Turkish grammar

Turkish is a highly agglutinative language, i.e. Turkish 1.3.1 TV distinction

words have many grammatical suxes or endings that
determine meaning. Turkish vowels undergo vowel har- Family members and friends speak to one another using
mony. When a sux is attached to a stem, the vowel in the second singular person sen, and adults use sen to ad-
the sux generally agrees in frontness or backness and in dress minors. In formal situations (meeting people for
roundedness with the last vowel in the stem. the rst time, business, customer-clerk, colleagues) plural
second-person siz is used almost exclusively. In very for-
mal situations, double plural second-person sizler may be
used to refer to a much-respected person. Rarely, third-
1 Introduction person plural conjugation of the verb (but not the pro-
noun) may be used to emphasize utmost respect. In the
imperative, there are three forms: second person singular
1.1 Suxes for informal, second person plural for formal, and double
plural second person for very formal situations. Thus, the
A sux (ek) is attached to a stem (gvde). A stem may imperative forms of the verb gelmek, to come, are gel
be a root (kk) or further analyzable. The suxes used in (second person singular, informal), gelin (second person
Turkish fall roughly into two classes: constructive suxes plural, formal), and geliniz (double second-person plural,
(yapm ekleri) and inectional suxes (ekim ekleri). A very formal). The very formal forms are not frequently
constructive sux makes a new word from an old one, used.
that is, it is a derivational sux. An inectional sux
indicates how a word is used in a sentence. The article on
Turkish grammar pertains chiey to inectional suxes. 1.3.2 Honorics
The article on Turkish vocabulary treats the constructive
suxes. Turkish honorics generally follow the rst name, es-
pecially if they refer to gender or particular social sta-
A Turkish sux can be called enclitic if its vowel under- tuses (e.g. Name Bey (Mr.), Name Hanm (Ms.), Name
goes vowel harmony, agreeing with the last vowel of the Hoca (teacher or cleric)). Such honorics are used both
stem the sux is attached to. in formal and informal situations. A newer honoric is
Sayn, which precedes the surname or full name, and is
not gender-specic. (e.g. Sayn Name Surname, or Sayn
1.2 Gender Surname, or Sayn Name Bey/Hanm). They are gener-
ally used in very formal situations. While these honorics
Turkish is a gender-neutral language except for a few sex- are normally used in pre-position to Turkish names, for-
specic compound words (mostly naming professions). eign surnames are preceded by Bay (Mr.) or Bayan (Ms.):
The English third-person singular pronouns she, he, and Bay Mulder, Bayan Scully (cf. Fox [1]
Bey, Dana Hanm, if
it all correspond to a single Turkish pronoun, o. Since these rst names were Turkish).
many given names in Turkish are also gender-neutral, it
is possible to describe someone without their sex being
1.4 Turkish terminology
made known.
In the Turkish terms for the constructive and inectional
endings, three roots are involved:
1.3 Person
ek supplement, ax (notably Turkish has no pre-
Turkish has a strong TV distinction and usage of xes)
honorics. Turkish uses second-person pronouns that dis- yap- make
tinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age,
courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural ek- pull, draw
second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring
to a single person out of respect, as is done in French, For the last two verbal roots, the constructive sux -im
Russian and in Greek. can be added to form nouns for instances of the actions

1
2 2 PARTS OF SPEECH

denoted by the roots: verbal noun (isim-il);

yapm construction"; verbal adjective (sfat-il) or participle (orta);

ekim "[a] pull or draw (or a take in cinema). verbal adverb (called a gerund by Lewis (1967)).

Either of these nouns can be compounded with the noun

ek, resulting in an indenite compound (belirtisiz tam- These have peculiarities not shared with other nouns, ad-
lama), the sign of which is the inectional sux -i at- jectives or adverbs. For example, some participles take a
tached to ek: person the way verbs do. Also, a verbal noun or adverb
can take a direct object. Some verbal nouns are not in-
ected forms in Turkish, but are borrowed from Arabic
yapm eki structure-sux";
or other languages.
ekim eki inection-sux. A noun or pronoun alone can make a complete sentence.
For example,
The inectional sux -ler comes before the -i to form the
kpek dog"; Kpek. It is a dog.
plural, so yapm ekleri, ekim ekleri.
Most dictionaries list verbs in their innitive form, which
Many words in Turkishparticularly many grammatical
alone usually cannot form complete sentences. For ex-
termsare neologisms invented to replace earlier words
ample,
borrowed from Arabic or Persian. (See the main article
on Turkish language.) In some cases, the older term con- komak "(to) run.
tinues to be in use alongside the neologism. However, instead of the innitive, the Redhouse Turkish
English Dictionary gives the stem of a verb as its
headword, and the present article follows this convention.
2 Parts of speech The verb-stem is also the second-person singular imper-
ative:
There are nine parts of speech (sz trleri word-kinds) ko- run"; Ko! Run!"
in Turkish.
Both a noun and a verb, without endings, can alone form
1. noun (isim or ad name); a sentence.
Many verbs are formed from nouns by addition of -le. For
2. pronoun (zamir inner being, or adl from ad); example,
3. adjective (sfat role, quality, or nad front- kpekle- dog paddle (in any of several ways).
noun);
The aorist tense of a verb is formed by adding -(i/e)r. The
4. verb (il act, deed, or eylem action from eyle- plural of a noun is formed by suxing -ler. Hence:
make, do). Kpek + ler "(They are) dogs. Kpekle + r S/he dog
5. adverb (zarf envelope, or belirte from belir- de- paddles.
termine); Thus -ler can indicate either a plural noun or a nite verb.
6. postposition (ilge from ilgi interest, relation); Most adjectives can be treated as nouns or pronouns. For
example,
7. conjunction (bala from ba bond);
gen young or young person or the young person re-
8. particle (edat, or ilge); ferred to.
9. interjection (nid [obsolete], or nlem from 'n An adjective or noun can stand, as a modier, before a
fame, repute, sound). noun. If the modier is a noun (but not a noun of ma-
terial), then the second noun word takes the inectional
Postpositions are analogous to prepositions in English, the sux -i:
main dierence being that they follow their objects. Post- ak di white tooth"; altn di gold tooth"; kpek dii ca-
positions can be considered particles, but there are parti- nine tooth.
cles in Turkish that are not postpositions.
Comparison of adjectives is not done by inecting adjec-
Only nouns, pronouns and verbs are inected in Turkish. tives or adverbs, but by other means (described below).
An adjective can usually be treated as a noun or pronoun,
in which case it can also be inected. Inection can give Adjectives can serve as adverbs, sometimes by means of
a noun features of a verb such as person and tense. With repetition:
inection, a verb can become one of the following: yava slow"; yava yava slowly.
 3

