new
tool for SENSE Schools
Its features include:
All new mobile friendly usser interfaces.
Better administrator and instructor control of SENSE
classes, including new communication tools, an
all-new gradebook, and a new testing system.
Automatic certification and wallet card generation.
For info, go to aws.org/adindex

New document libraries foor students,

students instructors,
instructors
and administrators.
Full reporting functionalityy at the student, class,
school, and state levels.
A new SENSE Certificationn verification system.

More informationn coming soon!

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 49

 EDUCATION
IN THE FRONT

NETWORKING
IN THE BACK

NASCC
THE STEEL CONFERENCE
San Antonio | March 2224, 2017

www.aisc.org/nascc
COMING EVENTS
continued from page 49

NDE Classes. Moraine Valley Community College, Palos

Hills, Ill., offers NDE classes in PT, MT, UT, RT, radiation
safety, and eddy current, as well as API 510 exam prep
and weld inspection. Contact (708) 9745735;
wdcs@morainevalley.edu; morainevalley.edu/NDE.

NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers lo-

caions. Level I and II and refresher courses in PA, UT, MP,
radiation safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT, LLC;
(714) 255-1500; testndt.com.

Offsite Resistance Welder Seminars. Presented by T. J.

Snow. Classes begin Mar. 22, Harlingen, Tex.; Apr. 12, Flo-
rence, Ky.; Apr. 26, Cleveland, Ohio; May 10, Minneapolis,
Minn.; May 24, Phoenix, Ariz.; June 67, Chattanooga,
Tenn.; July 19, Spartanburg, S.C.; Aug. 23, Tulsa, Okla.;
Sept. 20, Birmingham, Ala.; Oct. 11, Lebanon, Tenn.; and
Oct. 25, Columbus, Ohio. Contact (423) 894-6234;

For info, go to aws.org/adindex

tjsnow.com.

Online Education Courses. Topics include Introduction to

Die Casting ($99), Metal Melting and Handling ($99),
Product Design ($59), Energy Training ($19), Dross Train-
ing ($19), Managing Dust Hazards ($19), and Safety (free).
North American Die Casting Assoc.; (847) 808-3161;
diecasting.org/education/online. WJ

American Welding Society

aws.org

OWN EX
EXPE
PERT
KNOWLE
WLEDG
DGE.
For info, go to aws.org/adindex

Own the
t
AWS
W Welding
e g Handbookk.

To purchase your copy by volume or chapter

pte , visit
go.aws.org/awshandboo
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DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 51

CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE Certication Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations

Note: The 2017 schedule for all certifications is posted online at 9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
aws.org/w/a/registrations/prices_schedules.html. For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education re-
quirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken
at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
Location Seminar Dates
Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
New Orleans, LA Jan. 813
Charlotte, NC Jan. 813 Jan. 14
Denver, CO Feb. 26March 3
Dallas, TX Jan. 813 Jan. 14
Dallas, TX March 510
Huntsville, AL Jan. 813 Jan. 14
Miami, FL March 510
Beaumont, TX Jan. 1520 Jan. 21
Sacramento, CA April 27
Pittsburgh, PA Jan. 2227 Jan. 28
Charlotte, NC May 712
Denver, CO Jan. 2227 Jan. 28
Pittsburgh, PA May 1419
Long Beach, CA Jan. 2227 Jan. 28
Kansas City, MO June 49
Atlanta, GA Jan. 29Feb. 3 Feb. 4
Seattle, WA Jan. 29Feb. 3 Feb. 4
Milwaukee, WI Jan. 29Feb. 3 Feb. 4 Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
New Orleans, LA Feb. 510 Feb. 11 Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Waco, TX Feb. 510 Feb. 11 Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
San Diego, CA Feb. 510 Feb. 11 Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Little Rock, AR Feb. 510 Feb. 11
Houston, TX Feb. 26March 3 March 4 Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
Kansas City, MO Feb. 26March 3 March 4 CWSR exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More
Norfolk, VA Feb. 26March 3 March 4 information at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-
Boston, MA March 510 March 11 sales-representative.
Sacramento, CA March 510 March 11
Salt Lake City, UT March 510 March 11
Orlando, FL March 510 March 11 Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
Chicago, IL March 1217 March 18 CWS exams are given at Prometric testing centers. More in-
San Antonio, TX March 1217 March 18 formation at aws.org/certification/detail/certified-welding-
Springfield, MO March 1924 March 25 supervisor.
Portland, OR March 1924 March 25
Las Vegas, NV March 1924 March 25 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Dallas, TX March 2631 April 1 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
Minneapolis, MN March 2631 April 1 exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Pittsburgh, PA March 2631 April 1
Atlanta, GA April 27 April 8 Location Seminar Dates Exam Date
San Franciso, CA April 27 April 8 Seattle, WA Feb. 27March 3 March 4
Detroit, MI April 27 April 8 Houston, TX March 1317 March 18
Syracuse, NY April 2328 April 29 San Francisco, CA April 1014 April 15
Beaumont, TX April 2328 April 29 Las Vegas, NV May 16 May 7
Pittsburgh, PA May 712 May 13 Cleveland, OH June 59 June 10
Orlando, FL May 712 May 13 Dallas, TX July 1721 July 22
Tulsa, OK May 712 May 13 Kansas City, MO Aug. 2125 Aug. 26
Biloxi, MS May 712 May 13 Chicago, IL Sept. 1115 Sept. 16
Des Moines, IA May 712 May 13 Pittsburgh, PA Oct. 913 Oct. 14
Houston, TX May 1419 May 20
Cleveland, OH May 1419 May 20
Los Angeles, CA May 1419 May 20 Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
Charlotte, NC May 1419 May 20 ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
New Orleans, LA June 49 June 10 OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800, ext. 218
Kansas City, MO June 49 June 10 Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Denver, CO June 1116 June 17 Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Milwaukee, WI June 1116 June 17 Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
Huntsville, AL June 1116 June 17 On request at MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 456-5454

IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change. Please verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course status
before making travel plans. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after
that time will be assessed a $350 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our website
aws.org/certication/docs/schedules.html. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register online, visit
aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 4439353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.

52 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

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BY KATIE PACHECO kpacheco@aws.org
SOCIETY NEWS
Tis the Season: AWS Staff Unite to Raise Money for
Scholarships
AWS staff raises close to $17,000 for the AWS Foundation
October in Miami signals more from AWS employees. They not only their unequivocal endorsement of the
than just the approach of cooler support the activities and initiatives campaign through donations. In fact,
weather and trick-or-treaters; it also of the Foundation; they also care donors often inquire about the
heralds the annual AWS staff scholar- about those would-be welders who amount given by employees prior to
ship fundraising campaign and lunch- require financial assistance to reach adding to the pot, and some donors
eon. The campaign is spearheaded by their full potential. As such, with their will only contribute if employees have
the AWS Foundation the societys donations, staff members demon- done so as well.
charitable arm, which works to ensure strate they are unanimously commit- The Foundation helps ensure that
the continued growth of the welding ted to the Society, the industry, hundreds of would-be welders get the
industry through the funding of re- and the enhancement of welding opportunity to go to school and devel-
search and educational opportunities. education. op skills that are critical to the indus-
Each year, AWS Foundation pro- Gentry also stated that the dedicat- try. This, in turn, can help to close the
vides staff members with the opportu- ed support showcased by employee very real and ever-growing skills gap
nity to display their unwavering sup- contributions helps the Foundation that threatens to unravel the very
port of welders around the world by secure funds from outside donors (in- fabric of the manufacturing indusry.
donating to one, or several, scholar- dividuals and corporations). Outside If you would like to learn more or
ship funds, including the Foundations donors are often more likely to con- donate to the AWS Foundation, visit
general endowment, Carol J. DeLauri- tribute when employees demonstrate aws.org/foundation. WJ
er Memorial Scholarship, Robert
OBrien Memorial Scholarship, and
Scholarship Wall funds. These scholar-
ships help students with their finan-
cial obligations by covering a variety of
school expenses, such as tuition, fees,
books, and other supplies.
According to Vicki Pinsky, associate
director of scholarships, about 115
staff members attended the campaign
luncheon on Oct. 25, raising close to
$17,000. Over the past few years, the
average amount raised by staff mem-
bers has been about $14,700. Howev-
er, staff contributions have steadily in-
creased over the last five years. This
year was especially momentous.
Our previous record in 2016 was
$16,100, thus we had a 6% increase,
stated Sam Gentry, executive director
of the AWS Foundation.
The money raised by staff members
helps jumpstart the Foundations
fundraising year, which on average
gives away $650,000 yearly to stu-
dents and industry professionals pur-
suing aspirations in welding.

AWS Staff Shows Strength in

Numbers
Staff contributions, although meas-
ured in cents and dollars, are worth
more than their weight in gold. Ac- Sam Gentry, executive director of the AWS Foundation, and Vicki Pinsky, associate direc
cording to Gentry, these contributions tor of scholarships, serve food and smiles at the Foundations fundraising staff campaign
send a clear message to the industry luncheon on Oct. 25 at AWS World Headquarters, Miami, Fla.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 55

SOCIETY NEWS
TECH TOPICS
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meet-
ings are open to the public. Contact
staff members listed below or call
(800/305) 443-9353 for information.
Dec. 6. Safety and Health Commit-
tee. Miami, Fla. Contact: S. P. Hedrick,
ext. 305, steveh@aws.org.
Jan. 25, 2017, International Stan-
dards Activities Committee. Miami,
Fla. Contact: A. Davis, adavis@aws.org,
ext. 466.
Jan. 25, 26, 2017. Technical Activi-
ties Committee. Miami, Fla. Contact:
A. M. Alonso, aalonso@aws.org, ext.
299.
Standards for Public Review
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by
the American National Standards In-
stitute (ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as
approved by ANSI, require that all
standards be open to public review for
comment during the approval process.
This column also advises of ANSI ap-
proval of documents.
The following standards are sub-
mitted for public review. A draft copy
may be obtained by contacting the
staff secretary of the committee as
The J1F Task Group on Specification for Resistance Welding Electrode Materials toured Air Zoo during the RWMA regional meeting in Kala
mazoo, Mich., on Sept. 28. From left are Tom Chandler, Cadi Co.; Victor Padilla, Alcavil; Ron Pratt, Cadi Co.; and Dan Wellman, Obara, USA.
56 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
listed below at AWS, Technical Servic-
es, 8669 NW 36 St., #130, Miami, FL
33166-6672; (800/305) 443-9353.
C1.4M/C1.4:20XX, Specification for
the Resistance Welding of Carbon and
Low-Alloy Steels. Revised Standard.
$32.00. ANSI public review expires
12/5/16. Contact: A. Babinski, ext.
310, ababinski@aws.org.
ISO Draft Standards for Public
Review
Copies of the following Draft Inter-
national Standards are available for re-
view and comment through your na-
tional standards body, which in the
United States is ANSI, 25 West 43
Street, Fourth Floor, New York, NY
10036; telephone (212) 642-4900.
Any comments regarding ISO docu-
ments should be sent to your national
standards body.
In the United States, if you wish to
participate in the development of In-
ternational Standards for welding,
contact Andrew Davis at AWS, 8669
NW 36 St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-
6672; telephone: (305) 443-9353, ext.
466, e-mail: adavis@aws.org. Other-
wise, contact your national standards
body.
ISO/DIS 22825 Non-destructive
testing of welds Ultrasonic testing
Testing of welds in austenitic steels and
nickel-based alloys.
New Standard Approved by ANSI
J1.2M/J1.2:2016, Guide for Installa-
tion and Maintenance of Resistance
Welding Machines. Approval Date:
8/4/2016.
Errata
D1.5M/D1.5:2015, Bridge Welding
Code
The following errata have been
identified and will be incorporated
into the next reprinting of this
document.
Page 368, subclause C-4.5.2.3:
change must exceed to must not ex-
ceed.
D1.5M/D1.5:2010, Bridge Welding
Code
Page 356, subclause C-4.5.2.3:
change must exceed to must not
exceed.

Opportunities to Contribute to
AWS Technical Committees
The following committees welcome
new members. Some committees are
recruiting members with specific inter-
ests in regard to the committees scope,
as marked below: Producers (P), Gener-
al Interest (G), Educators (E), Consult-
ants (C), and Users (U). For more infor-
mation, contact the staff member listed
or visit aws.org/library/doclib/Technical-
Committee-Application.pdf.
S. Borrero, sborrero@aws.org, ext.
334. Definitions and symbols, A2
Committee (E). Titanium and zirconi-
um filler metals, A5K Subcommittee.
Piping and tubing, D10 Committee
(C, E, U). Welding practices and pro-
cedures for austenitic steels, D10C
Subcommittee. Aluminum piping,
D10H Subcommittee. Chromium
molybdenum steel piping, D10I Sub-
committee. Welding of titanium pip-
ing, D10K Subcommittee. Purging
and root pass welding, D10S Subcom-
mittee. Low-carbon steel pipe, D10T
Subcommittee. Orbital pipe welding,
D10U Subcommittee. Duplex pipe
welding, D10Y Subcommittee. Joining
metals and alloys, G2 Committee (E,
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES
Member GetaMember Campaign
Listed here are the members partici-
pating in the 2016 Member-Get-a-Mem-
ber campaign. The campaign runs from
Jan. 1 to Dec. 31, 2016. Members receive
5 points for each Individual Member
and 1 point for every Student Member
recruited.
For campaign rules and a prize list,
please see page 65 of this Welding Journal.
Standings as of October 21. Call the
AWS Membership Dept. at (800) 443-
9353, ext. 480, for more information.
J. W. Morris, Mobile 135
G. Bieniecki, Cleveland 128
M. Krupnicki, Rochester 65
D. J. Ebenhoe, Kern 45
J. W. Fregia, Houston 43
J. G. Knapp, Tulsa 40
A. D. Stute, Madison-Beloit 40
D. P. Thompson, SW Virginia 36
SOCIETY NEWS
G, U). Reactive alloys, G2D Subcom-
mittee (G).
R. Gupta, ext. 301, gupta@aws.org.
Filler metals and allied materials,
A5 Committee (E). Magnesium alloy
filler metals, A5L Subcommittee.
P. Portela, pportela@aws.org, ext. 311.
High energy beam welding and cut-
ting, C7 Committee (C, E, G). Hybrid
welding, C7D Subcommittee (G). Ro-
botic and automatic welding, D16
Committee (C, E). Welding in sani-
tary applications, D18 Committee (C,
E, G). Additive manufacturing, D20
Committee (C, E, G).
J. Molin, ext. 304, jmolin@aws.org.
Structural welding, D1 Committee
(E). Sheet metal welding, D9 Commit-
tee (C, G).
J. Douglass, jdouglass@aws.org, ext.
306. Methods of weld inspection, B1
Committee (C, E). Brazing and sol-
dering, C3 Committee (C, E, G). Weld-
ing in marine construction, D3 Com-
mittee (C, E, G, U). Welding of ma-
chinery and equipment, D14 Com-
mittee (C, E, G, U).
D. M. Box, Pascagoula 35
D. A. Saunders, Lakeshore 32
G. G. Schroeter, Nebraska 30
R. Riggs, Tulsa 26
J. J. Russell, Fox Valley 26
R. F. Purvis, Sacramento 25
S. R. Ulrich, Mississippi Valley 25
M. J. Wilson, Wyoming 25
B. M. Scherer, Cincinnati 22
G. L. Gammill, NE Mississippi 20
J. N. Carney, Western Michigan 17
C. A. Renfro, Chattanooga 17
R. L. Richwine, Indiana 17
D. S. Beecher, San Diego 16
B. A. Cheatham, Columbia 16
C. D. Spitzer, Tri-State 16
C. J. Bridwell, Ozark 15
T. A. Harris, Johnstown-
Altoona 15
E. J. Hinojosa, Johnstown-
Altoona 15
A. Babinski, ababinski@aws.org, ext.
310. Resistance welding, C1 Commit-
tee (C, E, G, U). Friction welding, C6
Committee (C, E). Automotive weld-
ing, D8 Committee (C, E, G, U). Resist-
ance welding equipment, J1 Commit-
tee (C, E, G, U). Welding in the air-
craft and aerospace industry, D17
Subcommittee (C, E, G).
S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org, ext. 305.
Metric practice, A1 Committee (C, E).
Mechanical testing of welds, B4
Committee (E, G, P). Joining of plas-
tics and composites, G1 Committee
(C, E, G). Personal & facilities quali-
fication, PFQC Committee (C, E, G).
Safety and health committee, SHC
Committee (E, G).
J. Rosario, jrosario@aws.org, ext. 308.
Procedure and performance qualifi-
cation, B2 Committee (E, G). Thermal
spraying, C2 Committee (C, E, G, U).
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4
Committee (C, E,G). Welding iron
castings, D11 (C, E, G, P, U). Railroad
welding, D15 (C, E, G, U).
R. D. Irving, Spokane 15
K. Koch, Fox Valley 15
Y. Lopez, International 15
C. Parsons, Holston Valley 15
J. D. Schlarb, Portland 15
M. D. Stein, Detroit 15
J. Upton, Houston 15
K. Conway, Cleveland 14
J. C. McClung, Cincinnati 14
R. A. Ray, Tri-River 14
R. D. Zabel, SE Nebraska 14
T. E. Buckler Sr., Columbus 13
M. J. Haggard, Inland Empire 13
L. J. Palm, San Diego 13
L. M. Roat, Sacramento 13
C. Baker, Philadelphia 12
T. Geisler, Pittsburgh 12
A. I. Duron, New Orleans 12
E. Cooper, Indiana 11
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 57
SOCIETY NEWS
District Director Awards Affiliate Companies Supporting Company
Presented Members
Bobby Fritz Welding, LLC
312 County Rd. 4513 Big D Metalworks
The District Director Award
Decatur, TX 76234 2002 Quincy St.
provides a means for District Directors
to recognize individuals and Dallas, TX 75212
Enviro-Steel
corporations who have contributed 300 S. Chestnut St.
their time and effort to the affairs of Nighthawk Welding
Deshler, OH 43516 1221 E. Longview Dr.
their local Section and/or District.
District 4 Director Stewart Harris Woodbridge, VA 22191
International Baler Corp.
has nominated Jackie Phillips, Tidewa- 5400 Rio Grande Ave. SE Energy, LLC
ter Section; Walter Duke, Tidewater Jacksonville, FL 32254 P.O. Box 887
Section; Matthew Gross, Tidewater Sec-
Sikeston, MO 63801
tion; Jay Manning, Triangle Section; International Inspection, Inc.
Roy Lanier, Northeastern Carolina Sec- 10521 N. Lombard St. SK Commercial Construction
tion; Sergey Kobelev, Carolina Section; Portland, OR 97203 4015 E. Veterans Memorial Blvd.
Robert Simpson, Charlotte Section; Killeen, TX 76543
John Bunnell, Charlotte Section; Bran- Kalisch Fierro Y Acero S.A. De C.V.
don Hoffner, Charlotte Section; Ray Libramiento Nororiente 6714 Weldpoint Eng. Co., Ltd.
Sosko, Charlotte Section; David Owens, Ejido Carrizal Grande AL19 Sixth Ave. Community 8
Southwest Virginia Section; and Doug Irapuato, Guanajuato 3682, Mexico Tema, Greater Accra, 23321, Ghana
Thompson, Southwest Virginia Section.
District 21 Director Sam Lindsey has Mobile Track Solutions
nominated Fran Johnston, Arizona Sec- 203 Johnson St. Educational Institution
tion; Tony Gonzalez, Los Angeles/In- Elkader, IA 52043
land Empire Section; George Rolla, Los James E. Taylor High School
Angeles/Inland Empire Section; Peter Patriot Steel Erection, LLC 20700 Kingsland Blvd.
Luna, Los Angeles/Inland Empire Sec- 155 Ida St. Katy, TX 77450
tion; Jeff Davis, San Diego Section; Tim Omaha, NE 68110
Palm, San Diego Section; and Thomas Lee College Center for Workforce
M. Mical, YESCO, and Desert Diamond Pro-Vision for Services & & Community Education
Industries 2016 Welding Thunder Engineering Consultation, LLC 511 S. Whiting St.
Support. 11 East Saqr Qurish Baytown, TX 77520
New Maadi, Cairo, Egypt 21213
Luzerne County Community College
New AWS Supporters Redding Electric Utility 1333 S. Prospect St.
777 Cypress Ave. Nanticoke, PA 18634
Sustaining Members Redding, CA 96001
Plumbers and Pipefitters Local 104
HDT Expeditionary Systems TCE Panama 168 Chicopee St.
5855 Endeavor Way Via Ricardo J. Alfaro Chicopee, MA 01013
Tanner, AL 35671 Sun Towers Plaza Local #37
hdtglobal.com Panama City 0834-01555, Panama Southern West Virgina Community
& Technical College
Tyson Sign Co. Tatro Plumbing Co., Inc. 1601 Armory Dr.
P.O. Box 50580 1285 Acraway Williamson, WV 25661
Suite 108 Suite 300
Myrtle Beach, SC 25579 Garden City, KS 67846 Sullivan County BOCES
tysonsign.com 6 Wierk Ave.
Transportes Grant S.A. Dep. Fiscal Liberty, NY 12754
Weld Systems Integrators, Inc. Del Banco Credito Agrico
4943 Discoll Rd. 800 Sur Y 400 Oeste Wes Watkins Technology Center
Warrensville Heights, OH 44146 Cartago 621-2300, Costa Rica 7892 Hwy. 9
wsiweld.com Wetumka, OK 74883
Weld Systems Integrators, Inc., is a Voltran S.A. De C.V.
manufacturer and distributor of a full Sur 2 #11 Zona Industrial Yacov
line of resistance welding machinery, Tizayuca, Hidalgo 43804 Mexico Ascotan 1909
accessories, and consumables as well as Calama, Antofagasta 1390079, Chile
an integrator of robotic welding cells. Whipps, Inc.
Founded in 2000, it is a global provider 370 S. Athol Rd.
of engineered welding solutions for a Athol, MA 01331
wide array of industries.

58 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

 SOCIETY NEWS
Corporate Member Milestones
AWS Corporate Members are vital to the strength and advancement of the Societys global mission and to the welding
industry in general. In appreciation of the ongoing membership and support of our Corporate Members, AWS launched the
Corporate Member Milestone Appreciation Program this year, recognizing companies that achieved significant
membership milestones during the calendar year. AWS is pleased to recognize Corporate Members that achieved Gold, Sil-
ver, and Sapphire Member status in 2016.

Gold Members 50 years

Company Name Location Member Category

Alstom Power Windsor, CT Sustaining

Bug-O Systems/Weld Tooling Corp. Canonsburg, PA Sustaining
Corp Brothers, Inc. Providence, RI Distributor
DTE Energy Detroit, MI Sustaining
Eastman Chemical Co. Kingsport, TN Sustaining
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products Hanover, PA Sustaining
Fiat Chrysler Automobiles FCA Auburn Hills, MI Sustaining
Goss, Inc. Glenshaw, PA Sustaining
Hobart Brothers Co. Troy, OH Sustaining
Huntington Ingalls Industries Newport News, VA Sustaining
Lincoln Electric Co. Cleveland, OH Sustaining
Miller Electric Mfg. Co. Appleton, WI Sustaining
National Standard Co. Niles, MI Sustaining
Naylor Pipe Co. Chicago, IL Sustaining
PPL Generation, LLC Allentown, PA Sustaining
Purity Cylinder Gases, Inc. Grand Rapids, MI Distributor

Silver Members 25 years

Company Name Location Member Category

American Torch Tip Co. Bradenton, FL Sustaining

Arctec Alloys, Ltd. Calgary, AB, Canada Sustaining
Bernard Beecher, IL Sustaining
Butte Glenn Community College Oroville, CA Educational Institution
Corey S.A. De C.V. Menlo Park, CA Supporting
Electron Beam Technologies, Inc. Kankakee, IL Sustaining
Enerfab, Inc. Cincinnati, OH Sustaining
ESAB Stoody Co. Bowling Green, KY Sustaining
Illinois Tools Works Troy, OH Sustaining
New Orleans Pipe Trades Metairie, LA Sustaining
Rend Lake College Ina, IL Educational Institution
Rychtik Welding, Inc. Grafton, WI Supporting
Salt Lake Community College Salt Lake City, UT Educational Institution
Sciaky, Inc. Chicago, IL Sustaining
Stupp Bridge Co. Bowling Green, KY Sustaining
Tri Tool, Inc. Rancho Cordova, CA Sustaining
Tulsa Welding School Tulsa, OK Sustaining
Wesco Gas & Welding Supply, Inc. Prichard, AL Sustaining
World Marine of Alabama, LLC Mobile, AL Sustaining

Sapphire Members 10 years

Company Name Location Member Category

ABC Sheet Metal Anaheim, CA Sustaining

Ace Clearwater Enterprises Torrance, CA Sustaining
Acme Electric Welder Co. Anaheim, CA Supporting

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 59

SOCIETY NEWS
Company Name Location Member Category

Advanced Lightning Technology Argyle, TX Affiliated

Advanced Welding Institute, LLC South Burlington, VT Sustaining
Alloy Engineering Co. Berea, OH Sustaining
American Industrial Plant Services St. Amant, LA Affiliated
Amti Sunbelt, LLP Las Vegas, NV Supporting
Arc-Tech Welding, Inc. Dewey, AZ Sustaining
ASRC Energy Services Anchorage, AK Sustaining
Austin Community College Austin, TX Educational Institution
Bains Welding & Engineering Nassau, Bahamas Affiliated
Bechtel Corporate Construction Houston, TX Sustaining
Bethlehem Area Vo-Tech School Bethlehem, PA Educational Institution
Big Bend Community College Moses Lake, WA Educational Institution
British Federal Mexico S.A. De C.V. Mexico D.F., Mexico Supporting
Buckeye Career Center New Philadelphia, OH Educational Institution
Bunger Steel, Inc. Phoenix, AZ Affiliated
C 4 Welding, Inc. Sauk Rapids, MN Supporting
C & W Offshore, Ltd. Mount Pearl, NL, Canada Supporting
Casa McGregor S.A. Managua, Nicaragua Distributor
Cimtas Gemlik, Bursa, Turkey Affiliated
Coldwater Machine Co. Coldwater, OH Affiliated
Community Education Center Ocala, FL Educational Institution
ConAn Ind E Comercio De Prods Electronicos, Ltd. Sao Paulo, Brazil Supporting
Contracting Engineering Consultants Maidsville, WV Affiliated
Custom Engineering Co. Erie, PA Supporting
CWI Services Anderson, SC Affiliated
D & T Steel, Inc. Pelion, SC Affiliated
DANCO Precision, Inc. Phoenixville, PA Affiliated
Darrah Electric Co. Cleveland, OH Supporting
Diman Regional Vocational Fall River, MA Educational Institution
ESAB India, Ltd. Ambattur, Chennai, India Supporting
ESAB Welding & Cutting Chesterfield, MO Sustaining
First Energy Beaver Valley Shippingport, PA Sustaining
G. Cotter Enterprises Springfield, NJ Sustaining
General Sheet Metal Works South Bend, IN Supporting
General Welding & Fabricating, Inc. Elma, NY Affiliated
Heisey Mechanical, Ltd. Columbia, PA Affiliated
Hetsco, Inc. Greenwood, IN Sustaining
IBC Advanced Alloys Franklin, IN Supporting
Industrial Supplier Larey, Inc. Brownsville, TX Supporting
Ivy Tech Community College SW Evansville, IN Educational Institution
Janda Company, Inc. Corona, CA Sustaining
Jebco Industries, Inc. Barrie, ON, Canada Affiliated
Johnson Welded Products Urbana, OH Supporting
Kapco, Inc. Grafton, WI Affiliated
Kemper System America, Inc. West Seneca, NY Sustaining
Kogok Corp. District Heights, MD Affiliated
LA Tech College Baton Rouge, LA Educational Institution
Laser Advantage, LLC Nashua, NH Supporting
Linde Engineering North America Catoosa, OK Supporting
Local 26 Educational Development Trust Lacey, WA Educational Institution
Melton Machine & Control Co. Washington, MO Supporting
Metro Technologies, Ltd. Troy, MI Affiliated
Mike Fabrication Shop Charleston, IL Affiliated
Milco Welform Electrodes, Inc. Warren, MI Supporting
Mobil Steel International, Inc. Houston, TX Affiliated
Myers & Co. Architectural Metal Basalt, CO Affiliated
NDE Consultation Services, Inc. Finksburg, MD Sustaining
NGK Metals Corp. Sweetwater, TN Supporting
Nibrock, Inc. Chanchula, AL Supporting
ORS Nasco Tulsa, OK Sustaining

60 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

 SOCIETY NEWS
Company Name Location Member Category

Pacific Rim Mechanical Contractor San Diego, CA Supporting

Pederson Bros, Inc. Bellingham, WA Affiliated
Pemiscot County Career & Tech Center Hayti, MO Educational Institution
Peninsula Technical Services Delmar, MD Affiliated
Pepco Washington, DC Sustaining
Pioneer Career & Tech Center Shelby, OH Educational Institution
Pipefitters Local 537 Training Center Dorchester, MA Sustaining
Poblocki Sign Company, LLC West Allis, WI Affiliated
PTR Baler and Compactor Co. Philadelphia, PA Sustaining
Rock Valley College Rockford, IL Sustaining
Rowan-Cabarrus Community College Salisbury, NC Educational Institution
Shawsheen Valley Tech High School Billerica, MA Educational Institution
Sherbrooke Metals Corp. Willoughby, OH Supporting
Sheridan High School Sheridan, WY Educational Institution
Shickel Corp. Bridgewater, VA Affiliated
Siemens Laserworks Div of Russel Metals Saskatoon, SK, Canada Sustaining
Southwest Applied Tech College Cedar City, UT Educational Institution
Special School District St. Louis, MO Educational Institution
St. Cloud Technical College St. Cloud, MN Educational Institution
Stark State College of Technology North Canton, OH Educational Institution
Steel Service Corp. Flowood, MS Affiliated
Systems Contracting El Dorado, AR Educational Institution
Taylor-Winfield Technologies Youngstown, OH Supporting
Tec-Option Blissfield, MI Supporting
Tennessee Rand, Inc. Chattanooga, TN Supporting
Tri-Tech Construction Keokuk, IA Affiliated
Tyler Junior College Tyler, TX Educational Institution
US Tower Corp KS Lincoln, KS Supporting
USP Structural Connectors Montgomery, MN Sustaining
Warren County Area Technology Center Bowling Green, KY Educational Institution
WeldCanada Toronto, ON, Canada Affiliated
Weldcoa Aurora, IL Sustaining
Weldcote Metals Kings Mountain, NC Sustaining
Woodland Gayle Manufacturing Co. Woodland, CA Sustaining
Wyotech Blairsville, PA Educational Institution

Candidates Sought to Receive the MIT Masubuchi Award

The Prof. Koichi Masubuchi award,
with a $5000 honorarium, is present-
ed to one person, 40 or younger, who
has made significant contributions to
the advancement of materials joining
through research and development.
Send a list of your candidates experi-
ence, publications, honors, awards,
and at least three letters of recommen-
dation from fellow researchers to Prof.
Todd Palmer, tap103@psu.edu. This
award is sponsored annually by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technolo-
gy, Dept. of Ocean Engineering.

J. Jones Named AWS District 17 Director Elect

J. Jones, District 17 Director Elect
J. Jones has been named AWS District 17 Director Elect following the passing
of former director Jerry Knapp. He will serve Knapps 20172019 term,
effective Jan. 1, 2017.
Jones is a published author with an AAS in welding technology and a BS in
education from Texas A&M University. He has been associated with AWS since
1981, when he joined as a Student Member. Since then, he has served as chair-
man of both the North and East Texas Sections, as well as on the AWS Board of
Directors as District 17 director and director at large, and the AWS Education
Committee. Jones has also received the AWS District Educator Award and the
20042005 National Instructor Award.
Jones is currently a district sales manager for the HARRIS Products Group, a
Lincoln Electric Co.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 61

SECTION NEWS BY ANNIK
BY CINDY WEIHLababinski@aws.org
BABINSKI cweihl@aws.org

Inspector (CWI) exam. He also ex-

District 1
Douglas Desrochers, director
(508) 763-8011
dadaws@comcast.net
CENTRAL MASSACHUSETTS/
RHODE ISLAND
September 22
Location: Not Your Average Joes,
Seekonk, Mass.
Summary: The Section held its first
executive committee meeting for the
20162017 season. Attendees dis-
cussed plans for future events, finan-
cials, scholarship details, and updated
bylaws.
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
PHILADELPHIA
September 14
Location: Crowne Plaza Hotel,
Bensalem, Pa.
Presenter: Bob Wiswesser, Senior CWI,
Level 3 ASNT
Topic: AWS certifications, changes to
CWI exam, and nine-year CWI renewal
Summary: Wiswesser spoke to mem-
bers about the various certifications
available from AWS and the recent
changes to the Certified Welding
plained the various paths that current
inspectors could take to complete the
requirements for their nine-year
renewal.
October 12
Location: Team Industries, Swedes-
boro, N.J.
Presenter: Brad Bornstein, manager of
technical sales, N.J., PA, DE, Olympus
Instruments.
Topic: Differences between shear wave
and phased array as used for weld de-
fect determination
Summary: Bornstein shared a techni-
cal presentation with Section
members.

CENTRAL MASSACHUSETTS/RHODE IS
LAND Program Chair Steve Flowers,
Chairman Timothy Kinnaman, guest
Kevin De Sousa, and District 1 Director
Douglas A. Desrochers posed for a PHILADELPHIA Section Chairman TIDEWATER Former Chairman Paul
photo following their executive Michael Chomin (left) presented a Hebert passed the torch to new
committee meeting. speaker gift to Bob Wiswesser. Chairwoman Jackie Phillips.

PHILADELPHIA Guest speaker Brad

Bornstein (right) and Section Chairman CUMBERLAND VALLEY The Tim Wright Welding, Inc., team gathered for a photo after
Michael Chomin are seen at the October placing first in the Sections golf fundraiser.
meeting.

62 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016


District 3
Michael Sebergandio, director
(717) 471-2065
drweld13@gmail.com
CUMBERLAND VALLEY
October 14
Location: Black Rock Golf Course,
Hagerstown, Md.
Summary: The Section hosted a golf
fundraiser.
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
TIDEWATER
May 12
Location: Fort Monroe, Hampton, Va.
Summary: More than 70 members and
guests enjoyed the annual Tidewater
Section sh fry at historic Fort Mon-
roe. The Section also presented and
elected officers for the 20162017
season.
September 8
Location: Thomas Nelson Community
College, Hampton, Va.
Presenter: Galen White, senior weld-
ing engineer and product specialist,
Hobart Aluminum
Topic: Unique challenges in welding
aluminum
Summary: White spoke at the Sec-
tions September meeting about ways
to overcome problems faced when
welding aluminum. More than 26
members and guests were in
attendance.
TIDEWATER Speaker Galen White
(left) discussed his presentation with
Section member Ron Hunnicutt.
District 5
Joseph T. J. T. Mahoney, director
(352) 727-0366
Joseph.jt.mahoney@gmail.com
NORTH CENTRAL FLORIDA
October 11
Location: Airgas, Ocala, Fla.
Presenter: Frank Babish, technical
manager, welding and wire, Sandvik
Corp.
Topic: Welding of stainless steels
Summary: Following a safety talk by
Babish, Section Chairman Howard
Record introduced new District 5 Di-
rector J. T. Mahoney who gave a pres-
entation on how to apply for AWS Na-
tional and District scholarships. Ma-
honey then presented the Section CWI
of the Year Award to Greg Hoffmann,
welding engineer at E-One; District
Educator of the Year Award to Jason
Becker, senior welding instructor at
Valencia College; and the Section Mer-
itorious Award to Bill Seyfarth, Sec-
tion past treasurer. In addition, Sec-
tion bylaws were approved during the
meeting.
District 6
Michael Krupnicki, director
(585) 705-1764
mkrup@mahanyweld.com
NORTHERN NEW YORK
October 4
Location: USS Slater DE766, Albany,
N.Y.
Presenter: Doug Tanner, USS Slater
volunteer
NORTH CENTRAL FLORIDA Section
CWI of the Year Greg Hoffmann (left)
and District 5 Educator of the Year Jason
Becker (right) posed with their plaques
after receiving the special recognition.
SECTION NEWS
Summary: Tanner spoke to Section
members about hull repair comple-
tions on the USS Slater, including in-
stallation of anodes to protect the ship
from corrosion. Following the presen-
tation, members were taken on a tour.
ROCHESTER
August
Location: Arc + Flame Center,
Rochester, N.Y.
Summary: Thirteen high school stu-
dents from the Rochester City School
District were paid through Rochester-
Works to complete a 120-h welding
and life skills program at the
Rochester Arc + Flame Center. For six
weeks, the youth employees learned
welding, marketing, personal finance,
and other life skills. The students also
created three welded metal sculptures
that were donated to the Strong Na-
tional Museum of Play, Youth Services
Department (City of Rochester, N.Y.,
Mayors Office), and RochesterWorks.
NORTH CENTRAL FLORIDA Presenter
Frank Babish (right) received a certifi
cate of appreciation from Section Chair
Howard Record.
NORTHERN NEW YORK Section Chair
Carter Cook (left) presented a $500
check to USS Slater volunteer Doug Tan
ner for the Destroyer Escort Historical
Museum.
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 63
SECTION NEWS

ROCHESTER District 6 Director Michael Krupnicki is pictured (left side background, red shirt) with 13 student employees and Arc +
Flame faculty. The students created three welded metal sculptures (seen here on table) that were donated to various entities around
Rochester.

COLUMBUS Section Chairman Jim PITTSBURGH Seen (from left) after a presentation on building a car to set the wheel
Worman (right) presented the Columbus driven speed record are Jon Stein, team doctor; Dave Chiotti, team welder; Brandon Barn
speaker gift to Tim Trapp. hart, engineer; Robert Freyvogel, owner/driver; and Don Stoll, Section chair.

PITTSBURGH Section members gathered for a photo in front of the Carbiliner, the car being used to break the land speed record.

