Food Analysis and Quality Control

FoodAnalysis
and
QualityControl

VedpalYadav,LecturerinFoodTechnology,GovernmentPolytechnic,MandiAdampur,Hisar,
Haryana,India125052.
emailvedpalp@yahoo.com
Cell +919416589819
6.2FoodAnalysisandQualityControl
LTP
44
Rationale
In the production of processed foods, one of the important aspects is to assure quality. This subject is
introducedinthecurriculumtoimpartknowledgeandskillsinthestudentsrelatedtovariousfoodquality
parameters/systems,techniquesoffoodanalysis,foodlawsandstandards
DetailedContents
1. Introduction(4hrs)
1.1. Concept,objectivesandneedofquality,
1.2. Concept,objectivesandneedofqualitycontroland
1.3. Concept,objectivesandneedofqualityassurance
2. Principlesandfunctions
2.1. Principlesandfunctionsofqualitycontrol,
2.2. Principlesandfunctionsofqualityattributes
2.2.1.qualitative,
2.2.2.hiddenand
2.2.3.sensory,
2.3. Planandmethodsofqualitycontrol(10hrs)
3. Sampling(6hrs)
3.1. Definitionofsampling,
3.2. purpose,
3.3. samplingtechniquesrequirementsandsamplingproceduresfor
3.3.1.liquid,
3.3.2.powderedand
3.3.3.granularmaterials
4. Physicochemicalandmechanicalproperties(10hrs)
4.1. Colour,
4.2. gloss,
4.3. flavour,
4.4. consistency,
4.5. viscosity,
4.6. textureandtheirrelationshipwithfoodquality
5. Sensoryqualitycontrol(12hrs)
5.1. Definition,
5.2. objectives,
5.3. panelselectionandtheirtraining,
5.4. subjectiveandobjectivemethods,
5.5. interpretationofsensoryresultsinstatisticalqualitycontrol,
5.6. TQMand
5.7. TQC,
5.8. consumerpreferencesandacceptance
6. FoodLawsandRegulationsinIndia(8hrs)
6.1. Objectives,requirementsandbenefitsoffoodgradesandstandards
6.1.1.BIS,
6.1.2.AGMARK,
6.1.3.PFA,
6.1.4.FPO,
6.1.5.CAC(CodexAlimantariousCommission)
7. GeneralHygieneandSanitationinfoodindustry(4hrs)
8. Conceptsof
8.1. GMP,
8.2. HACCP(HazardAnalysisandCriticalControlPoint)and
8.3. ISO9000SeriesObjectivesandprinciples(6hrs)
9. Layoutofqualityevaluationandcontrollaboratories(4hrs)