3 Word order Ali arabayla bugn eve gidiyor = Ali by-car today to-
house is-going = Today, Ali is going to the HOUSE
A general rule of Turkish word order is that the modier by car
precedes the modied:

adjective (used attributively) precedes noun; 4 Morpheme order

adverb precedes verb;
The order of morphemes in Turkish is often opposite to
object of postposition precedes postposition. English:
The above example is also illustrative of the productive
Although the most common order of Turkish transitive nature of Turkish suxes in creating new verbs, nouns,
sentences is subjectobjectverb (SOV), all six permuta- etc. Note how the word Avrupallatramadk is a verb,
tions are valid (the subject and object are distinguished an adjective and a noun; the morphologic parse shown
by case suxes). The word order serves to express the above implies that this word is transformed from a verb
theme and focus (rheme) of the sentence. The sentence to an adjective to a noun, in order to then accept noun-
initial portion is associated with the topic, the position specic suxes.
just before the verb is used for the focus, and the post
verbal position is used for background or clarifying in- The longest published word in Turkish, muvaakiyet-
formation [2][3] sizletiriciletiriveremeyebileceklerimizdenmisinizcesine,
means as if you are one of those that we can not
The following sentences illustrate how Subject-Object- easily convert into an unsuccessful-person-maker
Verb order changes meaning. In the English translations (i.e., someone who un-educates people to make them
given here, the focus of the sentence is given in all capi- unsuccessful).
tals, while the background information (known from ear-
lier in the discourse) is given in parenthesis.

1 SOV: Ali eve gidiyor = Ali-home-is-going = Ali is 5 Inectional suxes

going home
The plural sux (oul eki) can be used with nouns and
2 OSV: Eve Ali gidiyor = home-Ali-is going = AL
with third-person verbs:
is going home
The case-endings (durum ekleri from dur- stop, last, or
3 SVO: Ali gidiyor eve = Ali-is going-home = Ali IS hl ekleri from hl state, condition) can be named (in
GOING home English) and used roughly as in Latin:
4 OVS: Eve gidiyor Ali = home-is going-Ali = Ali is If a case-ending is attached to a demonstrative pronoun
going home (the same as #1)(anacoluthon) (which ends in o or u), or to a noun that has already taken
a third-person ending of possession (given below), then
5 VSO: Gidiyor Ali eve = is going-Ali-home = There the case-ending is preceded by n (and the parenthetical y
goes Ali HOME (anacoluthon) is not used).
6 VOS: Gidiyor eve Ali = is going-home-AL = Nouns are derived from verbs in several ways. The num-
There goes AL home(anacoluthon) ber of ways of forming verbal nouns (il isimleri) from
verb-stems can be debated; here are three:
Meanings may be dierent depending on emphasis. Several series of endings show distinctions of person
In one study, only about half of the transitive sentences (kii); they are given here, along with the personal pro-
used by a sample of Turkish speakers were found to be in nouns for comparison:
the SOV order.[4] The names given to the personal endings here are not stan-
When a sentence has a multiple informational compo- dard. These endings are often just referred to as type I, II,
nents, the stressed component is positioned just before III, and IV respectively; but the order in which the types
the verb: are numbered is also not standard. Lewis (1967) refers
to the suxes of possession as personal endings.
Ali bugn eve arabayla gidiyor = Ali today to-house In the third person, plural number is not always explicitly
by-car is-going = Today, Ali is going to the house marked, and the same form is used for both singular and
BY CAR. plural. If the plural sux -ler is used, it combines with
Ali eve arabayla bugn gidiyor = Ali to-house by-car the personal endings as indicated in the nal column of
today is-going = TODAY, Ali is going to the house the table.
by car A sux of possession gives the person of a possessor of
4 6 NOUNS