64 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016


Join or Renew:
CONTACT INFORMATION
q New Member q Renewal
AWS MEMBERSHIP APPLICATION
Mail: Form with your payment, to AWS Call: Membership Department at (800) 443-9353, ext. 480
Fax: Completed form to (305) 443-5647 Online: www.aws.org/membership 8669 NW 36 St, # 130
Miami, FL 33166-6672
Telephone (800) 443-9353
FAX (305) 443-5647
Visit our website: www.aws.org

q Mr. q Ms. q Mrs. q Dr. Please print Duplicate this page as needed Type of Business (Check ONE only)
A q Contract construction
Last Name:_______________________________________________________________________________
B q Chemicals & allied products
C q Petroleum & coal industries
First Name:___________________________________________________________________ M.I:_______
D q Primary metal industries
E q Fabricated metal products
Birthdate: _____________________________ E-Mail:____________________________________________
F q Machinery except elect. (incl. gas welding)
G q Electrical equip., supplies, electrodes
Cell Phone ( )__________________________ Secondary Phone ( )______________________
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Were you ever an AWS Member? q YES q NO If YES, give year________ and Member #:____________________ I q Transportation equip. automotive
J q Transportation equip. boats, ships
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L q Utilities
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N q Misc. repair services (incl. welding shops)
_______________________________________________________________________________________ O q Educational Services (univ., libraries, schools)
P q Engineering & architectural services (incl. assns.)
City:_____________________________________State/Province:__________________________________ Q q Misc. business services (incl. commercial labs)
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Zip/PostalCode:_____________________Country:______________________________________________ S q Other

Who pays your dues?: q Company q Self-paid Sex: q Male q Female Job Classification (Check ONE only)
01 q President, owner, partner, officer
Education level: q High school diploma q Associates q Bachelors q Masters q Doctoral
02 q Manager, director, superintendent (or assistant)
q Check here if you learned of the Society through an AWS Member? Members name:_______________________Members # (if known):________ 03 q Sales
04 q Purchasing
q Check here if you would prefer not to receive email updates on AWS programs, new Member benefits, savings opportunities and events.
05 q Engineer welding
20 q Engineer design
INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP 21 q Engineer manufacturing
06 q Engineer other
Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service youd like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment. 10 q Architect designer
q AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP (One Year)......................................................................................................$87 12 q Metallurgist
13 q Research & development
AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP (Two Years) SAVE $25 New Members Only....................................$149 22 q Quality control
07 q Inspector, tester
q New Member Initiation Fee ...........................................................................................................................................$12
08 q Supervisor, foreman
OPTIONS AVAILABLE TO AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS ONLY: 14 q Technician
09 q Welder, welding or cutting operator
A.) OPTIONAL Book Selection (Choose from 25 titles; up to a $192 value; includes shipping & handling) 11 q Consultant
q Individual Members in the U.S..................................................................................................................................$35 15 q Educator
17 q Librarian
q Individual Members outside the U.S (includes International shipping)...........................................................................$85 16 q Student
ONLY ONE SELECTION PLEASE. For more book choices visit https://app.aws.org/membership/books 18 q Customer Service
q Jeffersons Welding Encyc.(CD-ROM only) q Design & Planning Manual for Cost-Effective Welding q Welding Metallurgy q Welding Inspection Handbook 19 q Other

Welding Handbook Selections: q WHB (9th Ed., Vol. 5) q WHB (9th Ed., Vol. 4) q WHB (9th Ed., Vol. 3) q WHB (9th Ed., Vol. 2) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 1) Technical Interests (Check all that apply)
Pocket Handbook Selections: q PHB-1 (Arc Welding Steel) q PHB-2 (Visual Inspection) q PHB-4 (GMAW / FCAW) A q Ferrous metals
B q Aluminum
B.) OPTIONAL Welding Journal Hard Copy (for Members outside North America) C q Nonferrous metals except aluminum
q Individual Members outside North America (note: digital delivery of WJ is standard)..............................................$50 D q Advanced materials/Intermetallics
E q Ceramics
INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP TOTAL PAYMENT..................................................................................$_____________ F q High energy beam processes
NOTE: Dues include $17.30 for Welding Journal subscription and $4.00 for the AWS Foundation. G q Arc welding
H q Brazing and soldering
I q Resistance welding
STUDENT MEMBERSHIP J q Thermal spray
K q Cutting
q AWS STUDENT MEMBERSHIP (with digital Welding Journal magazine)................................................$15 L q NDT
M q Safety and health
q AWS STUDENT MEMBERSHIP (with hard copy Welding Journal magazine)..............................................$35
N q Bending and shearing
Option available only to students in U.S., Canada & Mexico.
O q Roll forming
P q Stamping and punching
PAYMENT INFORMATION Q q Aerospace
R q Automotive
Payment can be made (in U.S. dollars) by check or money order (international or foreign), payable to the American Welding Society, or by charge card. S q Machinery
q Check q Money Order q AMEX q Diners Club q MasterCard q Visa q Discover q Other T q Marine
U q Piping and tubing
CC#:____________ / ____________ / ____________ / ____________ Expiration Date (mm/yy) ________ / ________ V q Pressure vessels and tanks
W q Sheet metal
X q Structures
Signature of Applicant:_________________________________________ Application Date:_______________________
Y q Other
Z q Automation
OFFICE USE ONLY Check #:_______________________________ Account #____________________________________ 1 q Robotics
Source Code: WJ Date:_________________________________ Amount:_____________________________________ 2 q Computerization of Welding
REV. 11/15

District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@sgsdiving.com
COLUMBUS
October 12
Location: Crowne Plaza Hotel,
Columbus, Ohio
Presenter: Tim Trapp, principal engi-
neer, Rotating Parts Lean Lab, GE
Aviation
Topic: Advancements in materials
joining technology at GE Aviation
Summary: Members attended a pres-
entation that discussed a number of
challenges faced by GEs welding engi-
neers and an overview of the types of
joining processes used by the
company.
PITTSBURGH
October 11
Location: Lucianos Italian Brick Oven,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Presenter: Robert Freyvogel, founder
and president, Carbinite Metal
Coatings
Topic: Building a car to test the wheel-
driven speed record
Summary: Freyvogel made a presenta-
tion on his venture to build a car capa-
ble of setting the land speed record at
the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah. The
presentation showed the physics used
to design the car, Solid Works model-
ing for exporting fabrication files for
water jet cutting, and details of the
welding used to construct the car
frame as well as how the car skin was
CHATTANOOGA Seen at the tour of the GE Materials Technology Center are (front row from left) District Director Josh Burgess, Austin
Waldo, Joel Rigsby, and Hanna McDonald. In the second row (from left) are Michael York, Thomas Platt, and Instructor Chris Renfro.
SECTION NEWS
made. Video of the Carbiliner traveling
at 367 mph was shown. District 9
Michael Skiles, director
(337) 501-0304
District 8 michaelskiles@cox.net
D. Joshua Burgess, director
(931) 260-7039 AUBURNOPELIKA
djoshuaburgess@gmail.com September 1
Location: Central Alabama Communi-
CHATTANOOGA ty College, Alexander City, Ala.
September 21 Presenter: Timothy (Lee) Robinson,
Location: GE Materials Technology Southern Company
Center, Chattanooga, Tenn. Topic: General highlights of nonde-
Summary: Students from Sequoyah structive examination methods
High School toured the GE Materials Summary: Robinson gave an overview
Technology Center. of nondestructive testing methods.
Following the presentation, District
HOLSTON VALLEY Director Mike Skiles delivered an an-
October 11 nual summary and issued certificates
Location: AO Smith Plant, Johnson and awards to Section members.
City, Tenn.
Summary: The Section toured the AO
Smith water heater plant in Johnson
City.
HOLSTON VALLEY The Section participated in a tour of the AO Smith Plant. Pictured are
(from left) Jon Cookson, Gerald Austin, Jeff Cook, Jacob Richards, and Robert Thomas,
who is standing between AO Smith employees Randy Hutchinson and Alan Combs.
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 67
SECTION NEWS
MOBILE
October 13 District 10 District 11
Mike Sherman, director Robert P. Wilcox, director
Location: Pensacola State College,
(216) 570-9348 (734) 721-8272
Pensacola, Fla.
mike@shermanswelding.com rmwilcox@wowway.com
Presenter: Fla. State Representative
and President and CEO of the Greater
Pensacola Chamber Clay Ingram DRAKE WELL Ferris State Student Chapter
October 10 September 20
Topic: Current state economy and the
Location: Eatn Park, Franklin, Pa. Location: Big Rapids, Mich.
importance of welders
Summary: The Section met to plan the Summary: The student chapter pre-
Summary: The colleges culinary arts
events for the new year, set tentative sented local homeless shelter Our
students prepared a meal for Section
meeting dates, and discussed possible Brothers Keeper with $250 and more
members and Representative Clay In-
guest speakers. than 275 nonperishable food
gram. Ingram spoke to attendees
donations.
about the economy of the Pensacola
area and the importance of welders in
October 7
Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. He
Location: Big Rapids, Mich.
was complimentary toward the Sec-
Summary: Members gathered for the
tion and what they are doing to attract
annual welcome back picnic at an area
students to welding and engineering
park. All attendees brought toiletry
careers. Following the presentation,
items for a future donation to the local
David Neely was recognized as the re-
homeless shelter.
cipient of the 2016 Section Meritori-
ous Award.
Pinckney Community High
NEW ORLEANS AUBURNOPELIKA District Director School Student Chapter
Mike Skiles (right) presented one of October 6
September 22 many certificates to Section members. Location: Pinckney Community High
Location: South Central Louisiana
Technical College, Reserve, La.
Presenter: Matthew Howerton, sales
engineer, Lincoln Electric Co.
Topic: Welding process improvements
in modern manufacturing
Summary: The Lincoln Electric Co.
sponsored the September meeting,
which was hosted by South Central
Louisiana Technical College (SCLTC)
with Chef Aldo Duron cooking for
members for the evening. Following a
presentation from Howerton, SCLTC
Dean Penelope Freeman announced
NEW ORLEANS Speaker Matt Hower
the college has acquired funding for a
ton (left) was recognized by Section
new $1.1 million welding facility. Chairman D. J. Berger. MOBILE Section Chair Gary Williams
There was also a 50/50 raffle with pro- (left) presented a speaker gift to Fla.
ceeds going to the Section student ac- State Representative Clay Ingram.
tivity and door prizes donated by
Lincoln Electric.

CENTRAL LOUISIANA
September 22
Location: Delta Community College,
West Monroe, La.
Presenter: Don Sanders, Section
Chairman
Topic: The dos and donts while taking
a weld test
Summary: Sanders presented tips for NEW ORLEANS Seen (from left) at
the September meeting are Davis On
taking a weld test to the members who
cale, welding instructor; Earl Dominique,
were present at the monthly meeting. SCLTC welding instructor; Penelope Free CENTRAL LOUISIANA Section Treas
The colleges dean of workforce devel- man, dean, SCLTC; Don Giroir, welding urer Tom Malo (at podium) and Section
opment was also in attendance. Airgas instructor; and D. J. Berger, Section Chair Don Sanders (right) presented the
supplied door prizes. chairman. CWI of the Year Award to Thomas Crain.

68 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016


School, Pinckney, Mich.
Summary: Members of the Pinckney
Community High School Student
Chapter celebrated Manufacturing Day
by touring Kennedy Industries, Brad-
hart Products, and Brighton NC
Machine Corp.
Ferris State Student Chapter Seen
during the donation drop off are (from
left) Rich Little, Wanda Eldred, and
Cassie Machen.
Ferris State Student Chapter Eighteen members of the student chapter and welding
programs gathered for a photo during the annual chapter picnic.
Pinckney Community High School Student Chapter Instructor Mark Stein and student chapter members posed for a photo during one
of their Manufacturing Day facility tours.
SECTION NEWS
September 24
District 12 Location: Wern Valley Sportsmans
Daniel J. Roland, director Club
(920) 241-1542 Summary: The Section held its Annual
daniel.roland@airgas.com Rod Behnke Memorial Clay Shoot at
the Wern Valley Sportsmans Club.
MILWAUKEE
September 22 October 14
Location: 6500 Bar and Grill, Location: Milwaukee Area Technical
Milwaukee, Wis. College West Allis (MATC)
Presenter: Joe E. Campbell, technical Summary: The Weld Club at MATC
officer, Machinery & Welder Corp. held its first meeting of the year.
Topic: Welding code compliance
Back to basics
Summary: Section Technical Officer
Joe Campbell gave a presentation on
welding code compliance. Two profes-
sional development hours (PDHs)
were given to attendees.
September 24
Location: Wisconsin State Fair,
Milwaukee, Wis.
Summary: Section members volun-
teered their time to give virtual reality MILWAUKEE Presenter Joe E. Camp
welding training on board the Ameri- bell (left) posed with Section Chair
can Welding Societys Careers in Weld- Nathan Liszewski.
ing Trailer when it visited the state
fair.
MILWAUKEE Rachelle Trigu was one
of the volunteers on the AWS Careers in
Welding Trailer.
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 69
SECTION NEWS

MILWAUKEE Pictured after the an

MILWAUKEE MATC Welding Instructors (far left from front to rear) Bob Dricken, Darrel nual clay shoot are Bill Lancor (left) and
Iwanski, and Tyree Kern are seen with the Weld Club students. Karen Gilgenbach.

MADISONBELOIT Blackhawk Technical College AWS Student Chapter and welding students gathered for a group photo.

CHICAGO September meeting attendees are seen here at the Iron Workers Local 395 Training Center.

70 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016


MADISONBELOIT
October 3
Location: Zalk Josephs Fabricating
Co., Stoughton, Wis.
Presenter: Travis Babcock, general
plant supervisor, Zalk Josephs Fabri-
cating Co.
Summary: Babcock took Blackhawk
Technical College AWS Student Chap-
ter members and welding students on
a company tour and spoke about the
future of Zalk Josephs, career oppor-
tunities, expectations, and soft skills.
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
CHICAGO
September 28
Location: Iron Workers 395 Training
Center, Lake Station, Ind.
Presenters: Gabriel Monroy, Arcelor
Mittal; and Bill Vanni, Structural Design
Corp.
Summary: Meeting attendees listened
to a presentation about EOT crane
bridge girder repair.
SECTION NEWS
Miller Electric
Topic: Current trends in pipe welding
Summary: Baker presented Miller Elec-
trics RMD PipeWorx welding system
while Applegate presented information
about Kentucky Welding Institute
(KWI) and current trends in pipe weld-
ing. In addition, KWI instructor Bradley
Bramel and students Jake Owens, Caleb
Simons, and Steven Little provided in-
teractive demonstrations on ferrous
pipe, stainless pipe, and boiler tubes.
ST. LOUIS
September 22
Location: Affton Fabricating & Welding
Co., Inc., East St. Louis, Mo.
Presenters: Ron Pfeil and Tom Henson LEXINGTON Brad Bramel demon
Summary: Attendees were taken on a strated a 5G gas tungsten arc weld on
tour of the facility where each process of 3in. stainless steel pipe.
production was explained.
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 893-2295
dave@learntoweld.com

PEORIA
September 22
Location: Washington, Ill.
Summary: The Section presented Jim
Carter with a 50-year Membership
Award.
PEORIA Chair Rick Polanin (right)
thanked guest speaker Michael LEXINGTON Ashley Applegate
PEORIA Florczykowski. addressed meeting attendees.
October 18
Location: East Peoria, Ill.
Presenter: Michael Florczykowski,
Lincoln Electric Co.
Topic: Lessons learned and tools you
can use
Summary: Following a presentation on
welding tips, the Section recognized
Rick Polanin with the 2016 Peoria
Section Chair Award.

District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 606-7970
rlrichwine2@aol.com

LEXINGTON
September 22
Location: Clark Co., Winchester, Ky.
Presenters: Ashley Applegate, Kentucky PEORIA Section Past Chairs (from left) Leo Gier, Jim Swickie, Jim Carter, Rick Polanin,
Welding Institute; and Grant Baker, Curt Rippey, and Mark Kerley gathered for a photo.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 71

SECTION NEWS
District 16
Karl Fogleman, director
(402) 677-2490
fogleman3@cox.net
District 17
J. Jones, director
(832) 506-5986
jjones6@lincolnelectric.com
EAST TEXAS
September 29
Location: Papacitas Restaurant,
Longview, Tex.
Presenters: David Smith, Southwest
Steel Castings; and Larry Bailey, Hen-
derson Manufacturing
Topic: Foundry and castings
Summary: The speakers went over the
history of the foundry industry and
brought examples of castings and
molds. Attendees were able to observe
different furnaces, review their layout,
and learn about what methods are used
to melt the metal and their different
melting times. The speakers also exam-
ined pattern makers and their job re-
quirements as well as spoke about a few
examples of big casting projects such as
the Liberty Bell.
NORTH TEXAS
September 20
Location: Arlington, Tex.
Summary: District Director Jerry
Knapp presented district awards to the
members of the Section.
ST. LOUIS Tour participants gathered for a group photo.
72 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
TULSA
September 30
Location: Pipelines Union 798 Training
Center, Tulsa, Okla.
Summary: Thirty individuals attended
the AWS Certied Welding Inspector
Seminar led by CWI Instructor Ed
Norman and hosted by the Section.
District 18
John Stoll, director
(713) 724-2350
John.Stoll@voestalpine.com
HOUSTON
September 18
Location: Houston, Tex.
Summary: More than 300 people at-
tended the September Section meeting
to hear public speaker and former U.S.
Navy Seal Marcus Luttrell.
District 19
Shawn McDaniel, director
(509) 793-5182
shawnm@bigbend.edu
SPOKANE
September 24
Location: The Links Golf Course, Post
Falls, Idaho
Summary: Sixty golfers turned out for
the Sections annual golf tournament,
which also doubled as the 20162017
season meeting opener. Following a
round of golf, attendees enjoyed lunch
and participated in prize drawings.
BRITISH COLUMBIA
September 21
Location: UA Piping Industry College of
British Columbia, Delta, B.C.
Presenter: Soroush Karimzadeh, CEO,
Novarc Technologies
Summary: Karimzadeh spoke to Section
members about Novarcs proprietary
collaborative spool welding robot.
District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director
(505) 284-9644
phgorma@sandia.gov
District 21
Sam Lindsey, director
(858) 740-1917
slindsey@sandiego.gov
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
CENTRAL VALLEY SECTION
September 22
Location: College of the Sequoias,
Tulare, Calif.
Presenter: Frank Tebeau, industry and
technology division chairman, College
of the Sequoias
Topic: Improving local career technolo-
gy educational programs
Summary: Attendees networked prior
 SECTION NEWS
to participating in the local regional
welding advisory meeting held in the
campus lecture room. Tebeau described
some of the current welding courses of-
fered by the school and plans for future
growth. The meeting was attended by
Section members, area employers, stu-
dents, and other local educators.

NORTH TEXAS Debra Stanglin (right) NORTH TEXAS Jerry Knapp (left) rec
receives a district award from Jerry ognized Donnie Williams with a district
Knapp. award.

NORTH TEXAS Jerry Knapp (left) pre

sented Bill Hall with a district award.

BRITISH COLUMBIA Section 1st Vice

Chair Bernard Booth gave a speaker gift EAST TEXAS Pictured after their meeting (from left) are Andy Stormer, Bryan Baker,
to Soroush Karimzadeh. Dan Smith, Larry Bailey, and J. Jones.

EAST TEXAS Section members posed for a photo after a dinner meeting that included a presentation on foundry and castings.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 73

SECTION NEWS

TULSA CWI Instructor Ed Norman is pictured with seminar attendees outside the Pipelines Union 798 Training Center.

HOUSTON More than 300 individuals listened to a presentation by former U.S. Navy Seal Marcus Luttrell.

CENTRAL VALLEY SECTION Section Chair Randy Emery posed with advisory meeting attendees.

74 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

 SECTION NEWS
Contact Bob Teuscher for more informa- February 7, 2017
SECTION EVENTS tion about Colorado events at (303) 893- Pinellas Technical College Welding
CALENDAR 3602 or by e-mail at bobteuscher@ Department, Clearwater, Fla.
hotmail.com. Presentation on AWS and the welding
Please note events are subject to change. student
Reach out to the listed contact to conrm.
Drake Well Contact Alan Shissler for more informa-
tion about Florida West Coast events at
Colorado April 11, 2017 (813) 245-9328 or by e-mail at
AWS/Venango Technology Center alan@shissler.org
December 8, 2016 joint meeting
Union Night/Student Appreciation
Night May TBD North Texas
District Meeting
January 12, 2017 Meetings are the third Tuesday of each
Loveland, Colo. August 4, 2017 month: dinner at 6:30 pm, program at
Presentation on new quality measure- Meadville, Pa. 7 pm
ment technologies for material Annual golf outing Humperdinks, 700 Six Flags,
joining applications Arlington, Tex.
Contact Robert Fugate for more infor- Bring three canned goods for the
February 10, 2017 mation about Drake Well events at North Texas Food Bank and receive a
Downtown Aquarium, Denver, Colo. rfugate@vtc1.org. door prize ticket.
Annual Ladies Night
Contact Paul Stanglin for more
March 10, 2017 Florida West Coast information about North Texas
Denver, Colo. events by e-mail at
8th Annual Welding the Rockies Sym- December 6, 2016 pstangli@cityofirving.org.
posium Metallurgy of Welding Erwin Technical College Welding
Department, Tampa, Fla.
April 13, 2017 Student/Scholarship Day New Orleans
Presentation on welding and driving
NASCAR racing cars January 11, 2017 Meetings are usually the third Tuesday
Romanos Macaroni Grill, Brandon of each of the following months: Sept.,
May 11, 2017 Town Center, Brandon, Fla. Oct., Nov., Jan., Feb., March, April, and
Denver, Colo. Technical dinner meeting with a pres- May.
Annual awards dinner with 2016 entation on manufacturing capabili-
AWS President David McQuaid ties and applications for Uniweld Contact D. J. Berger for more information
products in the welding industry. about New Orleans events at (504) 415-
9165, or by e-mail at
dj@nationalitc.com.

ANNOUNCE YOUR
SECTIONS ACTIVITIES
If you would like to submit an event or calendar listing,
send along the following information: Section name; activi-
ty name, date, time, and location; and speaker name, title,
affiliation, and subject. If some of your meeting plans are
pending, include the name and e-mail or phone number of
a contact person for the event.
Please keep in mind the Journal publication cut-off is usu-
ally the 20th of the month, for two months ahead. For ex-
ample, if you want to have your February meeting in the
January Journal calendar, the deadline is November 20.
Send your calendar event listing to Cindy Weihl, senior edi-
tor, by e-mail, cweihl@aws.org, or fax, (305) 443-7404.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 75

 Guide to AWS Services
American Welding Society Corporate Director, Global Sales Program Managers II
8669 NW 36th St., #130 Jeff Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(233) Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(334)
Miami, FL 33166-6672 Oversees international business activities; cer- Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommit-
(800/305) 443-9353; Fax: (305) 443-7559 tification, publications, and membership. tees on Reinforcing Steel and Stainless Steel, Joining
Phone extensions are in parentheses. of Metals and Alloys, Piping and Tubing
PUBLICATION SERVICES
AWS PRESIDENT Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275) Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(301)
David McQuaid . . . . . . . .davidlmcquaid@comcast.net Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc. Managing Director Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc Weld-
519 Gala Drive, Canonsburg, PA 15317 Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(249) ing and Cutting Processes, Computerization of Weld-
ing Information
ADMINISTRATION Welding Journal
Executive Director Publisher Jennifer Molin.. jmolin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Ray Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(210) Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(249) Structural Welding, Sheet Metal Welding

Senior Associate Executive Directors Editor Program Managers

Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(253)
John Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Chief Financial Officer/Chief Administrative Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(252)
Chief Information Officer
Emilio Del Riego..edelriego@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(247)
Board and Executive Director Services
Associate Director
Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(294)
AWS Awards, Fellows, Counselors
Board and Executive Director Services
Program Manager
Chelsea Steel.. csteel@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards and Fellow and
Counselor nominations.
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . . . . . .(238)
Society News Editor
Katie Pacheco.. kpacheco@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Section News Editor
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(256)
Welding Handbook Editor
Kathy Sinnes.. ksinnes@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(255)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Chief Marketing Officer (interim)
Michael Walsh.. mwalsh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(350)
MEMBER SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480)
Senior Associate Executive Director
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(253)
Annik Babinski..ababinski@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(310)
Automotive, Friction Welding, Resistance
Welding, Resistance Welding Equipment, Welding
and Brazing in Aerospace
John Douglass..jdouglass@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(306)
Brazing and Soldering, Methods of Weld Inspec-
tion, Welding in Marine Construction, Welding of
Machinery and Equipment
Peter Portela.. pportela@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(311)
High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Welding,
Welding in Sanitary Applications, Additive Manufac-
turing, Structural Subcommittees on Bridge Welding
and Titanium
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(308)
Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, Railroad
Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron Castings,
Welding Qualification

Administrative Services Corporate Director CUSTOMEROPERATIONS

Corporate Director Rhenda Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(260) Program Specialists
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(287) Serves as a liaison between members and AWS Vivian Pupo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(362)
headquarters. Vanessa Vasquez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(361)
HUMAN RESOURCES Answer customer questions about AWS.
Director CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(208) Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273) AWS FOUNDATION, INC.
aws.org/w/a/foundation
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING Managing Director General Information
Senior Coordinator Judy Manso..jmanso@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(281) (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and interna- Director of Agency Representation Chairman, Board of Trustees
tional societies and standards organizations. Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470) William A. Rice.. brice@oki-bering.com

GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES EDUCATION SERVICES Executive Director, Foundation

Hugh Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com Corporate Director Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C. Patrick Henry..phenry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(226)
(202) 785-9500; F: (202) 835-0243. Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monitors federal issues of importance to the Director, Development and Systems Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . (461)
industry. David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . . . . . .(219)
Associate Director of Scholarships
CONVENTION AND EXPOSITIONS TECHNICAL STANDARDS SALES Vicki Pinsky.. vpinsky@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . (212)
Director, Convention and Meeting Services Managing Director
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(239) Michael Walsh...mwalsh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(350) The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3)
AWS Bookstore, Subscription Sales, and AWS Re- charitable organization established to provide support for
ITSA INTERNATIONAL THERMAL seller Management the educational and scientific endeavors of the American
SPRAY ASSOCIATION Customer Service...customerservice@aws.org . . .(280) Welding Society. Promote the Foundations work with your
Program Manager financial support.
Alfred Nieves....anieves@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(467) TECHNICAL SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)
RWMA RESISTANCE WELDING MANUFACTURING
ALLIANCE Managing Director Technical Services
Program Manager Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(299) AWS Promotes Diversity
Adrian Bustillo....abustillo@aws.org. . . . .. . . .. . . .(295) Technical Committee Activities, Additive Manu-
facturing, Welding Qualification AWS values diversity, advocates
WEMCO ASSOCIATION OF WELDING equitable and inclusive practices, and en-
MANUFACTURERS Director International Activities
Program Manager Andrew Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(466) gages its members and stakeholders in
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . . . . . .(444) International Standards Activities, American establishing a culture in the welding
Council of the International Institute of Welding community that welcomes, learns from
INTERNATIONAL SALES and celebrates differences among people.
Managing Director of North American Sales Manager, Safety and Health
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297) Stephen Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(305) AWS recognizes that a commitment to
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of diversity, equity, and inclusion is essen-
Learning Sales Representative Plastics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities tial to achieving excellence for the Asso-
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(307) Qualification, Mechanical Testing of Welds ciation, its members and employees.

76 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

American Welding Society
LEARNING
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PERSONNEL

National Association of vance the pro-growth manufacturing tion. In this role, Trulio will help shape
Manufacturers Elects New policy agenda. the strategy to develop the companys
presence in Latin America. Additional-
Board Member ly, he will mange relationships and en-
Lockheed Martin International
Names Vice President gagements with key stakeholders in
The National Association of Manu-
the region, oversee international gov-
facturers (NAM), Washington, D.C.,
ernment affairs, and be responsible for
has announced that Caterpillar Group Lockheed Martin, Bethesda, Md.,
day-to-day operations of the compa-
President of Resource Industries has named David Trulio as vice presi-
nys international headquarters.
Denise Johnson has been elected to dent for international government af-
the NAM Board of Directors. Johnson fairs, operations, and regional execu-
will join the board for a two-year term tive for Latin America within the Lock- Apex Tool Group Hires SVP
beginning in January and will help ad- heed Martin International organiza- and President
Apex Tool
Group, LLC,
Sparks, Md., has
appointed Ross
Porter Jr., to its
executive leader-
American Welding Society
PUBLICAATTIONS
BREAKING NEWS:
N ship team as sen-
aws.org THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS ior vice president
and president of
IN CASH GOES UN
NCLAIMED its Global Power
EACH YEAAR. Tools business
unit. Porter comes
Ross Porter Jr. to Apex after
holding senior ex-
ecutive roles at both Newell Brands
and Chamberlain Industries.

DESTACO Announces New

President
DESTACO,
Auburn Hills,
Mich., has an-
Did you know that every year welding scholarship funds from the AW WS Foundation
nounced the ap-
remain unclaimed? If you are coonsidering or already are pursuing a career in the
pointment of By-
welding industry,, you could havee a stake in some of this unclaimeed cash. ron J. Paul as
Since 1991, the AWWS Foundationn has helped recipients from all arround the world president. Prior to
and in all walks of life by providing funds to offset the costs of pursuing an joining the com-
education in welding. pany, he served as
managing direc-
AWS Foundation Scholarships are offered in 6 categories tor, Asia Pacific at
includding: John Crane. Be-
Byron J. Paul fore that role, he
Welder Trraining Scholarships was vice president
District Level Scholarships of global strategy where he was re-
District- or Section-Named Scholaarships sponsible for leading and managing
National Level Scholarships business strategy, acquisitions, and
International Level Scholarships investor relations.
Educator Level Scholarships
Capital Machine Appoints
With over 100 scholarshhips to apply for,, the funding you need to President
pursue your weldinng career is waiting for you to claim.
Capital Machine Technologies
Dont wait,, deadliness for entry are right
g around the corner! (CMT), Tampa, Fla., promoted William
Bill Citron to president. Citron
For more infformation and specific deadlines, joined CMT in 2013 as chief operating
visit the websiite at go..aws.org/scholarshipfundds continued on page 80

78 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

 PERSONNEL the United States and Canada. In his
new role, Beaupr will share IPGs au-

WOORK
RK
continued from page 78 tomated laser welding, cutting, and
drilling solutions with companies
throughout North America.
officer and
worked closely
PFERD Adds Steel Works

SSM
MART
M ART
RT
Model 200 Positioner
3 models av
, human resources
. and administra-
Modeel 1200 Pipemate
Rottates pipe and tube
from 1 to 17 diameter,, appointment, she will be responsible
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
with Dan Pentau-
di to learn and Technical Sales Specialist
foster the formula
that has led to the PFERD, Inc.,
growth of the Milwaukee, Wis.,
company. Pentau- has hired Tim Lee
di remains active as technical sales
with the organiza- specialist, steel
tion and will tran- works. Lee brings
sition to chief ex- more than 20
William Citron ecutive officer. years experience
to the position
and will be re-
Huntington Ingalls Industries sponsible for
Promotes Vice President of working with cus-
Tim Lee tomers on their
Human Resources cutting require-
ments, particularly large-diameter cut-
Huntington In- off wheels.
galls Industries,
Newport News,
Va., has promoted OBITUARY
Susan Jacobs to
Jerry G. Knapp
vice president of
passed away on
October 16.
Knapp was the
tion at the compa-
American Welding
nys Newport
Societys (AWS)
News Shipbuild-
District 17 Direc-
ing division. The
Susan Jacobs tor and an AWS
position was pre-
Life Member. A
viously held by
graduate of Fort
Bill Bell who is retiring after 34 years.
Worth Business
Jacobs has served as director of hu-
School, Knapp
man resources and administration for Jerry Knapp studied drafting
more than nine years at Ingalls Ship-
and design engi-
building, Newport News sister ship-
neering technologies. After gradation,
yard in Pascagoula, Miss. In her new
he joined National Welding Supply
where he grew into an experienced
for Newport Newss human resources
salesman in the gas and welding sup-
adminstration, employment, labor re-
ply industry. He went on to work for
lations, and recruitment. She will also
companies such as Gas and Supply, Al-
have responsibility for the shipyards
loy Welding Supply, and Arkansas Spe-
security and environmental health and
cialty Co. He also worked as a grinder,
safety organizations.
a welders helper, and in sheet metal
welding. Knapp joined AWS in 1977,
IPG Photonics Welcomes and was a member of the Tulsa Sec-
Industrial Systems Sales

tion. He served as the Tulsa Section

Manager
IPG Photonics Corp., Oxford,
Mass., has appointed John Beaupr
to IPGs systems sales team. Beaupr
has more than 30 years of experience
in the laser industry, having spent the
last 16 years growing Amada Miyachi
Americas laser systems business in
Chairman in 20022003 and again in
20062007. Most recently, he served
the Society as District 17 Director
since 2014 and had been reelected
to serve a second term from 2017 to
2019. Knapp is survived by his wife
Donna, and children Angela Romero,
Julie Snow, Dodie Francis, and
Corey Lack. WJ

80 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

THE AMERICAN WELDER

The Hidden Hazard of

Transparent Blue Welding Screens
BY THE AWS SAFETY & HEALTH
Heres help for taking the guesswork out of COMMITTEE
selecting a screen that will adequately
protect bystanders against UV and blue light

W
elding arcs emit ultraviolet
(UV), visible (light), and in-
frared (IR) radiant energy
that may be hazardous for both
welders and people near the welding
operation.
This radiant energy may be the
cause of eye injuries (for instance,
photokeratitis, conjunctivitis, and reti-
nal damage), disease (cataracts), skin
injuries (erythema, aka sunburn),
and delayed effects, such as accelerat-
ed skin aging and skin cancers.
Welders may be complacent about
some of these health risks because the
onset of symptoms may be delayed for
hours (e.g., photokeratitis) or years
(e.g., skin cancer and cataracts).
Welders eyes are protected by safe-
ty glasses and the lenses in their hel-
mets, but the eyes of other people
nearby are not. Partitioned booths and
portable welding screens made of
semitransparent or dark vinyl were de-
veloped in the early 1970s to protect
bystanders. These are still commonly
used.
Welding screens are intended to fil-
ter hazardous radiant energy while al-
lowing people to safely see the welder
and the welding operation Fig. 1.
While it may seem obvious that these
screens must block hazardous UV and
visible light (particularly blue light), it
is very difficult for users to identify if
they are protected adequately from
these hazards, as many of the products Fig. 1 Welding screens filter hazardous radiant energy while allowing people to safely see
on the market look similar but can the welder and welding operation. Blue screens cannot adequately filter out blue light, so
perform quite differently. they should not be used.

82 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

 THE AMERICAN WELDER

As a leading organization con-

cerned about safety in welding applica-
tions, the American Welding Society
(AWS), with the support of scientific
studies, created a specific standard
AWS F2.3M:2011, Specification for Use
and Performance of Transparent Welding
Curtains and Screens to ensure that
these safety products can adequately
protect people near welding opera-
tions. There are screens on the market
that do not meet all of AWSs standard
requirements. Therefore, these screens
may not adequately protect against
these hazards.

Radiant Energy Hazards

in Welding
Fig. 2 The hazards posed to the human eye by arc light.
Ultraviolet and IR radiant energy
are not as easily perceived by human
senses compared to visible light Fig.
2. In fact, UV energy is largely ab-
sorbed by the cornea, aqueous humor,
and lens (Eye A on Fig. 2). The visible
and near infrared energy are transmit-
ted through the ocular media (cornea,
aqueous humor, lens) and focused on
the retina (Eye B on Fig. 2). As the
harmful effects may not be felt imme-
diately, exposure to this hazard may be
unknown to people nearby. Protection
of these people requires a high level of
vigilance regarding the proper choice
and use of protection screens.
It is absolutely necessary to protect
the welding environment with screens
that filter enough of the visible and in-
visible radiant energy so that only the
nonhazardous visible light remains.

Need for Transparency

The welding industry needs a trans-
parent screen to permit supervisory
personnel to observe the welders
progress and detect incidents when
outside assistance is necessary (e.g.,
fires and heart attacks). A review of
welding accidents in England and the
United States emphasizes the impor-
tance of being able to observe the inte-
rior of welding booths from outside
for safety.
For welding stations located near
one another, there is an increased
need to protect the welders eyes from
the arc light of an adjacent worksta-
Fig. 3 When purchasing protective screens, look for ones that meet AWS F2.3M:2011 re- tion during setup time, when helmets
quirements and are labeled as such by their manufacturer. and shade glasses may not be worn.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 83

THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fig. 4 No blue transparent welding screen complies with the AWS F2.3M:2011 specifica-
tion.
Additional advantages of a transpar-
ent screen include better ambient illu-
mination and a reduction of the
welders sense of confinement.
The selection of the protective
screen must be based on the trans-
parency needed, with the prerequisite
that the screen offers the right level of
eye protection for bystanders and oth-
er workers near the welding operation.
How to Identify a Screen
that Complies with
the AWS F2.3M:2011
Requirement
It is generally not possible for users
to evaluate how well one screen per-
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
84 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
forms compared to one that looks sim-
ilar. This can only be evaluated by per-
forming optical tests with specialized
equipment (i.e., spectrophotometer,
spectroradiometer, or other spectrally-
weighted radiometer).
In most cases, the screens color
and apparent transparency will not in-
dicate if it really stops hazardous radi-
ant energy. The exception is blue
screens, which by their very nature
transmit blue light radiation at poten-
tially hazardous levels. In addition, the
ability of screens of any color to ab-
sorb radiant energy can change as the
screen ages.
In order to help users, select protec-
tive screens that comply with the AWS
F2.3M:2011 specification and are la-
beled by their producers Fig. 3.
Why Are Blue Screens
Hazardous?
Not all screen colors protect equal-
ly. Welding arcs emit hazardous levels
of blue light that must be filtered to
prevent injury. Blue light, which is
part of the visible light spectrum,
reaches deep into the eye, and its cu-
mulative effect can cause damage to
the retina, such as a retinal blind spot.
Blue screens appear blue to the hu-
man eye because they allow a larger
proportion of blue light to reach the
eye. Therefore, blue-colored screens
cannot significantly filter out blue
light, and no blue-transparent welding
screen can be compliant with the AWS
F2.3M:2011 specification Fig. 4.
AWS F2.3M:2011 requires that weld-
ing screens must block all but 0.2% of
the blue light emitted by welding arcs.
However, in one case an independent
laboratory test revealed that one blue-
transparent screen permitted more
than 25% of the blue light to pass
through the screen.
To provide adequate protection, the
AWS Safety and Health Committee
recommends only the use of screens
complying with AWS F2.3M:2011.
Typically, screens passing the AWS
standard are available on the market
in red, orange, yellow, green, and
bronze. Screens passing the standard
will filter hazardous blue light while al-
lowing sufficient light for transparen-
cy and safety.
Conclusion
By looking for the AWS
F2.3M:2011 marking, users can take
any guesswork out of selecting a
screen that will adequately protect by-
standers against UV and blue light in
the welding environment. Without
testing and certification, it is not pos-
sible to know if a welding screen pro-
vides adequate protection. However,
you can be sure that blue-transparent
screens do not provide adequate pro-
tection and should not be used. WJ
American Welding Society
LEARNING
aws.org

THIS
S IS ONE NEEW YEARS
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R ION
AWWS CAN
A HELP YOUO KEEP
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current poosition, or thinking abbout transitioning into anoother field, AWS
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THE AMERICAN WELDER

How to Select Cutting Wheels

BY RICK HOPKINS
These tips will help you choose and then
safely use the right cutting wheel for your job

A
good weld starts with good
preparation, and good weld
preparation starts with a clean
cut. But cutting is an art that requires
both skill and knowledge of how to se-
lect and use the best cutting wheel for
the job.
The type of cutting wheel to use for
a given application depends largely on
what material will be cut. However, at
the end of the day, there is no substi-
tute for proper technique when it
comes to gaining cost savings and
productivity.
Welders will always prefer a cut line
that is smooth and consistent to make
a clean, strong weld joint with as little
filler metal as possible. The goal when
cutting any material is always to use
the fastest and sharpest method to cut
smoothly and without contamination.
The biggest challenge welding oper-
ators face when choosing the right
wheel for the cut is whether speed and
smoothness are the priority, or
whether durability is most important
Fig. 1. Lower-cost wheels generally
have softer bonds offering a
smooth, fast cut. Because the bond is
softer, these wheels are typically less
durable. On the other hand, harder
wheels offer exceptional durability but
tend to cut more slowly. Finding the
balance between speed, life, and cost is
often the biggest challenge, and sim-
ply selecting the least expensive wheel
option can end up costing the user
valuable time and money.

Selecting the Best

Cutting Wheel Profile
Typical cutting wheels range from Fig. 1 When choosing a wheel, operators must decide whether speed and smoothness
0.030 to one-eighth in. thick. The two are the priority, or whether its durability.

86 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

 THE AMERICAN WELDER

That said, an operator must be

careful not to plunge too deep into the
cut, as the raised hub can interfere
with the material being cut and ulti-
mately compromise the structural in-
tegrity of the wheel. For this reason,
its most often recommended to use
Type 1 cutting wheels unless the appli-
cation specifically requires the addi-
tional offset provided by a Type 27
wheel.
While technique plays a major role
in both the cutting speed and lifespan
of the cutting wheel, the main factor
behind a wheels cutting performance
is the cutting grain used Fig. 3.

Fig. 2 Type 27 wheels (left) are useful whenever an operator needs additional offset from Selecting the
the grinder to perform the cut, while Type 1 wheels offer more versatility for cutting profiles,
corners, C channels, or anything requiring cutting up and over two different planes of Appropriate Grain
surface.
There are three cutting grains com-
monly used in bonded abrasive cutting
most common cutting wheel profiles more of the wheel for cutting with less wheels: aluminum oxide, zirconia alu-
are Type 1, which is flat, and Type 27, possibility of the raised center hub mina, and ceramic alumina. Aluminum
which has a depressed center, or raised interfering with the workpiece. oxide wheels provide an aggressive cut
center hub Fig. 2. Type 27 wheels, on the other hand, out of the box, but immediately begin
Generally speaking, Type 1 wheels are ideal for getting into tight corners dulling from the first cut. Ceramic alu-
offer more versatility, especially when or overhangs, or for whenever the op- mina grains self-sharpen and are the
cutting profiles, corners, C channels, erator needs additional offset from the most resistant to heat, providing a
or anything that requires the operator grinder to perform the cut. The de- consistently high cut rate and longer
to cut up and over two different planes pressed center of a Type 27 wheel pro- life. Zirconia alumina grains are harder
of cutting surface. Because the entire vides the extra clearance sometimes and sharper than aluminum oxide
cutting surface is flat, users can use needed to get the job done. grains and provide an excellent value.

Fig. 3 The cutting grain used is the main factor behind a wheels performance.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 87

THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fig. 4 Consider the upfront wheel costs and those related to downtime and changeover when selecting the best cutting wheel for the job.
Keep in mind that product cost also
typically increases along with durabili-
ty and cut rate.
1) Aluminum Oxide
Aluminum oxide wheels utilize
softer bonds that are less resistant to
heat, resulting in a cut that is fast,
smooth, and easy-to-control. Howev-
er, they are by far the least durable of
the three grains. Aluminum oxide
wheels are the most economical and
have a high initial cut rate, but the
tradeoff is shorter product life. As a re-
sult, aluminum oxide wheels are ideal
for cutting milder alloys, such as car-
bon steels. White aluminum oxide
wheels provide increased durability
and cut rate, while maintaining a
lower cost of use.
2) Zirconia Alumina
Zirconia alumina is a harder,
tougher grain that is more resistant to
heat than aluminum oxide. Zirconia
alumina grains also maintain sharp-
ness longer than an aluminum oxide
grain. As a result, zirconia alumina
88 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
wheels cut faster throughout the cut-
ting process. Their increased tough-
ness makes them more resistant to
heat and allows for harder bonds, re-
sulting in longer wheel life. Zirconia
alumina cutting wheels provide an ex-
cellent overall value as they do not
need to be replaced as often, reducing
product changeover while also mini-
mizing costly operator downtime.
3) Ceramic Alumina
Ceramic alumina grains are de-
signed to self-sharpen and are also
more durable, making them the most
expensive choice. Ceramic grains are
manufactured with thousands of frac-
ture points designed to fracture and
chip during use so they self-sharpen
rather than dull throughout the
cutting process. As a result, ceramic
alumina wheels maintain their sharp-
ness and cut rate for roughly 75% of
their lifespan before an operator feels
a decrease in cutting performance.
Calculating Costs
When selecting the best cutting
wheel for the job, its important to
consider not only the upfront wheel
cost, but also the costs associated with
downtime and changeover Fig. 4. In
many applications, selecting a zirconia
alumina or ceramic alumina cutting
wheel provides a lower overall cost of
use because operators can perform sig-
nificantly more work with the same
wheel and spend much less time
changing wheels to finish a job.
When given the opportunity to do a
time study, it is often a surprise to the
line leader or foreman to see how much
time their operators spend changing
wheels and walking to the tool crib for
replacements. One such study found
that a single cutting wheel changeover
took more than 30 min, given that
each operator had to walk to the tool
crib, sign out another wheel, wait for
the wheel, return to their cell, and then
change the wheel before continuing
the job. This loss of productivity can be
staggering to any business. In cases
like this, there is a significant benefit
to selecting a higher quality, more
durable product. The individual wheel
cost more than pays for itself through
minimized downtime and reduced
overall consumable use.
What Wheel Thickness
to Use and When
Generally speaking, thicker wheels
last longer, but that increased durabili-
ty comes at a price. Thicker wheels cut
slower and generate more friction and
heat through the cut often discolor-
ing the workpiece and requiring addi-
tional steps to finish.
Always consider the material when
selecting the best wheel for the job.
On harder steels and alloys such as
armored steels, titanium, stainless,
high-nickel alloys, and cast iron, which
generate significant heat throughout
the cutting process its cost effec-
tive to upgrade to a cutting wheel that
is more heat resistant. Zirconia alumi-
na and ceramic alumina are good
choices in these applications.
Using Proper Technique
Heat and pressure are the enemy of
any abrasive product. The smoothest,
fastest, cleanest cuts are performed by
minimizing surface contact and heat.
Minimizing heat and friction also help
maximize wheel life.
Never bump, drop, or use impact to
enter the cut. Always enter the material
from a corner or section with less sur-
face area, and use even pressure and
consistent motion through the cut. Let
the wheel do the work pushing too
hard increases cut speed but also gener-
ates heat and friction, which ultimately
reduces wheel life. Angle of approach
matters. Round stock is considered by
many the easiest to cut because the sur-
face contact is the same no matter
where the operator enters the material.
However, when cutting angle iron, I-
beams, or square stock, start the cut on
a corner where the material is the
thinnest to reduce friction and produce
a clean, straight cut.
Understand the thickness of the
material being cut and take care to
plunge the wheel only as deep as nec-
essary for the thickness of that mate-
rial. This also will reduce heat and fric-
tion to extend product life and mini-
mize binding.
Safety Tips
Cutting wheels should never be
used without a guard that is properly
rated for the size of wheel and mount-
ed correctly per manufacturer instruc-
tions. Type 1 cutting wheels require
the use of a two-sided guard that of-
fers 180 deg of protection.
Before mounting any cutting wheel,
check that the maximum safe rpm rat-
ing on the wheel is higher than the
maximum rpm rating of the tool being
used. Using a wheel with an rpm rat-
ing lower than the tool, improper
mounting or tool misuse compromises
operator safety, as well as the safety of
coworkers, and can result in serious
injury. Its recommended to let the
wheel free-spin for 60 s prior to begin-
ning a cut. This allows the operator to
detect any balance or structural issues
with the wheel prior to use.
Finally, operators should ensure the
cut line is as close to the clamping
point as possible while still allowing
enough room for the guard, the tool,
and their hands. The further an opera-
tor moves from the fixed point or
clamp, the more vibration will be
transferred through the workpiece,
which reduces wheel life and increases
the risk of wheel failure. This can also
make the wheel more difficult to
control.
The proper angle for holding the
grinder depends on several variables,
including workpiece size and orienta-
tion, tool size, and user comfort. Be-
fore cutting, bring the wheel to the
workpiece with the grinder stopped
and look for potential interference.
When the operator has determined
the most comfortable angle of ap-
proach, adjust the guard so it is posi-
tioned between the body and the
workpiece. Giving some forethought
to the overall size and thickness of the
workpiece before cutting can help en-
sure the guard wont interfere with the
cut halfway through.
As with any skill, practice makes
perfect. Its important to consult with
a trusted abrasives manufacturer if
there are questions about safety con-
siderations, selection, or technique. WJ
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
RICK HOPKINS
(rhopkins@ weilercorp.com) is senior
product manager, Weiler Abrasives
Group, Cresco, Pa.
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 89
THE AMERICAN WELDER FACT SHEET

Standard Welding Terms and Definitions

The purpose of AWS A3.0:M/A3.0:2010, Standard Weld-
ing Terms and Definitions, is to establish standard terms
and definitions to aid in the communication of information
related to welding, adhesive bonding, brazing, soldering,
thermal cutting, and thermal spraying.
Among the goals of the Definitions Subcommittee was
that A3.0 encompass all terms, not adequately defined in a
dictionary, directly related to welding or allied fields. There-
fore, both standard and nonstandard jargon, as well as di-
alect and vernacular terms, are accepted for inclusion in
A3.0.
Some of the most-often used incorrect terms and their
correct counterparts, as well as the definitions of the stan-
dard terms from AWS A3.0, are listed below. WJ

Standard Nonstandard Definition of Standard Term

Arc length Gap The distance from the tip of the welding electrode to
the adjacent surface of the weld pool.

