Flowing Fluids and Pressure

Variation

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Flow Types (steady-unsteady)

Steady Flow: is defined as the flow in which the various parameters

(velocity, pressure, density, etc.) at any point do NOT change with time.

Unsteady Flow: is the flow in which these parameters do change with

time.

Example: The flow in a pipe is steady. However, during opening and closing
the valve the flow is unsteady

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Flow Types (uniform-nonuniform)

Uniform Flow: is the one in which at particular instant, the various parameters
of the flow do NOT change from one point to another over specified region.

streamlines

Open-channel flow Flow between parallel plates

Nonuniform Flow: is when Flow velocity changes from one point to another.
These changes with position may be found in the direction of the flow or in
direction perpendicular to it.

Converging flow Vortex flow

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Flow Types (One, Two, and Three Dimensional Flow)

Three-Dimension

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Flow Types (Laminar-Turbulent)

Laminar flow has no intense mixing and the flow has a very smooth appearance.

Turbulent flow is characterized by a mixing action throughout the flow field. This
mixing is caused by eddies of varying size within the flow.

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Fluid Motion Viewpoints

1. Lagrangian method

We consider an individual fluid particle at all time.

The particle velocity is obtained by differentiating the particles position
vector with respect to time.
y

r
r (t ) xi yj zk
x
dr dx dy dz z
i j k
dt dt dt dt

V ui vj wk
pathline

The velocity is function of time.

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2. Eulerian Method:

We focus at one certain point and consider motion of fluid particles that pass that
point as time goes on.
The velocity is function of both space and time.
Eulerian method is generally simple and will be used here.

u f ( x, y , x, t )
v f ( x, y , z , t )
w f ( x, y , z , t )

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Streamlines, Pathlines, Streaklines

Streamline: The line drawn through the flow field such that the velocity
vector of the fluid at each point on the streamline is tangent to
the stream line at that instance.

Pathline: The line drawn through the flow field such that pathline
it defines the path that a given particle of fluid
has taken (through a specific interval of time).

Streakline: The trace made by injecting dye (or smoke) at a given point in the
flow field (through a specific interval of time).

For steady flow streamlines, pathlines and streaklines coincide.

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Streamlines, Pathlines, Streaklines

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Streamlines, Pathlines, Streaklines

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Streamlines, Pathlines, Streaklines

Steady flow: Pathline = Streamline Unsteady flow

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Streamlines, Pathlines, Streaklines

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Pressure Variation in a Flowing Fluid

Causes of pressure variation in a flowing fluid:

Weight of the fluid,
Viscous resistance,
Acceleration.

If Viscous resistance is not taken into account:

Fl = M aL
p A (p+ p) A - W sin = l A aL

(p z) aL
L

Eulers equation
Vector form of Eulers equation:
p ( g - a )
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Pressure Variation in Rigid Body Flow (cont.)
Be careful when
Rotation of tank of Liquid stirring you tea cup!
Applying Eulers equation along the radial direction of a rotating tank:

d
(p z) a r
dr

r 2 2
p z- Constant
2

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Flow Types (Rotational and Irrotational Flow)

b
The flow is considered a rotational flow if:
a a
b a
An element in the flow rotates but does not deform
such that all lines drawn through that element rotate b b
at the same rate.
a

The orientation of the bisector of two sides, which are initially

perpendicular to each other a fluid element, changes with time.

b b

a a a a
b b
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Rate of Rotation and Vorticity

1 w v
Rate of rotation about the x - axis : x
2 y z
1 u w
Rate of rotation about the y - axis : y
2 z x
1 v u
Rate of rotation about the z - axis : z
2 x y

Vorticity: twice the average rate of rotation.

2 x i 2 y j 2 z k
w v u w v u
i j k
y z z x x y
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Vortices, Separation and Turbulence:
Vortex: motion of a multitude of fluid particles around a common center.
i.Forced vortex: in this vortex the velocity increases linearly from the center of rotation.
i.e. V = k r. The flow in the forced vortex is rotational.
ii.Free (potential) vortex: in this vortex the product of the velocity at a point and the
radial distance from the vortex center to that point is constant. i.e. V r = C. The flow in
the free vortex is irrotational.