the object named by the noun to which the sux is at- ba head, balar "[some] heads, be ba ve head(s)",
tached; it also indicates a subject for a participle. but Beevler Five Houses (district of Bursa).
A predicative ending can assign a person to a noun, thus The plural ending also allows a family (living in one
creating a complete sentence: insan human"; nsanm. house) to be designated by a single member:
I am a human. See also Copula#Turkish and Turkish
Aliler Ali and his family"; teyze maternal aunt, teyzem
copula. my maternal aunt"; teyzemler my maternal aunt and her
All of the personal suxes can be used in the formation family.
of verbs. Verb-stems have been mentioned. A verb-base In the last example, the rst-person singular sux of pos-
is obtained from a verb-stem by attachment of certain suf- session comes before the plural ending; this is an excep-
xes or characteristics given below. Then the personal tion to the order of suxes given above. In the usual
endings here called predicative and verbal attach only order, we have
to verb-bases; the optative and imperative endings attach
to verb-stems. teyzelerim my maternal aunts.
The present characteristic is not fully enclitic: the rst Nouns are pluralized in standard temporal greetings.
syllable shows vowel harmony, but the second is invari- gn day, yi gnler! Good day!"; yl year"; Mutlu yl-
able. The aorist negative and impotential characteristics lar! Happy new year!"
are given here because they are anomalous. Note, that
the "-z of the aorist negative (-mez) and impotential (-
(y)emez) is dropped in the rst-person singular and plu- 6.1.2 Possession
ral, in order to be able to sux it. (Aorist negative rst-
person singular: -mem; BUT: Aorist impotential third- As noted earlier, the suxes of possession give the person
person plural: -(y)emezler) (and number) of the possessor of what is named by the
See also #Negation and potential in verb-stems under noun:
#Verbs below. teyzen thy maternal aunt, teyzeniz your(singular, for-
Some third-person verbs are also participles. Participles mal) maternal aunt teyzeniz your(plural) maternal
can be classied as personal, if they take a sux of pos- aunt teyzelerin thy(singular) maternal aunts teyzeleriniz
session, and impersonal, if they do not. The following your(singular, formal) maternal aunts teyzeleriniz
suxes attach to verb-stems: your(plural) maternal aunts

The interrogative particle (soru eki) is not written as a When a word takes one of the endings of possession, the
sux, but it is enclitic: word becomes the name of something possessed, not pos-
sessing: the word for the possessor, if present, takes the
genitive case-ending, as discussed below.
6 Nouns The plural ending will not be attached twice to the same
word; therefore ambiguity is possible:
6.1 Inection kir idea, kirleri their idea or their ideas or her
[or his] ideas.
A Turkish noun has no gender. The dictionary-form of a Ambiguity can be resolved with #Pronouns.
noun can take up to four (kinds of) #Inectional suxes,
generally in the following order:
6.1.3 Case
1. plural sux;
The absolute case combines the uses of the nominative,
2. sux of possession (iyelik eki from iye owner);
vocative, and (in part) accusative cases. It is for subjects,
3. case-ending; and for names of people being addressed. It is also used
for indenite direct objects. Denite direct objects are in
4. personal sux (kii eki from kii person). the denite-accusative case:

Through its presence or absence, the plural ending shows iir poem, so: iir okur S/he reads a poem, S/he
distinctions of number. reads poetry"; iiri okur S/he reads the poem.
The dative case tells whither, that is, the place to which.
Thus it has roughly the meaning of the English preposi-
6.1.1 Number
tions to and into, and also in when it can be replaced
A noun is made plural by addition of -ler or -lar (depend- with into":
ing on the vowel harmony). When a numeral is used with Biray buzdolabna koy- the-beer in-icebox put, that is,
a noun, however, the plural sux is usually not used: put the beer in the fridge.
6.2 Verbal nouns 5

The dative also is for objects: usually indirect objects, but Dnyayz We are the world (dnya world). ocuk-
sometimes objects that in English would be considered larsnz You are the children (ocuk child).
direct: In the third person, no ending is required. However, the
Gnein batna bak- suns at-its-sinking look, that is, ending -dir can be used; it is said (Lewis, 1967: VIII,3)
look at the sunset"; hkmete gven- in-government to be the remnant of a verb turur S/he stands. Again in
trust, that is, trust the government. the third person, the plural sux may be used:
The locative case tells where, hence corresponds to the Trk or Trktr S/he is Turkish"; Trkler or Trktr-
English prepositions at and on, and in when it does ler They are Turkish"; Trklerdir They are the Turks
not mean into. (Lewis, 1967: VIII,5).
evde at home (ev house); Buzdolabnda drt bira var Several suxes can be combined:
in-icebox four beer exist, that is, There are four beers Evinizdeyim I am at your house. Ya benimsin, ya
in the fridge. topran Thou art either mine, or the earths (that is,
The ablative case tells whence, that is, the place from dead).
which (or through which), hence: (The last was spotted on a minibus in Turkey.)

material out of which something is made;