Base metal Parent metal, base plate The metal or alloy being welded, brazed, soldered, or cut.

Butt joint (groove weld) Butt weld A joint type in which the butting ends of one or more
workpieces are aligned in approximately the same plane.

Complete joint penetration Full penetration A groove weld condition in which weld metal extends
(CJP) through the joint thickness.

Covered electrode Stick electrode, coated electrode A composite filler metal electrode consisting of a bare or
metal cored electrode with a flux covering sufficient to
provide a slag layer and/or alloying elements.

Discontinuity Defect (unless indicating rejectability) An interruption of the typical structure of a material,
such as a lack of homogeneity in its mechanical,
metallurgical, or physical characteristics. A discontinuity
is not necessarily a defect.

Gas metal arc welding Metal inert gas (MIG) An arc welding process using an arc between a
(GMAW) continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool. The
process is used with shielding from an externally
supplied gas and without the application of pressure.

Gas tungsten arc welding Tungsten inert gas (TIG) An arc welding process using an arc between a tungsten
(GTAW) electrode (nonconsumable) and the weld pool. The
process is used with shielding gas and without the
application of pressure.

Joint Seam The junction of the workpiece(s) that are to be joined

or have been joined.

Joint clearance (brazing Gap The distance between the faying surfaces of a joint.
and soldering)

Root opening Gap, root gap A separation at the joint root between the workpieces.

Shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW)
Stick electrode welding
An arc welding process with an arc between a covered
electrode and the weld pool. The process is used with
shielding from the decomposition of the electrode
covering, without the application of pressure, and with
filler metal from the electrode.

Weld interface Fusion line The boundary between weld metal and base metal in a
fusion weld, between base metals in a solid-state weld
without filler metal, or between filler metal and base
metal in a solid-state weld with filler metal.

Welding wire Filler wire A form of welding filler metal, normally packaged as coils
or spools, that may or may not conduct electrical current
depending upon the welding process with which it is used.

90 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016

THE AMERICAN WELDER LEARNING TRACK

Lakeland Community College

Encourages Welding N.O.W.
This welding program offers new skills, oneonone BY KATIE PACHECO
assistance, and welding certificates (N.O.W.) to
prepare students for highpaying careers in the
manufacturing sector

Lakeland Community College can
be found nestled in the suburbs in
Kirtland, Ohio, only 30 min from
downtown Cleveland. In the past five
years, the colleges industrial welding
program has garnered national praise,
as its students have consistently
achieved top-ten ranking for welding
in the annual SkillsUSA competition.
Earlier this year, one of its students,
Connor Roberts, won first place.
The college also received recogni-
tion in 2015 for its inclusion in The
Manufacturing Institutes M-List,
which identifies schools that teach in-
dustry standard manufacturing while
offering certificate endorsements. The
programs recent achievements stand
out, for it had been dormant for a
dozen or so years prior to 2005, stat-
ed Linn Gahr, Lakelands Welding
N.O.W. project manager.
Due to the ever-growing workforce
demand for welders, in 2012 Lakeland
Community College developed an as-
sociate of technical studies degree in
industrial welding in partnership with
Lincoln Electric. The degree features
courses in technical welding, American
Welding Society (AWS) certification
preparation, and supervision and
management.
To help students succeed in the pro-

Fig. 1 Secondyear student Paul Scott practices GTAW. (Photo by Jessica Novak.)

92 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016


Fig. 2 Instructor Ryan Eubanks shows students how to repair an aluminum casting for a small engine using GTAW. (Photo
by Adam Continenza.)
gram, as well as in the manufacturing
sector, the school founded its Welding
N.O.W. program, fostered through a
U.S. Department of Labor grant. The
goal is to help students attain high-pay-
ing careers in the manufacturing sector
by offering new skills in demand, one-
on-one assistance, and welding certifi-
cates that lead to a degree.
Fig. 3 Instructor Ryan Eubanks stands in front of the schools welding booths.
(Photo by Adam Continenza.)
Local Partnerships Help
Students Develop New Skills
Lakeland Community College
works alongside Lincoln Electric to
create curriculum that meets the
unique needs of industry. In the pro-
gram, students are given the option of
taking classes at Lincoln Electric Weld-
and welding internships, said Gahr.
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 93
THE AMERICAN WELDER
ing School. This opportunity grants
students hands-on, real-life experience
with on-site training.
The program doesnt only teach us
the fundamentals, but also the differ-
ent quirks of welding, little touches
you cant learn from a book, said sec-
ond-year student Paul Scott Fig. 1.
They showed me how to walk the
tungsten from side to side. A book
cant show you that.
Lakeland has also teamed with
more than 70 local employers in man-
ufacturing, including Swagelok Co., Air
Technical Industries, and Computer
Repair Technologies, Inc. These em-
ployer partnerships help guide devel-
opment of the program through the
Welding Advisory Committee, ex-
plained Gahr.
They assist with the creation and
distribution of a welding workforce
survey, critically review curriculum,
participate as guest lecturers, offer
plant tours, and participate in employ-
er panels, which provides students
with real-world insight into welding
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Teachers and Students Provide
OneonOne Assistance
The welding laboratory at the col-
lege has been designed specifically to
facilitate learning Fig. 2. Our weld-
ing lab is designed with a large U-
shaped instruction table in the center
of the lab, which allows the instructor
or student to be in the center
and students surrounding for demon-
strations, said Gahr.
According to Kyle Anspach, who
finished seventh in the SkillsUSA 2016
competition, the instructors are effec-
tive at teaching students how to per-
form proper techniques, as well as how
to learn from their mistakes.
They dont just show you how to
weld; they also show you how to mess
up, he said. This is a very good strat-
egy because you wont know what
youre doing wrong if youve never
done it before.
If students need additional atten-
tion, the school also offers free, in-
structor-supervised welding tutoring.
According to Scott, Having one-on-
one time with an instructor helps you
fine-tune your welding to succeed in
the class.
Unique to the program is the inclu-
sion of one-on-one assistance provid-
ed by student navigators. These are
seasoned students who work with stu-
dents for early identification of aca-
demic and nonacademic issues in or-
der to link them to resources that can
help them, explained Gahr.
Stackable Certifications
Build to a Degree
Lakeland Community College deliv-
ers stackable certificates that allow
students to work toward a degree at
their own pace. The program offers
six technical courses: Oxyfuel Cutting,
Carbon Arc Gouging, and Plasma Cut-
ting; Shielded Metal Arc Welding; Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding; Flux Cored Arc
Welding; Gas Metal Arc Welding; and
For info, go to aws.org/adindex
Pipe Welding all of which result in
individual academic certificates.
These six technical courses, com-
bined with Arc Welding Fundamentals,
Introduction to Metal Fabrication, and
Safety, add up to an industrial welding
certificate. The certificate builds up to
an associate of technical studies in in-
94 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
dustrial welding when students take
general studies, business, and AWS
certification preparation courses.
The flexibility offered by stackable
certifications allow students to move
in and out of the program with ease
depending on their academic and
career goals, explained Gahr.
Renovating for the Future
Due to increasing interest in the
program, the school plans to expand
its welding space and curriculum.
Presently, it offers one lab that con-
sists of 16 welding booths with a fume
extraction system, as well as various
types of welding and machining equip-
ment Fig. 3.
The renovation involves repurpos-
ing existing classroom space in our en-
gineering building for the welding pro-
gram, Gahr said, which will allow us
to open a second welding lab with the
potential for an additional 1216
booths.
The new curriculum will also differ-
entiate between basic and advanced
welding. The basic welding curricu-
lum will permit students to focus
on horizontal and flat positions for
all welding processes, giving them
more opportunity to hone their skills
and develop muscle memory, Gahr
explained.
The advanced welding curriculum
will progress to all processes in vertical
and overhead positions. It may also in-
clude repair welding, automated and
robotic welding, weld testing and in-
spection, and resistance welding. The
curriculum continues to evolve as we
align our courses with the workforce
demands of employers in northeast
Ohio, affirmed Gahr.
For More Information
To learn more about Lakeland Com-
munity Colleges Welding N.O.W. pro-
gram, contact Linn Gahr at (440) 525-
7516, e-mail lgahr2@lakelandcc.edu, or
Katie Smyntek at (440) 525-7541,
e-mail ksmyntek2@lakelandcc.edu. WJ
KATIE PACHECO
(kpacheco@aws.org) is associate
editor of the Welding Journal.
American Welding Society
EDUCAATION
T
aws.org