Separation:
Separation is the phenomena that occur when boundaries turn away from the
flow causing the streamlines to diverge away from the boundary.
Recirculation pattern (composed of vortices) is generated in the separation
region.
Large vortices (eddies) break down to smaller ones, which eventually vanish due
to viscous resistance and dissipating the kinetic energy that initially existed in
the larger eddies.
Turbulence is the flow pattern that is composed of large and/or small eddies.

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 Separation: dp
0
dx

PI: Point of Inflection 19

Source: Fluid Mechanice, F. M. White, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill
 Separation and Turbulence (Flow Around a Circular Cylinder)

Turbulent boundary layer flow is able to resist

separation more than laminar flow.
This is because of the higher mixing of energy
in turbulent boundary layers.
The mixing transfers energy from the higher
velocity region away from the wall to the lower
velocity region near the wall.
The two bowling balls shown have the same
properties and the velocity of the water is the
same.
Turbulent flow is induced around the right
hand side ball by patch of nose-sand
roughness. This results in shifting the
separation point to the downstream
direction.

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Source: Fluid Mechanice, F. M. White, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill
 Separation:

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Source: http://www.aerospaceweb.org/
 Separation:

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Source: http://www.aerospaceweb.org/
Methods of Developing Flow Patterns

Analytical methods: These are solutions of the governing equations of fluid

mechanics. More solutions available for non-viscous fluids (ideal fluids)
which solves Laplaces Equation and few solutions are available for real
(viscous) fluids.
Numerical methods, Computational Fluids Dynamics (CFD): The governing
equations of fluid mechanics are solved numerically.
This helps in the design procedure for bodies that interact with fluid flows
(ex. automobiles, turbine blades) and in studying complicated
phenomena (ex. solidification process, bubbles flow ).
It depend on the physics built into the computations.
The results must be verified with analytical or experimental data.
Experimental methods: This is used when numerical method is not able to
describe the physics of the phenomena or too large for the numerical
capability. Also important in basic research.

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24
Acceleration

A) Normal and tangential acceleration

Consider acceleration of a fluid particle along a pathline. It acceleration

can be written as:

V V V 2
a V e t e n
s t r
Tangential component Normal (centrifugal) component

Convective acceleration Local acceleration

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B) Cartesian components

Consider acceleration of a fluid particle in the x-direction:

u f ( x, y , x, t )
v f ( x, y , z , t )
Its acceleration can be written as: w f ( x, y , z , t )
du
ax
dt
u u dx u dy u dz
ax
t x dt y dt z dt
Chain rule of differentiation of a
u u u u multivariable function
ax u v w
t x y z

Local acceleration Convective acceleration

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Substantial (Material) derivative

D() () () () ()
u v w
Dt t x y z
D() ()
(V .)()
Dt t
Du u u u u
ax u v w
Dt t x y z
Dv v v v v
ay u v w
Dt t x y z
Dw w w w w
az u v w
Dt t x y z

DV V V V V
a u v w
Dt t x y z

(V )V 27
Rate of Flow

Constant Velocity:

Flow rate : VA

Mass flow rate :
m

Variable Velocity Profile:

Flow rate : V dA
A

V dA
Mass flow rate : m
A

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Bernoulli Equation:
Starting from Eulers equation along a pathline:

And from Eulers equation in the direction normal to the streamline

for irrotational flow, [using irrotational flow relation: dV - V ]
dr r

We can derive the following equation that is valid:

1. Along pathlines in steady flows of incompressible fluids.
2. Everywhere in the flow field of irrotational flows.

p V2
z Constant
2g Bernoulli Equation

Piezometric (Static) Velocity (Dynamic)

Head Head
Applications of Bernoulli Equation:

Stagnation Tube: A simple device (curved tube) that is used to measure the
velocity of flow through measuring the flows total pressure.
Applications of Bernoulli Equation:

Pitot Tube: A device that is used to measure the velocity of flow through measuring the
velocity head which is the difference between the total and the static heads.

Unlike the stagnation Tube, the pitot tube can be used in measuring the velocity of
flows in pressurized pipes and gas flows.

where (h1-h2) can be measured using a differential manometer.

Applications of Bernoulli Equation:
Limitations of Bernoulli Equation:
Pitot Tube
Flow Measurement Devices

Venturi Meter

Orifice Meter
Flow Measurement Devices

Votex Meter

Rotameter Electromagnetic Meter