6.2 Verbal nouns
kumdan yaplm kale of-sand made castle, that is, cas-
tle made of sand"; The innitive, formed with -mek as noted earlier, does
not take a sux of possession, or the genitive case-
a cause by which something is eected; ending. It does take all other case-endings. In particular,
the progressive characteristic given earlier is the innitive
ending with the locative ending:
alktan l- of-hunger die";
Konumaktayz We are in (the act of) speaking. Sava-
that to which other things are being compared (see maktayz We are in warmaking, that is, We are at war.
#Adjectives below). The verbal noun in -me is called a gerund above, since it
corresponds roughly to the English gerund. It can take a
In the Turkish terminology, the genitive case indicates sux of possession and any case-ending:
a compounding (tamlayan) word. The corresponding
bekleme odas waiting room (bekle- wait"; oda
compounded (tamlanan) word will take the appropriate
room). Beklemeniz lzm Your-waiting necessary,
sux of possession. The pair of these words is then a
that is, You have to wait"; Sesini duymay seviyorum
denite compound (belirtili tamlama):
Thy-voice hearing I-love, that is, I like to hear thy
anne mother, annesi her mother, Aye'nin annesi voice.
Ayes mother.
(The apostrophe in Turkish is used before suxes at- The dative form of a Turkish gerund can correspond pre-
tached to proper nouns.) cisely to an English innitive with to:
However, if two nouns are connected, but not by owner- lkemizde nano teknolojik rnler retilmeye baland
ship, then the second noun generally takes an ending of In-our-country nano technological products to-be-
possession, while the rst takes no ending. The result is produced began
an indenite compound (belirtisiz tamlama):
that is, Nano-technological products began to be pro-
Trkiye'nin Cumhurbakan The President of Turkey duced in our country (source: Cumhuriyet Bilim-Teknik
(denite); Trkiye Cumhuriyeti The Republic of 13 August 2005, p. 1).
Turkey (indenite).
Yet another verbal noun is from -i:
If one noun names a material, the other noun need not
yry walk, walking (yr- walk); ya rain
take an ending:
(ya- rain); alveri getting [and] spending, that is,
nikh yz wedding ring"; altn yzk gold ring. shopping (al- take or buy"; ver- give or spend);
yaratl creation (yara- be of use, yarat- create,
yaratl- be created).
6.1.4 Predication
The verb et- make, do can be considered as an auxiliary
If a noun is to be in the rst or second person, one of verb, since for example it is often used with verbal nouns
the predicative suxes (or type-I personal suxes) will borrowed from other languages, such as Arabic:
show this: kabul et- accept (kabul "[an] accepting); reddet- re-
6 6 NOUNS

ject (ret "[a] rejecting); ziyaret et- visit (ziyaret "[a] 6.3 Auxiliary verbs
visiting).
Certain verbs in Turkish are used to enhance the meaning
Considered as units, these are transitive verbs; but the
of other verbs, or to agglutinate verbs from nouns. These
nouns in them can, by themselves, take direct objects:
verbs are called auxiliary verbs. A concise list follows:
Antalya'y ziyaret visit to Antalya.
Verbs that are used with nouns to agglutinate new verbs
What looks like an ablative gerund is usually an adverb;
the ending -meden usually has the sense of without. See etmek
#Adverbs below.
olmak
An innitive in the absolute case can be the object of a
verb such as iste- want": klmak
Kimi eitime devam etmek, Some-of-them towards-
eylemek
education continuation make kimi de almak istiyor.
some-of-them also work want
Examples
that is, Some want to continue their educations, and
some want to work (source: Cumhuriyet Pazar Dergi, 14 * farz (assumption) -> farz etmek (to assume) * hak
August 2005, p. 1.) Note here that the compound verb (right) -> hak etmek (to deserve) * af (amnesty) -> af-
devam et- continue, last does not take a direct object, fetmek (to excuse) * kayp (loss) -> kaybetmek (to lose)
but is complemented by a dative noun. * terk (leaving) -> terk etmek (to leave) * arz (submission,
supply) -> arz etmek (to submit, to supply)
Another way to express obligation (besides with lzm as
in the earlier example) is by means of zor trouble, com- If there is a change in the noun root through the process
pulsion and an innitive: of agglutination, it is written adjacently. These are mostly
Arabic loan-words, which switch to their more original
Gitmek zoru Go compulsion, Gitmek zorundayz We form.
must go.
In Turkish words, two consonants of a syllable need a
(Source: same as the last example.) vowel to be pronounced. There are exceptions in loan
Both an innitive and a gerund are objects of the post- words only, but those that lost their original form are more
position iin for in the third sentence of the quotation common. This occurs in two ways:
within the following quotation: If a word ends in two identical consonants, one is
Tesis yetkilileri, Facility its-authorities Blge insanlar dropped, e.g. hall state, status becomes hal, a
genelde tutucu. District its-people in-general conserva- amnesty, forgiving becomes af.
tive. Sahil kesimleri Shore its-sections yola yakn olduu If a syllable ends in two dierent consonants, a vowel is
iin to-road near their-being for rahat bir ekilde gle added between them, e.g. hkm judgement becomes
giremiyorlar. comfortable a in-form to-lake they-cannot- hkm.
enter. Biz de We also hem yoldan geenlerin gr asn
kapatmak both from-road of-passers sight their-angle to- Exceptions: Words which end in nk, rt, rk, such as taht
close hem de erkeklerin rahatsz etmemesi iin and mens throne, renk colour, kart card, do not add a vowel.
uncomfortable their-not-making for paravan kullany- Most of these are loan-words from Persian or western lan-
oruz screen we-are-using dedi. they-said. Ancak para- guages (but zevk pleasure from Arabic ).
vann aralarndan But curtains from-its-gaps ocuklarn Examples:
kar taraf gzetlemeleri childrens other side their-spying
* kayp + et- -> kaybetmek (to lose; kayp lost was
engellenemedi. cannot-be-hindered.
originally kayb, an Arabic loan-word) * haciz + et- -
(Source: Cumhuriyet, 9 August 2005, Tuesday, p. 1.) A > haczetmek (to sequestrate; haciz sequestration was
free translation is: originally hacz, an Arabic loan-word) * haz + et- ->
hazzetmek (to relish or to enjoy; haz delight was origi-
nally hazz, an Arabic loan-word)
The facility authorities said, The people of Verbs that are used with other verbs to enhance the mean-
this district [namely Edremit, Van] are gener- ing:
ally conservative. They cannot enter the lake
comfortably, because the shore areas are near -(i)vermek (implies urgency)
the road. So we are using a screen, both to
close o the view of passersby on the road, and -(e)bilmek (implies ability)
so that men will not cause discomfort." How- -(e)durmak (implies continuity)
ever, children cannot be prevented from spying
on the other side through gaps in the screen. -(e)gelmek (implies repetition)
7.3 Indenite adjectives 7

-(a)kalmak (implies continuity) odun "(re) wood, tas bowl, balta axe"; the more
usual order would make the saying Balcnn bal tas var,
-(e)yazmak (implies a close escape) oduncunun baltas var).