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AWS CERRTTIFIED WELDING INSPECTOR SEMINARS

ARS
Location Seminar Date Exam Date Location Seminar Date Exam Date
Charlotte, NC Jan. 8-13 Jan. 14 Little Rock, AR Feb. 5-10 Feb. 11
Dallas, TX Jan. 8-13 Jan. 14 Houston, TX Feb. 26-Marr. 3 Marr. 4
Huntsville, AL Jan. 8-13 Jan. 14 Kansas City, MO Feb. 26-Marr. 3 Marr. 4
Beaumont, TX Jan. 15-20 Jan. 21 Norfolk, VA Feb. 26-Marr. 3 Marr. 4
Pittsburgh, PA Jan. 22-27 Jan. 28 Boston, MA Marr. 5-10 Marr. 11
Denverr, CO Jan. 22-27 Jan. 28 Sacramento, CA Marr. 5-10 Marr. 11
Long Beach, CA Jan. 22-27 Jan. 28 Salt Lake City, UT Marr. 5-10 Marr. 11
Atlanta, GA Jan. 29-Feb. 3 Feb. 4 Orlando, FL Marr. 5-10 Marr. 11
Seattle, WA Jan. 29-Feb. 3 Feb. 4 Chicago, IL Marr. 12-17 Marr. 18
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New Orleans, LA Feb. 5-10 Feb. 11 Springfield, MO Marr. 19-24 Marr. 25
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Part 1 WELDING JOURNAL SUBJECT INDEX VOLUME 95
A Guide to Reducing Welding Fumes AWS Fumes and
Gases Committee, (Jan) 50
Additive Manufacturing, Looking at Large-Scale, Arc-Based
A. Uziel, (April) 42
Air Quality Mistakes, Blowing It: Five Common
T. Kendall and M. Meyer, (May) 42
Aluminum Alloys, Low-Energy Impact Spot Welding of
High-Strength A. Vivek, S. M. Wright, T. Lee, G. A.
Taber, and G. S. Daehn, (Feb) 32
Aluminum Tailor-Welded Blanks, From the Lab to Your
Driveway: G. A. Kunkel and Y. Hovanski, (Aug) 36
Aluminum Vacuum-Brazed Assemblies, Techniques for
Successful R. Caracciolo, T. Delahanty, J. Giglio, and
G. Baldassarre, (Feb) 44
Answering Automation Challenges R. Brown, (Sept) 36
Antispatter Compound Helps Extend Consumable Life
A. Marchand, (Aug) 84
ArtPrize Sparks Creativity in Metal Sculptors A. Babinski
and M. R. Johnsen, (March) 36
Asset in Four Easy Steps, Protecting Your Companys
Greatest M. Koltuniak, (May) 34
Austenitic SMO 254 Stainless Steel for the Desalination
Industry, Welding M. Sternisha, (June) 60
Automation Challenges, Answering R. Brown, (Sept) 36
Automation, New Solutions for Low-Volume, High-Mix
L. Dicaire and I. McLaren, (Sept) 40
Best Grinding Practices for Better Performance
T. Hufford, (April) 66
Blowing It: Five Common Air Quality Mistakes T. Kendall
and M. Meyer, (May) 42
Braze Alloy, Understanding the Run-Out Behavior of a Ag-
Cu-Zr P. T. Vianco, C. A. Walker, D. De Smet, A. Kilgo,
B. M. McKenzie, P. M. Kotula, and R. L. Grant, (Feb) 36
Bridging the Gap between Military and Civilian Jobs C.
McCombe, (April) 48
Business Forecast 2017 M. R. Johnsen, (Sept) 28
Carbon Steel Welds, Variables Affecting the Mechanical
Properties of B. Guy, (July) 42
Challenges of Welding Short-Run Pipelines F. J. Nelson
and W. H. Prather, (Nov) 44
Changing the Image of Welding R. Zatezalo, (Oct) 40
Choosing the Right Option, Clean Air 101: C. Widtfeldt,
(Oct) 44
Clean Air 101: Choosing the Right Option C. Widtfeldt,
(Oct) 44
Comfort, Tips for Maximizing Operator A. Monk and D.
Weimer, (Oct) 36
Consumable Life, Antispatter Compound Helps Extend
A. Marchand, (Aug) 84
Cutting: Effect of Oxygen Purity, Oxyfuel E. Meehan and
F. Vonesh, (May) 90
Cutting Wheels, How to Select R. Hopkins, (Dec) 86
D1.1:2015, Structural Welding Code Steel, Summary of
Changes in T. J. Schlafly and D. K. Miller, (Jan) 44
Developing a Procedure for Welding Thermoplastic Seawater
Piping Y. V. Harinath and T. V. Krishna Mohan,
(Nov) 51
Dos and Donts of Welding Information Management
Systems R. Lindeman, (Feb) 92
Equipment Furthers Welding Research Discoveries M. R.
Johnsen, (July) 50
Fabricating without Fear V. Hilton, (Feb) 88
WELDING JOURNAL INDEX
FABTECH, (Nov) 56
FABTECH Canada Continues to Grow M. R. Johnsen,
(June) 82
FABTECH Sets Records in Chicago A. Cullison, M. R.
Johnsen, C. Guzman, K. Campbell, and M. Gomez,
(Jan) 34
Filler Metals for Stainless Steel, Selecting J. Coubrough
and K. Ivarsson, (July) 32
Fire and Ice, Triumph over A. Babinski, (Sept) 32
Fixtures for Tube Welding P. Farley, (June) 78
Football Goal Post Manufacturing, Rethinking C. Wood,
(Aug) 40
Forecast 2017, Business M. R. Johnsen, (Sept) 28
From the Lab to Your Driveway: Aluminum Tailor-Welded
Blanks G. A. Kunkel and Y. Hovanski, (Aug) 36
Fumes, A Guide to Reducing Welding AWS Fumes and
Gases Committee, (Jan) 50
Global Engagement, Preparing for a Future of A. Cullison,
(Dec) 44
Gouging Fundamentals, Plasma C. Darrow, (Dec) 38
Grinder Selection Tips S. J. Guerra, (April) 58
Grinding Practices for Better Performance, Best
T. Hufford, (April) 66
Guide to Reducing Welding Fumes, A AWS Fumes and
Gases Committee, (Jan) 50
Hazard of Transparent Blue Welding Screens, The Hidden,
AWS Safety & Health Committee, (Dec) 82
Helping Students Fill their Professional Toolboxes
A. Babinski, (April) 62
Hitting Pay Dirt, (May) 82
How to Select Cutting Wheels R. Hopkins, (Dec) 86
Image of Welding, Changing the R. Zatezalo, (Oct) 40
Innovations, Power Sources Show Surge in S. Relyea and
R. Zatezalo, (May) 38
International Thermal Spray Association Holds Its Annual
Conference A. Cullison, (July) 46
Japan Welcomes Welding Research Conference, (Sept) 44
Laser Beam Welding Power Using the Force of Light,
Measuring P. Williams, J. Sowards, and B. Simonds,
(March) 30
Laser Light on Jewelry Design, Shining A. Babinski,
(March) 48
Laser Welding, Rethinking Tubes and B. Thompson,
(March) 44
Looking at Large-Scale, Arc-Based Additive Manufacturing
A. Uziel, (April) 42
Low-Energy Impact Spot Welding of High-Strength
Aluminum Alloys A. Vivek, S. M. Wright, T. Lee, G. A.
Taber, and G. S. Daehn, (Feb) 32
Makers Motivate a Continuing-to-Create Community
K. Campbell, (Dec) 32
Measuring Laser Beam Welding Power Using the Force of
Light P. Williams, J. Sowards, and B. Simonds,
(March) 30
New Solutions for Low-Volume, High-Mix Automation
L. Dicaire and I. McLaren, (Sept) 40
Oxyfuel Cutting: Effect of Oxygen Purity E. Meehan and
F. Vonesh, (May) 90
Pipe in Extreme Weather Conditions, Welding
W. C. LAPlante, (June) 72
Pipelines, Challenges of Welding Short-Run F. J. Nelson
and W. H. Prather, (Nov) 44
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 97
Plasma Gouging Fundamentals C. Darrow, (Dec) 38
Power Sources Show Surge in Innovations S. Relyea and
R. Zatezalo, (May) 38
Preparing for a Future of Global Engagement A. Cullison,
(Dec) 44
Process, Thermal Spray The Misunderstood R.
McDemus, (July) 56
Protecting Your Companys Greatest Asset in Four Easy
Steps M. Koltuniak, (May) 34
Reporting for Duty as an Army Welder C. C. Wheeler,
(Aug) 74
Research Conference, Japan Welcomes Welding, (Sept) 44
Research Discoveries, Equipment Furthers Welding M. R.
Johnsen, (July) 50
Rethinking Football Goal Post Manufacturing C. Wood,
(Aug) 40
Rethinking Tubes and Laser Welding B. Thompson,
(March) 44
Robot for Small-Batch Production, Using a Welding
P. Berk, D. Mudronk, and M. Tura, (March) 54
Screens, The Hidden Hazard of Transparent Blue Welding,
AWS Safety & Health Committee, (Dec) 82
Sculptors, ArtPrize Sparks Creativity in Metal A. Babinski
and M. R. Johnsen, (March) 36
Selecting Filler Metals for Stainless Steel J. Coubrough
and K. Ivarsson, (July) 32
Shining Laser Light on Jewelry Design A. Babinski,
(March) 48
Sip on This: Welded Tanks Support Beer Production K.
Campbell, (June) 66
Solar Power to Save Money, Sunny Economics: Using R.
Steffensmeier and A. Van Beek, (July) 38
Spot Welding of High-Strength Aluminum Alloys, Low-
Energy Impact A. Vivek, S. M. Wright, T. Lee, G. A.
Taber, and G. S. Daehn, (Feb) 32
Stainless Steel for the Desalination Industry, Welding
Austenitic SMO 254 M. Sternisha, (June) 60
Structural Welding Code Steel, Summary of Changes in
D1.1:2015 T. J. Schlafly and D. K. Miller, (Jan) 44
Students Fill their Professional Toolboxes, Helpling
A. Babinski, (April) 62
Summary of Changes in D1.1:2015, Structural Welding Code
Steel T. J. Schlafly and D. K. Miller, (Jan) 44
Sunny Economics: Using Solar Power to Save Money R.
Steffensmeier and A. Van Beek, (July) 38
98 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
Techniques for Successful Aluminum Vacuum-Brazed
Assemblies R. Caracciolo, T. Delahanty, J. Giglio, and
G. Baldassarre, (Feb) 44
Technology to Help You Teach, Using J. McIntosh,
(Aug) 80
The Cat Way Building One Trike at a Time M. Gomez,
(Aug) 30
The Hidden Hazard of Transparent Blue Welding Screens,
AWS Safety & Health Committee, (Dec) 82
Thermal Spray The Misunderstood Process R.
McDemus, (July) 56
Thermoplastic Seawater Piping, Developing a Procedure for
Welding Y. V. Harinath and T. V. Krishna Mohan,
(Nov) 51
Tips for Maximizing Operator Comfort A. Monk and D.
Weimer, (Oct) 36
Trike at a Time, The Cat Way Building One M. Gomez,
(Aug) 30
Triumph over Fire and Ice A. Babinski, (Sept) 32
Tube Welding, Fixtures for P. Farley, (June) 78
Understanding the Run-Out Behavior of a Ag-Cu-Zr Braze
Alloy P. T. Vianco, C. A. Walker, D. De Smet, A. Kilgo,
B. M. McKenzie, P. M. Kotula, and R. L. Grant, (Feb) 36
Using a Welding Robot for Small-Batch Production
P. Berk, D. Mudronk, and M. Tura, (March) 54
Using Technology to Help You Teach J. McIntosh,
(Aug) 80
Variables Affecting the Mechanical Properties of Carbon
Steel Welds B. Guy, (July) 42
Welded Tanks Support Beer Production, Sip on This:
K. Campbell, (June) 66
Welder, Reporting for Duty as an Army C. C. Wheeler,
(Aug) 74
Welding Austenitic SMO 254 Stainless Steel for the
Desalination Industry M. Sternisha, (June) 60
Welding in Four-Part Harmony: Developing an Advanced
Welding Sytem M. Albright, (April) 54
Welding Information Management Systems, Dos and
Donts of R. Lindeman, (Feb) 92
Welding Pipe in Extreme Weather Conditions
W. C. LAPlante, (June) 72
Welding System, Welding in Four-Part Harmony:
Developing an Advanced M. Albright, (April) 54
Wendy the Welder to the Rescue A. Babinski, (May) 86
What Welding Means to Me K. Campbell, (Oct) 32
 AUTHORS FOR FEATURE ARTICLES
Albright, M. Welding in Four-Part Harmony: Developing
an Advanced Welding System, (April) 54
AWS Fumes and Gases Committee A Guide to Reducing
Welding Fumes, (Jan) 50
AWS Safety & Health Committee The Hidden Hazard of
Transparent Blue Welding Screens, (Dec) 82
Babinski, A. Helping Students Fill their Professional
Toolboxes, (April) 62
Babinski, A. Shining Laser Light on Jewelry Design,
(March) 48
Babinski, A. Triumph over Fire and Ice, (Sept) 32
Babinski, A. Wendy the Welder to the Rescue, (May) 86
Babinski, A., and Johnsen, M. R. ArtPrize Sparks
Creativity in Metal Sculptors, (March) 36
Baldassarre, G., Caracciolo, R., Delahanty, T., and Giglio, J.
Techniques for Successful Aluminum Vacuum-Brazed
Assemblies, (Feb) 44
Berk, P., Mudronk, D., and Tura, M. Using a Welding Ivarsson, K., and Coubrough, J. Selecting Filler Metals
Robot for Small-Batch Production, (March) 54
Brown, R. Answering Automation Challenges, (Sept) 36
Campbell, K. Makers Motivate a Continuing-to-Create
Community, (Dec) 32
Campbell, K. Sip on This: Welded Tanks Support Beer
Production, (June) 66
Campbell, K. What Welding Means to Me, (Oct) 32
Campbell, K., Gomez, M., Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., and
Guzman, C. FABTECH Sets Records in Chicago,
(Jan) 34
Caracciolo, R., Delahanty, T., Giglio, J., and Baldassarre, G.
Techniques for Successful Aluminum Vacuum-Brazed
Assemblies, (Feb) 44
Coubrough, J., and Ivarsson, K. Selecting Filler Metals
for Stainless Steel, (July) 32
Cullison, A. International Thermal Spray Association
Holds Its Annual Conference, (July) 46
Cullison, A. Preparing for a Future of Global
Engagement, (Dec) 44
Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., Guzman, C., Campbell, K., and
Gomez, M. FABTECH Sets Records in Chicago,
(Jan) 34
Daehn, G. S., Vivek, A., Wright, S. M., Lee, T., and Taber, G.
A. Low-Energy Impact Spot Welding of High-Strength
Aluminum Alloys, (Feb) 32
Darrow, C. Plasma Gouging Fundamentals, (Dec) 38
De Smet, D., Kilgo, A., McKenzie, B. M., Kotula, P. M.,
Grant, R. L., Vianco, P. T., and Walker, C. A.
Understanding the Run-Out Behavior of a Ag-Cu-Zr
Braze Alloy, (Feb) 36
Delahanty, T., Giglio, J., Baldassarre, G., and Caracciolo, R.
Techniques for Successful Aluminum Vacuum-Brazed
Assemblies, (Feb) 44
Dicaire, L., and McLaren, I. New Solutions for Low-
Volume, High-Mix Automation, (Sept) 40
Farley, P. Fixtures for Tube Welding, (June) 78
Giglio, J., Baldassarre, G., Caracciolo, R., and Delahanty, T.
Techniques for Successful Aluminum Vacuum-Brazed
Assemblies, (Feb) 44
Gomez, M. The Cat Way Building One Trike at a Time,
(Aug) 30
Gomez, M., Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., Guzman, C., and
Campbell, K. FABTECH Sets Records in Chicago,
(Jan) 34
Grant, R. L., Vianco, P. T., Walker, C. A., De Smet, D.,
Kilgo, A., McKenzie, B. M., and Kotula, P. M.
Understanding the Run-Out Behavior of a Ag-Cu-Zr
Braze Alloy, (Feb) 36
Guerra, S. J. Grinder Selection Tips, (April) 58
Guy, B. Variables Affecting the Mechanical Properties of
Carbon Steel Welds, (July) 42
Guzman, C., Campbell, K., Gomez, M., Cullison, A., and
Johnsen, M. R. FABTECH Sets Records in Chicago,
(Jan) 34
Harinath, Y. V., and Krishna Mohan, T. V. Developing a
Procedure for Welding Thermoplastic Seawater Piping,
(Nov) 51
Hilton, V. Fabricating without Fear, (Feb) 88
Hopkins, R. How to Select Cutting Wheels, (Dec) 86
Hovanski, Y., and Kunkel, G. A. From the Lab to Your
Driveway: Aluminum Tailor-Welded Blanks, (Aug) 36
Hufford, T. Best Grinding Practices for Better
Performance, (April) 66
for Stainless Steel, (July) 32
Johnsen, M. R. Business Forecast 2017, (Sept) 28
Johnsen, M. R. Equipment Furthers Welding Research
Discoveries, (July) 50
Johnsen, M. R. FABTECH Canada Continues to Grow,
(June) 82
Johnsen, M. R., and Babinski, A. ArtPrize Sparks
Creativity in Metal Sculptors, (March) 36
Johnsen, M. R., Guzman, C., Campbell, K., Gomez, M., and
Cullison, A. FABTECH Sets Records in Chicago,
(Jan) 34
Kendall, T., and Meyer, M. Blowing It: Five Common Air
Quality Mistakes, (May) 42
Kilgo, A., McKenzie, B. M., Kotula, P. M., Grant, R. L.,
Vianco, P. T., Walker, C. A. and De Smet, D.
Understanding the Run-Out Behavior of a Ag-Cu-Zr
Braze Alloy, (Feb) 36
Koltuniak, M. Protecting Your Companys Greatest Asset
in Four Easy Steps, (May) 34
Kotula, P. M., Grant, R. L., Vianco, P. T., Walker, C. A.,
De Smet, D., Kilgo, A., and McKenzie, B. M.
Understanding the Run-Out Behavior of a Ag-Cu-Zr
Braze Alloy, (Feb) 36
Krishna Mohan, T. V., and Harinath, Y. V. Developing a
Procedure for Welding Thermoplastic Seawater Piping
(Nov) 51
Kunkel, G. A., and Hovanski, Y. From the Lab to Your
Driveway: Aluminum Tailor-Welded Blanks, (Aug) 36
LAPlante, W. C. Welding Pipe in Extreme Weather
Conditions, (June) 72
Lee, T., Taber, G. A., Daehn, G. S., Vivek, A., and Wright,
S. M. Low-Energy Impact Spot Welding of High-
Strength Aluminum Alloys, (Feb) 32
Lindeman, R. Dos and Donts of Welding Information
Management Systems, (Feb) 92
Marchand, A. Antispatter Compound Helps Extend
Consumable Life, (Aug) 84
McCombe, C. Bridging the Gap between Military and
Civilian Jobs, (April) 48
McDemus, R. Thermal Spray The Misunderstood
Process, (July) 56
McIntosh, J. Using Technology to Help You Teach,
(Aug) 80
McKenzie, B. M., Kotula, P. M., Grant, R. L., Vianco, P. T.,
Walker, C. A., De Smet, D., and Kilgo, A. Under-
standing the Run-Out Behavior of a Ag-Cu-Zr Braze
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 99
 Alloy, (Feb) 36
McLaren, I., and Dicaire, L. New Solutions for Low-
Volume, High-Mix Automation, (Sept) 40
Meehan, E., and Vonesh, F. Oxyfuel Cutting: Effect of
Oxygen Purity, (May) 90
Meyer, M., and Kendall, T. Blowing It: Five Common Air
Quality Mistakes, (May) 42
Miller, D. K., and Schlafly, T. J. Summary of Changes in
D1.1:2015, Structural Welding Code Steel, (Jan) 44
Monk, A., and Weimer, D. Tips for Maximizing Operator
Comfort, (Oct) 36
Mudronk, D., Tura, M. and Berk, P. Using a Welding
Robot for Small-Batch Production, (March) 54
Nelson, F. J., and Prather, W. H. Challenges of Welding
Short-Run Pipelines, (Nov) 44
Prather, W. H., and Nelson, F. J. Challenges of Welding
Short-Run Pipelines, (Nov) 44
Relyea, S., and Zatezalo, R. Power Sources Show Surge in
Innovations, (May) 38
Schlafly, T. J., and Miller, D. K. Summary of Changes in
D1.1:2015, Structural Welding Code Steel, (Jan) 44
Simonds, B., Williams, P., and Sowards, J. Measuring
Laser Beam Welding Power Using the Force of Light,
(March) 30
Sowards, J., Simonds, B., and Williams, P. Measuring
Laser Beam Welding Power Using the Force of Light,
(March) 30
Steffensmeier, R., and Van Beek, A. Sunny Economics:
Using Solar Power to Save Money, (July) 38
Sternisha, M. Welding Austenitic SMO 254 Stainless
Steel for the Desalination Industry, (June) 60
Taber, G. A., Daehn, G. S., Vivek, A., Wright, S. M., and Lee,
T. Low-Energy Impact Spot Welding of High-Strength
Aluminum Alloys, (Feb) 32
Thompson, B. Rethinking Tubes and Laser Welding
(March) 44
100 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
Tura, M., Berk, P., and Mudronk, D. Using a Welding
Robot for Small-Batch Production, (March) 54
Uziel, A. Looking at Large-Scale, Arc-Based Additive
Manufacturing, (April) 42
Van Beek, A., and Steffensmeier, R. Sunny Economics:
Using Solar Power to Save Money, (July) 38
Vianco, P. T., Walker, C. A., De Smet, D., Kilgo, A.,
McKenzie, B. M., Kotula, P. M. and Grant, R. L.
Understanding the Run-Out Behavior of a Ag-Cu-Zr
Braze Alloy, (Feb) 36
Vivek, A., Wright, S. M., Lee, T., Taber, G. A., and Daehn, G.
S. Low-Energy Impact Spot Welding of High-Strength
Aluminum Alloys, (Feb) 32
Vonesh, F., and Meehan, E. Oxyfuel Cutting: Effect of
Oxygen Purity, (May) 90
Walker, C. A., De Smet, D., Kilgo, A., Mckenzie, B. M.,
Kotula, P. M., Grant, R. L. and Vianco, P. T. Under-
standing the Run-Out Behavior of a Ag-Cu-Zr Braze
Alloy, (Feb) 36
Weimer, D., and Monk, A. Tips for Maximizing Operator
Comfort, (Oct) 36
Wheeler, C. C. Reporting for Duty as an Army Welder,
(Aug) 74
Widtfeldt, C. Clean Air 101: Choosing the Right Option,
(Oct) 44
Williams, P., Sowards, J., and Simonds, B. Measuring
Laser Beam Welding Power Using the Force of Light,
(March) 30
Wood, C. Rethinking Football Goal Post Manufacturing,
(Aug) 40
Wright, S. M., Lee, T., Taber, G. A., Daehn, G. S., and Vivek,
A. Low-Energy Impact Spot Welding of High-Strength
Aluminum Alloys, (Feb) 32
Zatezalo, R. Changing the Image of Welding, (Oct) 40
Zatezalo, R., and Relyea, S. Power Sources Show Surge in
Innovations, (May) 38
 Part 2 RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT SUBJECT INDEX VOLUME 95
2015 Adams Lecture Engineering Approximations in
Welding: Bridging the Gap between Speculation and
Simulation C. V. Robino, (Jan) 1-s
A Residual Stress Study in Similar and Dissimilar Welds
H. Eisazadeh, J. Bunn, H. E. Coules, A. Achuthan,
J. Goldak, and D. K. Aidun, (April) 111-s
Adams Lecture Engineering Approximations in Welding:
Bridging the Gap between Speculation and Simulation,
2015 C. V. Robino, (Jan) 1-s
Alloy 690 Welds Experiments, Modeling, Mechanism,
and Remedy, Porosity in Thick Section J. J. Blecher,
T. A. Palmer, and T. Debroy, (Jan) 17-s
Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot Welds under Tensile-Shear
Loads, Failure Mode Transition of Triple-Thin-Sheet
Y. Li, Y. Zhan, Z. Luo, H. Shan, Y. Feng, and Z. Ling, (Dec)
479-s
Aluminum Joint, Ultrasonic-Induced Rising and Wetting of
a Sn-Zn Filler in an Z. Xu, L. Ma, J. Yang, J. Zhang,
and J. Yan, (July) 264-s
Aluminum-Steel Joints, Workpiece Positioning during
Magnetic Pulse Welding of A. Lorenz, J. Lueg-Althoff,
J. Bellman, G. Gbel, S. Gies, C. Weddeling, E. Beyer, and
A. E. Tekkaya, (March) 101-s
Arc Stability in Divided-Arc Processes, Effect of Torch
Height on S. J. Chen, L. Zhang, G. Q. Men, Y. X. Song,
S. Su, and L. W. Wang, (Feb) 47-s
Arc Stud Welding on the Properties of the Welded Joint,
The Effect of an Al Tip in M. Gholam Bargani, F.
Malek Ghaini, and A. Mazroi, (May) 157-s
Brazing Molybdenum and Graphite with a Titanium-Based
Powder Filler Metal I. V. Fedotov, C. E. Richman, O. N.
Sevryukov, A. N. Suchkov, J. Li, B. A. Kalin, V. T. Fedotov,
and A. A. Ivannikov, (Sept) 357-s
Calculation of Solid Wire Melting Rate in CO2 Welding
Y. L. Chang and A. S. Babkin, (May) 163-s
Cathode Centered Negative Pressure Arc, Hollow
F. Jiang, S. J. Chen, R. Y. Zhang, Z. Y. Yan, J. X. Wang,
and Y. M. Zhang, (Oct) 395-s
Characterization of Constitutive Behavior of Dissimilar
Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot Welds J. Kang, B.
Shalchi-Amirkhiz, Y. Chen, D. R. Sigler, and B. E. Carlson,
(July) 248-s
Chromium Emissions during Welding in an Aluminum
Shipbuilding Environment T. N. McManus and
A. N. Haddad, (March) 86-s
Classification of Metal Transfer Mode in Underwater Wet
Welding N. Guo, Y. Fu, J. Feng, Y. Du, Z. Deng,
M. Wang, and D. Tang, (April) 133-s
CO2 Welding, Calculation of Solid Wire Melting Rate in
Y. L. Chang and A. S. Babkin, (May) 163-s
Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) GMAW of Zinc-Coated Steel
MD. R. U. Ahsan, Y. R. Kim, R. Ashiri, Y. J. Cho, C. Jeong,
and Y. D. Park, (April) 120-s
Constitutional Liquation of the Laves Phase in Virgin FB2
Steel K. Li, Z. Cai, Y. Li, and J. Pan, (July) 257-s
Cracking in Partially Melted Zones of Magnesium Welds,
Liquation and Liquation X. Chai, T. Yuan, and S. Kou,
(Feb) 57-s
Cracking Susceptibility of Ni-30Cr Weld Metals with
Variable Niobium and Molybdenum, Solidification
R. A. Wheeling and J. C. Lippold, (July) 229-s
Creep-Fatigue Life, Multiphysics Modeling of a Welded
Furnace Roll for Improving Y. P. Yang and W. C. Mohr
(Nov) 431-s
Current-Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed Laser
Irradiation Part 1: System and Verification J. Xiao,
S. J. Chen, G. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (March) 93-s
Current-Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed Laser
Irradiation Part 2: Affecting Factors J. Xiao,
S. J. Chen, G. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (June) 194-s
Diagrams, Laser Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless
Steel: Part 2 Weldability S. B. Tate, D. A. Javernick,
T. J. Lienert, and S. Liu, (Nov) 409-s
Diffusion Soldering of a Pd/Ni Couple Using a Sn Thin-Film
Interlayer C.-H. Chuang and Y.-C. Lin (Nov) 442-s
Dissimilar Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot Welds,
Characterization of Constitutive Behavior of J. Kang,
B. Shalchi-Amirkhiz, Y. Chen, D. R. Sigler, and B. E.
Carlson, (July) 248-s
Dissimilar FSX-414/IN738 System with MBF80 Interlayer:
Optimization of the Bonding Time and Temperature,
TLP Bonding of B. Abbasi-Khazaei, G. Asghari, and
R. Bakhtiari, (Feb) 68-s
Effect of Ar-CO2 Gas Blends on Droplet Temperature in
GMAW C. McIntosh, J. Chapuis, and P. Mendez,
(Aug) 273-s
Effect of Torch Height on Arc Stability in Divided-Arc
Processes S. J. Chen, L. Zhang, G. Q. Men, Y. X. Song,
S. Su, and L. W. Wang, (Feb) 47-s
Effects of Ultrasonic Power on the Hardness of Aluminum
3003-H18 Alloy K. Sojiphan, S. S. Babu, A. Benatar, A.
Manonukul, and Norfolk, M. (June) 185-s
Evolution of Welding-Fume Aerosols with Time and
Distance from the Source L. G. Cena, B. T. Chen, and
M. J. Keane, (Aug) 280-s
Failure Mode Transition of Triple-Thin-Sheet Aluminum
Alloy Resistance Spot Welds under Tensile-Shear Loads
Y. Li, Y. Zhan, Z. Luo, H. Shan, Y. Feng, and Z. Ling,
(Dec) 479-s
FCAW, Visual Sensing of the Physical Process during
Underwater Wet C. B. Jia, Y. Zhang, B. Zhao, J. K. Hu,
and C. S. Wu, (June) 202-s
Fiber Laser Welding of Al-Si-Coated Press-Hardened Steel
D. C. Saha, E. Biro, A. P. Gerlich, and Y. N. Zhou,
(May) 147-s
Flux Composition on the Performance of a Nickel-Based
Alloy Covered Electrode for 9% Ni Steel Welding,
Influence of H. Wang and G. He, (Dec) 467-s
Friction Stir Welding on Thick Nylon 6 Plates, Investigating
A. Zafar, M. Awang, S. R. Khan, and S. Emamian,
(June) 210-s
Fume Aerosols with Time and Distance from the Source,
Evolution of Welding L. G. Cena, B. T. Chen, and
M. J. Keane, (Aug) 280-s
Gas Metal Arc Welding, Ni-WC Hardfacing by P. Yu, X.
Chai, D. Landwehr, and S. Kou, (Dec) 451-s
Gas Metal Arc Welding, Undercutting Formation
Mechanism in R. Zong, J. Chen, C. S. Wu, and
M. A. Chen, (May) 174-s
Girth Welding of API 5L X70 and X80 Sour Service Pipes
G. Z. Batista, L. Da P. Carvalho, M. S. Da Silva, and
M. P. Souza, (Oct) 363-s
GMAW, Effect of Ar-CO2 Gas Blends on Droplet
Temperature in C. McIntosh, J. Chapuis, and
P. Mendez, (Aug) 273-s
GMAW, Identification of Welding Parameters for Quality
Welds in A. S. Babkin and E. A. Gladkov, (Jan) 37-s
GMAW of 7A52 Aluminum Alloy,Pulsed Ultrasonic-Wave-
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 101
 Assisted W. F. Xie, C. L. Fan, C. L. Yang, and S. B. Lin,
(July) 239s
GMAW of Zinc-Coated Steel, Cold Metal Transfer (CMT)
MD. R. U. Ahsan, Y. R. Kim, R. Ashiri, Y. J. Cho, C. Jeong,
and Y. D. Park, (April) 120-s
Graphite with a Titanium-Based Powder Filler Metal,
Brazing Molybdenum and I. V. Fedotov, C. E.
Richman, O. N. Sevryukov, A. N. Suchkov, J. Li, B. A.
Kalin, V. T. Fedotov, and A. A. Ivannikov, (Sept) 357-s
Hardfacing by Gas Metal Arc Welding, Ni-WC P. Yu, X.
Chai, D. Landwehr, and S. Kou, (Dec) 451-s
Hardfacing for Cr5Mo1V-RE Alloy, Temperature and Stress
Simulation of the J. Yang, J. Huang, D. Fan, Z. Ye,
S. Chen, and X. Zhao, (Aug) 309-s
Hardsurface Coatings, Low-Stress Abrasion Behaviors of
Fe-Cr-C (1.4~5.6 wt-%) S. Liu, Y. F. Zhou, X. L. Xing,
J. B. Wang, Y. K. Gao, Y. L. Yang and Q. X. Yang, (Sept)
325-s
Heat-Affected Zone in Type IV Failure of P91 Welds,
Microstructure Evolution of Fine-Grained Y. Wang
and L. Li, (Jan) 27-s
High-Speed GTAW of Different Weld Penetrations,
Humping Phenomena in X. Meng, G. Qin, X. Bai,
and Z. Zou, (Sept) 331-s
Humping Phenomena in High-Speed GTAW of Different
Weld Penetrations X. Meng, G. Qin, X. Bai, and Z. Zou,
(Sept) 331-s
Hollow Cathode Centered Negative Pressure Arc F. Jiang,
S. J. Chen, R. Y. Zhang, Z. Y. Yan, J. X. Wang, and Y. M.
Zhang, (Oct) 395-s
Identification of Welding Parameters for Quality Welds in
GMAW A. S. Babkin and E. A. Gladkov, (Jan) 37-s
Impurity Effects and Solidification Mode, Laser Weldability
of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless Steel: Part I S. B. Tate, D.
A. Javernick, T. J. Lienert, and S. Liu, (Oct) 371-s
Influence of Al Interlayer Thickness on Laser Welding of
Mg/Steel C. W. Tan, B. Chen, X. G. Song, L. Zhou, S. H.
Meng, L. Q. Li, and J. C. Feng (Oct) 384-s
Influence of Flux Composition on the Performance of a
Nickel-Based Alloy Covered Electrode for 9% Ni Steel
Welding H. Wang and G. He, (Dec) 467-s
Interlayer, Diffusion Soldering of a Pd/Ni Couple Using a Sn
Thin-Film C.-H. Chuang and Y.-C. Lin (Nov) 442-s
Investigating Friction Stir Welding on Thick Nylon 6 Plates
A. Zafar, M. Awang, S. R. Khan, and S. Emamian,
(June) 210-s
Laser Irradiation Part 1: System and Verification, Current-
Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed J. Xiao,
S. J. Chen, G. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (March) 93-s
Laser Irradiation Part 2: Affecting Factors, Current-
Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed J. Xiao,
S. J. Chen, G. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (June) 194-s
Laser Keyhole Weld Porosity and Weld Geometry in
Commercially Pure Titanium and Nickel, The Effect of
Reduced Pressure on J. W. Elmer, J. Vaja, and H. D.
Carlton, (Nov) 419-s
Laser Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless Steel: Part 1
Impurity Effects and Solidification Mode S. B. Tate,
D. A. Javernick, T. J. Lienert, and S. Liu, (Oct) 371-s
Laser Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless Steel: Part 2
Weldability Diagrams S. B. Tate, D. A. Javernick,
T. J. Lienert, and S. Liu, (Nov) 409-s
Laser Welding for Heavy Sections in ITER, Ultra-Narrow-
Groove S. K. Wu, J. L. Zou, R. S. Xiao, and G. W Zhang,
(Aug) 300-s
Laser Welding of Al-Si-Coated Press-Hardened Steel, Fiber
D. C. Saha, E. Biro, A. P. Gerlich, and Y. N. Zhou,
102 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
(May) 147-s
Laser Welding of Mg/Steel, Influence of Al Interlayer
Thickness on C. W. Tan, B. Chen, X. G. Song, L. Zhou,
S. H. Meng, L. Q. Li, and J. C. Feng (Oct) 384-s
Liquation and Liquation Cracking in Partially Melted Zones
of Magnesium Welds X. Chai, T. Yuan, and S. Kou,
(Feb) 57-s
Liquation of the Laves Phase in Virgin FB2 Steel,
Constitutional K. Li, Z. Cai, Y. Li, and J. Pan, (July)
257-s
Low-Stress Abrasion Behavior of Fe-Cr-C (1.4~5.6 wt-%)
Hardsurface Coatings S. Liu, Y. F. Zhou, X. L. Xing,
J. B. Wang, Y. K. Gao, Y. L. Yang and Q. X. Yang, (Sept)
325-s
Magnesium Welds, Liquation and Liquation Cracking in
Partially Melted Zones of X. Chai, T. Yuan, and S. Kou,
(Feb) 57-s
Magnetic Pulse Welding of Aluminum-Steel Joints,
Workpiece Positioning during A. Lorenz,
J. Lueg-Althoff, J. Bellman, G. Gbel, S. Gies, C.
Weddeling, E. Beyer, and A. E. Tekkaya, (March) 101-s
Measurement and Application of Arc Separability in Plasma
Arc S. J. Chen, R. Y. Zhang, F. Jiang, Z. Y. Yan,
and Y. M. Zhang, (June) 219-s
Metal Transfer in the Cross-Arc Welding Process
L. Zhang, S. J. Chen, Y. X. Song, J. Wang, and W. Lin,
(Sept) 340-s
Microstructure Evolution of Fine-Grained Heat-Affected
Zone in Type IV Failure of P91 Welds Y. Wang and
L. Li, (Jan) 27-s
Microwave Joining Part 1: Closed-Loop Controlled
Microwave Soldering of Lead Telluride to Copper
D. Hoyt, Y. Adonyi, and S. Kim, (April) 141-s
Modeling of a Welded Furnace Roll for Improving Creep-
Fatigue Life, Multiphysics Y. P. Yang and
W. C. Mohr (Nov) 431-s
Molybdenum and Graphite with a Titanium-Based Powder
Filler Metal, Brazing I. V. Fedotov, C. E. Richman, O.
N. Sevryukov, A. N. Suchkov, J. Li, B. A. Kalin, V. T.
Fedotov, and A. A. Ivannikov, (Sept) 357-s
Multiphysics Modeling of a Welded Furnace Roll for
Improving Creep-Fatigue Life Y. P. Yang and
W. C. Mohr (Nov) 431-s
Ni-WC Hardfacing by Gas Metal Arc Welding P. Yu, X.
Chai, D. Landwehr, and S. Kou, (Dec) 451-s
Nickel-Based Alloy Covered Electrode for 9% Ni Steel
Welding, Influence of Flux Composition on the
Performance of a H. Wang and G. He, (Dec) 467-s
Optical and Spectroscopic Study of a Submerged Arc
Welding Cavern G Gtt, A. Gericke, K-M Henkel, and
D. Uhrlandt, (Dec) 491-s
P91 Welds, Microstructure Evolution of Fine-Grained Heat-
Affected Zone in Type IV Failure of Y. Wang and L. Li,
(Jan) 27-s
Pipes, Girth Welding of API 5L X70 and X80 Sour Service
G. Z. Batista, L. Da P. Carvalho, M. S. Da Silva, and
M. P. Souza, (Oct) 363-s
Plasma Arc, Measurement and Application of Arc
Separability in S. J. Chen, R. Y. Zhang, F. Jiang,
Z. Y. Yan, and Y. M. Zhang, (June) 219-s
Porosity and Weld Geometry in Commercially Pure
Titanium and Nickel, The Effect of Reduced Pressure on
Laser Keyhole Weld J. W. Elmer, J. Vaja, and H. D.
Carlton, (Nov) 419-s
Porosity in Thick Section Alloy 690 Welds Experiments,
Modeling, Mechanism, and Remedy J. J. Blecher,
T. A. Palmer, and T. Debroy, (Jan) 17-s
Pressure Arc, Hollow Cathode Centered Negative
F. Jiang, S. J. Chen, R. Y. Zhang, Z. Y. Yan, J. X. Wang,
and Y. M. Zhang, (Oct) 395-s
Projection Welding with Pneumatic and Servomechanical
Electrode Operating Force Systems Z. Mikno,
(Aug) 286-s
Pulsed Laser Irradiation Part 1: System and Verification,
Current-Independent Metal Transfer by Using J. Xiao,
S. J. Chen, G. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (March) 93-s
Pulsed Laser Irradiation Part 2: Affecting Factors, Current-
Independent Metal Transfer by Using J. Xiao,
S. J. Chen, G. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (June) 194-s
Pulsed Ultrasonic-Wave-Assisted GMAW of 7A52
Aluminum Alloy W. F. Xie, C. L. Fan, C. L. Yang, and S.
B. Lin, (July) 239s
Resistance Spot Weldability of Deformed TRIP800 Steel
H. E. Emre, and R. Kaar, (March) 77-s
Resistance Spot Welds, Characterization of Constitutive
Behavior of Dissimilar Aluminum Alloy J. Kang, B.
Shalchi-Amirkhiz, Y. Chen, D. R. Sigler, and B. E. Carlson,
(July) 248-s
Resistance Spot Welds under Tensile-Shear Loads, Failure
Mode Transition of Triple-Thin-Sheet Aluminum Alloy
Y. Li, Y. Zhan, Z. Luo, H. Shan, Y. Feng, and Z. Ling, (Dec)
479-s
Shipbuilding Environment, Chromium Emissions during
Welding in an Aluminum T. N. McManus and
A. N. Haddad, (March) 86-s
Soldering of a Pd/Ni Couple Using a Sn Thin-Film Interlayer
C.-H. Chuang and Y.-C. Lin, (Nov) 442-s
Soldering of Lead Telluride to Copper, Microwave Joining
Part 1: Closed-Loop Controlled Microwave D. Hoyt,
Y. Adonyi, and S. Kim, (April) 141-s
Solidification Cracking Susceptibility of Ni-30Cr Weld
Metals with Variable Niobium and Molybdenum
R. A. Wheeling and J. C. Lippold, (July) 229-s
Sour Service Pipes, Girth Welding of API 5L X70 and X80
G. Z. Batista, L. Da P. Carvalho, M. S. Da Silva, and
M. P. Souza, (Oct) 363-s
Stainless Steel: Part 1 Impurity Effects and Solidification
Mode, Laser Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn S. B. Tate,
D. A. Javernick, T. J. Lienert, and S. Liu, (Oct) 371-s
Stainless Steel: Part 2 Weldability Diagrams, Laser
Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn S. B. Tate, D. A.
Javernick, T. J. Lienert, and S. Liu, (Nov) 409-s
Stud Welding on the Properties of the Welded Joint, The
Effect of an Al Tip in Arc M. Gholam Bargani, F. Malek
Ghaini, and A. Mazroi, (May) 157-s
Submerged Arc Welding Cavern, Optical and Spectroscopic
Study of a G Gtt, A. Gericke, K-M Henkel, and D.
Uhrlandt, (Dec) 491-s
Temperature and Stress Simulation of the Hardfacing for
Cr5Mo1V-RE Alloy J. Yang, J. Huang, D. Fan, Z. Ye,
S. Chen, and X. Zhao, (Aug) 309-s
The Effect of an Al Tip in Arc Stud Welding on the
Properties of the Welded Joint M. Gholam Bargani,
F. Malek Ghaini, and A. Mazroi, (May) 157-s
The Effect of Reduced Pressure on Laser Keyhole Weld
Porosity and Weld Geometry in Commercially Pure
Titanium and Nickel J. W. Elmer, J. Vaja, and H. D.
Carlton, (Nov) 419-s
Titanium and Nickel, The Effect of Reduced Pressure on
Laser Keyhole Weld Porosity and Weld Geometry in
Commercially Pure J. W. Elmer, J. Vaja, and H. D.
Carlton, (Nov) 419-s
Titanium-Based Powder Filler Metal, Brazing Molybdenum
and Graphite with a I. V. Fedotov, C. E. Richman, O.
N. Sevryukov, A. N. Suchkov, J. Li, B. A. Kalin, V. T.
Fedotov, and A. A. Ivannikov, (Sept) 357-s
TLP Bonding of Dissimilar FSX-414/IN738 System with
MBF80 Interlayer: Optimization of the Bonding Time
and Temperature B. Abbasi-Khazaei, G. Asghari, and
R. Bakhtiari, (Feb) 68-s
Torch Height on Arc Stability in Divided-Arc Processes,
Effect of S. J. Chen, L. Zhang, G. Q. Men, Y. X. Song,
S. Su, and L. W. Wang, (Feb) 47-s
Transfer in the Cross-Arc Welding Process, Metal
L. Zhang, S. J. Chen, Y. X. Song, J. Wang, and W. Lin,
(Sept) 340-s
TRIP800 Steel, Resistance Spot Weldability of Deformed
H. E. Emre, and R. Kaar, (March) 77-s
Ultra-Narrow-Groove Laser Welding for Heavy Sections in
ITER S. K. Wu, J. L. Zou, R. S. Xiao, and G. W. Zhang,
(Aug) 300-s
Ultrasonic-Induced Rising and Wetting of a Sn-Zn Filler in
an Aluminum Joint Z. Xu, L. Ma, J. Yang, J. Zhang,
and J. Yan (July) 264-s
Ultrasonic Power on the Hardness of Aluminum 3003-H18
Alloy, Effects of K. Sojiphan, S. S. Babu, A. Benatar, A.
Manonukul, and Norfolk, M. (June) 185-s
Ultrasonic-Wave-Assisted GMAW of 7A52 Aluminum Alloy,
Pulsed W. F. Xie, C. L. Fan, C. L. Yang, and S. B. Lin,
(July) 239-s
Undercutting Formation Mechanism in Gas Metal Arc
Welding R. Zong, J. Chen, C. S. Wu, and M. A. Chen,
(May) 174-s
Underwater Wet FCAW, Visual Sensing of the Physical
Process during C. B. Jia, Y. Zhang, B. Zhao, J. K. Hu,
and C. S. Wu, (June) 202-s
Underwater Wet Welding, Classification of Metal Transfer
Mode in N. Guo, Y. Fu, J. Feng, Y. Du, Z. Deng,
M. Wang, and D. Tang, (April) 133-s
Visual Sensing of the Physical Process during Underwater
Wet FCAW C. B. Jia, Y. Zhang, B. Zhao, J. K. Hu,
and C. S. Wu, (June) 202-s
Welding: Bridging the Gap between Speculation and
Simulation, 2015 Adams Lecture Engineering
Approximations in C. V. Robino, (Jan) 1-s
Welding with Pneumatic and Servo-mechanical Electrode
Operating Force Systems, Projection Welding
Z. Mikno, (Aug) 286-s
Welds, A Residual Stress Study in Similar and Dissimilar
H. Eisazadeh, J. Bunn, H. E. Coules, A. Achuthan, J.
Goldak, and D. K. Aidun, (April) 111-s
Workpiece Positioning during Magnetic Pulse Welding of
Aluminum-Steel Joints A. Lorenz, J. Lueg-Althoff,
J. Bellman, G. Gbel, S. Gies, C. Weddeling, E. Beyer, and
A. E. Tekkaya, (March) 101-s
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 103
 AUTHORS FOR RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT
Abbasi-Khazaei, B., Asghari, G., and Bakhtiari, R. TLP
Bonding of Dissimilar FSX-414/IN738 System with
MBF80 Interlayer: Optimization of the Bonding Time
and Temperature, (Feb) 68-s
Achuthan, A., Goldak, J., Aidun, D. K., Eisazadeh, H.,
Bunn, J., and Coules, H. E. A Residual Stress Study
in Similar and Dissimilar Welds, (April) 111-s
Adonyi, Y., Kim, S., and Hoyt, D. Microwave Joining
Part 1: Closed-Loop Controlled Microwave Soldering of
Lead Telluride to Copper, (April) 141-s
Ahsan, MD. R. U., Kim, Y. R., Ashiri, R., Cho, Y. J., Jeong, C.,
and Park, Y. D. Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) GMAW of
Zinc-Coated Steel, (April) 120-s
Aidun, D. K., Eisazadeh, H., Bunn, J., Coules, H. E.,
Achutahm, A., and Goldak, J. A Residual Stress Study
in Similar and Dissimilar Welds, (April) 111-s
Asghari, G., Bakhtiari, R., and Abbasi-Khazaei, B. TLP
Bonding of Dissimilar FSX-414/IN738 System with
MBF80 Interlayer: Optimization of the Bonding Time
and Temperature, (Feb) 68-s
Ashiri, R., Cho, Y. J., Jeong, C., Park, Y. D., Ahsan, MD. R.
U., and Kim. Y. R. Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) GMAW
of Zinc-Coated Steel, (April) 120-s
Awang, M., Khan, S. R., Emamian, S., and Zafar, A.
Investigating Friction Stir Welding on Thick Nylon 6
Plates, (June) 210-s
Babkin, A. S., and Chang, Y. L. Calculation of Solid Wire
Melting Rate in CO2 Welding, (May) 163-s
Babkin, A. S., and Gladkov, E. A. Identification of
Welding Parameters for Quality Welds in GMAW,
(Jan) 37-s
Babu, S. S., Benatar, A., Manonukul, A., Norfolk, M., and
Sojiphan, K. Effects of Ultrasonic Power on the
Hardness of Aluminum 3003-H18 Alloy, (June) 185-s
Bai, X., Zou, Z., Meng, X., and Qin, G. Humping
Phenomena in High-Speed GTAW of Different Weld
Penetrations, (Sept) 331-s
Bakhtiari, R., Abbasi-Khazaei, B., and Asghari, G. TLP
Bonding of Dissimilar FSX-414/IN738 System with
MBF80 Interlayer: Optimization of the Bonding Time
and Temperature, (Feb) 68-s
Batista, G. Z., Carvalho, L. Da P., Da Silva, M. S., and Souza,
M. P. Girth Welding of API 5L X70 and X80 Sour
Service Pipes, (Oct) 363-s
Bellmann, J., Gbel, G., Gies, S., Weddeling, C., Beyer, E.,
Tekkaya, A. E., Lorenz, A., and Lueg-Althoff, J.
Workpiece Positioning during Magnetic Pulse
Welding of Aluminum-Steel Joints, (March) 101-s
Benatar, A., Manonukul, A., Norfolk, M., Sojiphan, K., and
Babu, S. S. Effects of Ultrasonic Power on the
Hardness of Aluminum 3003-H18 Alloy, (June) 185-s
Beyer, E., Tekkaya, A. E., Lorenz, A., Lueg-Althoff, J.,
Bellmann, J., Gbel, G., Gies, S., and Weddeling, C.
Workpiece Positioning during Magnetic Pulse
Welding of Aluminum-Steel Joints, (March) 101-s
Biro, E., Gerlich, A. P., Zhou, Y. N., and Saha, D. C. Fiber
Laser Welding of Al-Si-Coated Press-Hardened Steel,
(May) 147-s
Blecher, J. J., Palmer, T. A., and DebRoy, T. Porosity in
Thick Section Alloy 690 Welds Experiments,
Modeling, Mechanism, and Remedy, (Jan) 17-s
Bunn, J., Coules, H. E., Achuthan, A., Goldak, J., Aidun,
D. K., and Eisazadeh, H. A Residual Stress Study
104 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
in Similar and Dissimilar Welds, (April) 111-s
Cai, Z., Li, Y., Pan, J., and Li, K. Constitutional Liquation
of the Laves Phase in Virgin FB2 Steel, (July) 257-s
Carlson, B. E., Kang, J., Shalchi-Amirkhiz, B., Chen, Y., and
Sigler, D. R. Characterization of Constitutive
Behavior of Dissimilar Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot
Welds, (July) 248-s
Carlton, H. D., Elmer, J. W., and Vaja, J. The Effect of
Reduced Pressure on Laser Keyhole Weld Porosity and
Weld Geometry in Commercially Pure Titanium and
Nickel, (Nov) 419-s
Carvalho, L. Da P., Da Silva, M. S., Souza, M. P., and Batista,
G. Z. Girth Welding of API 5L X70 and X80 Sour
Service Pipes, (Oct) 363-s
Cena, L. G., Chen, B. T., and Keane, M. J. Evolution of
Welding-Fume Aerosols with Time and Distance from
the Source, (Aug) 280-s
Chai, X., Landwehr, D., Kou, S., and Yu, P. Ni-WC
Hardfacing by Gas Metal Arc Welding, (Dec) 451-s
Chai, X., Yuan, T., and Kou, S. Liquation and Liquation
Cracking in Partially Melted Zones of Magnesium
Welds, (Feb) 57-s
Chapuis, J., Mendez, P., and McIntosh, C. Effect of
Ar-CO2 Gas Blends on Droplet Temperature in GMAW,
(Aug) 273-s
Chang, Y. L., and Babkin, A. S. Calculation of Solid Wire
Melting Rate in CO2 Welding, (May) 163-s
Chen, B., Song, X. G., Zhou, L., Meng, S. H., Li, L. Q. Feng, J.
C., and Tan, C. W. Influence of Al Interlayer
Thickness on Laser Welding of Mg/Steel, (Oct) 384-s
Chen, B. T., Keane, M. J., and Cena, L. G. Evolution of
Welding-Fume Aerosols with Time and Distance from
the Source, (Aug) 280-s
Chen, J., Wu, C. S., Chen, M. A., and Zong, R
Undercutting Formation Mechanism in Gas Metal Arc
Welding, (May) 174-s
Chen, M. A., Zong, R., Chen, J., and Wu, C. S.
Undercutting Formation Mechanism in Gas Metal Arc
Welding, (May) 174-s
Chen, S., Zhao, X., Yang, J., Huang, J., Fan, D., and Ye, Z.
Temperature and Stress Simulation of the Hardfacing
for Cr5Mo1V-RE Alloy, (Aug) 309-s
Chen, S. J., Song. Y. X., Wang, J., Lin, W., and Zhang, L.
Metal Transfer in the Cross-Arc Welding Process
(Sept) 340-s
Chen, S. J., Zhang, G. J., Zhang, Y. M., and Xiao, J.
Current-Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed
Laser Irradiation Part 1: System and Verification,
(March) 93-s
Chen, S. J., Zhang, G. J., Zhang, Y. M., and Xiao, J.
Current-Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed
Laser Irradiation Part 2: Affecting Factors, (June) 194-s
Chen, S. J., Zhang, L., Men, G. Q., Song, Y. X., Su, S., and
Wang, L. W. Effect of Torch Height on Arc Stability in
Divided-Arc Processes, (Feb) 47-s
Chen, S. J., Zhang, R. Y., Jiang, F., Yan, Z. Y., and Zhang, Y.
M. Measurement and Application of Arc Separability
in Plasma Arc, (June) 219-s
Chen, S. J., Zhang, R. Y., Yan, Z. Y., Wang, J. X., Zhang, Y.
M., and Jiang, F. Hollow Cathode Centered Negative
Pressure Arc, (Oct) 395-s
Chen, J., Wu, C. S., Chen, M. A., and Zong, R.
Undercutting Formation Mechanism in Gas Metal Arc
 Welding, (May) 174-s
Chen, Y., Sigler, D. R., Carlson, B. E., Kang, J., Kang, J., and
Shalchi-Amirkhiz, B. Characterization of Constitutive
Behavior of Dissimilar Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot
Welds, (July) 248-s
Cho, Y. J., Jeong, C., Park, Y. D., Ahsan, Md. R. U., Kim, Y.
R., and Ashiri, R. Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) GMAW
of Zinc-Coated Steel, (April) 120-s
Chuang, C.-H., and Lin, Y.-C. Diffusion Soldering of
a Pd/Ni Couple Using a Sn Thin-Film Interlayer,
(Nov) 442-s
Coules, H. E., Achuthan, A., Goldak, J., Aidun, D. K.,
Eisazadeh, H., and Bunn, J. A Residual Stress Study
in Similar and Dissimilar Welds, (April) 111-s
Da Silva, M. S., Souza, M. P., Batista, G. Z., and Carvalho, L.
Da P. Girth Welding of API 5L X70 and X80 Sour
Service Pipes, (Oct) 363-s
DebRoy, T., Blecher, J. J., and Palmer, T. A. Porosity in
Thick Section Alloy 690 Welds Experiments,
Modeling, Mechanism, and Remedy, (Jan) 17-s
Deng, Z., Wang, M., Tang, D., Guo, N., Fu, Y., Feng, J., and
Du, Y. Classification of Metal Transfer Mode in
Underwater Wet Welding, (April) 133-s
Du, Y., Deng, Z., Wang, M., Tang, D., Guo, N., Guo, N., Fu,
Y., and Feng, J. Classification of Metal Transfer Mode
in Underwater Wet Welding, (April) 133-s
Eisazadeh, H., Bunn, J., Coules, H. E., Achutahm, A.,
Goldak, J., and Aidun, D. K. A Residual Stress Study
in Similar and Dissimilar Welds, (April) 111-s
Elmer, J. W., Vaja, J., and Carlton, H. D. The Effect of
Reduced Pressure on Laser Keyhole Weld Porosity and
Weld Geometry in Commercially Pure Titanium and
Nickel, (Nov) 419-s
Emamian, S., Zafar, A., Awang, M., and Khan, S. R.
Investigating Friction Stir Welding on Thick Nylon 6
Plates, (June) 210-s
Emre, H. E., and Kaar, R. Resistance Spot Weldability of
Deformed TRIP800 Steel, (March) 77-s
Fan, C. L., Yang, C. L., Lin, S. B., and Xie, W. F. Pulsed
Ultrasonic-Wave-Assisted GMAW of 7A52 Aluminum
Alloy, (July) 239-s
Fan, D., Ye, Z., Chen, S., Zhao, X., Yang, J., and Huang, J.
Temperature and Stress Simulation of the Hardfacing
for Cr5Mo1V-RE Alloy, (Aug) 309-s
Fedotov, I. V., Richman, C. E., Sevryukov, O. N., Suchkov, A.
N., Li, J., Kalin, B. A., Fedotov, V. T., and Ivannikov,
A. A. Brazing Molybdenum and Graphite with a
Titanium-Based Powder Filler Metal, (Sept) 357-s
Fedotov, V. T., Ivannikov, A. A., Fedotov, I. V., Richman,
C. E., Sevryukov, O. N., Suchkov, A. N., Li, J., and Kalin,
B. A. Brazing Molybdenum and Graphite with a
Titanium-Based Powder Filler Metal, (Sept) 357-s
Feng, J., Du, Y., Deng, Z., Wang, M., Tang, D., Guo, N., and
Fu, Y. Classification of Metal Transfer Mode in
Underwater Wet Welding, (April) 133-s
Feng, J. C., Tan, C. W., Chen, B., Song, X. G., Zhou, L., Meng,
S. H., and Li, L. Q. Influence of Al Interlayer
Thickness on Laser Welding of Mg/Steel, (Oct) 384-s
Feng, Y., Ling, Z., Li, Y., Zhan, Y., Luo, Z., and Shan, H.
Failure Mode Transition of Triple-Thin-Sheet Aluminum
Alloy Resistance Spot Welds under Tensile-Shear Loads,
(Dec) 479-s
Fu, Y., Feng, J., Du, Y., Deng, Z., Wang, M., Tang, D., and
Guo, N. Classification of Metal Transfer Mode in
Underwater Wet Welding, (April) 133-s
Gao, Y. K., Yang, Y. L., Yang, Q. X., Liu, S., Zhou, Y. F., Zhou,
Y. F., Xing, X. L., and Wang, J. B. Low-Stress Abrasion
Behaviors of Fe-Cr-C (1.4~5.6 wt-%) Hardsurface
Coatings, (Sept) 325-s
Gericke, A., Henkel, K-M., Uhrlandt, D., and Gtt, G.
Optical and Spectroscopic Study of a Submerged Arc
Welding Cavern, (Dec) 491-s
Gerlich, A. P., Zhou, Y. N., Saha, D. C., and Biro, E. Fiber
Laser Welding of Al-Si-Coated Press-Hardened Steel,
(May) 147-s
Gholam Bargani, M., Malek Ghaini, F., and Mazroi, A.
The Effect of an Al Tip in Arc Stud Welding on the
Properties of the Welded Joint, (May) 157-s
Gies, S., Weddeling, C., Beyer, E., Tekkaya, A. E., Lorenz, A.,
Lueg-Althoff, J., Bellmann, J., and Gbel, G.
Workpiece Positioning during Magnetic Pulse
Welding of Aluminum-Steel Joints, (March) 101-s
Gladkov, E. A., and Babkin, A. S. Identification of
Welding Parameters for Quality Welds in GMAW,
(Jan) 37-s
Gbel, G., Gies, S., Weddeling, C., Beyer, E., Tekkaya, A. E.,
Lorenz, A., Lueg-Althoff, J., and Bellmann, J.
Workpiece Positioning during Magnetic Pulse
Welding of Aluminum-Steel Joints, (March) 101-s
Goldak, J., Aidun, D. K., Eisazadeh, H., Bunn, J., Coules,
H. E., and Achuthan, A. A Residual Stress Study in
Similar and Dissimilar Welds, (April) 111-s
Gtt, G., Gericke, A., Henkel, K-M., and Uhrlandt, D.
Optical and Spectroscopic Study of a Submerged Arc
Welding Cavern, (Dec) 491-s
Guo, N., Fu, Y., Feng, J., Du, Y., Deng, Z., Wang, M., and
Tang, D. Classification of Metal Transfer Mode in
Underwater Wet Welding, (April) 133-s
Haddad, A. N., and McManus, T. N. Chrominum
Emissions during Welding in an Aluminum Shipbuilding
Environment, (March) 86-s
He, G., and Wang, H. Influence of Flux Composition on
the Performance of a Nickel-Based Alloy Covered
Electrode for 9% Ni Steel Welding, (Dec) 467-s
Henkel, K-M., Uhrlandt, D., Gtt, G., and Gericke, A.
Optical and Spectroscopic Study of a Submerged Arc
Welding Cavern, (Dec) 491-s
Hoyt, D., Adonyi, Y., and Kim, S. Microwave Joining
Part 1: Closed-Loop Controlled Microwave Soldering of
Lead Telluride to Copper, (April) 141-s
Hu, J. K., Wu, C. S., Jia, C. B., Zhang, Y., and Zhao, B.
Visual Sensing of the Physical Process during
Underwater Wet FCAW, (June) 202-s
Huang, J., Fan, D., Ye, Z., Chen, S., Zhao, X., and Yang, J.
Temperature and Stress Simulation of the Hardfacing
for Cr5Mo1V-RE Alloy, (Aug) 309-s
Ivannikov, A. A., Fedotov, I. V., Richman, C. E., Sevryukov,
O. N., Suchkov, A. N., Li, J., Kalin, B. A., and Fedotov,
V. T. Brazing Molybdenum and Graphite with a
Titanium-Based Powder Filler Metal, (Sept) 357-s
Javernick, D. A., Lienert, T. J., Liu, S., and Tate, S. B.
Laser Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless Steel:
Part 1 Impurity Effects and Solidification Mode,
(Oct) 371-s
Javernick, D. A., Lienert, T. J., Liu, S., and Tate, S. B.
Laser Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless Steel: Part
2 Weldability Diagrams, (Nov) 409-s
Jeong, C., Park, Y. D., Ahsan, MD. R. U., Kim, Y. R., Ashiri,
R., and Cho, Y. J. Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) GMAW
of Zinc-Coated Steel, (April) 120-s
Jia, C. B., Zhang, Y., Zhao, B., Hu, J. K., and Wu, C. S.
Visual Sensing of the Physical Process during
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 105
 Underwater Wet FCAW, (June) 202-s
Jiang, F., Chen, S. J., Zhang, R. Y., Yan, Z. Y., Wang, J. X.,
and Zhang, Y. M. Hollow Cathode Centered Negative
Pressure Arc, (Oct) 395-s
Jiang, F., Yan, Z. Y., Zhang, Y. M., Chen, S. J., and Zhang, R.
Y. Measurement and Application of Arc Separability
in Plasma Arc, (June) 219-s
Kaar, R., and Emre, H. E. Resistance Spot Weldability of
Deformed TRIP800 Steel, (March) 77-s
Kalin, B. A., Fedotov, V. T., Ivannikov, A. A., Fedotov, I. V.,
Richman, C. E., Sevryukov, O. N., Suchkov, A. N., and
Li, J. Brazing Molybdenum and Graphite with a
Titanium-Based Powder Filler Metal, (Sept) 357-s
Kang, J., Shalchi-Amirkhiz, B., Chen, Y., Sigler, D. R., and
Carlson, B. E. Characterization of Constitutive
Behavior of Dissimilar Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot
Welds, (July) 248-s
Keane, M. J., Cena, L. G., and Chen, B. T. Evolution of
Welding-Fume Aerosols with Time and Distance from
the Source, (Aug) 280-s
Khan, S. R., Emamian, S., Zafar, A., and Awang, M.
Investigating Friction Stir Welding on Thick Nylon 6
Plates, (June) 210-s
Kim, S., Hoyt, D., and Adonyi, Y. Microwave Joining
Part 1: Closed-Loop Controlled Microwave Soldering of
Lead Telluride to Copper, (April) 141-s
Kim, Y. R., Ashiri, R., Cho, Y. J., Jeong, C., Park, Y. D.,
Ahsan, MD. R. U. Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) GMAW
of Zinc-Coated Steel, (April) 120-s
Kou, S., Chai, X., and Yuan, T. Liquation and Liquation
Cracking in Partially Melted Zones of Magnesium
Welds, (Feb) 57-s
Kou, S., Yu, P., Chai, X., and Landwehr, D. Ni-WC
Hardfacing by Gas Metal Arc Welding, (Dec) 451-s
Landwehr, D., Kou, S., Yu, P., and Chai, X. Ni-WC
Hardfacing by Gas Metal Arc Welding, (Dec) 451-s
Li, J., Kalin, B. A., Fedotov, V. T., Ivannikov, A. A., Fedotov,
I. V., Richman, C. E., Sevryukov, O. N., and Suchkov,
A. N. Brazing Molybdenum and Graphite with a
Titanium-Based Powder Filler Metal, (Sept) 357-s
Li, K., Cai, Z., Li, Y., and Pan, J. Constitutional Liquation
of the Laves Phase in Virgin FB2 Steel, (July) 257-s
Li, L., and Wang, Y. Microstructure Evolution of Fine-
Grained Heat-Affected Zone in Type IV Failure of P91
Welds, (Jan) 27-s
Li, L. Q., Feng, J. C., Tan, C. W., Chen, B., Song, X. G., Zhou,
L., and Meng, S. H. Influence of Al Interlayer
Thickness on Laser Welding of Mg/Steel, (Oct) 384-s
Li, Y., Pan, J., Li, K., and Cai, Z. Constitutional Liquation
of the Laves Phase in Virgin FB2 Steel, (July) 257-s
Li, Y., Zhan, Y., Luo, Z., Shan, H., Feng, Y., and Ling, Z.
Failure Mode Transition of Triple-Thin-Sheet Aluminum
Alloy Resistance Spot Welds under Tensile-Shear Loads
(Dec) 479-s
Lienert, T. J., Liu, S., Tate, S. B., and Javernick, D. A.
Laser Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless Steel:
Part 1 Impurity Effects and Solidification Mode,
(Oct) 371-s
Lienert, T. J., Liu, S., Tate, S. B., and Javernick, D. A.
Laser Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless Steel:
Part 2 Weldability Diagrams, (Nov) 409-s
Lin, S. B., Xie, W. F., Fan, C. L., and Yang, C. L. Pulsed
Ultrasonic-Wave-Assisted GMAW of 7A52 Aluminum
Alloy, (July) 239-s
Lin, W., Zhang, L., Chen, S. J., Song, Y. X., and Wang, J.
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106 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
(Sept) 340-s
Lin, Y.-C., and Chuang, C.-H. Diffusion Soldering of
a Pd/Ni Couple Using a Sn Thin-Film Interlayer,
(Nov) 442-s
Ling, Z., Li, Y., Zhan, Y., Luo, Z., Shan, H., and Feng, Y.
Failure Mode Transition of Triple-Thin-Sheet Aluminum
Alloy Resistance Spot Welds under Tensile-Shear Loads,
(Dec) 479-s
Lippold, J. C., and Wheeling, R. A. Solidification Cracking
Susceptibility of Ni-30Cr Weld Metals with Variable
Niobium and Molybdenum, (July) 229-s
Liu, S., Tate, S. B., Javernick, D. A., and Lienert, T. J.
Laser Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless Steel:
Part 1 Impurity Effects and Solidification Mode,
(Oct) 371-s
Liu, S., Tate, S. B., Javernick, D. A., and Lienert, T. J.
Laser Weldability of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless Steel:
Part 2 Weldability Diagrams, (Nov) 409-s
Liu, S., Zhou, Y. F., Xing, X. L., Wang, J. B., Gao, Y. K., Yang,
Y. L., and Yang, Q. X. Low-Stress Abrasion Behaviors
of Fe-Cr-C (1.4~5.6 wt-%) Hardsurface Coatings, (Sept)
325-s
Lorenz, A., Lueg-Althoff, J., Bellmann, J., Gbel, G.,
Gies, S., Weddeling, C., Beyer, E., and Tekkaya, A. E.
Workpiece Positioning during Magnetic Pulse
Welding of Aluminum-Steel Joints, (March) 101-s
Lueg-Althoff, J., Bellmann, J., Gbel, G., Gies, S.,
Weddeling, C., Beyer, E., Tekkaya, A. E., and Lorenz, A.
Workpiece Positioning during Magnetic Pulse
Welding of Aluminum-Steel Joints, (March) 101-s
Luo, Z., Shan, H., Feng, Y., Ling, Z., Li, Y., and Zhan, Y.
Failure Mode Transition of Triple-Thin-Sheet Aluminum
Alloy Resistance Spot Welds under Tensile-Shear Loads,
(Dec) 479-s
Ma, L., Yang, J., Zhang, J., Yan, J., and Xu, Z. Ultrasonic-
Induced Rising and Wetting of a Sn-Zn Filler in an
Aluminum Joint, (July) 264-s
Malek Ghaini, F., Mazroi, A., and Gholam Bargani, M.
The Effect of an Al Tip in Arc Stud Welding on the
Properties of the Welded Joint, (May) 157-s
Manonukul, A., Norfolk, M., Sojiphan, K., Babu, S. S., and
Benatar, A. Effects of Ultrasonic Power on the
Hardness of Aluminum 3003-H18 Alloy, (June) 185-s
Mazroi, A., Gholam Bargani, M., and Malek Ghaini, F.
The Effect of an Al Tip in Arc Stud Welding on the
Properties of the Welded Joint, (May) 157-s
McIntosh, C., Chapuis, J., and Mendez, P. Effect of
Ar-CO2 Gas Blends on Dropet Temperature in GMAW,
(Aug) 273-s
McManus, T. N., and Haddad, A. N. Chrominum
Emissions during Welding in an Aluminum Shipbuilding
Environment, (March) 86-s
Men, G. Q., Song, Y. X., Su, S., Wang, L. W., Chen, S. J., and
Zhang, L. Effect of Torch Height on Arc Stability in
Divided-Arc Processes, (Feb) 47-s
Mendez, P., McIntosh, C., and Chapuis, J. Effect of
Ar-CO2 Gas Blends on Dropet Temperature in GMAW,
(Aug) 273-s
Meng, S. H., Li, L. Q., Feng, J. C., Tan, C. W., Chen, B., Song,
X. G., and Zhou, L., Influence of Al Interlayer
Thickness on Laser Welding of Mg/Steel, (Oct) 384-s
Meng, X., Qin, G., Bai, X., and Zou, Z. Humping
Phenomena in High-Speed GTAW of Different Weld
Penetrations, (Sept) 331-s
Mikno, Z. Projection Welding with Pneumatic and
Servomechanical Electrode Operating Force Systems,
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Mohr, W. C., and Yang, Y. P. Multiphysics Modeling of a
Welded Furnace Roll for Improving Creep-Fatigue Life,
(Nov) 431-s
Norfolk, M., Sojiphan, K., Babu, S. S., Benatar, A., and
Manonukul, A. Effects of Ultrasonic Power on the
Hardness of Aluminum 3003-H18 Alloy, (June) 185-s
Palmer, T. A., DebRoy, T., and Blecher, J. J. Porosity in
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Modeling, Mechanism, and Remedy, (Jan) 17-s
Pan, J., Li, K., Cai, Z., and Li, Y. Constitutional Liquation
of the Laves Phase in Virgin FB2 Steel, (July) 257-s
Park, Y. D., Ahsan, MD. R. U., Kim, Y. R., Ashiri, R., Cho, Y.
J., and Jeong, C. Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) GMAW
of Zinc-Coated Steel, (April) 120-s
Qin, G., Bai, X., Zou, Z., and Meng, X. Humping
Phenomena in High-Speed GTAW of Different Weld
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Richman, C. E., Sevryukov, O. N., Suchkov, A. N., Li, J.,
Kalin, B. A., Fedotov, V. T., Ivannikov, A. A., and
Fedotov, I. V. Brazing Molybdenum and Graphite
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Robino, C. V. 2015 Adams Lecture Engineering
Approximations in Welding: Bridging the Gap between
Speculation and Simulation, (Jan) 1-s
Saha, D. C., Biro, E., Gerlich, A. P., and Zhou, Y. N. Fiber
Laser Welding of Al-Si-Coated Press-Hardened Steel,
(May) 147-s
Sevryukov, O. N., Suchkov, A. N., Li, J., Kalin, B. A.,
Fedotov, V. T., Ivannikov, A. A., Fedotov, I. V., and
Richman, C. E. Brazing Molybdenum and Graphite
with a Titanium-Based Powder Filler Metal, (Sept) 357-s
Shalchi-Amirkhiz, B., Chen, Y., Sigler, D. R., Carlson, B. E.,
and Kang, J. Characterization of Constitutive
Behavior of Dissimilar Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot
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Shan, H., Feng, Y., Ling, Z., Li, Y., Zhan, Y., and Luo, Z.
Failure Mode Transition of Triple-Thin-Sheet Aluminum
Alloy Resistance Spot Welds under Tensile-Shear Loads,
(Dec) 479-s
Sigler, D. R., Carlson, B. E., Kang, J., Shalchi-Amirkhiz, B.,
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Behavior of Dissimilar Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot
Welds, (July) 248-s
Sojiphan, K., Babu, S. S., Benatar, A., Manonukul, A., and
Norfolk, M. Effects of Ultrasonic Power on the
Hardness of Aluminum 3003-H18 Alloy, (June) 185-s
Song, X. G., Zhou, L., Meng, S. H., Li, L. Q., Feng, J. C., Tan,
C. W., and Chen, B. Influence of Al Interlayer
Thickness on Laser Welding of Mg/Steel, (Oct) 384-s
Song, Y. X., Su, S., Wang, L. W., Chen, S. J., Zhang, L., and
Men, G. Q. Effect of Torch Height on Arc Stability in
Divided-Arc Processes, (Feb) 47-s
Song, Y. X., Wang, J., Lin, W., Zhang, L., and Chen, S. J.
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(Sept) 340-s
Souza, M. P., Batista, G. Z., Carvalho, L. Da P., and Da Silva,
M. S. Girth Welding of API 5L X70 and X80 Sour
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Su, S., Wang, L. W., Chen, S. J., Zhang, L., Men, G. Q., and
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Suchkov, A. N., Li, J., Kalin, B. A., Fedotov, V. T., Ivannikov,
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Tan, C. W., Chen, B., Song, X. G., Zhou, L., Meng, S. H., Li, L.
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Thickness on Laser Welding of Mg/Steel, (Oct) 384-s
Tang, D., Guo, N., Fu, Y., Feng, J., Du, Y., Deng, Z., and
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Tate, S. B., Javernick, D. A., Lienert, T. J., and Liu, S.
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Part 1 Impurity Effects and Solidification Mode,
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Tate, S. B., Javernick, D. A., Lienert, T. J., and Liu, S.
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Tekkaya, A. E., Lorenz, A., Lueg-Althoff, J., Bellmann, J.,
Gbel, G., Gies, S., Weddeling, C., and Beyer, E.
Workpiece Positioning during Magnetic Pulse
Welding of Aluminum-Steel Joints, (March) 101-s
Uhrlandt, D., Gtt, G., Gericke, A., and Henkel, K-M.
Optical and Spectroscopic Study of a Submerged Arc
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Vaja, J., Carlton, H. D., and Elmer, J. W. The Effect of
Reduced Pressure on Laser Keyhole Weld Porosity and
Weld Geometry in Commercially Pure Titanium and
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Wang, H., and He, G. Influence of Flux Composition on
the Performance of a Nickel-Based Alloy Covered
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Wang, J., Lin, W., Zhang, L., Chen, S. J., and Song, Y. X.
Metal Transfer in the Cross-Arc Welding Process
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Wang, J. B., Gao, Y. K., Yang, Y. L., Yang, Q. X., Liu, S.,
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Wang, J. X., Zhang, Y. M., Jiang, F., Chen, S. J., Zhang, R. Y.,
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Wang, L. W., Chen, S. J., Zhang, L., Men, G. Q., Song, Y. X.,
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Wang, M., Tang, D., Guo, N., Fu, Y., Feng, J., Du, Y., and
Deng, Z. Classification of Metal Transfer Mode in
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Wang, Y., and Li, L. Microstructure Evolution of Fine-
Grained Heat-Affected Zone in Type IV Failure of P91
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Weddeling, C., Beyer, E., Tekkaya, A. E., Lorenz, A., Lueg-
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Workpiece Positioning during Magnetic Pulse
Welding of Aluminum-Steel Joints, (March) 101-s
Wheeling, R. A., and Lippold, J. C. Solidification Cracking
Susceptibility of Ni-30Cr Weld Metals with Variable
Niobium and Molybdenum, (July) 229-s
Wu, C. S., Chen, M. A., Zong, R., and Chen, J.
Undercutting Formation Mechanism in Gas Metal Arc
Welding, (May) 174-s
Wu, C. S., Jia, C. B., Zhang, Y., Zhao, B., and Hu, J. K.
Visual Sensing of the Physical Process during
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Wu, S. K., Zou, J. L., Xiao, R. S., and Zhang, G. W. Ultra-
Narrow-Groove Laser Welding for Heavy Sections in
ITER, (Aug) 300-s
Xiao, J., Chen, S. J., Zhang, G. J., and Zhang, Y. M.
Current-Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed
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DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 107
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Xiao, R. S., Zhang, G. W., Wu, S. K., and Zou, J. L. Ultra-
Narrow-Groove Laser Welding for Heavy Sections in
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Xie, W. F., Fan, C. L., Yang, C. L., and Lin, S. B. Pulsed
Ultrasonic-Wave-Assisted GMAW of 7A52 Aluminum
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Xing, X. L., Wang, J. B., Gao, Y. K., Yang, Y. L., Yang, Q. X.,
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Xu, Z., Ma, L., Yang, J., Zhang, J., and Yan, J. Ultrasonic-
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Aluminum Joint, (July) 264-s
Yan, J., Xu, Z., Ma, L., Yang, J., and Zhang, J. Ultrasonic-
Induced Rising and Wetting of a Sn-Zn Filler in an
Aluminum Joint, (July) 264-s
Yan, Z. Y., Wang, J. X., Zhang, Y. M., Jiang, F., Chen, S. J.,
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Pressure Arc (Oct) 395-s
Yan, Z. Y., Zhang, Y. M., Chen, S. J., Zhang, R. Y., and Jiang,
F. Measurement and Application of Arc Separability
in Plasma Arc, (June) 219-s
Yang, C. L., Lin, S. B., Xie, W. F., and Fan, C. L. Pulsed
Ultrasonic-Wave-Assisted GMAW of 7A52 Aluminum
Alloy, (July) 239-s
Yang, J., Huang, J., Fan, D., Ye, Z., Chen, S., and Zhao, X.
Temperature and Stress Simulation of the Hardfacing
for Cr5Mo1V-RE Alloy, (Aug) 309-s
Yang, J., Zhang, J., Yan, J., Xu, Z., and Ma, L. Ultrasonic-
Induced Rising and Wetting of a Sn-Zn Filler in an
Aluminum Joint, (July) 264-s
Yang, Q. X., Liu, S., Zhou, Y. F., Xing, X. L., Wang, J. B., Gao,
Y. K., and Yang, Y. L. Low-Stress Abrasion Behaviors
of Fe-Cr-C (1.4~5.6 wt-%) Hardsurface Coatings,
(Sept) 325-s
Yang, Y. L., Yang, Q. X., Liu, S., Zhou, Y. F., Xing, X. L.,
Wang, J. B., and Gao, Y. K. Low-Stress Abrasion
Behaviors of Fe-Cr-C (1.4~5.6 wt-%) Hardsurface
Coatings, (Sept) 325-s
Yang, Y. P., and Mohr, W. C. Multiphysics Modeling of a
Welded Furnace Roll for Improving Creep-Fatigue Life,
(Nov) 431-s
Ye, Z., Chen, S., Zhao, X., Yang, J., Huang, J., and Fan, D.
Temperature and Stress Simulation of the Hardfacing
for Cr5Mo1V-RE Alloy, (Aug) 309-s
Yu, P., Chai, X., Landwehr, D., and Kou, S. Ni-WC
Hardfacing by Gas Metal Arc Welding, (Dec) 451-s
Yuan, T., Kou, S., and Chai, X. Liquation and Liquation
Cracking in Partially Melted Zones of Magnesium
Welds, (Feb) 57-s
Zafar, A., Awang, M., Khan, S. R., and Emamian, S.
Investigating Friction Stir Welding on Thick Nylon 6
Plates, (June) 210-s
Zhan, Y., Luo, Z., Shan, H., Feng, Y., Ling, Z., and Li, Y.
Failure Mode Transition of Triple-Thin-Sheet Aluminum
Alloy Resistance Spot Welds under Tensile-Shear Loads
(Dec) 479-s
Zhang, G. J., Zhang, Y. M., Xiao, J., and Chen, S. J.
Current-Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed
Laser Irradiation Part 1: System and Verification,
(March) 93-s
Zhang, G. J., Zhang, Y. M., Xiao, J., and Chen, S. J.
Current-Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed
108 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016
Laser Irradiation Part 2: Affecting Factors, (June) 194-s
Zhang, G. W., Wu, S. K., Zou, J. L, and Xiao, R. S. Ultra-
Narrow-Groove Laser Welding for Heavy Sections in
ITER, (Aug) 300-s
Zhang, J., Yan, J., Xu, Z., Ma, L., and Yang, J. Ultrasonic-
Induced Rising and Wetting of a Sn-Zn Filler in an
Aluminum Joint, (July) 264-s
Zhang, L., Chen, S. J., Song, Y. X., Wang, J., and Lin, W.
Metal Transfer in the Cross-Arc Welding Process
(Sept) 340-s
Zhang, L., Men, G. Q., Song, Y. X., Su, S., Wang, L. W., and
Chen, S. J. Effect of Torch Height on Arc Stability in
Divided-Arc Processes, (Feb) 47-s
Zhang, R. Y., Jiang, F., Yan, Z. Y., Zhang, Y. M., and Chen,
S. J. Measurement and Application of Arc
Separability in Plasma Arc, (June) 219-s
Zhang, R. Y., Yan, Z. Y., Wang, J. X., Zhang, Y. M., Jiang, F.,
and Chen, S. J. Hollow Cathode Centered Negative
Pressure Arc, (Oct) 395-s
Zhang, Y., Zhao, B., Hu, J. K., Wu, C. S. and Jia, C. B.
Visual Sensing of the Physical Process during
Underwater Wet FCAW, (June) 202-s
Zhang, Y. M., Chen, S. J., Zhang, R. Y., Jiang, F., and Yan, Z.
Y. Measurement and Application of Arc Separability
in Plasma Arc, (June) 219-s
Zhang, Y. M., Jiang, F., Chen, S. J., Zhang, R. Y., Yan, Z. Y.,
and Wang, J. X. Hollow Cathode Centered Negative
Pressure Arc, (Oct) 395-s
Zhang, Y. M., Xiao, J., Chen, S. J., and Zhang, G. J.
Current-Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed
Laser Irradiation Part 1: System and Verification,
(March) 93-s
Zhang, Y. M., Xiao, J., Chen, S. J., and Zhang, G. J.
Current-Independent Metal Transfer by Using Pulsed
Laser Irradiation Part 2: Affecting Factors, (June) 194-s
Zhao, B., Hu, J. K., Wu, C. S., Jia, C. B., and Zhang, Y.
Visual Sensing of the Physical Process during
Underwater Wet FCAW, (June) 202-s
Zhao, X., Yang, J., Huang, J., Fan, D., Ye, Z., and Chen, S.
Temperature and Stress Simulation of the Hardfacing
for Cr5Mo1V-RE Alloy, (Aug) 309-s
Zhou, L., Meng, S. H., Li, L. Q., Feng, J. C., Tan, C. W., Chen,
B., and Song, X. G. Influence of Al Interlayer
Thickness on Laser Welding of Mg/Steel, (Oct) 384-s
Zhou, Y. F., Xing, X. L., Wang, J. B., Gao, Y. K., Yang, Y. L.,
Yang, Q. X., and Liu, S. Low-Stress Abrasion
Behaviors of Fe-Cr-C (1.4~5.6 wt-%) Hardsurface
Coatings, (Sept) 325-s
Zhou, Y. N., Saha, D. C., Biro, E., and Gerlich, A. P. Fiber
Laser Welding of Al-Si-Coated Press-Hardened Steel,
(May) 147-s
Zong, R., Chen, J., Wu, C. S., and Chen, M. A.
Undercutting Formation Mechanism in Gas Metal Arc
Welding, (May) 174-s
Zou, J. L., Xiao, R. S., Zhang, G. W., and Wu, S. K. Ultra-
Narrow-Groove Laser Welding for Heavy Sections in
ITER, (Aug) 300-s
Zou, Z., Meng, X., Qin, G., and Bai, X. Humping
Phenomena in High-Speed GTAW of Different Weld
Penetrations, (Sept) 331-s
American Welding Society
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 WELDING RESEARCH
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, DECEMBER 2016
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council