Examples
7.3 Indenite adjectives
* d- (fall) -> deyazdm (I almost fell) * git- (go)
-> gidiverdim (I just went, je viens d'aller) * yavala- The cardinal bir one can be used as an indenite
(slow down) -> yavalayabilirim (I can slow down) * yaz- article. Word-order can make the dierence:
(write) -> yazaduruyorlar (they keep on writing) * syle-
(tell) -> sylenegelir (keeps being told) gzel bir gn a nice day"; bir gzel gn one ne day.
Unless it is being used by itself, elliptically, the adjective
hi no requires an additional word with negative force:
7 Adjectives Hi param yok' I have no money (para money); Hibir
adam ada deildir No man is an island (adam man,
7.1 Use ada island, deil not). Bir ey gryorum I see some-
thing, but Hibir ey gremiyorum I can't see anything.
Adjectives used attributively precede the noun; used pred-
icatively, they follow, unless something other than word-
order shows that they are being used predicatively:
7.4 Participles
yeil im "[the] green grass im yeil(dir) or Yeildir im It is noted under #Parts of speech that Turkish participles
Grass is green. (sfat-iller) can be classied as
In a positive comparison, the object takes the ablative
case; the adverb daha more is optional, unless the ob- personal, if they take a sux of possession;
ject is left out. impersonal, if they do not.
tyden (daha) haf lighter than a feather.
In a personal participle, the sux of possession signies
In a negative comparison, the adverb az less is needed; the subject of the underlying verb; if this possessor is third
the object still takes the ablative; daha can still be used as person, then the possessor may be further specied with
well. a noun in the genitive case.
kurundan (daha) az ar less heavy than lead The noun modied by a personal participle as an adjec-
The superlative degree is expressed by the adverb en tive may be the direct object of the underlying verb; the
most. connexion may also be more vague.
en byk yalanc the biggest liar (byk big, yalan The noun modied by an impersonal participle is gen-
lie); en az gvenilir least trustworthy (gven- trust). erally the subject of the underlying verb (but see Lewis
(1967: IX,2)).
The aorist tense (geni zaman broad time) is for habit-
7.2 Descriptive adjectives
ual actions; the present tense (imdiki zaman time that is
now) is for actions ongoing or contemplated.
Most adjectives in the dictionary are descriptive. The
most fundamental descriptive adjectives are two: Aorist:
These are used only predicatively: akarsu water that ows, hence stream (ak- ow, su
water); akaryakt fuel oil (yakt heating fuel); k-
with the sense of the English There is and There maz not going out, cul-de-sac"; inilir got down from
is not": (sign at rear door of bus; in- go down) srdrlebilir tur-
izm tourism that can be continued, that is, "sustainable
tourism" (sr drive"; srdr continue)
Gkte bir bulut yok There is not a cloud in the sky";
Present:
in the construction that supplies the lack of a verb geen hafta passing week, that is, last week"; Silahlar
have": ekip Guns pulling-out-and havaya ate aan to-air re
opening AKP'liler hakknda AKP-members about-them
Balcnn var bal tas Honey-sellers exists honey his-pot yasal ilem balatlmad legal process was-not-begun
Oduncunun var baltas Wood-cutters exists his-axe.
(This is a proverbial expression: The honey-seller has that is, No legal process has begun concerning the AKP
a honey-pot; the wood-cutter has an axe"; bal honey, members who pulled out guns and red them in the
8 8 ADVERBS

air [Birgn Halkn Gazetesi, 25 July 2005]; for -ip see
#Adverbs below.
Future:
gelecek hafta week that will come, that is, next week";
okunacak bir kitap a book that will be read (okun- be
read); okuyacam bir kitap a book that I shall read
(oku- read).
Past/present:
A number of adverbs are derived from verbs:
The ending -e is seen in:
Gle gle "[Go] smilingly (said to somebody departing);
Gle gle kullann Use [it] smilingly (said to somebody
with a new acquisition); Bee eyrek kala kalktm To-
ve a-quarter remaining I-got-up, that is, I got up at
a quarter to ve"; Onu yirmi gee uyudun You slept at
twenty past ten (uyu- sleep, although uy- heed).

okunmu bir kitap a book that was read"; okuduum bir The ending -erek denotes action at the same time as, or
kitap a book that I read/am reading"; 'Yaamn bittii preceding, that of another verb:
yer'de hayat Life in the place where life ends. Geceyi konuarak geirdik The-night talking we-caused-
to-pass, that is, We spent the night talking. Akl
(The last example is a newspaper headline [Birgn, 20
July 2005] about cemetery workers; bit- end"; yer yrterek bu sonuca ulayorum By using reason, I ar-
place"; hayat [Arabic] and yaam [neologism from rived at this conclusion
yaa-] life.) [the latter is Blent Ecevit as quoted in Cumhuriyet, 20
A personal participle can be construed as a noun and used July 2005].
in parallel with verbal nouns: Doaya en az zarar vererek yaamak To live while giving
ocuklarn yzde 68'i evinin ihtiyalarna katkda the least harm to nature
bulunmak, yzde 21'i ailesi istedii iin, yzde alts i [Buday magazine, 78/2005, no 32].
renmek ve meslek edinmek iin, yzde 4' ihtiyalarn From ol- be, become, olarak forms adverbial phrases
karlamak iin alyor Childrens in-100 their-68 corresponding to those in English with as":
houses for-its-needs in-aid be-found, in-100 their-21
their-family that-they-wanted for, in-100 their-six work Size bir dost olarak sylyorum To-you a friend as I'm-
learn and profession be-made for, in-100 their-4 their- telling, that is, I'm telling you this as a friend"; ciddi
needs meet for are-working. olarak seriously (ciddi serious).
(Source: Birgn Halkn Gazetesi 13 August 2005, Satur- The ending -meden on a verb-stem looks like the ablative
day, p. 1.) That is, gerund, but it is not (Lewis [XI,12]). It indicates an action
not occurring at all, or following that of the main verb:
Children are working, 68% to provide for Bakmadan atlama Don't leap without looking"; Bak-
their familys needs, 21% because their family madan nce atlama Don't leap before looking. Bir
wants it, 6% to learn a job or profession, 4% to soruyu cevaplamadan tartmak, tartmadan cevapla-
meet their [own] needs. maktan iyidir A particular-question without-answering
to-debate without-debating from-to-answer is-good, that
The following sentence from a newspaper headline con- is, It is better to debate without answering than to answer
tains twenty-two words, nine derived from verbs, four of without debating.
these as participles, three as gerunds. Note also the use (Source of the last sentence: Joseph Joubert as quoted
of kontrol from French as a verbal noun with et-: on p. 20 of Gndelik Bilmeceler by Partha Ghose and
Source: Cumhuriyet, 17 July 2005; more smoothly: Dipankar Home, translated by zlem zbal, Tbitak
Popler Bilim Kitaplar 25, Ankara, 1996.) Comple-
menting nce before is sonra after, which can follow
Saying that, by not joining the EU and
a verb-stem given the ending -dikten:
by drawing close to the Islamic world, Turkey
would be pushed into the lap of those who fa- Baktktan sonra atla After looking, leap"; Aye baktktan
vor sharia, French senator Duireux made clear sonra Nee atlad After Aye looked, Nee lept.
that it was necessary to control the Islamic Simultaneity is expressed by iken or its (not enclitic) suf-
tide. xed form -(y)ken; but if it follows a verb, then the verb
appears, not as a stem, but as a base; see #Bases of verbs:
Eve girmekteyken, bir ey hatrladm As I was entering
8 Adverbs the house, I remembered something"; Ben eve girmek-
teyken, telefon ald As I was entering the house, the
The adverb of negation is deil. It is used to negate sen- telephone rang.
tences that are without verb or var; then it takes the ap-
If two verbs of the same grammatical form have the same
propriate personal ending:
subject, the endings on the rst verb can be replaced by
Evde deilim I am not at home.
 9

-ip; see the example under #Participles. Kendi kendinden korkma Do not be afraid of thyself.
Many of the indenite adjectives can function as pro-
nouns, taking case-endings.
9 Pronouns
The third-person personal pronoun o she/he/it is de- 10 Verbs
clined as if it were the noun on. The other persons, ben
I, sen you (singular/informal)", biz we, siz you (plu-
10.1 Copula
ral/formal)", are declined like nouns, except for a vowel
change in the dative, and an anomalous genitive; also the
Main article: Turkish copula
plural forms do not involve -ler:
The absolute case is generally needed only for emphasis:
Naslsnz? How are you?" yiyim; siz naslsnz? I am 10.2 Stems of verbs
ne; how are you?" Ben de iyiyim. I too am ne.
The third-person pronoun can clear up an ambiguity men- Many stems in the dictionary are indivisible; others con-
tioned above: sist of endings attached to a root.
onlarn kri their idea"; onlarn kirleri their ideas";
onun kirleri her [or his] ideas. 10.2.1 Verb-stems from nouns
The pronoun o is also one of the demonstrative pro-
nouns: The verb-stem temizle- make clean is the adjective temiz
clean with the sux -le; this sux was mentioned ear-
lier under #Parts of speech in connexion with the verb
o that"; kpekle-. Many verbs are formed from nouns or adjec-
bu this"; tives with -le:

u this or that (thing pointed to). bala- make a head, that is, begin (intran-
sitive; ba head);
The latter two are declined like o (that is, treated as if kilitle- make locked, that is, lock (kilit
they were bun and un). lock);
The interrogative pronouns (and adjectives) are: kirle- make dirty (kir dirt).

kim who"; 10.2.2 Voice

ne what"; A verbal root, or a verb-stem in -le, can be lengthened
hangi which"; with certain extensions. If present, they appear in the
following order; they indicate distinctions of voice:
ka how many or how much. These endings might seem to be inectional in the sense
of the #Introduction above, but their meanings are not
These appear in embedded questions but do not serve as always clear from their particular names, and dictionaries
true relative pronouns: do generally give the resulting forms, so in this sense they
Buzdolabnda katane var, o bilir S/he knows how many are constructive endings.
are in the refrigerator. The causative extension makes an intransitive verb transi-
There is a sux -ki that acts as a relative pronoun in that it tive, and a transitive verb factitive. Together, the recipro-
creates what, in English, would be called relative clauses. cal and causative extension make the repetitive extension
It does not display vowel harmony, except in a few com- -(i)tir.
mon formations:
bul- nd,
benimki mine (that which is mine)"; buzdolabndaki bira
bulu- meet,
beer that is in the refrigerator (no vowel harmony);
bugnk todays (which is today)" (with vowel har- bulun- be present";
mony); dnk yesterdays (which was yesterday)" (with
vowel harmony). yka- wash [something else]",
The reexive pronoun (dnl zamir from dn- turn) ykan- wash oneself,
is kendi own, self": ykanl- be washed";
10 10 VERBS