NiWC Hardfacing by Gas Metal Arc Welding

GMAWCSC was used to widen the operation window, 3D printing approach

to select weaving pattern, advanced EPMA to analyze microstructure,
and thermodynamics to show WC loss

BY P. YU, X. CHAI, D. LANDWEHR, AND S. KOU

Ni-WC cladding using a Lincoln Elec-

ABSTRACT tric Power Wave 455M/STT power
source for GMAW. The filler metal was
Nickel cladding reinforced with hard tungsten carbide particles was deposited on 1.6- mm-diameter Arctec Tungcore
steel by both conventional gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and GMAW controlled short
circuiting (GMAWCSC). Singlebead hardfacing was deposited at various heat inputs. The
FCS cored wire. The heat input varied
current/voltage waveforms were recorded during welding. It was found that the window with the filler metal transfer mode:
of welding parameters for making a smooth cladding without much spatter was signifi lowest with the short-circuiting mode,
cantly wider with GMAWCSC than conventional GMAW. While the cladding dilution by higher with the globular mode, and
steel increased with increasing heat input as expected, the dilution increase was less highest with the spray mode. It was
with GMAWCSC than conventional GMAW. A lowcost 3D printerbased substrate manip shown that increasing the heat input
ulation table was built to move the steel plate under a stationary welding gun for deposi increased both dilution and carbide
tion on a designated area on steel. Thus, even when a robot is unavailable to weave the dissolution. Vespa et al. (Ref. 3) made
gun over the steel, the effect of the welding guns weaving pattern on the resultant single-bead Ni-WC cladding using a
cladding can still be examined, e.g., the uniformity of the cladding thickness and the par Jetline Engineering process controller
ticle distribution in the cladding. A stateoftheart FESEM+EPMA with a very small beam
diameter of 80 to 100 nm was used to identify various phases inside both the tungsten
called CSC-MIG along with a Miller
carbide particles and the matrix. An eightlayer square cladding was deposited and its Electric XMT 350 CC/CV power
overall composition measured. Thermodynamic calculations based on this composition source. The filler metal was a 1.6-mm
showed that substituting Ni with Cr can degrade the cladding by causing brittle Crcon PolyTung NiBWC cored electrode wire
taining carbide to form at the expense of WC. manufactured by Polymet Corp. It was
also reported that increasing the heat
input increased WC dissolution.
KEYWORDS In general, the microstructure of
Ni-WC cladding made by various
Hardfacing Cladding Controlled Short Circuiting Tungsten Carbide Nickel processes consists of chunks of un-
melted tungsten carbide in a nickel-
base alloy matrix, according to
Introduction (LBW) and cladding, and gas metal arc ISO/TR Technical Report 13393 (Ref.
welding (GMAW) (Ref. 1). The PTAW 4). The microstructure of Ni-WC
process is the most common and effi- cladding made by GMAW has been dis-
Cladding the surface of a steel sub- cient method for shop production, but cussed by Choi et al. (Ref. 2) and Vespa
strate with a layer of nickel (Ni) alloy it is impractical for field welding appli- et al. (Ref. 3), which will be mentioned
embedded with hard tungsten carbide cations (Ref. 2). Gas metal arc welding subsequently in the present study.
(WC) particles can significantly im- is a low-cost alternative to PTAW and The cladding of Ni-WC has excep-
prove the wear and corrosion resist- LBW. It is suitable for cladding over tional abrasion resistance and moder-
ance of the steel. Various processes small areas that need protection by ate corrosion resistance (Ref. 4). How-
have been used for hardfacing with Ni- hardfacing, cladding small internal di- ever, increasing the heat input can in-
WC, for instance, plasma transferred ameters, or repairing small damaged crease the dissolution of tungsten car-
arc welding (PTAW), submerged arc areas in existing cladding. bide particles and reduce the abrasion
welding (SAW), laser beam welding Choi et al. (Ref. 2) made single-bead resistance. It also increases the dilu

P. YU and S. KOU are with the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. X. CHAI is with
Novelis Global Research & Technology Center, Kennesaw, Ga. D. LANDWEHR is with Fisher Barton Technology Center, Watertown, Wis.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 451-s

WELDING RESEARCH

tion of the cladding by the substrate.

Dilution can have a significant effect
on the performance of the cladding.
For corrosion resistance applica-
tions, the corrosion performance of
some cladding can be rather sensitive
to the change in dilution. For wear re-
sistance applications, dilution can
affect the severity of cracking encoun-
tered. For erosion plus corrosion appli-
cations, cracking of the hardfacing al-
loy can provide a corrosion path to the
substrate. Hence, a two-layer cladding
may help, with the first layer being the
corrosion resistant alloy and the sec-
ond layer being the hardfacing alloy.
A crack-free hardfacing alloy may also
help in some cases.
The present study used GMAW-
CSC and 1.6-mm PolyTung NiBWC
cored welding wire to make the
cladding. However, it differed from
the study of Vespa et al. (Ref. 3) in
several ways. First, conventional
GMAW was also used and the results
were compared with those of GMAW-
CSC. Second, instead of just single-
bead cladding, a 3D printer-based
substrate manipulation table was
built to make the cladding over a
square area, both single layer and
multiple layers. Third, the overall
composition of the cladding was
measured. Fourth, the effect of Cr on
WC dissolution was shown by ther-
modynamic analysis.

Experimental Procedure
Materials
The workpiece was 1018 steel, 150 Fig. 1 3D printer (lower left corner) supporting and generating 3D motion
mm long, 50 mm wide, and 6.4 mm of the steel workpiece under the welding gun to allow printing filler metal
thick. Single-bead welding was con- on steel.
ducted in the length direction along
the centerline of the workpiece, at
the travel speed of 15 mm/s and vari- Table 1 Nominal Chemical Composition (wt%) of PolyTung NiBWC (Ref. 5)
ous heat inputs. The filler metal for
depositing the cladding was a Poly- W Si B Ni
Tung NiBWC flux cored wire of 1.6- Wt% 3845 2.2 1.0 Balance

Table 2 Welding Parameters for Conventional GMAW

Samples Welding Feeding Traveling Speed Electrode Extension Heat Input Gas Flow Rate Shielding Gas
Voltage (V) Speed mm/s mm/s (mm) (J/mm) (m3/h)
52 18 29.6 15 22.5 99.5 1.1 75% Ar 25% CO2
53 19 29.6 15 22.5 107 1.1 75% Ar 25% CO2
54 20 29.6 15 22.5 111 1.1 75% Ar 25% CO2
55 21 29.6 15 22.5 120 1.1 75% Ar 25% CO2

452-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95


A duce heat input and spatter (Refs.
B 79). Reducing heat input is desirable
C because it can help reduce dilution of
Fig. 2 PolyTung NiBWC tubular wire. A Transverse cross section; B particles re
moved from inside wire; C identification of particles by EDS analysis.
mm outer diameter. The nominal
chemical composition (wt-%) provid-
ed by the manufacturer is shown in
Table 1 (Ref. 5).
Welding Processes
Two different versions of gas metal
arc welding (GMAW) were used to
clad. The first version was convention-
al GMAW, consisting of an Invision
456P power source, an XR-M wire
feeder, and a conventional welding
gun. The welding conditions are
shown in Table 2. The second version
was a controlled-short-circuiting (CSC)
type GMAW process called GMAW-
CSC, consisting of an Invision 456P
power source, a CSC process con-
troller, and a special welding gun
hooked up to the controller. The
process controller coordinates the
feeding and speed of the wire elec-
trode with the level of welding current
delivered by the power source (Ref. 6).
Briefly, the welding process has two
primary phases: the arc phase during
which heat is generated to melt the
base metal, and the short-circuit phase
during which the filler metal droplet is
deposited when the welding wire
makes contact with the weld pool (Ref.
6). The controller monitors the voltage
between the electrode and the work-
piece to determine which phase the
process is in at any given time. The
controller clears the short by retract-
ing the wire to the preset arc length
level. Once the arc is established again,
the controller begins feeding the wire
toward the weld pool, and the cycle re-
peats. GMAW-CSC was originally de-
veloped and called CSC-MIG by
Miller Electric Manufacturing Co. and
subsequently manufactured by Jetline
Engineering, Irvine, Calif.
The waveforms of the welding cur-
rent in GMAW-CSC can be tailored in
great detail in order to optimize the
welding process and reduce spatter.
Examples of the operating parameters
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL
WELDING RESEARCH
that can be specified include: 1) cur-
rent levels and durations (for the start
and mid periods) of the arc phase and
those of the short-circuit phase, 2) the
wire down speed, the delay before wire
down, the wire up speed and the delay
before wire up, 3) the arc length, and
4) the penetration delay. The welding
conditions are shown in Table 3. The
design and selection of the welding pa-
rameters were based on the experience
of the authors in using the GMAW-
CSC process in the past few years. As
compared to conventional GMAW,
GMAW-CSC has been reported to re-
the cladding by the base metal. Reduc-
ing spatter is also desirable to maxi-
mize deposit efficiency.
The waveforms of the welding cur-
rent and arc voltage were recorded using
a computer data acquisition system to-
gether with LabView software. The
data-sampling rate for each signal was
15,000 Hz. The heat input per unit
length of the weld Q was calculated us-
ing the following equation (Ref. 8):
Q =   ( I
E ) dt 
/ (t
U )
t
 0  (1)
where I is the current, E is the voltage,
t is the welding time, and U is the
travel speed.
3D Printer
A cladding may need to be de-
posited on a designated area on a
component that requires highwear
resistance or where the damaged
cladding requires repairing. In such a
situation, the pattern of motion of
the GMAW welding gun relative to
the workpiece may affect the quality
of the resultant cladding. To study
the effect of the motion pattern, a
3D printer can be useful, especially
when a much more expensive robot
or 3-axis CNC machine is not avail-
able. So, a low-cost open-source 3D
printer was built as shown in Fig. 1,
similar to that developed by Anza-
lone et al. (Ref. 10). Essentially, the
platform that supports the workpiece
can move the workpiece horizontally
according to the specific motion pat-
tern programmed by the computer,
and it can also move vertically to
453-s
WELDING RESEARCH

B
C

Fig. 4 Top views of welds made by conventional GMAW at

various voltages and heat inputs. A Weld No. 52; B
Weld No. 53; C Weld No. 54; D Weld No. 55. Travel
speed: 15 mm/s.

C keep the arc length constant as the cladding gets

thicker and thicker during deposition. The welding
gun stays stationary while the workpiece moves
around.
So, in addition to single-bead cladding, single-layer
square cladding was made over a 27 27 mm area on
the steel. Cladding was also made with four layers and
eight layers. The eight-layer cladding was used to de-
termine its overall chemical composition.

Overall Cladding Composition

In order to provide enough material for the many

Fig. 3 Waveforms of current and voltage. A Sample 53 (conven
tional GMAW); B Sample 55 (conventional GMAW); C Sample 50
(GMAWCSC).
samples needed for chemical composition analysis, an
eight-layer cladding was made over a square area of
31.5 31.5 mm on the 1018 steel plate. The cladding
was about 6.7 mm thick. After welding, the cladding
was cut off by electrical discharge machining (EDM)
for the purpose of chemical analysis, from 1 mm above
the steel plate. In other words, the amount of sample
for the chemical analysis was 31.5 31.5 5.7 mm in
volume. The cut-off sample was then broken up into

454-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95

 WELDING RESEARCH

of China (GB/T) for W and Si; and LLIF for Fe, TAP for
and NACIS stan- Ni, and PCO for 0. Counting times
dards (Refs. were 10 s on peak and 5 s each on
1116). two backgrounds. During the initial
stage of the present study, SEM and
Microstructural energy dispersive spectrometry
Analysis of the (EDS) were also used to identify the
particles removed from inside the tu-
Cladding bular filler metal. A Bruker D8 Dis-
A
cover diffractometer along with a mi-
SXFiveFE, a crofocus x-ray source and a Vantec
state-of-the-art area detector was also used to identi-
field emission fy phases in the cladding.
electron probe mi-
cro analyzer
(EPMA) for quan- Results and Discussion
B titative analysis
and x-ray map- Figure 2 shows a transverse cross
ping at high-spa- section of the PolyTung NiBWC flux-
tial resolution, cored wire and the particles removed
was used (Ref. from inside. EDS analysis indicates the
17). Up to five tube sheath as Ni and the main parti-
wavelength dis- cles as Ni, WC, and W.
persive spectrom-
C eters (WDS) could
be fit into the mi- SingleBead Cladding
croprobe for high-
precision quanti- Figure 3 shows example waveforms
tative analysis. of current and voltage recorded during
The beam diame- welding. Consider conventional
ter used was GMAW first. Welds No. 53 was made
80100 nm at 19 V. Its waveforms in Fig. 3A show
D (called 0 m), the voltage approaches zero periodi-
the voltage and cally. This suggests the short-circuit-
current being 8 ing mode of metal transfer. Weld No.
kV and 20 nA, re- 55 was also made by conventional
spectively. The GMAW but at a slightly higher voltage
volume below the of 21 V. As shown by its waveforms in
sample surface af- Fig. 3B, the voltage approaches zero
fected by the only occasionally and not quite as
E beam was about close to zero. This suggests the mode
250 nm in diame- of metal transfer is more like globular
ter (Ref. 18). The than short circuiting. As for the
samples were pol- GMAW-CSC, the waveforms of Weld
ished but not No. 50 in Fig. 3C are typical of con-
etched, in order trolled short circuiting. When short
not to affect the circuiting occurs, the maximum cur-
F composition rent is always kept low (< 150 A) in-
measurements by stead of being allowed to have a sud-
Fig. 5 Top views of welds made by GMAWCSC at various volt EPMA. A plasma den surge to cause spatter (e.g., about
ages and heat inputs. A Weld No. 46; B Weld No. 47; C cleaner (IBSS 400 A in Fig. 3B).
Weld No. 48; D Weld No. 49; E Weld No. 50; F Weld No. 51. GV10X) was used It was found that the window of
Travel speed: 15 mm/s. Window for welding is significantly wider in to clean the sam- welding parameters was significantly
GMAWCSC than in conventional GMAW (Fig. 4). ple surface. The wider with GMAW-CSC than conven-
standards for cali- tional GMAW. Consider conventional
bration for EPMA GMAW first. As shown in Fig. 4A,
granules and dissolved in various included pure WC, W, C, Ni, Fe, Si, Weld No. 53 made at the arc voltage
chemicals for chemical analysis. The and B. EPMA was done using Ka x-ray 19 V (107 J/mm) is smooth with only
chemical analysis was conducted at lines of B, O, C, and Si, whereas the slight spatter. However, Weld No. 52
the National Analysis Center of Iron W Ma line and the Ni Ll lines were made at the arc voltage 18 V (99.5
and Steel (NACIS) in Beijing, China, used for those elements. Crystals J/mm) is highly irregular and discon-
according to the National Standards used were: LPC2 for C and B; LPET tinuous in shape. For Weld No. 55

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 455-s

WELDING RESEARCH

A A

B B
Fig. 6 Transverse cross sections of singlebead cladding de
posited by conventional GMAW. A Sample No. 53; B
sample No. 55. The average of three dilutions at three differ
ent locations along each sample is shown.

made at 21 V (120 J/mm), the bead J/mm. Thus, the dilu- C

was continuous but with large spatter.
With GMAW-CSC, on the other hand,
a smooth single bead with slight spat-
ter could be made over the much wider
range of 56.3 to 120 J/mm as shown
in Fig. 5.
Examples of the transverse cross-
sections of single-bead cladding made
by conventional GMAW are shown in
Fig. 6. Similar results are shown in Fig.
7 for cladding made by GMAW-CSC. In
either case, the cladding is not very
densely packed with large tungsten
carbide particles. To increase the frac-
tion of large tungsten carbide particles
in the cladding, a tubular welding wire
with a thin sheath and small crimp
overlap can be used as pointed out by
Mendez et al. (Ref. 1). The PolyTung
NiBWC flux-cored wire of 1.6-mm out-
er diameter, which has a relatively
thick sheath and large crimp overlap
as can be seen in Fig. 2A, was selected
for the present study mainly because
of the intended comparison with the
study of Vespa et al. (Ref. 3), in which
the same wire was used.
From the transverse cross section of
the cladding, the extent it is diluted by
the melted base metal can be deter-
mined. Table 4 summarizes the dilu-
tions in the single-bead cladding. As
shown in Fig. 6, with conventional
GMAW, the dilution varies from 2.6% at
107 J/mm to 12% at 120 J/mm. With
GMAW-CSC, as shown in Fig. 7, the di-
lution varies from 0.6% at 75 J/mm to
5.4% at 107 J/mm and 5.7% at 120
tion varies less in
GMAW-CSC than con- Fig. 7 Transverse cross sections of singlebead cladding de
posited by GMAWCSC. A Sample No. 47; B sample No.
ventional GMAW. The 50; C sample No. 51. The average of three dilutions at
dissolution of WC par- three different locations along each sample is shown.
ticles appears to in-
crease with increasing
heat input as can be seen by comparing, (No. 14) made with a short serpen-
for instance, Fig. 6A with 6B. tine motion pattern that covers the
left one-third of the square cladding,
reverses its direction to cover the
Square Cladding Made middle one-third, and then reverses
with 3D Printer its direction again to cover the right
one-third. As compared to cladding
Since the dilution increases less No. 13 in Fig. 8, its thickness is more
with increasing heat input in GMAW- uniform but the dilution was higher
CSC than conventional GMAW, the at 6.01%.
former was used to deposit cladding Figure 10 shows a single-layer
over a square area (about 27 27 square cladding (No. 11) made with a
mm). Three single-layer square longer serpentine motion pattern
claddings, made at the travel speed of that covers the entire square cladding
15 mm/s, are discussed below. without reversing its direction like in
The pattern of the welding gun/ cladding No. 14 Fig. 9. The overall
steel relative motion was found to af- dilution is at 4.6%. As compared to
fect the thickness uniformity and cladding No. 13, No. 11 appears to be
overall dilution of the resultant more uniform in thickness and have a
cladding. Figure 8 shows a single-lay- more uniform distribution of tung-
er square cladding (No. 13) made with sten carbide particles. It is likely that,
a square spiral pattern. The cladding with a closed-loop control strategy,
becomes thinner and thinner as its the pool size can be better controlled
center is approached. Based on the to reduce variations in the uniformity
enlarged transverse cross section of and thickness of the cladding and its
the cladding (not shown), the overall dilution by the substrate. However,
dilution is 2.28%. The micrographs the same pool size on the surface may
taken at three different locations in not necessarily mean the same pool
the transverse cross section show WC depth, which affects the level of dilu-
particles are fewer and smaller near tion. By the way, some soot is visible
the center of the cladding. Figure 9 in the middle of the top surface of
shows a single-layer square cladding cladding No. 11 Fig. 10B. The soot

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 WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 8 Singlelayer square cladding No.

13 made by GMAWCSC. A Pattern of
motion of workpiece relative to welding
gun; B top view; C transverse cross
section; D, E, F optical micrographs. Di
lution = 2.28%.

was likely caused by surface oxidation

after welding as the current and volt-
age waveforms indicated the welding
process was stable.
The results of the single-layer
square cladding indicate that, out of
the three motion patterns investigat-
ed, the long serpentine pattern shown
A B in Fig. 10A seems to yield the best re-
sults, that is, uniform cladding thick-
ness and moderate dilution of 4.6%.
C
Thus, a four-layer cladding was made
with the serpentine pattern, that is,
cladding No. 9. As shown in Fig. 11,
the cladding is essentially uniform in
thickness and in the distribution of
WC particles. To help reduce overheat-
ing, the travel speed was gradually in-
creased from 16.7 mm/s at the begin-
ning of the first layer to 26.7 mm/s at
the end of the first layer. It was fur-
ther increased gradually to 33.3 mm/s
D E F before the end of the second layer. To
help distribute heat more uniformly,
the pattern was rotated 90 deg after
each layer.
It was noticed that the tip of the Ni
sheath was deformed into a bell shape,
as shown in Fig. 12. The foam-like ma-
terial visible outside the bell is likely
to be a flux or binder added during the
fabrication of the welding wire. As
compared to GMAW-CSC with a solid
wire (Refs. 8, 9), the level of spatter
shown in Figs. 5 and 12 is much high-
er even though GMAW-CSC is known
to be very effective in eliminating
spatter. When the tip of a solid wire
A forms a liquid bridge with the weld
B pool, the controller can clearly sense a
voltage of nearly zero Fig. 3C. How-
ever, with the tip of a tubular wire like
C
that shown in Fig. 12, the liquid bridge
may not be as easy to form and con-
trol. Consequently, more spatter can
be expected with a tubular wire. Some

Fig. 9 Singlelayer square cladding

No. 14 made by GMAWCSC. A Pat
tern of motion of workpiece relative to
welding gun; B top view; C trans
verse cross section; D, E, F optical mi
D E F crographs. Dilution = 6.01%.

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WELDING RESEARCH

Table 3 Welding Parameters for GMAWCSC

Sample 46 47 48 49 50 51
Arc Time Initial arc current (A) 40 50 60 65 70 77
Time (ms) 4 4 4 4 4 4
Mid arc current (A) 80 100 120 130 140 154
Time (ms) 4 4 4 4 4 4
End arc current (A) 40 50 60 65 70 77
Short Circuit Start short current (A) 40 40 40 40 40 40
Time
Time (ms) 7 7 7 7 7 7
Mid short current (A) 40 40 40 40 40 40
Time (ms) 7 7 7 7 7 7
End arc current (A) 40 40 40 40 40 40
Ramp Rates Rise (A/ms) 250 250 250 250 250 250
Fall (A/ms) 250 250 250 250 250 250
Wire feeding Down wire feed 8 8 8 8 8 8
Rate speed (mpm)
Delay before wire down (ms) 0 0 0 0 0 0
UP1 wire feed speed (mpm) 8 8 8 8 8 8
Delay before wire up (ms) 0 0 0 0 0 0
Up2 wire feed speed (mpm) 8 8 8 8 8 8
Arc length (mm) 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Penetration delay (ms) 0 0 0 0 0 0
Start Sequence Preow time (s) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Data
Runin wire feed speed (mpm) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Process starting current (A) 50 50 50 50 50 50
Initial arc length (mm) 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Preheat current (A) 60 60 60 60 60 60
Preheat timestart delay (ms) 50 50 50 50 50 50
Stop Sequence Stop arc length (mm) 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Data
Stop time (ms) 50 50 50 50 50 50
Arc stop current (A) 50 50 50 50 50 50
Postflow time (s) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Electrode Extension (mm) 16 16 16 16 16 16
Shielding Gas 75% Ar 75% Ar 75% Ar 75% Ar 75% Ar 75% Ar
25% CO2 25% CO2 25% CO2 25% CO2 25% CO2 25% CO2
Gas Flowing Rate (m3/h) 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
Travel Speed (mm/s) 15 15 15 15 15 15
Heat Input (J/mm) 56.3 74.8 90.6 99.5 107.1 119.5

distortion of the workpiece is visible,

which probably can be minimized by Table 4 Dilutions in SingleBead Cladding Made by GMAWCSC and Conventional
using a stronger frame and heavier GMAW
motors for the 3D printer system to
allow the use of a metal fixture for GMAWCSC Conventional GMAW
clamping down the workpiece tightly Sample 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 54 55
before welding. Dilution 1 0.124 1.25 2.95 1.38 5.76 1.24 1.05 9.81 14.21
(%) 2 0.098 0.49 2.35 1.81 4.50 5.37 4.53 2.35
Overall Composition of 3 0.247 0.072 1.0 3.68 5.98 10.37 2.23 0.82 9.21
Cladding Average 0.16 0.6 2.1 2.29 5.41 5.66 2.60 4.33 11.71
To prepare a sample for determin-
ing the overall chemical composition sis. As shown in Table 5, the overall 2.09 wt-%. For simplicity, the compo-
of the cladding, an eight-layer square composition of the cladding is 53.36 sition will be taken as Ni-42.09W-
cladding was made with the long ser- 2.80 wt-% Ni, 42.09 0.93 wt-% W, 1.15C-0.64B-0.34Fe-0.33Si by wt-%,
pentine motion pattern Fig. 9A. As 1.15 0.003 wt-% C, 0.64 0.004 wt- which implies the balance is 55.45 wt-
mentioned previously, the upper half % B, 0.34 0.01 wt-% Fe, and 0.33 % Ni (= 53.36 + 2.09). This composi-
of the cladding was cut off by electri- 0.004 wt-% Si. Due to accumulation tion is more reliable than that provid-
cal discharge machining (EDM), bro- of errors, the summation of these ed by the supplier of the welding
ken up into particles, and dissolved in concentrations is 97.91 wt-% instead wire. As shown in Table 1, the carbon
various chemicals for chemical analy- of 100 wt-%, the difference being content was not even measured.

458-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95


A of a halo around big tungsten car-
B
C although they used a different weld-
D E
Fig. 10 Singlelayer square cladding No. 11 made by GMAWCSC. A Pattern of motion
of workpiece relative to welding gun; B top view; C transverse cross section; D, E, F
optical micrographs. Dilution = 4.6%.
Optical Micrographs
Figure 13 shows the microstruc-
ture of single-bead cladding No. 47
(74.8 J/mm) and No. 50 107 J/mm).
As shown by the transverse optical
micrographs in Fig. 13A and B, the
large tungsten carbide particles are
those from the filler metal that were
not melted completely during weld-
ing. Dendrites of Ni-rich primary so-
lidification phase -Ni are visible in
the matrix between large tungsten
carbide particles. The secondary den-
drite arm spacing is larger with
cladding No. 50 than No. 47. It is well
known that the higher the heat input
is, the slower the cooling rate during
welding (Ref. 19). It is also well
known that the slower the cooling
rate is, the more time is available for
dendrite arms to coarsen and increase
the secondary dendrite arm spacing
F ported by Vespa et al. (Ref. 3) or Choi
e.g., by x-ray diffraction (XRD), is
needed to confirm the presence of
(Refs. 19, 20). So, the higher the heat
input is, the larger the secondary
dendrite arm spacing can be expect-
ed. Thus, the higher heat input used
for depositing cladding No. 50 can be
expected to result in larger dendrite
arm spacing.
Local Composition
Measurements by
HighResolution EPMA
Figure 14 shows a big tungsten car-
bide particle in cladding No. 9 (Fig.
11), and the various phases in it iden-
tified by EPMA. As mentioned previ-
ously, with the high-resolution EPMA
used in the present study, the diame-
ter of the electron beam was only
80100 nm in diameter and the vol-
ume below the sample surface affected
by the beam was 250 nm in diameter.
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 459-s
WELDING RESEARCH
The original electron image taken
during EPMA has been replaced by a
SEM image taken after EPMA. The
SEM image, which is shown in Fig. 14,
has a higher contrast, which is needed
to show the different phases in the
particles more clearly.
WC exists along the edge of the big
particle as shown by the compositions
at Points 1, 2, and 3. The presence of
WC along the edge is consistent with
the observation of a WC shell
around big tungsten carbide particles
by Vespa et al. (Ref. 3), who used the
same welding wire used in the present
study, that is, PolyTung NiBWC. It is
also consistent with the observation
bide particles by Choi et al. (Ref. 2),
ing wire, that is, an Arctec Tungcore
FCS cored wire.
Figure 14 shows that inside the big
tungsten carbide particle WC exists
at Points 4 and 5, and W2C exists at
Points 10, 11, and 12. The presence
of both WC and W2C inside tungsten
carbide particles was also reported by
Vespa et al. (Ref. 3) and Choi et al.
(Ref. 2). According to Fig. 14, W3C2
also exists inside the big tungsten
carbide particle, which was not re-
et al. (Ref. 2). Further identification,
W3C2. It is interesting to note that
Huang et al. (Ref. 21) showed XRD
peaks corresponding to -Ni, WC,
W2C, and WC1-x. If x = 1/3, WC1-x be-
comes WC2/3 or W3C2.
Figure 15 shows the composition
measurements in an interdendritic area
in cladding No. 9. At Points 1, 2, and 3,
the -Ni dendrites are Ni-rich as expect-
ed. However, they also contain signifi-
cant amounts of W and C. The inter-
dendritic eutectic is composite-like,
consisting of a small lighter contrast-
phase like -Ni and a small darker-con-
trast phase. The darker-contrast phase
at Points 4 and 5 appears to be Ni3B,
but it also contains a significant
amount of C. The lighter-contrast
phase at Points 6 and 7 are similar to
-Ni in composition.
Figure 16 shows the x-ray diffrac-
tion pattern obtained by directing the
x-ray over an area of 0.1 mm diameter
on the transverse cross section of
cladding No. 9 (Fig. 11). The diffrac-
WELDING RESEARCH

matches WC1-x but
it also matches
W2C. So, the pres-
ence of WC1-x still
needs further
confirmation.
According to the
binary W-C phase
diagram in Fig. 17
(Ref. 22), however,
-WC1-x does exist
from about 38 to
A 50 at-% C or a
B range of the C/W
ratio of about 0.6
C to 1.0. This range
does cover WC1-x
with x = 1/3, which
is equivalent to
WC2/3 or W3C2 .
Figure 18 shows
the electron im-
ages of cladding
No. 47 taken dur-
ing composition
measurements by
EPMA. This small
beam size helped
determine the
compositions of
D E F tially dissolve into the matrix during
small interden-
Fig. 11 Fourlayer square cladding No. 13 made by GMAW dritic features.
CSC. A Pattern of motion of workpiece relative to welding These features are
gun; B top view; C transverse cross section; D, E, F opti away from the big tal to performance when impact
cal micrographs. Dilution = 3.61%. tungsten carbide
particles from the
tion angles of various phases are filler metal, suggesting their forma-
shown at the bottom of the diffrac- tion from the liquid pool during so-
tion pattern, including Ni, Ni-0.09W, lidification. As shown by Fig. 18B
WC, W2C, WC1-x, and Ni3B. As shown, and the compositions at Points 1 and
the presence of Ni-0.09W, WC, W2C, 2 in the table, the angular bright-
and Ni3B is confirmed. It is interest- contrast particle is WC. Other bright-
ing that Ni-0.09W matches the dif- contrast particles are also W-rich as
fraction pattern better than Ni. As shown by the compositions at Points
shown previously in Fig. 15, the -Ni 3 through 5. The small Ni contents of
dendrites contain 7.86 to 9.31 at-% these particles might be real or at-
W. The small peak at 37 deg matches tributed to the neighboring Ni-rich
WC1-x, but it also matches Ni3B. Like- matrix.
wise, the small peak at 61.8 deg Similar results are shown in Fig. 19
for cladding No. 51. As shown, the an-
gular bright-contrast particle is again
WC as indicated by the compositions
at Points 8 and 9. However, unlike the
W-rich interdendritic particles in Fig.
18 for cladding No. 47, the bright-
contrast interdendritic phases in
cladding No. 51 contain about 18 to
30 at-% Ni and some Fe and B in addi-
tion to more than 40 at-% W and 20
at-% C. As shown previously (Fig. 7),
cladding No. 51 was made with a heat
input (120 J/mm) higher than that
for weld No. 47 (70 J/mm). Thus, it is
likely that under a higher heat input
big tungsten carbide particles dis-
solved to a greater extent during
welding and formed these interden-
dritic particles during solidification.
Thermodynamic Analysis
The thermal spray and hardfacing
industries have included Cr in many
commercially available Ni-based alloys
as it aids in hardenability and increas-
es corrosion resistance. However, it
has been noted (Ref. 1) that brittle Cr-
containing phases form in cladding
coatings when WC/W2C particles par-
PTA, laser, or GMAW processing.
These brittle phases will be detrimen-
events occur during service. The ef-
fects of Cr additions to the Ni alloy
need to be understood and considered
for cladding coatings.
To help understand the effect of
the Cr addition on Ni-WC cladding,
thermodynamic software and data-
base were used to calculate the solidi-
fication path of the cladding based on
its composition. Obviously, the nomi-
nal composition of the filler metal
provided in Table 1 by the supplier
cannot be used because it does not
even show the C content. This is why
an eight-layer square cladding was

Table 5 Chemical Composition (wt%) of EightLayer Square Cladding

W Si B Ni C Fe
Chemical Composition, 41.82 0.337 0.640 54.01 1.149 0.349
wt% 41.83 0.337 0.645 54.93 1.145 0.334
42.75 0.332 51.14 0.334
41.65
42.40
Average 42.09 0.93 0.33 0.004 0.64 0.004 53.36 2.80 1.15 0.003 0.34 0.01

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 WELDING RESEARCH

termine the local average composition

of the Ni-rich matrix away from un-
melted tungsten carbide particles, that
is, to determine the local average com-
position in an area significantly larger
than dendrites and away from big
tungsten carbide particles. The new
SXFiveFE EPMA machine allowed a
50-m-diameter beam size to be used
to measure the average composition at
a location. However, it was found that
the measured composition of the Ni-
rich matrix varied significantly from
location to location in the cladding
and an overall composition of the ma-
trix as a whole could not be deter-
mined accurately.
The second method, on the other
hand, was based on the overall com-
position of the cladding measured by
chemical analysis. As mentioned pre-
Fig. 12 Expansion at the lower end of the tubular welding wire after GMAWCSC of viously, an eight-layer square cladding
cladding No. 9 (Fig. 11). Such expansion is likely to contribute to spatter, which usually is was cut off by EDM from 1 mm above
effectively eliminated in CSCGMAW with a solid welding wire. the steel substrate and broken up and
dissolved in chemical solutions for
wet chemical analyses. Thus, the dis-
A B solved cladding included not only the
Ni-rich matrix, but also the unmelted
portions of the big tungsten carbide
particles, which need to be excluded
in order to have an accurate composi-
tion of the liquid metal in the weld
pool to calculate its solidification
path. According to image analysis by
Image J (Ref. 23), tungsten carbide
particles larger than 15 m in equiva-
B lent diameter occupied 13.53% of the
cross-sectional area of the cladding.
Examination of representative exam-
ples of such tungsten carbide parti-
cles revealed that the halo around
the particle occupied about 25.7% of
the area of the particle. Thus, the un-
melted portions of such tungsten car-
bide particles represented about 10%
of the cladding, that is, 13.53%
(100% 25.7%).
As an approximation, assume the
C D tungsten carbide particles are WC.
Since the measured W content of the
Fig. 13 Microstructure of cladding. A, B Optical micrographs; C, D SEM images
cladding is 42.09 wt-% (Table 5), the
showing Wrich interdendritic features (lightcontrast). Secondary dendrite arm spacing is
higher with higher heat input. W content in the liquid portion of the
weld pool should be 42.09 wt-%
(100% 10%) = 37.88 wt-%. Similarly,
prepared for detailed chemical analy- melted portion of tungsten carbide since the measured C content of the
sis. As mentioned previously, the particles as well as liquid metal, the cladding is 1.15 wt-% (Table 5), the C
overall composition of the cladding composition of the liquid metal need- content in the liquid portion of the
was Ni-42.09W-1.15C-0.64B-0.34Fe- ed to be found in order to calculate its weld pool should be 1.15 wt-%
0.33Si by wt-%. solidification path. To do this, two dif- (100% 10%) = 1.035 wt-%. Thus,
Since the weld pool and hence the ferent methods were tried in the pres- based on 37.88 wt-% W and 1.035 wt-
resultant cladding contained the un- ent study. The first method was to de- % C and the measured contents of all

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WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 14 Composition measurements of a big tungsten carbide

particle in cladding No. 9 (Fig. 11) showing W3C2 as well as the
previously reported WC and W2C inside partially melted tungsten
carbide particles. Points of measurements are superimposed on
an SEM image for better contrast between phases. B

other elements in Table 5, the total database PanNickel

contents of all the elements in the
weld-pool liquid is now 95.675 wt-%
(= 37.88 wt-% W + 0.33 wt-% Si + 0.64
wt-% B + 55.45 wt-% Ni + 1.035 wt-%
C + 0.34 wt-% Fe). Since the total
should be 100%, each alloying content
should be multiplied by a factor of
1.045 (= 100 / 95.675). Thus, the com-
position of the liquid in the weld pool
is as follows: 39.58 wt-% W, 0.34 wt-%
Si, 0.67 wt-% B, 57.95 wt-% Ni, 1.08
wt-% C, and 0.36 wt-% Fe or just Ni-
39.58W-1.08C-0.67B-0.36Fe-0.34Si
by wt-%.
Figure 20A shows the solidification
path of the liquid metal in the weld
pool based on the composition of Ni-
39.58W-1.08C-0.67B-0.36Fe-0.34Si.
The solidification path is the curve of
temperature T vs. fraction of total sol-
id fS during solidification. The curve
was calculated using thermodynamic
software Pandat (Ref. 24) and Ni-alloy
(Ref. 25) of Com-
puTherm, LLC.
The arrowheads
indicate the points
at which solid
phases start to
form from the liq-
uid during cooling. Fig. 15 Composition measurements in interdendritic area in
As shown, before cladding No. 9 (Fig. 11).
-Ni starts to form
at about 1380C, below 1400C indicates WC forming
WC forms from the liquid at about while -Ni dendrites grow, and this
1650C. This WC formation probably WC is likely to exist in the interden-
occurs on the unmelted portions of dritic areas. At about 1300C M2B
the tungsten carbide particles, that is, boride begins to form, where M con-
by epitaxial growth as halos around tains Ni, Fe and W. At about 1060C,
the unmelted portions of the particles. Ni3B boride begins to form in the form
Epitaxial growth is much easier since of eutectic Ni-Ni3B. Figure 20B shows
WC does not have to nucleate from the the fractions of solid phases during so-
melt. lidification. The Ni-rich phase -Ni,
Figure 20A shows -Ni starts to which has a much higher fraction than
form just below 1400C. So, in Fig. all other solid phases, is not included
20B the big hump in the WC curve just in order to show other solid phases

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 WELDING RESEARCH

more clearly. As shown, the fraction of

WC is about 0.125.
The effect of substituting Ni with
Cr on the fraction of WC is shown as
follows. Figure 20C and D shows the
calculated results for 39.58 wt-% W,
0.34 wt Si, 0.67 wt-% B, 52.95 wt-%
Ni, 1.08 wt-% C, 0.36 wt-% Fe, and 5
wt-% Cr or just Ni-39.58W-1.08C-
0.67B-0.36Fe-0.34Si-5Cr. In other
words, 5 wt-% Ni is substituted with 5
wt-% Cr and the contents of other al-
loying elements such as C, B, Fe, and Si
remain unchanged. As shown, WC still
starts to form from the weld-pool liq-
uid at about 1650C. However, the for-
mation of M6C carbide soon follows at
about 1500C. The amount of WC af-
ter solidification is only about 7.5 wt-
%, instead of 12.5 wt-% as in the case
without Cr. On the other hand, the
amount of M6C is as high as 15 wt-%.
With 10 wt-% of Ni substituted by
10 wt-% Cr, the composition of the
weld-pool liquid becomes 39.58 wt-%
W, 0.34 wt Si, 0.67 wt% B, 47.95 wt-%
Ni, 1.08 wt-% C, 0.36 wt-% Fe, and 10
wt-% Cr or just Ni-39.58W-1.08C-
Fig. 16 Xray diffraction pattern of cladding No. 9 (Fig. 11) identifying the presence of 0.67B-0.36Fe-0.34Si-10Cr. As shown
phases, including Ni, Ni0.09W, WC, W2C, WC1x and Ni3B. in Fig. 20E and F, WC no longer forms
during solidification. Instead, M2C car-
bide forms at about 1630C and M6C
carbide about 1570C. The resultant
content of M6C carbide is as high as 30
wt%. These results suggest that Cr
tends to form undesirable Cr-contain-
ing carbide M6C at the expense of WC.
Liyanage et al. (Ref. 26) used three
Ni-rich matrix alloys containing 0, 8.4,
and 13.8 wt-% Cr in PTAW of Ni-WC
cladding. It was shown that the WC
volume fraction in the cladding was
lower with than without Cr. The solidi-
fication paths of the three matrix al-
loys were calculated based on the
Scheil solidification model. No frac-
tions of solid phases were shown. It
was pointed out that the solidification
paths showed that the stability of WC
is reduced when Cr is added, which re-
duces WC and promotes Cr-containing
carbides.
Landwehr (Ref. 27) also showed Cr
addition increased WC dissolution.
Ni-WC claddings were made by using
a defocused laser-beam and adding
Ni-WC powder to the weld pool. The
cladding made with a powder contain-
ing 14 wt-% Cr showed significantly
more WC dissolution than one made
Fig. 17 Tungstencarbon phase diagram (Ref. 22).
with a Cr-free powder. Although the

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 463-s

WELDING RESEARCH

Ni-WC differed from the filler metal

used in the present study, this effect
of Cr on WC dissolution is consistent
with that shown in Fig. 20 based on
thermodynamic analysis.

Conclusions
1) The operation window for
preparing a smooth cladding of Ni-WC
without severe spatter is significantly
wider with controlled-short-circuiting A B
GMAW, i.e., GMAW-CSC, than with
conventional GMAW.
2) The undesirable melting of the
steel substrate, that is, the dilution of
the hard Ni-WC cladding by the melt-
ed steel, can be better controlled with
GMAW-CSC than with conventional
GMAW. Increasing the heat input Fig. 18 Compositions of interdendritic particles in singlebead cladding No. 47 (Fig.
tends to increase dilution much more 7A) made with a lower heat input. A Overview; B enlarged.
significantly with conventional
GMAW than with GMAW-CSC.
3) The weaving pattern of the weld-
ing gun can significantly affect the
uniformity of the thickness of the
cladding and its dilution by the base
metal. The optimum pattern can be
found by using a low-cost 3D printer
to move the workpiece under a sta-
tionary gun, which is especially con-
venient when a much more expensive
welding robot or 3-axis CNC milling
machine is unavailable.
4) High-resolution electron probe A B
microanalysis (EPMA), with a very
small electron beam of 80100 nm in
diameter, can allow the compositions
of various phases in partially melted
tungsten carbide particles and small
W-rich interdendritic features to be
determined.
5) As the heat input increases,
which increases the partial melting of
tungsten carbide particles during
welding, the W-rich interdendritic fea-
tures can change from essentially Ni- C D
free to containing 1830 at-% Ni.
6) Thermodynamics analysis
demonstrates that increasing the Cr
content can cause Cr-containing car-
bide to form at the expense of the WC
needed to provide the wear resistance.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank

Dr. John H. Fournelle of the Depart- Fig. 19 Compositions of interdendritic particles in singlebead cladding No. 51 (Fig.
ment of Geoscience, UW-Madison for 7C) made with a higher heat input. A Overview; B, C, D enlarged.

464-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95

 WELDING RESEARCH

Brochu, M. 2012. Analysis of

D WC/Ni-based coatings deposited
A by controlled short-circuit MIG
welding. Journal of Materials En-
gineering and Performance 21(6):
865876.
4. ISO/TR 13393, 2009, Weld-
ing consumables hardfacing
classification microstructures,
Switzerland.
5. Data Sheet, PolyTung NiB-
E WC, WC-W-007. April 2010.
Cincinnati, Ohio: Polymet Corp.
6. CSC-MIG Weld Process Con-
B troller, Jetline Engineering,
Irvine, Calif., pdf.directindustry
.com/pdf/jet-line-engineering/csc-
mig-weld-process-
controller/27577-54392.html.
7. Gilles, K. 2006. An anti-spat-
ter matter. Welding Design and Fab-
rication,weldingdesign.com/process-
es/anti-spatter-matter.
F 8. Wagner, D. C., Yang, Y. K.,
and Kou, S. 2013. Spatter and
C porosity in gas-metal arc welding
of magnesium alloys: mecha-
nisms and elimination. Welding
Journal 92: 347-s.
9. Chai, X., Yang, Y. K., and Kou,
S. 2015. Oxide films, high crowns
and fingers in gas-metal arc welds
of Mg alloys: Mechanisms of for-
mation and mitigation. Welding
Journal 94: 16-s to 33-s.
10. Anzalone, G. C., Zhang, C.,
Wijnen, B., Sanders, P. G., and
Pearce, J. M. 2013. A low-cost
open-source metal 3-D printer.
Fig. 20 Solidification paths and resultant fractions of phases. A, B Ni39.58W1.08C0.67B0.36Fe IEEE Access 1: 803810.
0.34Si; C, D Ni39.58W1.08C0.67B0.36Fe0.34Si5Cr, showing loss of WC caused by substituting 5 11. GB/T 223.60. 1997. Meth-
wt% Ni with 5 wt% Cr; E, FNi39.58W1.08C0.67B0.36Fe0.34Si10Cr, showing complete loss of ods for chemical analysis of iron,
WC caused by substituting 10 wt% Ni with 10 wt% Cr. Arrowheads indicate the points at which new steel and alloy The perchloric
phases start to form from the liquid during cooling. Fraction of -Ni is not included in order to show acid dehydration gravimetric
other solid phases more clearly. method for determination of sili-
con content, Beijing, China:
composition measurements by high- Materials Joining Science for Energy Standardization Administration
resolution EPMA and CompuTherm, Applications, and subsequently by the of China.
LLC in Madison, Wis,. for kindly provid- National Science Foundation under 12. GB/T 7731.1. 1987. Methods for
ing Pandat 2013 and PanNickel 2013 for Grant No. DMR 1500367. chemical analysis of ferrotungsten The
calculating the solidification paths. cinchonine gravimetric method for the de-
They would also like to thank Polymet, termination of tungsten content, Beijing,
Cincinnati, Ohio, for donating the Poly- China: Standardization Administration of
References China.
Tung NiBWC wire. The authors would
like to thank Bruce Albrecht, Todd 13. GB/T 24583.4. 2009. Vanadium-Ni-
trogen alloy Determination carbon of
Holverson, Rick Hutchison, and Joe 1. Mendez, P. F., Barnes, N., Bell, K., Bor-
content The infrared absorption
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method, Beijing, China: Standardization
Co. and ITW Global Welding Technolo- H., Gol, A. K., and Wood, G. 2014. Welding Administration of China.
gy Center, both located in Appleton, processes for wear resistant overlays. Journal 14. NACIS/C 048. 2013. Iron, steel and
Wis., for donating the CSC process con- of Manufacturing Processes 16(1): 425. alloy Determination of nickel content-
troller and drive assembly, Invision 456 2. Choi, L., Wolfe, T., Yarmuch, M., and Dimethylglyoxime precipitation-EDTA
power source, XR-M wire feeder, and Gerlich, A. September 2011. Effect of weld- titration method, Beijing, China: National
welding gun used in the present study. ing parameters on tungsten carbide-metal Analysis Center for Iron and Steel.
This work was supported initially by the matrix composites produced by GMAW. 15. NACIS/C H 070. 2013. Determina-
Industry/University Collaborative Re- Proc. CWA Conf., Banff, AB, Canada. tion of iron, cobalt, nickel and copper con-
search Center (I/UCRC) for Integrated 3. Vespa, P., Pinard, P. T., Gauvin, R., and tent-ICP-AES, Beijing, China: National

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Analysis Center for Iron and Steel.
16. NACIS/C H 121. 2013. Iron, steel
and alloy Determination of Boron con-
tent- ICP-AES, Beijing, China: National
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17. CAMECA SXFiveFE: Field Emission
Electron Probe Microanalyser.
cameca.com/instruments-for-research/sx-
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science, University of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wis.
19. Kou, S. 2003. Welding Metallurgy, 2nd
edition, John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, N.J.
American Welding Society
www.aws.org
Contact AWS for more information at 800-443-9353
Sandra Jorgensen at Ext. 254, email: sjorgensen@aws.org / Annette Delagrange at Ext. 332

email: adelagrange@aws.org
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20. Flemings, M. C. 1974. Solidification
Processing, McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y.
21. Huang, S. W., Samandi, M., and
Brandt, M. 2004. Abrasive wear perform-
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WC/Ni layers. Wear 256: 10951105.
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Tungsten Carbides. Springer, Switzerland.
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Analysis in Java, National Institute of
Health. imagej.nih.gov/ij/.
24. Pandat. Phase Diagram Calculation
software package for Multicomponent Sys-
tems. 2014. CompuTherm, LLC, Madison,
Wis.
BRING BRAND AWARENESS
TO YOUR COMPANY
By placing your product video on the AWS website.
25. PanNickel Thermodynamic data-
base for Commercial Aluminum Alloys.
2014. CompuTherm, LLC, Madison, Wis.
26. Liyanage, T., Fisher, G., and Gerlich,
A. P. 2012. Microstructure and abrasive
wear performance of PTAW deposited Ni-
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27. Landwehr, D. 2015. Investigation of
characterization techniques for phases
formed during laser cladding of WC/Ni-al-
loy wear resistant coating, senior project,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
 WELDING RESEARCH

Influence of Flux Composition on the Performance

of a NickelBased Alloy Covered Electrode for
9% Ni Steel Welding
The effect of the flux coating ingredients on the welding performance, weld quality,
mass transfer coefficient, and cryogenic impact energy is presented

BY H. WANG AND G. HE

retained austenite results in excellent

ABSTRACT mechanical properties at cryogenic tem-
A nickelbased alloy covered electrode with two different types of flux coating was in perature (Refs. 25).
vestigated in terms of weldability, weld quality, mass transfer, microstructure, and As well known, the welding con-
mechanical properties. It was found that the strong basic CaF2CaOSiO2 type electrode sumables are key factors affecting the
exhibited a larger deposition rate, smaller spatter loss and fumes, better fluidity of slag, quality of the weld joint. The covered
and wider weld bead. The alkalescent TiO2SiO2SrO type exhibited larger penetration electrode of a Ni-Cr-Fe alloy with a
and excellent slag detachability. The metals had the larger mass transfer coefficients in Ni content more than 55 wt-% can be
the strong basic slag system if they could form basic oxides. However, the elements had used for 9% Ni steel welding (Refs.
the smaller mass transfer coefficients in the strong basic slag system if they could form 68). Although the nickel-based alloy
acidic oxides. The impurities, S, P, and O, were in the relatively lower levels in the covered electrodes are expensive and
deposited metals of the CaF2CaOSiO2 type electrodes because of the higher contents of
show poor welding performance,
CaF2 and CaO in the slag. The Charpy impact values of the CaF2CaOSiO2 type at 77 K
were in the range of 8183 J, but that of the TiO2SiO2SrO type were in the range of their strength and low-temperature
6670 J. toughness are excellent. The thermal
expansion coefficient of the nickel-
based alloy is also similar to that of
KEYWORDS 9% Ni steel. In the industry, each
welding consumable producer has its
NickelBased Alloy Covered Electrode Flux Coating Cryogenic Impact own flux ingredient that strongly af-
9% Ni Steel fects the weld quality, mass transfer
coefficient, bead geometry, slag de-
Introduction cryogenic temperature. In 1942, 9% tachability, and other welding per-
nickel steel was developed by an inter- formance. Generally, the flux coating
As one of the worlds three pillars of national nickel company as a structural composition includes gas formers,
energy, liquefied natural gas (LNG) has material at cryogenic temperatures. Its slag formers, binders, extrusion aids,
occupied a very important position in low-temperature (77 K) impact value alloy elements, and so on. The role of
the world energy pattern. The global de- reached 200300 J. It is the best ductile the flux coating includes protecting
mand for LNG has been increasing con- material that can serve in cryogenic the weld metal from the invasion of
tinuously in recent years. According to conditions due to its high strength, air, keeping the arc stability, ensuring
an energy report (Ref. 1), the global de- large fatigue resistance, excellent corro- good slag detachability, and reducing
mand for LNG will reach 350 million sion resistance, small thermal expan- spatter. In general, it is very difficult
tons in 2020. The storage and delivery sion coefficient, and good weldability to take into account all these aspects
of LNG will continue to increase. Be- (Ref. 2). So far, 9% Ni steel has been when drawing up a flux ingredient.
cause LNG is stored at or below its boil- comprehensively investigated. Its mi- In recent years, several types of flux
ing temperature, the material for the in- crostructure consists of fine martensite coatings have been investigated in our
ner walls of LNG storages should se- and retained austenite. The addition of laboratory for developing high-level
curely serve at the cryogenic tempera- 9% Ni keeps the unstable austenite stainless steel and nickel-based alloy
ture. Thus, it must have high strength from austenitization temperature to the covered electrodes, such as E316L
and suitable fracture toughness at the room temperature. The existence of the (Ref. 9), CaO-CaF2, CaO-CaF2-TiO2,

H. WANG and G. HE (ghe@sjtu.edu.cn) are with the Shanghai Key Laboratory of Materials Laser Processing and Modification, School of Ma
terials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China. HE is also with the Collaborative Innovation Center for Ad
vanced Ship and DeepSea Exploration, Shanghai, China.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 467-s

WELDING RESEARCH

A B

C Fig. 1 A Pure nickel wires and the covered electrodes pro

duced for this study; B the aswelded test plate; and C
the macro morphology of the deposited metal.

cussed. This research and length of 350 mm was used as the

and CaO-TiO2-SiO2 type ENiCrFe-7
(Refs. 8, 10, 11). Recently, a modified
ENiCrFe-9 covered electrode has been
developed that was designed especially
for welding 9% Ni steel for construc-
tion of large-tonnage LNG ships. For
improving the cryogenic impact
toughness of the weld metal, both al-
kalescent and strong basic slag sys-
tems were adopted. In this paper, the
modified ENiCrFe-9 covered elec-
trodes with two different slag basici-
ties were investigated in terms of the
mass transfer coefficient, as-deposited
microstructure, as well as the mechan-
ical properties of the deposited metal.
The influence of the flux coating on
the welding performance, weld quality,
and cryogenic impact energy were dis-
was part of the work
to develop the ENi-
CrFe-9 type covered
electrode for indus-
trial application. The
role of the basicity of
the flux coating was
a focus of the inves-
tigation.
One of the objectives of this study
was to evaluate the mass transfer coeffi-
cients of the key elements in two differ-
ent flux coating systems for developing
ENiCrFe-9 type covered electrode for
welding 9% Ni steel. The results could
also provide valuable data for develop-
ing other types of nickel-based covered
electrodes with pure nickel core.
Experimental Procedure
Because the alloy core wire was
more difficult to produce, and had a
higher electric resistance that could re-
sult in a quick temperature rise during
welding (Refs. 7, 12), the commercial
pure nickel with diameter of 3.2 mm
core wire in this paper. In the pure
nickel, the C is less than 0.05 wt-%,
and the S and P are less than 0.015
wt-%, respectively. The other impuri-
ties are less than 0.5 wt-%. Some ap-
propriate mineral powders used in the
flux coating were selected in accor-
dance with our own proprietary tech-
nology. Ingredients of the flux coating
are listed in Table 1.
The production process of the
covered electrodes was carried out by
using the conventional extrusion
method. The as-extruded covered elec-
trodes were baked at 423 K for 1 h and
then 573 K for 1 h. The appearance of
the core wires and the covered elec-
trodes are shown in Fig. 1A.
The 25-mm-thick 9% nickel steel
plates (provided by the Nanjing Iron &
Steel Group Corp.) were cut and ma-
chined to the size of 400 mm 200
mm 25 mm for the welding experi-
ments. A single V-groove butt joint
configuration with a 60-deg groove an-
gle, together with a 13-mm root open-
ing, was prepared Fig. 2.
Prior to welding, the base metal

Table 1 Flux Coating Ingredients of the NickelBased Alloy Covered Electrodes (wt%)

Type CaCO3 CaF2 TiO2 Na3AlF6 SrCO3 45% Si 28% Ti 56% Mo Mo Mn Cr 50% Nb 74% W 50% Al Na2CO3 K4O4Ti K2O Na2O SiO2
+ + + + + +
55% Fe 72% Fe 44% Fe 50% Fe 26% Fe 50% Mg
CaF2 17.8 20.0 2.2 3.0 4.4 3.0 6.3 25.5 7.0 1.5 0.6 0.5 2.0 0.7 5.5
CaOSiO2
TiO2SiO2 7.5 12.0 11.9 4.0 2.5 2.5 6.1 2.7 6.7 26.5 6.2 1.6 0.7 0.4 0.5 2.0 0.7 5.5
SrO

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 WELDING RESEARCH

duration of the welding process. A and

weld interface t were recorded during the experi-
ments. Both MC and Md could be di-
rectly measured. MC is the mass differ-
ence of the core wire of the electrode
before and after welding. Md is the
mass increment of the 9% Ni steel
plate, which could be measured by
weighing the steel plate before and af-
ter welding (slag was removed before
weighing). Because the mass loss dur-
ing welding includes spattering, evap-
orating at welding temperature (in the
form of welding fumes), oxidizing/
burning (in the form of oxides mixed
with the slag), and residual metal par-
ticles embedded in the slag (Refs. 10,
12), the coefficient of loss, CL, was
defined as

Fig. 2 Illustration of the weld assembly and sampling of the deposited metal.
was polished with a grinding wheel
and then cleaned with acetone. Butt
joint welding in the flat position was
performed by using shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW). The alternating cur-
rent was set to 125130 A, the weld-
ing voltage was 2325 V, the welding
speed was 3.54.0 mm/s, and the in-
terpass temperature was controlled
below 393 K. To keep both ends of the
weld at the same height, the welding
of the next pass began at the end of
the previous pass. Between passes, the
weld bead was cleaned with a chipping
hammer and stainless steel brush. Ra-
diography was conducted to detect
welding defects, and the results indi-
cated that all the deposited metals
were qualified. The appearance of the
as-welded plate and the macro mor-
phology of the deposited metal with
about 4550 passes were shown
Fig. 1B and C.
The spatter loss coefficient, melting
and deposited rates, slag detachability,
and bead geometry were evaluated by
using the methods described in Refs.
1218. To collect the spatter, a 9% Ni
plate with the dimension of 300 50
25 mm was erected on a copper plate
with the thickness of 3 mm. Both the
9% Ni steel and the copper plate were
put in a cylindrical box of copper with
the height of 400 mm, diameter of 600
mm, and thickness of 1 mm for avoid-
ing spatter loss. The spatter deposited
on the plate in the box could be easily
collected. The spatter loss coefficient,
SLC was defined as
SLC = Ms/Mw * 100%
where Ms indicates the weight of the
spatters and Mw indicates the mass
loss of the electrode. For each type
electrode, three tests were conducted.
The reported SLC is the average value
of the three tests.
The melting rate, MR, and the de-
posited rate, DR, are defined as the
following equations:
MR = MC/At
DR = Md/At
where MC indicates the mass loss of
the core wire, Md indicates the weight
of the deposited metal, A indicates the
welding current, and t indicates the
CL = 1 DR/MR (4)
For quantitatively measuring the
slag detachability, the images of the
weld joint with the residual slag were
analyzed by using the commercial Im-
age-Pro Plus software to determine
the relative fraction of the slag adhe-
sion area. Then the slag detachability
rate, SDR, could be defined as
SDR = A0 As/A0 100% (5)
(1) where As and A0 indicate the slag adhe-
sion area and the total area of the weld
joint in the image, respectively.
In addition, all the welding opera-
tions in this study were done by a pro-
fessional welder. Some subjective judg-
ments on the operating properties of
the electrodes, such as slag fluidity
and fumes, were made by the welder.
The chemical compositions of the
welding slag were analyzed by a Ther-
mo Fisher ARL9900 x-ray fluorescence
(2) spectrometer (XRF). Considering that
the slag was a mixture of oxides and
(3) fluoride, the analyzed result could be
expressed in terms of calcium fluoride,
basic oxides, and acidic oxides (Refs. 8,
9, 12, 13, 1720). The chemical com-
positions of the welding slag were pre-
sented in Table 2. The basicity of each

Table 2 Compositions of Slags for the NickelBased Alloy Covered Electrodes (wt%)

Type CaO CaF2 SiO2 TiO2 MnO Nb2O5 K2O Na2O FeO Cr2O3 Al2O3 MoO MgO NiO WO3 SrO
CaF2CaOSiO2 23.40 39.98 12.84 4.44 2.92 2.32 2.23 1.72 1.17 3.01 2.87 1.06 0.79 1.07 0.18
TiO2SiO2SrO 3.18 17.16 13.38 23.27 5.04 1.70 3.67 8.14 0.92 2.98 7.96 0.53 1.93 1.01 0.13 9.00

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 469-s

WELDING RESEARCH

A B

C D

Fig. 3 Macro morphologies of the welds with and without slag: A and B CaF2CaOSiO2 type; C and D TiO2CaF2SiO2 type.

flux coating could be evaluated by the
following equation (Refs. 17, 18) that
has been widely used in evaluating the
basicity index of flux coating.
B.I. = CaF2 + CaO + MgO + BaO + SrO
+ Na2O + K2O + 0.5 (MnO + FeO)
/SiO2 + 0.5 (Al2O3 + TiO2 + ZrO2) (6)
where each chemical composition of
the slag is expressed in weight percent.
When the B.I. for a given flux coating
is less than 1.0, the flux coating is re-
garded as acidic. When the B.I. is be-
tween 1.0 and 1.2, the flux coating is
considered as neutral. A B.I. greater
than 1.2 is regarded as basic. The cal-
culated basicity of CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type
is 4.25, which is strong basic. The ba-
sicity of TiO2-SiO2-SrO type is 1.59,
which is alkalescent. Generally, the
higher the basicity, the cleaner the
weld metal (i.e., oxygen and other in-
clusions could be controlled in a low
level). However, the slag with the low-
er basicity, especially containing TiO2,
has good detachability and excellent
welding processing property (Refs. 13,
18, 20).
The weld pad was prepared for the
chemical composition analysis accord-
ing to AWS A5.11/A5.11M. The chem-
ical composition of the deposited met-
al was analyzed from the undiluted
weld metal. The C and S in the de-
posited metals were measured by us-
ing the high-frequency infrared ray
carbon sulfur analyzer (CS-206, Baoy-
ing Photoelectric Technology Co., Ltd.,
Shanghai). The O was measured by a
LECO TCH-600 analyzer, and the oth-
er elements were analyzed by using a
Thermo Scientific Inductively Coupled
Plasma Emission Spectrometer (iCAP
6300 ICP, Thermo Fisher Scientific,
Inc., Waltham, Mass.). The analyzed
results of the chemical compositions
of the deposited metals are given in
Table 3.
The specimens for the microstruc-
ture observation were prepared by
lightly grinding and polishing using
diamond pastes of 5, 2.5, and 1 m.
The final polishing was done with 0.5-
m colloidal silica. Then electrolytic
etching was performed with a 7%
aqueous chromic acid solution at
0.20.22 A (DC) for 3040 s. The
macroscopic morphologies of the
welding joint were observed by the
stereomicroscope (Olympus SZ61).
The microstructure was observed by
using JSM-7600F SEM equipped with
an energy dispersive x-ray spectrome-
ter (EDS) at 15 kV. The chemical com-
position of the subgrain structures
and the precipitations were analyzed
by EDS. The appearance of the trans-
verse weld perpendicular to the weld-
ing direction is shown in Fig. 1C. The
picture showed the deposited metal
without any defects.
The specimens for the tensile and
impact tests were machined from the
deposited metal according to the AWS
A5.11/A5.11M standard. All-weld
metal tensile specimens were prepared
according to ASTM E8. The tensile
tests were carried out by using a
Zwick/Roell-Z100 testing machine
(Zwick GmbH & Co. KG, Ulm) at room
temperature. Three Charpy V-Notch
impact test specimens with dimen-
sions of 55 10 10 mm were pre-
pared according to ASTM E23, on
which a V-type 45-deg notch with a 2
mm depth and root radius of 0.25 mm
at the center of the specimen was ma-
chined. The impact tests were con-
ducted by using a pendulum impact
testing machine (PTM2200-D1, Suns
Co., Ltd. Stock Technology, Shenzhen)
at the liquid nitrogen temperature.
Results and Discussion
Assessment of the Weldability
and Weld Quality
The weldability and weld bead quali-
ty, including arc stability, deposition
rate, spattering, fumes, slag detachabili-
ty, penetration, and bead geometry, are
especially influenced by the flux compo-
sition of the covered electrodes. Consid-
ering that clean weld metals (i.e., ultra
low hydrogen, low oxygen, low sulphur,
and phosphorus) are extremely impor-
tant for the cryogenic application, an al-
kalescent TiO2-SiO2-SrO type and a
strong basic CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type slag

Table 3 Chemical Compositions of the Deposited Metals for the NickelBased Alloy Covered Electrodes (wt%)

Type Ni Cr Fe Mo Mn Nb W Si C S P O
CaF2CaOSiO2 Bal. 14.10 5.15 3.24 3.30 1.58 0.67 0.51 0.05 0.0070 0.0057 0.0293
TiO2SiO2SrO Bal. 14.43 5.20 3.63 3.50 1.57 0.81 0.67 0.04 0.0081 0.0060 0.0359
AWS A5.11 ENiCrFe9 55 1217 12 2.55.5 1.04.5 0.53.0 1.5 0.75 0.15 0.015 0.02

470-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95


A B
C Fig. 4 Crosssectional images of the weld metals: A Sketch map
systems were established in this study.
Through a large number of experimen-
tal selections, the flux ingredients of
these two slag systems were optimized
and fixed (as listed in Table 1), which
ensured acceptable operationality (sta-
ble arc, small spattering and fumes,
good slag detachability) and good weld
bead quality (good appearance, no
porosity, no cracks, appropriate weld
geometry). Comparing the two slag sys-
tems, the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type exhibited
a larger deposition rate, smaller spatter
loss, smaller fumes, and better fluidity
of slag during welding, while the TiO2-
SiO2-SrO type exhibited better slag de-
tachability. The weldability of these two
types of flux-coated electrodes was
summarized in Table 4 for comparison.
Figure 3 shows the appearance of
the weld beads for the two types of
electrodes. The slag of the CaF2-CaO-
SiO2 type was dark brown, but that of
the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type was light
Table 4 Comparison of Weldability for the Two Types of FluxCoated Electrodes
Type Melting Rate Deposition Rate
(g/amph) (g/amph)
CaF2CaOSiO2 14.70 14.20
TiO2SiO2SrO 13.60 13.06
of the weld metal; B CaF2CaOSiO2 type; C TiO2CaF2SiO2 type.
brown Fig. 3A
and C. After remov-
ing the slag, both
beads exhibited fine
ripples on the sur-
face of the welds.
Some small burnt-
on slags could be
found Fig. 3B.
This indicated that
the slag detachability of the CaF2-CaO-
SiO2 type flux was not as good as that
of the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type flux Fig.
3D.
To evaluate the weld geometry, the
two weld beads were sectioned Fig. 4.
It was evident that the height and pene-
tration, as defined in Fig. 4A, of the
weld bead of the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type
were obviously larger than that of the
CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type Fig. 4B and C.
The CaF2-CaO-SiO2 flux resulted in a
wider weld bead because of its better
fluidity of slag during welding (Table 4).
Generally, the fluidity of slag de-
pends on its viscosity at the welding
temperature, which influences the
bead profile and the weld quality via
affecting the metallurgical reactions
and metal transfer during welding
(Ref. 21). The appropriate slag viscosi-
ty provides effective protection of the
welding pool from atmospheric gases.
In the flux ingredients, the titanates,
Coecient Spatter Loss Slag
of Loss Coecient (%) Detachability (%)
3.40 1.21 95%
3.97 1.39 100%
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 471-s
WELDING RESEARCH
silicates, and other acidic oxides are
commonly used to enhance the viscos-
ity of slag. For example, the basic unit
in the silica network is the silicate
tetrahedron made up of a small silicon
atom surrounded by four close-packed
oxygen atoms. The two- or three-
dimensional network forms by the
close connection between these SiO4
silicate tetrahedrons, which increases
the viscosity of slag. On the other
hand, the fluoride and the basic oxides
(such as CaO) can decrease the viscosi-
ty of slag due to the breakdown of the
network structure (Ref. 22). Because
the atomic size of F (1.33 ) is similar
to the O2 (1.36 ), the F replaces the
O2 in the -O-Si-O- to form the -Si-F-
structure. The basic oxides break down
the network stemming from the
cations (such as the Ca2+ introduced by
the CaO) that were inserted into a spa-
tial structure created by the -Si-O- liai-
son, forming the -Si-O-Ca-O- struc-
ture. For the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type,
there is a higher level of SiO2 and TiO2
that contribute to a higher viscosity of
slag. The network structure built by
the SiO2 (and/or TiO2) confines the
fluidity of the weld pool and the trans-
verse diffusion of heat, resulting in the
deeper penetration and smaller bead
width (Refs. 16, 17, 2023). For the
CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type, the higher level
Fluidity of Slag Fumes
during Welding
Better Better
Not good Not good
enough enough
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Mass transfer coefficients of the two types of electrodes.
of CaO and CaF2 leads to a lower vis-
cosity of slag, which results in a re-
verse effect, i.e., smaller penetration
but larger bead width Fig. 4B.
Chemical Composition of the
Deposited Metals and Mass
Transfer
Although the chemical composi-
tions of the deposited metals of the
two types of electrodes met the re-
quirements of the AWS A5.11 ENi-
CrFe-9 standard (Table 3), some ap-
parent differences in the main alloy el-
ements between the two types could
be found. The Mo, W, Cr, Mn, and Si in
the deposited metals of the TiO2-SiO2-
SrO type electrode were a little higher
than those of the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type.
The impurities, S, P, and O, were also
higher in the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type.
However, the C behaved differently.
Considering different flux coating
compositions, the real behaviors of
each alloying element can be implied
by their mass transfer coefficients that
were defined by the following equation
(Refs. 8, 13):
= Wdepo/Wwire + Wcoat (7)
where indicates mass transfer coeffi-
cient, Wdepo indicates the weight per-
cent of the element in the deposited
metal, Wwire indicates the weight per-
cent of the element in the core wire,
Wcoat indicates the weight percent of
the element in the coating, and is
the ratio of the coating weight to the
core wire weight.
472-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95
Fig. 6 Macrograph of the metal droplets detained in the slag.
In this study, the average weight of
the core wire is about 24.50 g, and the
average weight of the coating is about
21.58 g for the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type
and about 22.17 g for the TiO2-SiO2-
SrO type. Thus, is 88.07% for the
CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type but 90.48% for
the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type. The high ra-
tios are because the large amounts of
alloying metals were added in the coat-
ing. According to the flux coating in-
gredients (Table 1) and the chemical
compositions of the deposited metals
(Table 3), the mass transfer coeffi-
cients of the main alloying elements
could be calculated by using Equation
7 Fig. 5.
It could be found that the mass
transfer coefficients of Ni, W, Mo, Fe,
Cr, and Mn in the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type
are slightly higher than in the TiO2-
SiO2-SrO type. However, that of Nb
and Si are in the reverse manner. The
higher mass transfer coefficients sug-
gest the smaller loss during welding,
while the lower mass transfer coeffi-
cients indicate the larger loss via the
oxidation, evaporation, spattering,
and fumes during welding. According
to the data shown in Fig. 5, one could
conclude that the loss of Ni, W, Mo,
Fe, Cr, and Mn in the CaF2-CaO-SiO2
type was smaller than in the TiO2-
SiO2-SrO type. But the loss of Nb and
Si in the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type was larg-
er than in the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type.
The loss of metals during welding
mainly depends on their oxygen affini-
ty and boiling points. The higher oxy-
gen affinity of metals and a stronger
oxidizing environment would lead to
forming more oxides that enter into
the slag. The lower boiling point of the
metals increases evaporation loss (e.g.,
Mn in this study). The oxygen affinity
of the metals was roughly ranked in
the order Si > Nb > Mn > Cr > Fe > Mo
> W > Ni through all the welding
processes (including the droplet reac-
tion, weld pool reaction, and weld met-
al solidification stages) (Ref. 24). This
order just matches the value sequence
of the mass transfer coefficients of
these elements as shown in Fig. 5.
It was noteworthy that the ratio of
the coating weight to the core wire
weight was very high in this study
(much higher than that in the report-
ed research [Refs. 710, 12]) because
the alloy elements were added from
the coating. When the flux coating
contained too many metallic powders,
the molten slag became viscous during
welding. Some small metal droplets
might be enveloped by the viscous
slag, and detained in the slag after
welding (Refs. 10, 12), resulting in the
larger loss of the metals. Such a phe-
nomenon was confirmed by the obser-
vation as shown in Fig. 6.
The size of the solidified droplets
was in the range of 0.12.0 mm. One
of the droplets was analyzed by EDS
analysis, which contained Cr: 26.39,
Ni: 21.22, Fe: 18.22, Mo: 13.60, W:
9.27, Nb: 6.25, Mn: 4.36, and Si: 0.69
(wt-%). Obviously, the detained metal
particles were part of the metals trans-
ferred from the covered electrode. As
the amount of the detained metal par-
ticles increased, the mass transfer co-
efficients of these metals were re-

A B
C D
Fig. 7 Optical micrographs of the deposited metals: A and C CaF2CaOSiO2 type; B and D TiO2CaF2SiO2 type.
duced. Due to this reason, some refrac-
tory elements, e.g., W, Mo, and Ni, ex-
hibited relatively lower mass transfer
coefficients Fig. 5.
In general, the basic oxides (such as
CaO and MnO) in the slag preferred to
react with the acidic oxides (such as
SiO2, TiO2, and Nb2O5) during welding
to form complexes (Refs. 12, 13, 17,
18, 20, 25):
(CaO) + (SiO2) (or TiO2)
= (CaOSiO2) (or CaOTiO2) (8)
(MnO2) + (SiO2) (or TiO2)
= (MnOSiO2) (or MnOTO2) (9)
For strong basic flux coating, the
strong basic oxides were dominant,
which consumed more acidic oxides
(such as SiO2, TiO2, and Nb2O5) during
welding. This tendency drove the fol-
lowing oxidation reaction to the right,
and thus consumed more Si and Nb in
the deposited metal:
[M] + [xO] = (MOx) (M = Si, Nb) (10)
This is why the mass transfer coef-
ficients of Si and Nb in the CaF2-CaO-
SiO2 type are smaller than in the TiO2-
SiO2-SrO type.
For the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type flux
coating, the strong acidic oxides were
dominant, which consumed more ba-
sic oxides (such as CaO, MnO, and
FeO) during welding. This drove the
following oxidation reaction and led to
smaller mass transfer coefficients of
these metals Fig. 5.
[M] + [O] = (MO) (M = Mn, Fe, etc.) (11)
According to the tested results in
Fig. 5 and the above discussions, one
can immediately conclude that the
metals have a larger mass transfer co-
efficient in the strong basic slag sys-
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 473-s
WELDING RESEARCH
tem if they can form basic oxides (e.g.,
Mn, Fe). In contrary, the elements
have a smaller mass transfer coeffi-
cient in the strong basic slag system if
they can form acidic oxides (e.g., Si,
Nb).
In addition, the values of S, P, and
O in the deposited metals exhibited
similar behaviors, i.e., they all were in
a relatively lower level in the CaF2-
CaO-SiO2 type, while in a relatively
higher level in the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type
(Table 3). However, each has itself a
mechanism. The desulfurization and
dephosphorization during welding
were realized by adding Mn and basic
oxides/fluorides in the flux. The met-
allurgical processing involves the fol-
lowing main chemical reactions (Refs.
12, 13, 22):
[NiS] + [Mn] = (MnS) + [Ni] (12)
WELDING RESEARCH

study, i.e., the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type

A B flux with higher contents of CaF2 and
CaO maintained relatively lower oxy-
gen concentration, while the TiO2-
SiO2-SrO type flux with more TiO2 and
SiO2 generated a relatively higher level
of oxygen (Table 3).
The C in the deposited metal was
mainly transferred from the core wire
and the decomposition of the carbon-
ates in the flux coating during SMAW.
According to the previous research
(Ref. 11), the increase of carbonates in
the flux coating promoted carburetion
in the deposited metal. It is obvious
that the higher contents of CaCO3 in
C D the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type flux coating
generated a higher C content in the de-
posited metal (Table 3), but the lower
contents of carbonates (i.e., CaCO3
and SrCO3) in the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type
flux coating resulted in a lower C
content (Table 3).