kayna- "(come to a) boil,
kaynat- "(bring to a) boil";
l- die,
ldr- kill,
ldrt- have [someone] killed";
ara- look for,
aratr- investigate.
10.2.3 Negation and potential in verb-stems
A dictionary-stem is positive; it can be made:
negative, by addition of -me;
impotential, by addition of -e and then -me.
The denite past or di-past is used to assert that some-
thing did happen in the past. The inferential past or
mi-past can be understood as asserting that a past par-
ticiple is applicable now; hence it is used when the fact of
a past event, as such, is not important; in particular, the
inferential past is used when one did not actually witness
the past event.
A newspaper will generally use the di-past, because it is
authoritative. The need to indicate uncertainly and infer-
ence by means of the mi-past may help to explain the
extensive use of ki in the newspaper excerpt at Turkish
vocabulary#The conjunction ki.
The conditional (art) verb could also be called hypo-
thetical"; it is used for remote possibilities, or things one
might wish for. (See also #Compound bases.)
The various bases thus give distinctions of tense, aspect
and mood. These can be briey tabulated:

Any of these three (kinds of) stems can be made poten-

tial by addition of -e and then -bil. The -bil is not en-
clitic, but represents the verb bil- know, be able"; the
rst syllable of the impotential ending represents an ob-
solete verb u- be powerful, able #Lewis [VIII,55]. So
far then, there are six kinds of stems:
Such stems are not used for aorist forms, which have their
own peculiar means of forming negatives and impoten-
tials.
10.4 Questions
The interrogative particle mi precedes predicative (type-I)
endings (except for the 3rd person plural -ler), but follows
the complete verb formed from a verbal, type-II ending:
Geliyor musunuz? Are you coming?" (but:
Geliyorlar m? Are they coming?")
Geldiniz mi? Did you come?"

10.3 Bases of verbs

10.5 Optative and imperative moods
The characteristics with which verb-bases are formed
from stems are given under #Inectional suxes. Note Usually, in the optative (istek), only the rst-person forms
again that aorist verbs have their own peculiar negative are used, and these supply the lack of a rst-person im-
and impotential forms. perative (emir). In common practice then, there is one
The progressive base in -mekte is discussed under series of endings to express something wished for:
#Verbal nouns. Another base, namely the necessitative
(gereklilik), is formed from a verbal noun. The character- -(y)eyim, -(y)elim, , -(y)in, -sin.
istic is -meli, where -li forms adjectives from nouns, and
-me forms gerunds from verb-stems. A native speaker
(The longer second-person plural imperative ending -(y)
may perceive the ending -meli as indivisible; the analysis
iniz is generally used only in writing.)
here is from #Lewis [VIII,30]).
The present base is derived from the ancient verb yor-
go, walk #Lewis [VIII,16]; this can be used for ongoing 10.6 The defective verb i-
actions, or for contemplated future actions.
The ancient verb er- #Lewis [VIII,2] exists in Turkish in
The meaning of the aorist base is described under
three bases:
#Adjectives from verbs: participles.
There is some irregularity in rst-person negative and
imi,
impotential aorists. The full form of the base -mez (or
(y)emez) reappears before the interrogative particle mi: idi,

Gelmem I do not come (cf. Gelmez miyim ise.

Do I not come?");
Gelmeyiz We do not come (cf. Gelmez miyiz The form iken given under #Adverbs from verbs is also
Do we not come?") descended from er-. Since no more bases are founded on