Microstructure Characterization

As expected, the as-solidified weld

Fig. 8 Characteristic segregation phenomena across the dendrites: A and C CaF2
CaOSiO2 type; B and D TiO2CaF2SiO2 type.
[NiS] + (MnO) (or/and CaO) = (MnS)
(or/and CaS) + (NiO) (13)
3(CaF2) + 4[NiS] = 3(CaS) + 4[Ni]
+ SF6 (14)
2[Ni3P] + 5(NiO) + 3(CaO)
= ((CaO)3P2O5) + 11[Ni] (15)
2[Ni3P] + 5(NiO) + 4(CaO)
= ((CaO)4P2O5) + 11[Ni] (16)
The reaction products MnS, CaS,
(CaO)3P2O5, and (CaO)4P2O5 entered
into the slag. Because CaF2 and basic
oxides decreased slag viscosity (Ref.
22), they could improve floating of
these sulfides and complex oxides in
the welding pool. As the reactions
progress, the sulfur and phosphorus
were expelled from the melted metals.
It was reasonable that the higher con-
tents of Mn and basic oxides/fluorides
in the flux (Table 1) would eliminate
more sulfur and phosphorus, decreas-
ing the sulfur and phosphorus level in
boundary phases. Under an optical mi-
the deposited metals (Table 3).
Since the maximum solubility of
oxygen in nickel at 1573 K is 200 ppm
(Ref. 26), the oxygen in the deposited
metals basically existed in the forms of
oxides. In the flux, the deoxidizer (i.e.,
45% Si + 55% Fe, 28% Ti + 72% Fe,
Mn and 50% Al + 50% Mg, as listed in
Table 1) predominantly reacts with
oxygen to form oxides in the metallur-
gical processing. These oxides could
float in the weld pool and gather to-
gether to form slag. Due to fast solidi-
fication of the welding pool melt,
there were some residual oxides re-
tained in the weld metal, which were
the main source of the oxygen in the
deposited metal. Previously, the acidic
oxides (e.g., FeO, SiO2, MnO2, TiO2,
and Al2O3 are generally the products of
the deoxidation reactions) were found
to increase oxygen in the deposited
metals, but the basic oxide/fluoride
(e.g., CaF2 and CaO) decreased oxygen
(Refs. 8, 22, 27). Those findings are
well consistent with the results of this
metals exhibited dendritic morpholo-
gies that were composed of face-
centered cubic-structured nickel solid
solution along with some small inter-
dendritic precipitates and grain
croscope, there was no obvious differ-
ence between the deposited metals of
the two types of electrodes Fig. 7.
To reveal the distribution of the
main alloying metals, some EDS line
scanning profiles across dendrites and
grain boundary were recorded. It was
found that the Fe and Cr preferred to
aggregate in the dendrite core, but the
Mo and Nb tended to accumulate in
the interdendritic zone Fig. 8.
On the grain boundaries, Nb and
Mo were obviously aggregated, but Ni
and Cr were reasonably depleted
Fig. 9.
The equilibrium distribution coeffi-
cient, k, which was defined as the ratio
of the concentration of the element in
the dendrite core to the nominal com-
position of this element, could indi-
cate segregation behavior. The k values
of Fe and Cr were larger than one, sug-
gesting that they aggregate in the den-
drite core, while the values of Mo, Mn,
and Nb were less than one, indicating
that they aggregate in the interden-
dritic zone. Special emphasis should
be put on the Nb, of which the k value

474-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95

 WELDING RESEARCH

coefficients in a table (Ref. 33), where

A B
C D
E F
Fig. 9 Intergranular and grain boundary precipitates along with the segregation phe
nomena across the grain boundary: A, C, and E CaF2CaOSiO2 type; B, D, and F TiO2
CaF2SiO2 type.
was far smaller than one, suggesting
its significant segregation behavior.
For easy reference, all the k values
were summarized in Table 5.
The segregation behavior of several
key elements in various nickel-based
alloys has been reported in many pub-
lished literatures (Refs. 2832).
DuPont et al. collected and summa-
rized those equilibrium distribution
one can find that the k values of Ni,
Fe, and Cr are larger than one for
many nickel-based alloys. The k value
of Mo is in a range of 0.710.97, but
that of Nb is in a range of 0.420.58. It
is as expected that these metals in the
deposited metals investigated in this
study, shown in Fig. 8 and Table 5, be-
haved very similarly to those observed
in other nickel-based alloys (Refs.
2833).
The interdendritic precipitates of-
ten exhibited in granular forms. Their
sizes are mostly less than 1 m Fig.
9A and B. The grain boundary phases
frequently appeared with continuous
or discontinuous fashion Fig. 9A, C,
and D.
There is no suspense that those
precipitates and grain boundary phas-
es are carbides, oxides, and/or their
mixtures. Their types could be roughly
identified by the EDS analysis as listed
in Table 6. The titanium oxides were
found in both deposited metals
marked as 3, 4, 7, and 8 in Fig. 9
while the aluminum oxide was found
only in the deposited metal of the
TiO2-SiO2-SrO type marked as 8 in
Fig. 9. The titanium and aluminum
were introduced from the flux coatings
(Table 1). A fact should be emphasized
that all the particles investigated by
EDS revealed very high niobium and
carbon concentrations as shown in
Table 6. It was reasonable to believe
that they all included NbC. Previous
research confirmed that (Nb, Ti) car-
bides and/or oxides independently nu-
cleated and grew on the surface of the
oxides (TiO2 and/or Al2O3) in different
orientations, forming a complex com-
pound in which the (Nb, Ti) carbides
appeared as a rim around the core ox-
ides (Refs. 34, 35). The grain boundary
phases could be speculated to be
Nb(Mo, Cr)C according to the EDS re-
sults (Table 6) Fig. 9CF.

Mechanical Properties
Table 5 Chemical Compositions (wt%) and the Equilibrium Distribution Coecients
The tensile properties of the de-
Element CaF2CaOSiO2 Type TiO2SiO2SrO Type posited metals of the two types of
Co Ccore k Co Ccore k electrodes at room temperature did
Ni 68.78 69.98 1.02 68.91 70.17 1.02 not exhibit a substantial difference
Cr 14.77 15.64 1.06 14.91 15.97 1.07 Fig. 10A. The two were above the min-
Fe 6.60 6.92 1.05 6.44 6.83 1.06 imum values listed in the standard
Mo 4.11 3.33 0.81 4.27 3.27 0.78 AWS A5.11 ENiCrFe-9 (where the min-
Mn 3.62 3.22 0.89 3.53 3.01 0.85 imum tensile strength is 650 MPa, and
Nb 2.12 0.91 0.43 2.04 0.75 0.37 the minimum elongation is 25%).

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 475-s

WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 10 Mechanical properties of the deposited metals: A Tensile tests; B impact tests at 77 K.

In addition, the impact value at 77
K of the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type was
above 80 J, which was distinctly larg-
er than that of the TiO2-SiO2-SrO
type, the latter was below 70 J in the
impact value Fig. 9B. Such a differ-
ence in the cryogenic impact proper-
ties were believed to be contributed
from the impurities, e.g., S, P, and O,
in the deposited metals. Since the S,
P, and O were in relatively lower levels
in the deposited metal of the CaF2-
CaO-SiO2 type than in that of the
TiO2-SiO2-SrO type (as shown in
Table 3), the impact value at 77 K of
the former was reasonably larger than
that of the latter. Although the impu-
rities are generally in very low levels,
they are detrimental to the impact
properties. For example, the S can
easily form a low-melting-point eu-
tectic Ni + NiS (melting point about
917 K); and the P can easily form a
low-melting-point eutectic Ni3P + Ni
(melting point about 1153 K). These
low-melting-point eutectic phases
tended to distribute along grain
boundaries, which deteriorate the
grain boundary strength and increase
cracking susceptibility (Refs. 12, 13).
The weak grain boundaries should
more easily initiate and propagate
cracks, leading to the lower cryogenic
impact values. The S and O could also
be trapped in the deposited metal in
the form of sulfides and oxides due to
fast solidification during welding. The
higher contents of S and O led to the
larger volume fractions and number
densities of the inclusions. It was de-
termined that these inclusions were
the sulfides and/or oxides of Al, Ti,
and Mn as indicated Fig. 8. Al-
though there was no direct evidence
to show the effect of these inclusions
in this study, it was believed that they
were detrimental to the toughness
due to their easily debonding from
the metal matrix (Refs. 3639). Be-
cause the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type has
higher S and O (Table 3), it is reason-
able that the deposited metal of this
type of electrode exhibits lower cryo-
genic impact values Fig. 10B.
Although both deposited metals ex-
hibited cryogenic impact values in dif-
ferent levels, their fractographies all
reveal the typical dimple fracture
mode Fig. 11.
The plastic fracture mode at 77 K
is generally favorable to the cryo-
genic application. Since the two elec-
trodes (all are in accordance with the
ENiCrFe-9 Standard) investigated
were developed for welding 9% Ni
steel for construction of the LNG
tanks, the matching in cryogenic me-
chanical properties between the weld
metal and the 9% Ni steel should be
considered. Nowadays, the Charpy
impact values at 77 K of the 9% Ni
steel are almost above 200 J (Refs.
4042). The heat-affected zones of
the 9% Ni steel can generally reach
above 100 J (Refs. 41, 42). However,
the deposited metals of the TiO2-
SiO2-SrO type electrodes exhibited
only 6670 J of the cryogenic impact

Table 6 Chemical Compositions of the Intergranular and Grain Boundary Precipitates as Marked on Fig. 9 Analyzed by EDS on SEM (wt%)

No. C O Ni Cr Fe Mo Mn Nb Ti Al
1 17.11 14.13 6.54 1.79 4.64 1.39 54.4
2 17.73 5.70 3.09 1.40 5.39 0.59 66.10
3 11.08 6.99 8.50 5.68 1.14 1.19 57.08 8.34
4 11.42 6.51 3.05 4.77 63.62 10.63
5 13.70 7.20 7.98 2.43 7.10 1.31 60.28
6 17.51 12.50 8.78 3.23 4.23 2.42 51.33
7 12.75 5.82 8.46 5.83 1.81 54.88 10.45
8 8.43 10.70 8.33 6.95 2.12 2.73 51.79 6.50 2.45
9 18.23 2.10 5.73 5.73 7.70 1.64 58.87
10 9.74 7.59 10.67 5.92 2.02 6.93 3.19 50.41 3.53

476-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95


A B
C D
Fig. 11 Fracture morphologies of the impact specimens: A and C CaF2CaOSiO2 type;
B and D TiO2CaF2SiO2 type.
values. In view of this consideration,
the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type electrodes
should be recommended for welding
9% Ni steel.
Conclusions
The nickel-based alloy covered elec-
trodes (in accordance with the ENi-
CrFe-9 Standard) with two different
types of flux coatings were investigat-
ed in terms of their weldability, weld
quality, mass transfer, microstructure,
and mechanical properties. According
to the experimental results, the fol-
lowing conclusions could be made:
1) In comparison, the strong basic
CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type exhibited a larger
deposition rate, smaller spatter loss
and fumes, and better slag fluidity
that resulted in a wider weld bead but
smaller penetration. The alkalescent
TiO2-SiO2-SrO type exhibited better
slag detachability.
2) The mass transfer coefficients
(from the covered electrode to the de-
posited metal) of Ni, Cr, Fe, Mo, W,
and Mn of the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type
were evidently larger than that of the
TiO2-SiO2-SrO type, but that of Nb
and Si were in a reverse manner. The
metals exhibited the larger mass
(Metal Weldability). China Machine Press,
transfer coefficients in the strong ba-
sic slag system if they could form basic
oxides. In contrast, the elements ex-
hibited the smaller mass transfer coef-
ficients in the strong basic slag system
if they could form acidic oxides. In ad-
dition, the impurities S, P, and O were
in the relatively lower levels in the de-
posited metals of the CaF2-CaO-SiO2
type electrodes because of the higher
contents of CaF2 and CaO in the slag.
However, the C behaved differently
due to the higher contents of CaCO3 in
the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type flux coating.
3) The as-solidified microstructures
of the deposited metals of the two types
of electrodes were very similar. The
equilibrium distribution coefficients of
Ni, Fe, and Cr were larger than one,
while that of Mo, Mn, and Nb were less
than one. In particular, that of Nb was
only 0.43 (for CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type) or
0.37 (for TiO2-SiO2-SrO type). These
findings were very similar to those ob-
served in other nickel-based alloys.
4) The tensile properties of the de-
posited metals of the two types of
electrodes at room temperature were
very close. The Charpy impact values
at 77 K for the CaF2-CaO-SiO2 type
were in the range of 8183 J, but that
for the TiO2-SiO2-SrO type were in the
range of 6670 J.
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 477-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the
Ministry of Industry and Information
Technology of China under the project
of LNG shipbuilding.
References
1. Tetsuo, M. 2013. IEEI e-newsletter
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478-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95

 WELDING RESEARCH

Failure Mode Transition of TripleThinSheet

Aluminum Alloy Resistance Spot Welds under
TensileShear Loads
The failure mechanism of threesheet 6061T6 aluminum alloy
resistance spot welds was investigated

BY Y. LI, Y. ZHANG, Z. LUO, H. SHAN, Y. Q. FENG, AND Z. X. LING

increasing the electrode force leads to

ABSTRACT a shift in the initial position of the
weld nugget formation from the
This paper investigates the failure mode transition of triplethinsheet aluminum alloy
sheet/sheet interface to the center of
resistance spot welds under tensileshear loads. Two stackups, i.e., 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm and
1.5/1.0/2.0 mm, were examined. The tensileshear tests were performed for four differ the middle sheet (Ref. 5). Nielsen et al.
ent joint designs for each stackup. The failure process and failure mode transition of the studied the weldability of thin, low-
four types of joints in the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stackup were investigated through stepby carbon steel to two thicker, high-
step experimental methods. An analytical model, which is suitable for the threesheet strength steels through factorial ex-
aluminum alloy resistance spot weld, was proposed to ensure the pullout failure mode. perimentation and statistical analysis.
The results showed that a type of columnar grain, which has large secondary dendrite They found that it is feasible to obtain
arm spacing, was the weak area in the threesheet aluminum alloy resistance spot welds. a good weld with acceptable weld
The critical weld button size required to ensure the pullout failure mode was obtained. strengths (Ref. 6). Pouranvari and
The proposed analytical models can be used to predict the critical button size for three Marashi investigated weld nugget de-
sheet aluminum alloy resistance spot welds.
velopment during RSW of three steel
sheets of equal thickness. They found
KEYWORDS a critical sheet thickness of 1.5 mm at
which the size of the fusion zone at
Resistance Spot Weld ThreeSheet Spot Welding Aluminum Alloy Failure Mode the sheet/sheet interface is nearly
equal to that of the fusion zone at the
geometrical center of the joint (Ref. 7).
Introduction three-sheet RSW is increasingly exert- They also investigated the failure
ed in some complex structures, such as behavior of three-sheet low-carbon
Resistance spot welding (RSW) has front longitudinal rails, A-, B-, and C- steel under a different joint type and
been widely used in the manufacturing pillars, and the bulkhead to the inner pointed out that the joint design sig-
of aerospace, electronics, and especial- wing (Ref. 3). Compared to two-sheet nificantly affects the mechanical prop-
ly the automotive industry because of RSW, joining three sheets is more erties and the tendency to fail in the
its high productivity, flexibility, and complicated because of the extra inter- interfacial failure mode (Ref. 2).
suitability. The automotive industry face introduced and different material Many other studies using finite ele-
makes extensive application of RSW and sheet thickness combinations. ment (FE) simulation investigated the
with typically between 2000 and 5000 Therefore, it is important to under- nugget formation process of three-
spot welds in a motor vehicle (Ref. 1). stand the nugget growth and failure sheet RSW. Shen et al. performed a
It can be argued that the mechanical behavior of the three-sheet spot weld coupled electrical-thermal-mechanical
performance of the spot welds deter- joint. model to predict the weld nugget for-
mines the vehicle crashworthiness, Some researchers have investigated mation process of RSW of three steel
which is defined as the capability of a the nugget growth and mechanical be- sheets of unequal thicknesses (Ref. 3).
vehicular structure to provide ade- havior of three-sheet RSW. Harlin et Lei et al. built a two-dimensional FE
quate protection to its passengers dur- al. found that the position of the ini- model considering the thermal-electri-
ing a crash (Ref. 2). tial heat generation is independent of cal coupling for the RSW process of
Nowadays, with the demand for material thickness and stack configu- mild steel (Ref. 8). Ma and Murakawa
lightweight vehicular structures, ration (Ref. 4). They also found that developed an FE program considering

Y. LI, Y. ZHANG, Z. LUO, H. SHAN, Y. Q. FENG, and Z. X. LING are with the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University,
Tianjin, China. Z. LUO is also with the Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Ship and Deep Sea Exploration, Shanghai, China.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 479-s

WELDING RESEARCH

A B

Fig. 1 Joint designs of the threesheet AA6061T6 RSW: A 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack; B

B 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack.

Table 1 Chemical Composition of 6061T6 Aluminum Alloy (wt%)

Si Mg Zn Cu Mn Fe Cr Ti Al
0.56 1.10 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.70 0.18 0.15 Balanced

Table 2 Mechanical Properties of 6061T6 Aluminum Alloy

C
Yield Strength Tensile Strength Elongation
(MPa) (MPa) (%)
285 310 6

the coupling of electrical, thermal, and
mechanical fields to study the nugget
formation in RSW of high-strength
steels (Ref. 9).
Although many studies have been
performed on the weld growth process
of three-sheet spot welds, these re-
searchers have all focused on mild or
high-strength steels. The usage of alu-
minum alloys in the automotive indus-
try is gradually increasing due to its
light weight, good formability, and
high corrosion resistance (Ref. 10).
However, very little work in open liter-
ature has studied the RSW of multiple
aluminum alloy sheets. Although Li et
al. investigated the weld growth mech-
anism of three-sheet RSW for alu-
minum alloys (Ref. 11), the failure
behavior of the spot welds was not the
focus of the paper, especially the fail-
ure transition mode, which is consid-
ered an important characteristic of the
spot weld joint.
The present article investigates the
failure mechanism of three-sheet
6061-T6 aluminum alloy resistance
spot welds (RSWs), especially the fail-
ure mode transition behavior of the
spot welds. Four types of joints are de-
signed in this paper. The mechanical
properties of three-sheet RSWs are
also investigated.
D
Experimental Procedures
In this study, 6061-T6 aluminum
alloy sheets with thicknesses of 1, 1.5,
and 2.0 mm were used. Table 1 lists
the chemical composition of the mate-
rials, while Table 2 lists the mechanical
properties.
Two thickness combinations were
used in the experiments. From the up-
per electrode tip to the lower one, the E
two thickness combinations were
1.0/1.0/1.0 mm and 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm, Fig. 2 The exemplary microstructure
of the 6061T6 resistance spot weld
respectively. Four types of three-sheet nugget in the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack (18
joints for each thickness combination kA, 200 ms).
were designed, as shown in Fig. 1. In
the Type I and II joints, only one inter-
face bore the tensile force during the force during the test. It is obvious that
test. In the Type III and IV joints, both the stiffness of these joint designs and
of the two interfaces bore the tensile consequently the tendency of the sam-

480-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95


Fig. 3 Microhardness profile of the three
sheet aluminum alloy resistance spot weld
joint in the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack.
ples to rotate during a tensile-shear
test are different. The Type III joint
experienced the largest rotation while
the Type IV joint bore pure shear dur-
ing the tensile-shear test. These affect-
ed the failure behavior and the suscep-
tibility to fail in interfacial mode.
Spot welding was performed using
a 220-kW direct current (DC) inverter
RSW machine. The welding parame-
ters are shown in Table 3. For the
1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack, ten sample
welds were performed per welding
condition including three samples for
the complete tensile-shear test and
seven samples for the step-by-step
tensile-shear test. For the 1.5/1.0/2.0
mm stack, three sample welds were
performed per welding condition. The
sample dimensions used in this study
were 100 25 mm with a 25-mm-wide
overlap area. The tensile-shear tests
were performed at a crosshead of 1
mm min1 with a CSS-44100 material
test system. The maximum load of
the CSS-44100 material test system
is 200 kN and the initial distance be-
tween the crosshead was 125 mm
(the gripped zone on each sheet was
25 mm).
The peak load was evaluated using
the average value of the three com-
plete tensile-shear tests. Button size
was measured from the failure surface
of the welded joint. Here the button
size is used to evaluate the weld quali-
ty rather than the nugget size be-
cause the button size is easier to meas-
ure in industrial production (Ref. 12).
The seven step-by-step tensile-shear
tests were used to investigate the fail-
ure processes of the weld joints. Seven
specimens were obtained from differ-
ent stages (load raising stage, peak
load stage, load drop stage, and final
A B
Fig. 4 Photos of the failure surface in the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack: A Interfacial failure;
B partial thicknesspartial pullout failure; C pullout failure.
Table 3 Experimental Parameters
StackUps Welding Current Welding Time
(mm) (kA)
1.0/1.0/1.0 16, 18, 20, 22
50300 with
1.0/1.0/1.0 20
1.5/1.0/2.0 1834 with
increments of 2
fracture stage) during the tensile-
shear test. Afterward, the seven speci-
mens were ground, polished, and
etched using standard metallography
procedures. The cross sections of the
welds were etched by Kellers reagent
(1 mL hydrofluoric acid, 1.5 mL hy-
drochloric acid, 2.5 mL nitric acid, and
95 mL water). The Vickers microhard-
ness test was performed using an in-
denter load of 100 g for a period of
10 s.
Results and Discussion
Joint Microstructure
Figure 2 shows the exemplary
microstructure of the 6061-T6 resist-
ance spot weld nugget in the
1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack. The microstruc-
ture of the resistance spot weld nugget
in the 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack was simi-
lar to that in the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm
stack, and it will not be given here.
As shown in Fig. 2B, from nugget
edge to nugget center, the microstruc-
ture is partially melted zone (PMZ),
columnar grain zone (CGZ), and
equiaxed grain zone (EGZ). The PMZ
refers to the area where temperature
was between the solidus temperature
and the liquidus temperature during
welding (Ref. 13). The material be-
WELDING RESEARCH
C
Electrode Force Electrodes
(ms) (kN)
200 3.6 Truncated cone
electrodes with a
increments 3.6 6mmdiameter tip
of 50
120 4.0 Domed electrodes
with a sphere radius
of 50 mm and face
diameter of 20 mm
comes a solid-liquid mixture, that is, it
is partially melted. The formation of
the CGZ is due to the relatively high
temperature gradient and low consti-
tutional supercooling at the edge of
the weld nugget. In the center of the
weld nugget, a low-temperature gradi-
ent and high constitutional supercool-
ing contributes to the formation of the
EGZ. Note that the columnar grain has
two morphologies (Fig. 2B, 2D): the
columnar grain with large secondary
dendrite arm spacing (LCGZ) and the
columnar grain with small secondary
dendrite arm spacing (SCGZ). The for-
mation of LCGZ was due to recession
of the nugget perimeter during weld-
ing. The authors found that the LCGZ
was easier to form at the lower inter-
face (close to the negative electrode).
This is because the Peltier effect (Refs.
14, 15) leads to the coldest areas of the
liquid nugget being adjacent to the
negative electrode when the welding
current is switched off. This area con-
tains less alloy content and is prone to
cracking under stress. The creation of
a significant LCGZ is an indication of a
poorly designed weld schedule (rela-
tively low heat input). When the heat
input is high enough (a more suitable
weld schedule), less or no LCGZ will
form.
Figure 3 shows the microhardness
distribution of the weld nugget. The
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 481-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Typical loaddisplacement curves of the Type II joint in
the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack.
lowest microhardness appears in the
LCGZ, which has a coarser structure
and less alloy content. This low hard-
ness zone has a detrimental effect on
the mechanical properties of the joint,
which will be discussed in the follow-
ing sections.
Failure Mode Transition in
Three Equal Thickness Stacks
Failure of Joint Types I and II
Three types of failure modes, inter-
facial (IF) failure, partial thickness-
partial pullout (PT-PP) failure (Ref.
16), and pullout (PO) failure, are ob-
served in joint Types I and II, as
shown in Fig. 4.
Only the load-displacement curves
of the Type II joint are given here due
to the similarity of the mechanical be-
havior of the Type I and II joints, as
shown in Fig. 5. The load smoothly
dropped to zero after it reached its
maximum value in the IF failure, while
a residual force remained after the force
began to drop in the PT-PP and PO fail-
ures (Ref. 17). More details about the
failure process are shown in Fig. 6.
Figures 6A and 6B show the
macro/microstructures of the fracture
surface cross section of welds that
failed in the IF mode. Figure 6A lo-
cates the section where the force
achieved its maximum value, and a
crack formed, explaining the subse-
quent load reduction. The crack initial-
ly formed between the PMZ and LCGZ
and then propagated through the inte-
482-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95
A B
rior of the
LCGZ, and fi-
nally failed as
an interfacial
characteriza-
tion Fig. 6B.
The subopti-
mized welding
parameters (16
kA, inadequate
heat input) C B
contributed to
Fig. 6 Macro/microstructures of Type II weld joints in the
the formation
1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack that failed in A, B IF mode (16 kA, 200 ms);
of the LCGZ, C PTPP mode (20 kA, 200 ms); D PO mode (20 kA, 200 ms).
which has a low
hardness and
strength to resist the crack propaga- of R2 suggested that a linear relation-
tion. Note that the weld size in Figs. ship exists between the peak load and
6A,B is inconsistent. This variation button size. This phenomenon is also
may be caused by local differences in observed by Han et al. (Ref. 18) and
contact resistances of workpiece/work- Sun et al. (Ref. 19). However, a two-
piece and electrode/workpiece, which order-polynomial relation exists be-
will alter the heat input and affect the tween the energy absorption and but-
nugget formation (Ref. 18). ton size, indicating that a larger weld
Figures 6C and 6D show fracture nugget could not only improve the
initiation location of the welds that peak load, but also the microstructure
failed in the PT-PP and PO mode, re- (less LCGZ due to suitable heat input)
spectively. In the PT-PP mode, the fail- and relieve the stress concentration
ure location was the PMZ while the around the weld nugget and, in turn,
failure of the PO mode was due to improve the ductility of the weld joint.
necking of the base metal. This sug-
gested that the PT-PP mode is a sub- Failure of Joint Type III
optimized failure mode.
Figure 7 shows the effect of button Similar to joint Types I and II, IF,
size on the peak load and energy ab- PT-PP, and PO failures were observed
sorption of joint designs I and II. Sim- in the Type III joint. Only the PO fail-
ple linear regression was applied to ure mode will be discussed here be-
both the data obtained from joints I cause the analysis of the PT-PP failure
and II, and a best fit line with a coeffi- mode is similar to that for joint Types
cient of determination (R2) of 0.878, I and II.
was obtained. The relatively high value Figure 8 shows the macro/mi-
 WELDING RESEARCH

3t ID  FL cos
IF
A DC = (8)
PD WN cos
PO

B E

Fig. 7 Effect of button size on the peak load and energy of

joint designs I and II in the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack.

crostructures of the fracture surface a pure shear dur-

cross section of welds that failed in IF
mode and PO mode. From Fig. 8B, it
can be seen that the crack began to
form at the interior of LCGZ and then
propagated through the interface be-
tween SCGZ and LCGZ. A crack was
also found on the other workpiece/
workpiece interface Fig. 8C. This in-
ferred that there is a competition be-
tween the two interfaces in a three-
sheet spot weld joint, and that failure
will occur on the weaker one. As can be
seen with Fig. 8B, C, the weld failed at
the interface where LCGZ formed (Fig.
8B) while the crack propagation was
restrained at the interface where no
LCGZ formed Fig. 8C. This again
verifies that the LCGZ is the weak area
in a spot weld. In the PO mode, the
weld joint failed in the PMZ Fig. 8E.
There is also a crack on the other
workpiece/workpiece interface (Fig.
8F), indicating competition between
the two interfaces during the tensile-
shear test.
Figure 9 shows the effect of button
size on the peak load and energy ab-
sorption of joint design III. The mini-
mum button size that guarantees a PO
mode was 5.1 mm. The results are
similar to the case of joint Types I and
II, i.e., a linear relation and two-order-
polynomial relation exists between
the peak load and button size, and
energy absorption and button size,
respectively.
Failure of Joint Type IV
Since the Type IV joint experienced
ing the tensile-
shear test, the
failure modes of C F
this type of joint
are a little differ- Fig. 8 Macro/microstructures of Type III weld joints in the
ent from those 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack that failed in A, B, C IF mode; D, E, F PO
of joint Types I, mode.
II, and III. When
the nugget size
was small, both
of the two inter-
faces failed
through the in-
terfacial mecha-
nism Fig.
10A. This is
called a double
interfacial fail-
ure (DIF) in this
paper. Note that
the nugget devi-
ated from its
original posi-
tion. The de-
tailed process Fig. 9 Effect of button size on the peak load and energy absorp
will be discussed tion of the Type III joint in the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack.
in the following
text. When the
nugget size grew larger, one interface weld joint that interfacially failed. The
failed through the interfacial mecha- load-displacement curve has two
nism while the other one failed peaks. The first drop of the load corre-
through the pullout mechanism (Fig. sponds to the initial formation of a
10B), and this is called a one interfa- crack, as shown in Fig. 11, B1. Figure
cial/one pullout (IF/PO) failure. When 11C corresponds to the second peak. It
the nugget size was large enough, the can be seen that the middle sheet was
base metal fractured during the tensile pulled out along the tensile direction
process (Fig. 10C), and this is called a Fig. 11, C1. The nugget was
base metal fracture (BMF) failure. squeezed (Fig. 11, C2) by the middle
Figure 11A shows the typical load- sheet because of the movement of
displacement curves of the Type IV middle sheet. At the same time, cracks

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 483-s

WELDING RESEARCH

formed and propagated at both of the

two interfaces. Figure 11, C3 shows
the deformed EGZ. The nugget can be
considered as experiencing work hard-
ening. It can be seen that the micro-
hardness of EGZ increased with an in-
creasing deformation degree. This
causes the load to rise again. Figure A B C
11D is the stage when only one inter-
face failed. Figure 11, D1 shows the Fig. 10 Photos of failure modes of the Type IV joint in the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack: A
fracture occurred in the interior of the Double interfacial failure; B one interfacial/one pullout failure; C base metal frac
LCGZ. It is interesting to note that on ture failure.
the other interface, the deformed
grain induced the crack propagated
into the interior of weld nugget Fig.
11, D2. As a consequence, a failed weld
joint in the final stage of the load-
displacement curve as shown in Fig.
11A is formed.
The load-displacement curve of the
Type IV weld joint that failed in the
IF/PO mode is similar to that in the
DIF mode. Figure 12 shows the load-
displacement curve and microstruc-
tures of the Type IV weld joint that
failed in the BMF mode. The curve has A
A
a platform, which indicates that the
crack is propagating in the base metal
and, therefore, the load is relatively
stable. The weld nugget had very small
deformation during the tensile process
compared with those that failed in the
DIF and IF/PO modes. This indicates
that the weld nugget was large enough B1 B2 B3
to resist being squeezed by the middle
sheet and therefore the crack formed
around the edge of the weld nugget
and then propagated to the base metal.
Figure 13 shows the effect of weld-
ing time on the peak load and energy
absorption of joint design IV. The ener-
gy absorption in the Type IV joint is de- C1 C2 C3
fined by the area under the load-
displacement curve up to the second
peak. Although a welding time of 250
ms should be used to guarantee the
BMF mode, the peak load and energy
absorption were almost unchanged af-
ter a welding time of 200 ms. This is be- D1 D2 D3
cause the hardening of the weld nugget
compensated the relatively small size of Fig. 11 Typical loaddisplacement curve and microstructures of Type IV weld joints in
the weld nugget when the weld joint the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack which failed by the interfacial mechanism (18 kA, 200 ms).
failed in the DIF and IF/PO modes.
From the macroscopic photos of the weld joint, and the effect of button size 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack were similar to
failed joint and the microstructure of on the peak load and energy of joint that of 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack. Figure
the failed weld joint, it can be seen that design IV cannot be obtained. 14 shows the macrostructures of weld
the weld nugget either deformed (DIF joints in 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack. For all
and IF/PO modes) or became invisible Failure Mode Transition in Three four types of joints, the IF failure loca-
(BMF mode) after the joint failed. As a Unequal Thickness Stacks tion moved from LCGZ to EGZ. In
result, the accuracy of the button size fact, no obvious LCGZ formed in the
cannot be measured from the failed The overall failure rules of the 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack. This is because

484-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95


Fig. 12 Typical loaddisplacement curve of Type IV weld joints in the 1.0/1.0/1.0
mm stack that failed in BMF mode (22 kA, 200 ms).
Fig. 13 Effect of welding time on the peak load and energy of joint design IV in the
1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack (20 kA).
the domed electrodes and hard norm
welding parameters lead to a more
concentrated heat generation and less
heat dissipation, which is beneficial to
inhibiting the formation of LCGZ, as
discussed in the section of joint mi-
crostructure.
For the Type I joint, the PO failure
location was located at the SCGZ. All
the Type II joints failed in IF mode, al-
though the button size reached to
about 10 mm. This will be discussed in
steel (Refs. 21, 22). However, the weld
the following text. For the Type III
joint, the PO failure location was the
PMZ. For the Type IV joint, the BMF
failure location was also located at the
PMZ.
Figure 15 shows the effect of but-
ton size on the peak load of joint de-
signs I, II, and III. Similar to the
1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack, good linear re-
lationships exist between the peak
load and button size. The critical but-
ton sizes for the Type I joint and Type
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 485-s
WELDING RESEARCH
III joint were 9.1 and 8.2 mm, respec-
tively. However, all the Type II joints
failed in IF mode during the tensile-
shear test. The failure mode of joint
design IV in the 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack
was similar to that in the thickness
combination of 1.0 /1.0 /1.0 mm. The
critical button size was about 6.2 mm,
which is nearly the same as that in the
1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack (6.25 mm). This
indicates that for the joint design of
pure shear, the critical weld nugget
size or button size may be controlled
by the thickness of the middle sheet.
Analytical Model to Predict
Failure of ThreeSheet
Aluminum Spot Welds
Pouranvari et al. proposed a simple
analytical failure model for the RSW of
rotation was not considered in their
mode. In this paper, an analytical
model considering the weld rotation
was developed based on weld area
stress analysis.
VandenBossche analyzed the stress
distribution when a spot weld failed in
the IF and PO modes (Ref. 23). As
shown in Fig. 16B, once the weld ro-
tates, the load on the weld interface
can be decomposed to two compo-
nents: the force N normal to the faying
surface and the force S parallel to it.
They are related to F by
S=F cos (1)
N=F sin (2)
In the tensile-shear test, the driv-
ing force for the IF mode is the shear
stress at the sheet/sheet interface
(Ref. 24). The shear load S generates a
shear stress S distributed across the
interface. If the average value of the
shear stress is V/A, then the maximum
value is (Ref. 23)
IF 3S 6Fcos IF
SMAX = = ( 3)
2A d 2
where IF is the weld rotation angle
when the joint experiences IF failure.
The driving force for the PO mode
is the tensile stress around the nugget
(Ref. 24). As shown in Fig. 16C, the
tensile stress due to S is
WELDING RESEARCH

S S 2Fcos PO
SPO = = = (4)
A dt / 2 dt

where PO is the weld rotation angle

when joint experiences PO failure.
The rotation models of the four types A B
of joints are schematically shown in
Fig. 17. It is obvious that the above
equations can be applied to the joint
Types I and II directly. For joint Type
III, although both the two interfaces
bear the tensile-shear load during the
tensile-shear test, each interface bears
the total tensile-shear load not the
half of it. Accordingly, the above equa- C D
tions are also suitable for the Type III
joint. Joint IV experiences pure shear
during the tensile-shear test, i.e., the
joint will not rotate during the test.
The above model is not suitable for
joint Type IV.
When the maximum shear stress
exceeds the shear strength of the weld E F
nugget, a crack will form at the weld
interface. This moment corresponds
to where the tensile-shear force
reached its peak, as shown in Figs. 5,
6. Letting the maximum shear stress
equal to the shear strength of the weld
nugget, and then the failure load at
the IF mode FIF can be expressed as
G H
d 2
FIF = WN ( 5) Fig. 14 Macrostructures of weld joints in 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack: A IF failure in Type I
6cos IF
joint (18 kA); B PO failure in Type I joint (32 kA); C IF failure in Type II joint (18 kA); D
where d is the weld nugget, and WN is IF failure in Type II joint (34 kA); E IF failure in Type III joint (18 kA); F PO failure in Type
the shear strength of the weld nugget. III joint (26 kA); G DIF failure in Type IV joint (18 kA); H BMF in Type IV joint (22 kA).
For a three-sheet RSW, d should be re-
placed by dIN, which is the weld nugget
diameter at the failure interface. Con- as Applying the linear relationship be-
sidering that the aluminum spot welds tween the strength and hardness, and

d IN t ID the linear approximate between shear
are more sensitive to porosity or voids, FPO =
FL (7 ) strength and tensile strength, Equa-
a porosity factor P can be introduced 2cos PO
into Equation 5 (Ref. 19) tion 8 can be rewritten as
where tID is the local sheet thickness

FIF = P
( 2
d IN ) (6)
6cos IF
WN
where P = (Atotal - Aporosity)/Atotal. Atotal is
the area of the fusion zone on the frac-
ture surface and Aporosity is the area of
the porosity on the fracture surface of
the weld.
Letting the shear stress equal the
tensile strength of the pullout failure
location, then the peak load for a weld
to fail in the pullout mode under the
tensile-shear test can be approximated
around the nugget accounting for in-
dentation, and FL is the shear
strength of the failure location.
In order to ensure pullout failure
for a spot weld, the failure load for a
PO failure should be less than that for
IF failure, i.e., FPO < FIF. Thus, the criti-
cal nugget diameter DC can be ob-
tained from Equations 6 and 7.
3t ID  FL cos
IF
DC = (8)
P WN cos
PO
DC =
3t ID H FL cos IF
(9)
Pf HWN cos PO
where HFL is the hardness of the failure
location, HWN is the hardness of the
weld nugget, and f is a constant coeffi-
cient. For aluminum alloys, f is about
0.6 (Ref. 25). In this study, HWN should
be replaced by HLCGZ because the fail-
ure location of the IF mode occurred in
the LCGZ. Therefore, Equation 9 can
be rewritten as a more widely applica-
ble form

486-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95

 WELDING RESEARCH

A B C

Fig. 15 Effect of button size on the peak load of the Types I, II, and Fig. 16 Stress analysis in the weld area: A Weld rotation; B
III joints for the 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack. IF failure; C PO failure (Ref. 23).

3t ID H PO cos IF
DC = ( 10)
Pf H IF cos PO A
where HPO is the hardness of pullout
failure location, and HIF is the hard-
ness of interfacial failure location.
Apply Equation 10 to the Types I
and II joints of the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm B
stack, The failure location in the PO
mode was the BM. The average hard-
ness of the BM was 95 Hv. In the case
of Types I and II joints, the failure lo-
cation of the IF mode was the failure C
location in the interior of the LCGZ,
where the porosity is hard to form.
Thus, the Aporosity equals 0 and P is 1.
The average indentation was about
70% of the original sheet thickness,
i.e., tID was 0.7 mm. The rotation angle
D
was measured after the tensile-shear
test. It was nearly zero when the joint
failed in the IF mode (16 kA, 200 ms),
while it was 2 deg when the joint failed
in the PO mode (20 kA, 200 ms). Fig. 17 Schematic of joint rotation in the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack: A Type I joint; B
The critical nugget diameter for Type II joint; C Type III joint; D Type IV joint.
Types I and II joints can be obtained as
follows:
terface between the LCGZ and SCGZ.
3t ID H BM cos
IF Note that the failure location in the 3t ID H PMZ cos
IF
( DC )Types I&II = PO mode changed to PMZ, as shown ( DC )Type III =
Pf H LCGZ cos
PO
Pf H LCGZ cos
PO
in Fig. 9. The average indentation was
3
0.7 95 1 3
0.9 65 cos2deg
=
6.0 mm ( 11A ) about 90% of the original sheet thick- =
5.3 mm ( 11B )
0.6 55 cos2 deg ness, i.e., tID was 0.9 mm. The average 0.6 55 cos7deg
rotation angle was about 2 deg when
It can be seen that the predicted the joint failed in the IF mode (16 kA, The result is a little larger than the ex-
value is very close to the experimental 200 ms), while it was 7 deg when the perimental value (5.1 mm).
result of 5.9 mm. joint failed in the PO mode (18 kA, Equations 111 are not suitable for
In the case of a Type III joint, the 200 ms). Thus, the critical nugget di- the Type IV joint because the failure
failure location in the IF mode was still ameter for the Type III joint can be ob- mode of the Type IV joint is different
in the interior of LCGZ or along the in- tained as follows: from the other types of joints. This pa-

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 487-s

WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 18 Failure analysis of the BMF in the Type IV joint in the

1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack. Fig. 19 Effect of joint design on the failure mode transition.

per constructs a model for predicting 3

( tH PMZ
tH BM )
the failure mode for the Type IV joint. 3W
d 4
FBMF = t BM + t PMZ 2
From the above discussion, it can 22 2  1 tH 
tH 


be known that in the DIF failure of the +W
d 2 BM 2 PMZ 
t
BM ( 14 ) 3  4+
Type IV joint, one interface fails fH LCGZ 

4+
2 + + fH EGZ +
through the LCGZ while the other in- 2  3 3 

terface fails through the interior of the  W tH + 3W tfH 

 BM 
Note that the thickness t in Equa- 2 BM 4
weld nugget, i.e., through the EGZ. ( DC )Type IV =

fH EGZ +
fH LCGZ
(17)
For simplification, the deformation tion 14 is the thickness of the middle
and the work hardening of the weld sheet, which was not influenced by the
indentation. Using W = 25 mm, t = 1 mm, f = 0.6,
nugget were ignored. The maximum HPMZ = 65 Hv, HBM = 95 Hv, HEGZ = 60
shear stress at each interface is Combining Equations 13 and 14,
the following equation can be obtained Hv, and HLCGZ = 55 Hv, the critical
nugget diameter of the Type IV joint is
3F / 2 3F 

 2
SIMAX = = 2 ( 12)  EGZ + LGGZ  d
2A d 3 3 ( DC )Type IV
6.0 mm
1

+  t BM
t PMZ  d
Accordingly, the failure load at the 2 2  Although the predicted value is small-
DIF mode can be expressed
W 3W  er than the experimental result (about

 t BM + t BM  = 0 ( 15)
( dID2 ) ( dID2 )  2 4  6.25 mm), based on the experimental
results, when the button size was
FDIF = LCGZ + EGZ ( 13) about 6 mm (the corresponding weld-
3 3
The solution for Equation 15 is ing parameters were 20 kA and 200
ms), both the peak load and energy ab-
where EGZ is the shear strength of the sorption of weld joints were similar to
equiaxed grain zone, and LCGZ is the 1

=  t BM  t PMZ
+ the weld joints that failed in BMF
shear strength of the columnar grain 2 2 
mode. Accordingly, the predicted re-
with a large secondary dendrite arm 2
 1 t 
t  sult is also acceptable for the Type IV
spacing. 