the stem i-, this verb can be called defective. In particu- By means of ise or -(y)se, a verb can be made conditional
lar, i- forms no negative or impotential stems; negation is in the sense of being the hypothesis or protasis of a com-
achieved with the #Adverb of negation, deil, given ear- plex statement:
lier.
Verbs i- are often made into suxes; the corresponding
bases then are
-(y)mi,
-(y)di,
-(y)se,
where the y is used only after vowels.
The verb i- serves as a copula. When a copula is needed,
but the appropriate base in i- does not exist, then the cor-
responding base in ol- is used; this stem otherwise means
become.
The verb i- is irregular in the way it is used in questions:
the particle mi always precedes it:
Ku idi or Kutu It was a bird";
Ku muydu? Was it a bird?"
10.7 Compound bases
The bases so far considered can be called simple. A
base in i- can be attached to another base, forming a com-
pound base. One can then interpret the result by reading
backwards. The following list is representative, not ex-
haustive:
Past tenses:
continuous past: Geliyordum I was com-
ing";
aorist past: Gelirdim I used to come";
future past: Gelecektim I was going to
come";
pluperfect: Gelmitim I had come";
necessitative past: Gelmeliydim I had to
come";
conditional past: Gelseydim If only I had
come.
Inferential tenses:
continuous inferential: Geliyormuum It
seems (they say) I am coming";
future inferential: Gelecekmiim It seems I
shall come";
aorist inferential: Gelirmiim It seems I
come";
necessitative inferential: Gelmeliymiim
They say I must come.
11
nemli bir ey yapyorsunuz You are doing
something important";
nemli bir ey yapyorsanz, rahatsz etmeyelim
If you are doing something important, let us
not cause disturbance.
The simple conditional can be used for remote conditions:
Bakmakla renilse, kpekler kasap olurdu If
learning by looking were possible, dogs would
be butchers.
11 Notes
[1] http://www.thexfiles-tr.net/senaryo5x07.htm
[2] E.E. Erguvanli 1984 The function of Word Order in Turk-
ish Grammar. University of California Press. UCLA PhD
Dissertation 1979
[3] Homan, B. (1994) Generating Context-Appropriate
Word Orders in Turkish in Proceedings of the Seventh
International Workshop on Natural Language Generation
Pages 117-126 http://arxiv.org/abs/cmp-lg/9407017v1
[4] Slobin, D.I. and Bever, G.T. Children use Canonical Sen-
tence Schemas: A Cross-linguistic Study of Word Order and
Inections. Cognition, 12:229-265, 1982
[5] The term aorist is often used in Turkish grammars for
the habitual aspect. This is quite dierent from its use in
Greek grammars, where it means perfective aspect: what
is called denite past in Turkish.
[6] The imperfective aspect is often called present, though
it is not actually present tense
[7] The perfective aspect is often called denite past, though
it is not actually past tense
12 References
12.1 Grammars
Robert Underhill (1976). Turkish Grammar. Cam-
bridge, MA: MIT Press. A classic, still used to
teach Turkish grammar in many universities.
Kaya Can (1991). Yabanclar in Trke-ngilizce
Aklama Trke Dersleri. Ankara: Orta Dou
Teknik niversitesi, Fen ve Edebiyat Fakltesi.
Turkish lessons with Turkish-English explana-
tion[s] for foreigners.
12
Ekrem auevi (1996). Gramatika suvremenoga 12.3 Other Grammars
turskog jezika. Zagreb, CRO: Sveuilina naklada.
A classic, still used to teach Turkish grammar in Aksan, Doan (Hazrlayan) (1983), Szck Trleri,
many universities.
Asl Gksel & Celia Kerslake (2005). Turkish:
A Comprehensive Grammar. London: Routledge.
The most recent comprehensive grammar in En-
glish.
G. L. Lewis (1967). Turkish Grammar. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-815838-6.
G. L. Lewis (2000). Turkish Grammar. Oxford
University Press. Second edition. Structural dier-
ences between the two editions are not named in the
second, but appear to be as follows: IV,4 "-e", VI,7
Arithmetical terms, XI,16 "-diinde", and XII,25
"t" are new, while XV,1 Nominal sentences and
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Eran Oyal (1986). Szcklerin Anlamsal ve Yapsal
zellikleri: Konular, rnekler, Sorular, Aklama
Yantlar (SS ve YS iin Dil Yetenei Dizisi 2).
Ankara. Semantic and syntactic properties of
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trance examinations, 2).
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language, language, and expression.
Bengisu Rona (1989). Turkish in Three Months.
Hugos Language Books Limited.
Gerjan van Schaaik (2001). The Bosphorus Papers:
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smet Zeki Eyubolu (1991). Trk Dilinin Etimoloji
Szl. Etymological Dictionary of the Turkish
Language. Expanded and revised second edition.
H.-J. Kornrumpf (1989). Langenscheidts Universal
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ngilizce. The Larger Redhouse Portable Dictio-
nary English-Turkish, Turkish-English. Redhouse
Yaynevi, stanbul 1997 (9th printing, 1998).
Trk Dil Kurumu [Turkish Language Foundation],
Trke Szlk, expanded 7th edition, 1983.
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Underhill, R. (1976), Turkish Grammar, Mass: The

MIT Press.

13 External links
Turkish dictionaries at DMOZ
Turkish language at DMOZ

Turkish tools (non-commercial)

LT: LearningTurkish (non-commercial)

LT: Automatic Turkish Verb Declinations (non-
commercial)
 15

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text
Turkish grammar Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_grammar?oldid=756897454 Contributors: Edward, N-true, Tea2min,
Macrakis, Billposer, Geoking66, Kwamikagami, Bobo192, Cmdrjameson, PaulHanson, Babajobu, Ish ishwar, Woohookitty, Sinanozel,
ScottDavis, Ketiltrout, Nneonneo, Ligulem, SoroSuub1, SEWilcoBot, CecilWard, David Pierce, Sgmanohar, Curpsbot-unicodify, That
Guy, From That Show!, KnightRider~enwiki, Chris the speller, Melburnian, Teemeah, Michkalas, Khoikhoi, Ctreddy, Doncamillo, Lam-
biam, JorisvS, Tuluat, FilipeS, Tylose, Ozi125 2, InfoCan, Mbell, CharlotteWebb, Fayenatic london, Cameltrader, Allstarecho, CapnPrep,
Baristarim, FisherQueen, Jamesontai, Ndsg, Dextrose, Canerguclu, Finnrind, SieBot, Alex.muller, Fratrep, Anchor Link Bot, Fadesga, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Sun Creator, SchreiberBike, BOTarate, Aliakpinar, XLinkBot, Dnmaz94, Addbot, Felicioo, Peti610botH, Megaman en m,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Bunnyhop11, Squeegman, Funkyrubberduckies, Citation bot, Wrelwser43, Xqbot, Silvius Graecus,
FrescoBot, Alpy01, Turkanozturk, Jackessler, Ekrem52, Bri, Keremim25, WildBot, EmausBot, Wisapi, Bandekafsh, aaw, Loriendrew,
Refusingtogiveup, Lfdder, Jodosma, Jan Kaninchen, Alex1175, Kanjuzi, MarkYabloko and Anonymous: 90

14.2 Images
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).

14.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0