2 BM 2 PMZ  joint.
In order to determine the mathe- For the Type I joint of the
+  
4+ 4+

+ 
matical equation of the failure load for  3 EGZ 3 LCGZ 
1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack, the failure loca-
the BMF mode, Fig. 18 depicted the tion in the PO mode was the SCGZ.
W 3W 
failure analysis of the BMF in the Type  t
BM + t

4 BM  The average hardness of the SCGZ was
IV joint. LO is the length of overlap- ( DC )Type IV = 2+ 2
2+
(16)
85 Hv. The increased hardness in the

+

ping, which is equal to the width of 3 EGZ 3 LCGZ SCGZ maybe due to the hard norm of
the workpiece W. The failure location welding parameters. The failure loca-
around the weld nugget of the BMF tion in the IF mode was the EGZ. The
Applying the linear relationship be-
mode was the PMZ as shown in Fig. average hardness of the EGZ was 60
tween the strength and hardness, and
12. Thus, the failure load for the BMF Hv. The average indentation was about
the linear approximation between the
mode can be expressed as 85% of the uppersheet i.e., the tIN was
shear strength and tensile strength,
Equation 16 can be rewritten as about 1.3 mm. The rotation angle was
nearly zero when the joint failed in the
IF mode, while it was about 2 deg
when the joint failed in the PO mode.

488-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95


The critical nugget diameter for the
Type I joint can be obtained as follows
3t H cos

( DC )Type I = PfID HSCGZ cos
IF
EGZ PO
3
1.3 85 1 dicted result of the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm
=
9.2 mm
0.6 60 cos 2 deg
This predicted value is very close to
the experimental result of 9.1 mm.
For the Type II joint of the
1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack, all the joints
failed in IF mode, assuming that the
PO failure location of Type II joint is
the PMZ and the rotation angle is the
same as Type I joint. Note that the IF
failure location was the EGZ rather
than the LCGZ because the nugget will
shift to the thicker sheet. The critical
nugget diameter for Type II should be
3t ID H PMZ cos
IF
( DC )Type II =
Pf H EGZ cos
PO
3
1.8 75 1 tendency to fail in the IF mode is in-
=
11.6 mm
0.6 60 cos 2 deg
However, the maximum button size
obtained from experiments was about
10 mm. Therefore, the prediction for
the Type II joint is also reasonable.
For the Type III joint of the
1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack, the IF failure
location was the LCGZ, while the PO
failure location was the PMZ. The av-
erage indentation was about 90% of
the original sheet thickness, i.e., tID
was 1.35 mm. The average rotation an-
gle was about 3 deg when the joint
failed in the IF mode, while it was 10
deg when the joint failed in the PO
mode. Thus, the critical nugget diame-
ter for the Type III joint can be ob-
tained as follows:
3t ID H PMZ cos
IF
( DC )Type III = Pf H EGZ cos
PO
3
1.35 75 cos 3 deg
=
8.4 mm
0.6 60 cos 10 deg
The predicted value is very close to the
experimental result of 8.2 mm.
For the Type IV joint of the
1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack, it can be seen
that in the DIF failure (Fig. 14), both
of the two interfaces failed through
the EGZ. Accordingly, all the HLCGZ in
Equation 17 should be replaced by
HEGZ. Using W = 25 mm, t = 1 mm, f =
0.6, HPMZ = 75 Hv, HBM = 95 Hv, and
HEGZ = 60 Hv, the critical nugget diam-
eter of the Type IV joint is
( DC )Type IV
6.0 mm
The predicted value is close to the pre-
stack. This is reasonable because the
BMF failure is dependent on the prop-
erty of the middle sheet. Since the
middle sheets in the two thickness
combinations were the same, the ex-
perimental and predicted results
should be similar.
Effect of Joint Design on the
Failure Mode Transition
The effect of joint design on the
failure mode transition is shown in
Fig. 19. The data point for the Type II
joint in the 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack
comes from the predicted results.
For the 1.0/1.0/1.0 mm stack, the
creased in the order Type III, Types I
and II, and Type IV. This is consistent
with Pouranvari and Marashis work
(Ref. 2). The failure of the weld joint is
the competition between shear stress
at the sheet/sheet interface (i.e., IF
failure) and the tensile stress at the
nugget circumference (i.e., PO failure)
(Ref. 20). The higher the shear stress
at the sheet/sheet interface, the high-
er the tendency to fail in the IF mode.
The Type III joint has the maximum
rotation angle and the minimum shear
stress at the sheet/sheet interface.
Therefore, it has the minimum critical
diameter DC to fail in the PO mode. In
contrast, the sheet/sheet interfaces in
the Type IV joint experienced pure
shear. The weld joint has virtually no
rotation and therefore, it has the
largest critical diameter DC to fail in
the PO mode (BMF mode).
For the 1.5/1.0/2.0 mm stack, the
tendency to fail in the IF mode is in-
creased in the order of Type III, Type
IV, Type I, and Type II. Without con-
sidering the Type IV joint, i.e., the
pure shear condition, the failure rules
for the two thickness combinations
are similar. The Type III joint experi-
enced the maximum rotation while the
Type II joint has the minimum rota-
tion angle. However, although the
Type IV joint experienced pure shear,
the strength of the middle sheet was
lower than the shear strength of two
sheet/sheet interfaces. Therefore, for
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL
WELDING RESEARCH
the three unequal thickness stacks, the
thickness of the middle sheet should
control the critical weld nugget size of
pure shear joint.
Conclusions and Future
Work
In this paper, the failure mode tran-
sition of three-sheet aluminum alloy
resistance spot welds (RSWs) during
tensile-shear tests were investigated
through experiments and an analytical
model. Four types of joints were inves-
tigated. The following conclusions can
be drawn:
1) The microstructure in the three-
sheet 6061 aluminum alloy RSWs con-
sists of a partially melted zone (PMZ),
columnar grain zone (CGZ), and
equiaxed grain zone (EGZ), where the
columnar grain zone is divided into
the columnar grain with large second-
ary dendrite arm spacing (LCGZ) and
the columnar grain with small second-
ary dendrite arm spacing (SCGZ). The
hardness test indicates that the LCGZ
has the lowest hardness.
2) Three failure modes in Types I,
II, and III joints, named the interfacial
(IF) failure, partial thickness-partial
pullout (PT-PP) failure, and pullout
(PO) failure, were observed. There is
no critical welding parameter or
nugget diameter to separate the PT-PP
and PO failures. The formation of the
LCGZ in the weld nugget contributes
to the PT-PP failure. There is a compe-
tition between the two interfaces in
the Type III joint, and failure will occur
on the weaker one.
3) Three failure modes in the Type
IV joint, named the double interfacial
(DIF) failure, one interfacial/one pull-
out (IF/PO) failure, and the base metal
fracture (BMF) failure were identified.
In the case of the DIF and IF/PO fail-
ures, the nugget was squeezed and ex-
perienced work hardening. In the DIF
failure, one interface failed through the
LCGZ first, and then the other inter-
face failed through the interior of the
weld nugget. In the case of IF/PO fail-
ure, the weld nugget experienced less
deformation due to its larger nugget
size. In the case of BMF failure, the
weld nugget had a very small deforma-
tion and the crack formed around the
edge of the weld nugget and then prop-
agated to the base metal.
4) The LCGZ is the weak area in
489-s
WELDING RESEARCH
three-sheet aluminum alloy RSWs.
Cracks will form and propagate in the
interior of the LCGZ or along the in-
terface of SCGZ and LCGZ during the
tensile-shear test.
5) The following equations are pro-
posed to predict the critical nugget di-
ameter required to ensure PO
failure mode during the tensile-shear
tests of three-sheet aluminum alloy
spot weld joints
3t ID H FL cos
IF
( DC )Types I&II&III = Pf H LCGZ cos
PO
( tH PMZ
tH BM )
3 16. Pouranvari, M., Marashi, S. P. H.,
4 51275342).
2 mode transition and mechanical properties
 1 tH 
tH  of similar and dissimilar resistance spot
 BM PMZ

2 2
+ +  fH LCGZ 

3 4+ 4+
fH EGZ +
2  3 3 
W
 tH + tfH BM 
3W

2 BM 4
( DC )Type IV =
fH EGZ +
fH LCGZ
where t is thickness of the middle
sheet, tID is the sheet thickness consid-
ering the indentation, W is the width
of the sheet, P is the porosity factor, f
is a constant coefficient, IF is the rota-
tion angle when the joint fails in the IF
mode, PO is the rotation angle when
the joint fails in the PO mode, HFL is
the hardness of the failure location,
HLCGZ is the hardness of the columnar
grain with a large secondary dendrite
arm spacing, HBM is the hardness of the
base metal, HPMZ is the hardness of the
partially melted zone, and HEGZ is the
hardness of the equiaxed grain zone.
6) The joint design has a significant
effect on the failure mode transition.
For three equal-thickness sheet RSWs,
the critical weld nugget diameter (DC)
required for obtaining a PO failure
mode during the tensile-shear test in-
creases in order of Type III, Types I
and II, and Type IV. For three unequal-
thickness sheet RSWs, the DC may be
controlled by the thickness of the mid-
dle sheet for the joint design of pure
shear.
This paper preliminarily investi-
gates the failure behavior of triple-
thin-sheet aluminum alloy resistance
spot welds under tensile-shear loads.
There are many contents that need
further research. More thickness com-
binations should be tested to verify
the proposed analytical mode. The
failure behaviors of spot welds under
490-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95
other loading conditions, such as
coach peel and cross tension, are im-
portant issues and need to be studied.
The failure behaviors of spot welds of
other materials, such as 5000 series al-
loys, or dissimilar materials, such as
5000 series alloys to 6000 series al-
loys, are valuable to pursue.
Acknowledgments
This research is supported by the
National Nature Science Foundation
of China (Grants 51405334 and
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 WELDING RESEARCH

Optical and Spectroscopic Study of a

Submerged Arc Welding Cavern
A combination of highspeed imaging and spatically resolved spectroscopy at 5000 fps was
performed on a submerged arc welding process using a thingauge steel tunnel

BY G. GTT, A. GERICKE, K.-M. HENKEL, AND D. UHRLANDT

joint, which depend on the droplet

ABSTRACT transfer and parameters in SAW, have
not yet been completely described.
For the first time, a combination of highspeed imaging and spatially resolved
The understanding of these mecha-
spectroscopy at 5000 fps was performed on a submerged arc welding process. This was
achieved by inserting a thingauge steel tunnel into the flux and aligning the diagnostics nisms would support the development
accordingly. Four processes were observed; both direct current electrode positive (DCEP) of more sophisticated process vari-
and direct current electrode negative (DCEN), as well as alternating current (AC) at 600 A eties, as can be seen in other arc weld-
and DCEP with a higher current at 1000 A. The videos show an erratic droplet transfer ing processes, because modern power
with a lot of spatter that was caught by the cavern walls and directed into the weld pool. sources are capable of a variety of
Additionally, flux was molten at the top of the cavern close to the electrode and merged different waveforms and current
into the droplet that was still attached to the wire. The cavern walls were a mixture of patterns.
solid flux that was partially falling into the weld pool and molten flux, which created a In this work, the processes inside
smooth wall. The surface properties of the cavern wall behind the process was mostly the SAW cavern have been recorded at
smooth and merged with the weld pool, which created a solidifying layer of slag on top
5000 frames/s (fps). There are only a
of the slowly cooling weld joint. The observed processes showed only a slight change in
chemical composition of main alloying elements in the solidified weld joint, while the few preceding papers on high-speed
oxygen content varied significantly in the droplet stage and weld joint between the imaging in SAW. Two kinds of ap-
processes. The highspeed images indicated a correlation between dropletflux interac proaches to achieve these images can
tion and oxygen content. The spatially resolved spectra showed intense selfreversed be found in literature. Tybus (Ref. 1)
lines of Na, Ca, and Mn. Fe lines suggested that the arc was also dominated by metal used two-quartz-borosilicat windows
vapor. Especially during the AC process, a fluctuating emission of Mn lines was observed, on both sides of the process. By weld-
which correlated with the frequency of the shifting polarity. ing between those windows, high-
speed images could be recorded to ana-
lyze the process from the side. This
KEYWORDS had a strong impact on the process,
since it changed the shape of the cav-
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) HighSpeed Video Metal Transfer Cavern ern drastically. In addition, the images
Spectroscopy Droplet Flux Oxygen Content were of low quality due to the spatter
and smoke residue adhering to the
windows.
Introduction However, one basic characteristic of The second approach can be found
the process is the restricted observ- in the dissertation from Franz (Ref. 2).
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a ability of the wire, arc, and droplet be- He used a ceramic tube that he posi-
widely used joining process in a great havior due to the flux covering the tioned in front of the weld path. By
variety of industries. This includes cavern and molten bath. This restrict- welding over it, he could observe the
shipbuilding, construction, and the ed observability affects the process process with less disturbance. The ma-
energy sector with the production of from being well understood, compared terial of the tube was chosen to match
pipelines, wind towers, and offshore to other arc welding processes [gas the flux. In addition, he compensated
foundations. While the fundamentals metal arc welding (GMAW) and gas for the loss of pressure inside the cav-
of the process have not changed, there tungsten arc welding (GTAW)]. The ern by adding a shielding gas. This also
have been improvements in filler ma- complex chemical reactions leading to kept the tube and the attached window
terials and power source technologies. specified mechanical properties of the clear of debris. Within these investiga-

G. GTT (g.goett@inpgreifswald.de) and D. UHRLANDT are with the Leibniz Institute for Plasma and Technology, Greifswald, Germany. A. GERICKE and
K.M. HENKEL are with Fraunhofer Application Center Large Structures in Production Engineering, Rostock, Germany.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 491-s

WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 Setup with highspeed camera and spectrometer.
Fig. 3 Snapshot of the SAWDCEP process.
tions, the droplet behavior and materi-
al transfer were described as to their
dependence on welding parameters
and filler materials. Basic statements
about arc behavior and electromagnet-
ic blowing effects in SAW could be de-
scribed. A more recent publication,
which adapted this method, is from
Mendez (Ref. 3). He used a tube made
out of rolled steel sheets open at both
ends. He found a droplet detachment
frequency of approximately 9 Hz at
500-A DCEP, and 13 Hz at 500-A AC.
At 1000-A DCEP, he found that a ta-
pering electrode tip with a buried arc
and a molten tail was ejected through a
mechanism resembling an electromag-
netic kink instability. Also, no obvious
signs of external gas entrainment were
detected. Nevertheless, the flow of gas
has to be chosen within narrow limits.
Otherwise, it can affect the natural at-
mosphere inside the cavern.
In other papers, the process was ob-
served with x-rays. The first investiga-
tors were Ostapenko and Grebelnik
(Refs. 4, 5), who recorded single
frames. The images had a poor resolu-
tion and could not reflect the dynam-
ics of the process. Eichhorn (Ref. 6)
managed to create a 500 fps x-ray film
that could resolve spatter with a diam-
eter of 0.16 mm. The advantages of
this method were the lack of influence
on the process, the long possible ob-
492-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95
Fig. 2 Chemical compositions of SAWslags.
servation time, and
the great level of
freedom in observa-
tion perspective. On
the other hand, the
two disadvantages
were that the shad-
ow image did not
show details of the
surfaces (being per-
pendicular to the in-
cident ray) and the
necessary safety pre-
cautions due to the
harmful radiation. A detailed observa-
tion of the cavern structure, the
molten droplet, or even the arc behav-
ior was greatly restricted. X-ray obser-
vation in SAW was also performed in
Refs. 811. The main outcome of
these investigations was the additional
knowledge in the basic droplet behav-
ior as it depends on welding parame-
ters, polarity, and used welding fluxes.
Experimental Apparatus
and Procedure
Two major improvements have
been achieved, supplementing previ-
ous experiments. First, a thin-gauge
metal foil was used as tunnel material
to keep the disturbance of the process
as small as possible. It can be seen in
Fig. 1 ending under the flux. The ma-
terial was steel foil with a very low
amount of alloying elements (Table 1),
and it had a thickness of 25 m, which
reduced the effect of additional mate-
rial to a negligible amount. This tun-
nel was placed in two different ways.
One way is shown in Fig. 1, which
gives a side view of the process. The
second way was to put the tunnel
along the welding direction. In this
way, a front view of the process could
be achieved. Similar to the setup in
Franz (Ref. 2), a shielding gas was in-
troduced into the tunnel. This helped
to keep the cavern from collapsing due
to the open channel, and to keep at-
mospheric gases outside. The addi-
tional tube brazed to the tunnel
served as a gas inlet.
Second, a spatially resolved high-
speed spectrometer system was added
to the setup. It had to monitor the
process from the same direction as the
high-speed camera since the tunnel
had a narrow angle of aperture. This
was achieved by a 90-deg mirror that
was placed in front of the lens at its
blind spot Fig. 1. This blind spot
design was related to the internal
mirror positions of the lens.
The mirror lens was a long-distance
microscope from Questar Corp. called
QM 1. In combination with a high-
speed camera (HSC; MotionPro Y4-
monochrome from Integrated Design
Tools, Inc.) and an infrared filter, the
images could be recorded at 5000 fps
with only a slight disturbance caused
by the arc. This was sufficient to play
back the fast processes inside the cav-
ern and give a visual overview of the
processes concerning the metal trans-
fer and flux behavior. The acquisition
was synchronized with the second
camera (MotionPro Y4-monochrome),
recording the high-speed spectra from
the 0.5-m monochromator (Princeton
Instruments Acton SP2500). By doing
so, it was possible to find the connec-
tion between high-speed camera
images and the spectra.
The spectrometer was chosen due
to several advantages. It has a high
spectral resolution to determine which
species are present inside the arc. Pre-
liminary trials showed acquisitions
with a mini spectrometer do not pro-
vide sufficient resolution to deter-
mine, and distinguish between,
species present in the cavern. The
spectrometer was equipped with three
gratings with different groove densi-
 WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 4 Front view illustrating material transfer of the DCEP process with 600 A (Ref. 16, SOM2).

Table 1 Main Chemical Composition of Used Materials (Values in wt%)

Element C Si Mn P S Al Ti B Fe

Foil 0.0038 0.0290 0.2470 0.0260 0.0110 99.2440

Base Material 0.0720 0.4060 1.4100 0.0190 0.0250 0.0230 0.0029 0.0042 97.8500
Wire (factory certicate) 0.0800 0.3500 1.6000 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 >97.83
DCEP 600 A 0.1300 0.3100 1.5500 0.0130 0.0069 0.0086 0.0042 0.0055 97.8200
DCEN 0.1080 0.2970 1.4700 0.0170 0.0053 0.0028 0.0027 0.0061 97.9400
AC 0.0890 0.3070 1.4400 0.0280 0.0066 0.0030 0.0036 0.0074 97.9400
DCEP 1000 A 0.1110 0.2980 1.5600 0.0170 0.0050 0.0090 0.0040 0.0058 97.7600

Table 2 Parameter Variation
Process Identier Current Voltage
DC+ 600 A 30 V
DC 600 A 30 V
AC 600 A 30 V
DC++ 1000 A 34 V
ties to be able to change the resolu-
tion. The spatial distribution could be
recorded with an optical system that
contained spherical and several planar
mirrors, an edge filter, and an ad-
justable aperture. Therefore, it was
possible to distinguish between the
different areas inside the cavern and
determine where the different species
were located.
Optical emission spectroscopy
(OES) had been performed with a
Spectromaxx by SPECTRO. The deter-
mination of oxygen had been imple-
mented through carrier-gas melt ex-
traction with a Bruker Elemental G8
GALILEO ON/H analyzer. After finish-
ing the welding process, the remaining
droplets were collected and carefully
cleaned from the remaining scale for
the carrier-gas melt extraction.
In this setup, the welding head was
fixed and the base material was moved
by using a linear table with a constant
velocity of 1000 mm/min. This was nec-
essary to keep the arc in constant focus
for the optical diagnostics. An overview
of the whole setup is shown in Fig. 1. It
consists of two HSCs and a spectrome-
ter. The welding was performed with an
inverter power source (Lincoln AC/DC
1000) with a maximum current of
1000 A. A constant current welding
characteristic was chosen.
In this paper, the single-wire SAW
process was analyzed with four vary-
ing parameter settings. The four pa-
rameter changes that were observed
with the diagnostics are given in Table
2. The materials were not altered. The
wire was a Lincoln Electric L50M (EN
ISO 14171 S3Si) with a diameter of
4 mm, and the base material was an
EN 10025 S355 J2+N. The main
chemical composition of the materials
is listed in Table 1. The flux used was a
Lincolnweld 8500 (EN 760 S A FB 1)
with a basicity index of 2.9 and a neu-
tral chemical behavior. The flux com-
position is listed in Table 3. The weld-
ing and wire-feed speed was constant.
The height of the pile of flux was kept
constant as well. This was necessary to
keep the basic conditions steady.
The pressure that the flux applied
to the cavern was about 0.05 g/mm.
The gas pressure that impinged on the
cavern through the tunnel had to be
finely tuned to the pressure inside the
cavern. If the shielding gas pressure is
too high, it will be injected into the
caverns atmosphere and influence the
process. In the case of argon (Ar), it
would change the process to a spray
transfer similar to the GMAW process.
If the pressure is too low, the cavern
will shrink, which is visible in the weld
joint profile.
In addition, the tunnel tends to be
clogged with debris. With a balanced
setting of the gas pressure, the influ-
ence on the process is minimized and
the view into the cavern is unobstruct-
ed. The best results were achieved by
using Ar at an overpressure of 25
mbar. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and Ar
were investigated as applicable shield-
ing gases. None of the gases in the pre-
liminary trials changed the chemical
composition of the weld deposit.
Nonetheless, changes in the chemical
compounds of the molten slag, investi-
gated by x-ray fluorescence (XRF),
were observed using CO2 Fig. 2.
Furthermore, the measured short-
circuit frequency changed from 3.6 Hz
in the unaffected welding process to
4.2 Hz by injecting CO2 as a shielding
gas. Short-circuit frequency was con-
stant while using the inert gas Ar. This
indicated that the use of CO2 as a
shielding gas is more invasive to the
process.

DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 493-s

WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Front view of DCEP process with 600 A and flux melt
ing into the droplet see red marking (Ref. 16, SOM2).
Results and Discussion
In the following subsection, some
of the phenomenon observed with the
high-speed camera is presented. In or-
der to understand the still frames, the
supporting online material is recom-
mended (Ref. 16). This will help to en-
hance understanding on what each
part in the frames represents, and it
will facilitate identification of those
parts. For a better understanding of
the findings and explanations, Fig. 3
shows a snapshot of the clearly visible
moment in the DCEP process.
It is helpful to keep in mind from
what perspective the process was ob-
served. In this case, it was from a low
angle just above the surface of the
base material. The tunnel was the
outer-limiting part of each image, and
moving parts like the droplets, flux
grains, weld pool surface, and the wire
were visible. The only light source was
the arc itself, except for the hot sur-
faces that represented a very small
part of the total emission. Therefore,
particles in front of the arc are seen as
shadows. Particles next to or behind
the arc are illuminated and can be seen
as bright spots. The surface of the liq-
uid metal has a low emissivity. There-
fore, it has a high reflectivity. It was
perceived as a reflecting surface simi-
lar to mercury at room temperature.
High-speed images of the DCEP
process with 600 A. The videos
showed different effects. In Fig. 5, the
DCEP process, with its SAW basic pa-
rameters, is shown in a front view, and
in the following section the general
findings are presented and discussed.
Later on, the characteristics of the
other parameter sets are discussed in
comparison to the DCEP process. The
front view of the DCEP process
494-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95
Fig. 6 Side view behind the process showing the weld pool
and the cavern ceiling (Ref. 16, SOM4).
showed a stable arc behavior the entire
recorded time. The droplet transfer
was turbulent and changed randomly
between short circuiting dropping, ex-
ploding, and repelling Fig. 4 and
Ref. 16, SOM1.
Most of the time, flux grains, and
small metal and slag droplets, were
splattering through the cavern area.
The analyzed videos show more or less
turbulent processes inside the cavern,
although the SAW process is known
for a high grade of stability and
smooth weld joints. These are proba-
bly a consequence of the slow solidifi-
cation of the molten weld pool and the
smoothing effect of the freezing slag.
The reaction between flux and metal
happens preferably at the contact
point between molten droplet and cav-
ern wall in the welding direction,
where flux is continuously molten and
absorbed by the droplet.
This reaction is clearly visible in
Ref. 16 (SOM2) as a front view, where
the absorbed molten flux also leads to
a change of emissivity in the metal
droplet. This is probably the place and
state in the welding process where the
most intensive chemical slag metal re-
actions take place due to the spherical
droplet shape (positive ratio of absorb-
ing-surface area to volume), the high
reaction temperatures, and the con-
stant flux supply. In the lower part of
the frame, the base material with
some flux and metal droplets can be
seen. Obscured by the base material
surface is a settling, which builds the
weld pool, respectively the emerging
weld joint Figs. 5 and 6. It is created
by the arc pressure onto the liquid
weld pool. In the upper left corner of
Fig. 5, parts of the melting tunnel are
visible.
Other effects take place behind the
wire. One is the kinking of the undu-
loid, a mathematical term used to de-
scribe the geometry of the long molten
metal droplet that is still attached to
the upper electrode. Magnetic forces
drive the kinking and throw molten
metal to the back. This effect can also
be seen in GMAW processes with high
currents (Ref. 16, SOM3).
The cavern was stable the entire ob-
served time, with just a few flux grains
falling from the walls. This means the
minimum internal cavern pressure
was equal to the pressure applied by
the flux on top of the cavern. The cav-
ern had a half-ovoloid shape with a
minimum width of 12 mm based on
the given scale and visible wire diame-
ter. Figure 6 (SOM4) shows the rear
part of the cavern where different ef-
fects appear compared to the front
part. The view is mostly obscured by
the debris coming from the falling
flux. On the left side of this image, the
sloping surface of the weld pool can be
seen. In the center of the frame a part
of the wire is visible, and left of the
wire the molten cavern ceiling ap-
pears. It merges into the weld pool,
visible on the left end of the frame.
This part is where the cavern surface
in this area is mostly molten and
migrates toward the metal surface.
As soon as the cavern surface gets
in contact with the still molten weld
joint, the cooling process starts be-
cause there is no heat input any more.
Once the molten flux is cooled, it will
peel off the weld joint as slag. This
contributes to the high weld quality,
since the cooling is slowed down and
the atmospheric gases are held back
during this process. In contrast to the
smooth surface of the slag, once
cooled, it can be said that most parts
of the cavern wall are not as smooth.

Fig. 7 Side view shows the flux falling on the righthand side (Ref. 16, SOM5).
The inner cavern surface consists of
solid flux grains, molten slag, and sol-
id particles merging into a molten
stage (Ref. 16, SOM5). Within a short
time of exposure to the heat source,
the surface of the flux grains starts
melting with visible outgassing or
even boiling on the surface. The over-
exposed region at the center is the arc
with the hot wire tip. The emitted
light illuminates the whole cavern. The
arc contains mostly metal vapor and
nonmetallic elements, like calcium
(Ca), according to the recorded spec-
tra. On the right-hand side in each
frame, the front wall can be seen be-
Table 3 Main Chemical Composition of Used Welding Flux and Melting Temperature Tmelt (Values in wt% and C, respectively)
Chem. Comp. SiO2 MnO MgO
CONCN in % 13 1 30
Tmelt in C 1713 1650 2852
cause this is a side view of the process.
Flux grains in different sizes are falling
through the cavern or along the cavern
wall. These grains with a melting sur-
face appear in the rear part of the cav-
ern relative to welding direction as
well, which is supposed to be the cold-
est part because of its maximum
distance to the burning arc.
The flux used was agglomerated
and fluoride-basic. These fluxes typi-
cally start melting at around 1200
1400C depending on chemical compo-
sition and the relation of mineral con-
stituents (Refs. 1719). There is the
possibility of reactions and forming of
CaF2 Na2O Al2O3 CaO
24 2 19 8 1
1423 1275 2050 2575 5
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 495-s
WELDING RESEARCH
different compounds or crystal phases
before melting of the flux grains. One
has to be aware that these compounds
have different, usually lower, melting
and solidification points compared to
the separate components listed in
Table 3 (Ref. 17).
For a first approximation of the in-
ternal cavern temperature close to the
surface, these effects were disregard-
ed. Since the fusing process of the flux
grains is visible in the high-speed im-
ages, the cavern surface must rapidly
exceed the melting temperature of the
flux. This is possible due to the tem-
peratures of the arc and the liquid
K2O TiO2 Metal Alloys
1 1
2575 5 1855
WELDING RESEARCH

weld pool. Since the arc is metal-vapor

dominated (see section on high-speed
spectroscopy), it might have a core
temperature of approximately
700010,000 K as other research sug-
gests (Ref. 20).
In addition, between 10 and 20% of
the electrical energy put into the
process is converted into radiative en-
ergy in arc welding processes (Ref. 21).
This radiative energy from the arc plus
the heat from the weld pool, which is
all trapped inside the cavern, leads to a
heat accumulation. Therefore, a quick
heating of the flux is to be expected.
To verify these statements further,
Fig. 8 Front view of a DCEN process (Ref. 16, SOM6).
more precise investigations have to be
conducted.
High-speed images of the DCEN
process with 600 A. In the direct
current process with electrode nega-
tive polarity (DCEN), as shown in Fig.
8 and Ref. 16 (SOM6), the arc is much
shorter than in the DCEP process and
almost not visible. The droplet trans-
fer happens beneath the surface of the
base metal in a weld pool depression.
Therefore, it is not visible. The flicker-
ing and fast drifting of regions, with
high emissivity on the droplet, indi-
cates a less stable arc behavior. This Fig. 9 Spectra from recording the positive phase (red line) and the negative phase
could be explained by the high amount (black line) corresponding to the left and right images in Fig. 10.
of CaF2 in the flux, which is well
known for destabilizing the arc. Cath-
ode spots appeared all over the shows a stable behavior with a higher with cathode spots running over the
droplet, mainly in the upper region emissivity compared to the lower cur- droplet. It is noticeable that the arc of-
near the solid wire. This can be ex- rent in DCEP. The material transfer ten moves to the upper part of the
plained with lower temperatures and mainly takes place in a streaming way. droplet and enlarges it by melting the
lower electrical resistance. The cavern Due to the high amount of completely solid wire in the negative half-wave.
showed less volume compared to the molten slag, the interior temperature This can be explained with the preferred
DCEP process, which is probably a re- of the cavern is supposed to be signifi- movement of the cathode spots into
sult of lower internal pressure due to cantly higher than a DCEP process cooler regions on the wire due to less
lower temperatures and a smaller with 600 A. From this we can deduce electrical resistance. It leads to an accel-
amount of metal vapor. This is a result that there was a higher amount of va- erated fusing of the wire and an
of a less concentrated arc on the wire, porized metal and elements from the increased deposition rate (Ref. 11).
which is a typical feature of a DCEN flux in the cavern atmosphere. High-speed spectroscopy. In this
process (Ref. 11). High-speed images of the AC part, the results of the spectroscopic
High-speed images of the DCEP process with 600 A. The alternate cur- measurements are presented. The aim
process with 1000 A. While the cav- rent process was conducted with a of these measurements was to find a
ern walls were largely covered with square wave and a frequency at 100 Hz. suitable spectral range to analyze the
flux grains in the DCEP process with As can be seen in Ref. 16 (SOM8) (as a arc atmosphere and to identify signifi-
600 A, more flux was molten in the front view), the process is very stable cant changes within the process. This
DCEP process with 1000 A. This despite the continuous changing of po- could help to enhance the understand-
makes the observation more difficult larity. This is attributed to the fast rates ing of the chemistry and mechanics in
due to high-viscosity slag moving in of current changes due to the inverter the cavern.
the visual field. This can be seen in power source technology. The positive Similar to the high-speed videos,
Ref. 16 (SOM7) as a front view. Here and negative half-waves can be identi- the spectra were recorded from a low
the breakup of the cavern wall, con- fied because the cathode spots appear angle. The setup allowed a correlation
sisting of high-viscosity molten slag, is on the wire during negative polarity. between the spectra (Fig. 9) and the
clearly visible as well. The concentrat- Compared to the DCEN process, the images (Fig. 10). The spectra were
ed arc attachment on the droplet negative half-wave appears more stable recorded along a vertical line across

496-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95


A B
the tunnel (Fig. 1). The upper part in
the spectra represents the upper re-
gion in the middle of the images and
the lower part in the spectrum, which
is the lower part in the middle of the
image. Figure 10 shows frames from
Ref. 16 (SOM9). The images show
both high-speed images of the process
and synchronized spectra in combina-
tion. The recorded spectra were domi-
nated by iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), self-
reversed sodium (Na) lines, and man-
ganese (Mn) (compare to Fig. 9).
Noticeable is the pair of Na lines at
the center with around 589 nm, which
appear as one dark stripe because they
are strongly self-reversed. Most lines
below 580 nm are from Fe vapor. Both
the line groups between 610 and 620
nm, and 643 and 652 nm, and with
three lines each are from Ca. In the
center image of Fig. 10 there is anoth-
er set of spectral lines visible at
around 601602 nm, which are miss-
ing in the frames before and after
(see left and right image in Fig. 10).
These lines originate from Mn (601.4,
601.7, and 602.2 nm), and are only
detectable during the phase around
current zero.
This phase obviously has a lower
arc temperature, and the composition
of the plasma allows these lines to be
emitted. Just before the positive phase
at higher currents, there are many
more Fe lines visible and the Na line is
also more intense. A similar situation
is visible in the negative phase. It
might be because of the low boiling
temperature of Mn that its lines are
visible at all.
Otherwise, the spectra show an Fe-
dominated arc. This is consistent with
the earlier presented observation made
by the high-speed imaging. Both sug-
WELDING RESEARCH
gest that the main
current path is situ- C
ated below the
droplet that is still
attached to the wire.
Therefore, the
droplet transfer in
SAW has similarities
to a CO2 GMAW
process, although its
atmosphere is differ-
ent. In CO2, the
main current path
exits at the wire tip
in contrast to the Ar-
dominated GMAW
processes where it Fig. 10 Three successive acquisitions of an AC process a few
exits the wire above hundred s apart. They go from positive phase via current zero
the liquid part of the to negative. Marked is the change in the spectrum from Mn
wire. This mecha- (Ref. 16, SOM9).
nism is necessary in
certain GMAW processes to achieve ements in the wire. As can be ob-
globular and spray transfer (Ref. 21). served, slight changes occur by varying
The same effect was stimulated in SAW polarity with most melting loss of al-
when the shielding gas introduced into loying elements in DCEN and AC
the tunnel was set to an excessively processes. This is especially the case
high pressure and Ar entered the cav- for alloying elements with a high affin-
ern. Under these circumstances, the ity to oxygen like carbon, aluminum,
droplet transfer changed to a constrict- and titanium.
ed spray transfer without any short cir- Oxygen is an important element in
cuits. This had to be avoided to main- welding metallurgy and can act both
tain a diagnostic method with as little positively and negatively on mi-
influence as possible. crostructure formation. In a balanced,
Chemical Analysis. The weld low amount, oxygen plays an impor-
joints were analyzed by OES. The sam- tant role in nucleation and can sup-
ples for the OES of the weld metal port a fine-grained microstructure for-
were collected from bead-on-plate mation with improved toughness and
welds with eight layers to avoid dilu- tensile strength. In interaction with ti-
tion with the base material. Only a few tanium, boron, or other microalloying
changes were found in the chemical elements, this effect is enhanced (Ref.
composition of the main alloying ele- 12). In contrast, a high amount of oxy-
ments within the varying processes gen in the weld joint leads to embrit-
(Table 1). This can be attributed to the tlement and porosity. Therefore, opti-
chemically neutral character of the mized oxygen content is ideal for ade-
flux and the low amount of alloying el- quate mechanical properties. In sub-
DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 497-s
WELDING RESEARCH

merged arc welding, the main sources

of oxygen are the decomposed flux
constituents, which contaminate the
droplet (Ref. 23).
In the determination of oxygen
contents, significant changes were de-
tected between the observed processes
in droplet and weld joint. The highest
variations were measured between dif-
ferent settings of polarity (DCEP,
DCEN, and AC). Figure 11 shows the
transient amount of oxygen in the
wire, droplet, and solid-weld joint
stage within varying processes.
As can be seen, the amount of oxy-
gen rises in the droplet in all speci-
mens. The value of oxygen content de-
pends mainly on the polarity but also
on the current. It is highest in DCEP
compared to DCEN, and slightly in-
creases with higher currents. After
passing over into the weld pool and so-
lidifying, the oxygen content drops to
a lower level in all investigated
processes. This can be explained by
two separate effects.
First, the droplet and the oxygen it
contains are dissolved in the weld
pool. Second, the thermochemical de-
oxidation effects in the weld pool re- Fig. 11 Oxygen content in the wire, droplets, and weld joint.
duce the oxygen content of the weld
metal further. This happens through tively, with the flux. At this point, the pounds, and most likely an increased
the oxidation of alloying elements flux, consisting of a wide range of ox- oxygen range in the cavern. These re-
with a high affinity to oxygen, like sili- ides, raises the oxygen content of the actions could result in a higher oxygen
con or aluminum. These oxidized com- droplet due to its absorption. content in the droplet.
pounds are transferred from the weld Within the DCEN process (Ref. 16,
metal through the slag-metal interface SOM6), the arc is much shorter and Conclusion
into the slag. However, the level of the the droplet is closer to the weld pool.
final oxygen content in the solid weld Therefore, the droplet transfer is not In the presented investigations, a
joint seems to be determined by the clearly visible most of the observed combined and synchronized method
oxygen content in the droplet stage. time. There is only a slight droplet- for high-speed imaging and spatial-
It is known that a lower oxygen con- flux interaction visible, as opposed to resolved spectroscopy in submerged
tent in weldments can be achieved by the DCEP process. This could lead to a arc welding (SAW) was introduced. It
DCEN polarity due to electrochemical lower amount of oxygen in the droplet was shown that there is a minimum
reactions (Refs. 1315). Supposedly, due to less absorption of flux with its invasive influence on the process
this is one of the main reasons for the oxidic compounds. achieved by using this method. Based
final amount of oxygen in SAW. Other The AC process shows characteristics on the high-speed images, detailed de-
investigations show that the final oxy- of both DCEP and DCEN in the high- scriptions of the process were made
gen content depends on the weld solidi- speed images (Ref. 16, SOM8). It has a concerning the nature, behavior, and
fication time as well (Ref. 23). medium oxygen content in droplet and size of cavern, droplet, and arc in dif-
Referring to the high-speed images, solid weld joint, which is between the ferent polarities (DCEN, DCEP, and
the oxygen content also seems to be DCEP and DCEN processes. AC) and welding currents (600 and
influenced by the droplet-flux interac- The highest amount of oxygen was 1000 A) in submerged arc single-wire
tion and arc length, which are deter- detected in the DCEP process with welding.
mined by the chosen polarity. As can high current (I = 1000 A). Referring to Through observation of the physi-
be seen in Ref. 16 (SOM1) (DCEP) and the high-speed images (Ref. 16, cal state of the flux and slag inside the
described in an earlier subsection, the SOM7) and the explanations in an ear- cavern, estimations of cavern temper-
flux merges directly into the droplet. lier subsection, the flux is completely atures could be made. Based on this
The molten droplet is situated in the molten because of the high energy in- and in combination with the results of
upper part of the cavern and in direct put and heat in the cavern. This leads the spectroscopy, the main compo-
contact with the cavern wall, respec- to an increased reactivity of flux com- nents of the cavern atmosphere are

498-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2016, VOL. 95


likely iron vapor and dissociated flux
components. With varying polarities,
DCEN welding shows the lowest cav-
ern temperatures, and the DCEP
process shows the highest, founded on
the condition of the flux and slag in-
side the cavern. As expected, at the
same time, cavern temperature rises
with increasing welding current, which
is visible by the completely molten
flux around the cavern.
The oxygen contents were deter-
mined in the wire, droplets, and weld
joints with varying polarities and
welding currents. It was found that in
all investigated process varieties, the
oxygen content rises in droplet stage
and drops in molten bath, respectively,
in the weld joint. The final oxygen
content seems to be determined by
welding polarity in a wide range. Low-
est oxygen contents were achieved
with a maximum percentage of cath-
ode burning time on the electrode
(DCEN and AC). This can be explained
by electrochemical reactions and in
consideration of the high-speed im-
ages by droplet-flux interaction and
arc length, which are determined by
the chosen polarity. It was shown that
high-speed imaging can help explain
fundamental activities and reactions
in the SAW cavern. Additional spectra
may allow us to draw conclusions
about the mechanisms behind these
effects.
In future investigations, high-speed
images will be correlated with electri-
cal characteristics (current and volt-
age) of the process, which describes re-
curring patterns in process behavior
by means of current-voltage courses.
Furthermore, different welding pa-
rameters, positions, SAW multiwire
processes, and materials (e.g., austen-
ites) are to be examined.
Acknowledgments
This joint research project (IGF-Pro-
ject Nr.:18579 BR / 1) of the research
association of the German Welding So-
ciety (DVS) has been funded by the Aif
within the program for sponsorship by
Industrial Joint Research (IGF) of the
German Federal Ministry of Economic
Affairs and Energy based on an enact-
ment of the German Parliament.
Thanks also to Cindy Gtt for improv-
ing the language.
WELDING RESEARCH
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL7T
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DECEMBER 2016 / WELDING JOURNAL 499-s
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