ListofPracticals
1. Proximateanalysisofmarketedfoodproducts
1.1. Moisture
1.2. Ash
1.3. CrudeFat
1.4. CrudeProtein
1.5. CrudeFibre
1.6. Carbohydrates
2. Detectionofadulterationinfoodproductsviz.
2.1. milk,
2.2. ghee,
2.3. honey,
2.4. spices,
2.5. pulses,
2.6. oils,
2.7. sweetsetc.
3. Detectionofnonpermittedfoodadditivesinmarketfoodsamples,
3.1. sweetsand
3.2. savoryproducts
4. Cutoutanalysisofcannedfood
5. Testofsensoryevaluation
5.1. Hedonicscale
5.2. Duotriotest
5.3. Rankingdifference
5.4. Triangletest
6. Detectionofbasictastesandtheirthresholdvalues
7. Consumeracceptabilitytrial
8. Statisticalanalysisofsensorydata
9. Laboratorypreparationoffoodproductsandtheirsensoryanalysis
10. Determinationofinsecticidesresidueingivenfoodsample
11. Visits to the quality control laboratories of the food industry, educational institutions and testing
centres
InstructionalStrategy
This being one of the most important subjects, teacher should lay emphasis on developing basic
understanding of various concepts and principles and procedures involved herein. Suitable tutorial
exercises may be designed by the teachers, which require students visit to various industries. Students
may also be exposed to various National and international standards. Visits to the relevant industry for
demonstrating various operations involved in the food evaluation and quality control is a must. Experts
fromtheindustrymaybeinvitedtodeliverlecturesonthelatesttechnology.Knowledgefrompollution
controlanddevicesforthesamemaybeprovidedtothestudents.Whereverrelevant,studentsmaybe
madeawareaboutsafetyaspects.
RecommendedBooks
1. HandBookofAnalysisofFruitsandVegetablesbySRanganna(THM)
2. FoodAnalysisTheoryandPracticesbyPomranzandMeloan(AVI)
3. QualityControlfortheFoodIndustry(Vol.IandII)byKramerandTwigg(AVI)
4. LaboratoryMethodsofSensoryEvaluationbyLarmond
5. SensoryAnalysisbyPiggot
6. HandBookofFoodAnalysisbyS.N.Mahindru
7. TheChemicalAnalysisofFoodandFoodProductsbyJacobs
8. AFirstCourseinFoodAnalysisbyA.K.Sathe
9. HandBookofAnalysisandQualityControlforFruit&VegetableProducts
TableofContents
1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................11
1.1. Concept,objectivesandNeedof....................................................................................................11
1.1.1. Quality....................................................................................................................................11
1.1.2. QualityControl........................................................................................................................11
1.1.3. QualityAssurance...................................................................................................................14
2. Principlesandfunctionsof.....................................................................................................................24
2.1. QualityControl,...............................................................................................................................24
2.2. PrincipalandFunctionsofQualityAssurance................................................................................24
2.2.1. WhatIsQualityAssuranceGoals,Functions,Benefits........................................................25
2.2.2. WhatMakesQualityControlImportant?...............................................................................26
2.2.3. BenefitingBusinesses.............................................................................................................27
2.2.4. QualityControl:MonitoringtheTestingProcess...................................................................27
2.2.5. QualityAssessment................................................................................................................28
2.3. BasicMethodsofQualityControl...................................................................................................28
2.3.1. OrganolepticEvaluation.........................................................................................................29
2.3.2. PhysicalTestMethods............................................................................................................31
2.3.3. Chemicalanalysis....................................................................................................................36
2.3.4. MicrobiologicalExamination..................................................................................................38
3. Sampling.................................................................................................................................................41
3.1. SamplingTechniques......................................................................................................................41
3.2. Sample............................................................................................................................................41
3.3. PreparationofSamples..................................................................................................................41
3.3.1. Preparationofdryfoodsamples............................................................................................42
3.3.2. Preparationofmoistsolidfoods............................................................................................42
3.3.3. Preparationofsemisolid/liquidfoods...................................................................................42
3.3.4. Enzymeinactivation................................................................................................................42
3.4. TypesofStatisticalSampling..........................................................................................................43
3.4.1. SimpleRandomSampling.......................................................................................................43
3.4.2. StratifiedRandomSampling...................................................................................................43
3.4.3. SystematicSampling...............................................................................................................43
3.4.4. JudgmentSampling................................................................................................................43
3.5. SamplingTypesbyProcess.............................................................................................................44
3.5.1. ManualSampling....................................................................................................................45
3.5.2. ContinuousSampling..............................................................................................................45
3.6. StorageandPreservationofSamples.............................................................................................45
3.7. SamplingErrors...............................................................................................................................46
4. PhysicochemicalandMechanicalPropertiesofFood...........................................................................47
4.1. SensoryVocabulary........................................................................................................................47
4.2. AppearanceFactors........................................................................................................................48
4.2.1. SizeandShape........................................................................................................................48
4.2.2. ColorandGloss.......................................................................................................................48
4.2.3. MeasuringTexture..................................................................................................................50
4.3. FlavorFactors.................................................................................................................................53
4.3.1. InfluenceofColorandTextureonFlavor...............................................................................53
5. EvaluationofFoodQualitybySensoryEvaluation................................................................................53
5.1. SensoryEvaluation.........................................................................................................................53
5.2. SensoryCharacteristicsofFood.....................................................................................................53
5.2.1. Appearance.............................................................................................................................54
5.2.2. Colour.....................................................................................................................................54
5.2.3. Flavour....................................................................................................................................54
5.2.4. Odour......................................................................................................................................54
5.2.5. Taste.......................................................................................................................................54

5.3. ConductingSensoryTests...............................................................................................................55
5.3.1. Trainedpanelmembers..........................................................................................................55
5.3.2. Selectionofpanelofjudges...................................................................................................56
5.3.3. Testinglaboratory...................................................................................................................56
5.3.4. Preparationofsamples...........................................................................................................57
5.3.5. Techniquesofsmellingandtasting........................................................................................57
5.3.6. Testingtime............................................................................................................................57
5.3.7. Designofexperiment.............................................................................................................57
5.3.8. Reasonsfortestingfoodquality.............................................................................................57
5.3.9. EvaluationCard.......................................................................................................................57
5.4. TypesofTests.................................................................................................................................58
5.4.1. DifferenceTests......................................................................................................................58
5.4.2. RatingTests.............................................................................................................................59
5.4.3. SensitivityTests......................................................................................................................63
5.4.4. DescriptiveFlavourProfileMethod........................................................................................65
5.5. Limitationsofsensoryevaluation...................................................................................................66
5.6. InterpretationofSensoryResultsinStatisticalQualityControl.....................................................66
5.6.1. Thequalityandnatureofsensoryandconsumerdata..........................................................66
5.6.2. Experimentaldesignissues.....................................................................................................68
5.6.3. Descriptivestatistics...............................................................................................................68
5.6.4. WorkedexampleofpairedpreferencetestAnalysisofpairedpreferencetestbybinomial
method. 68
5.6.5. Analysisofconsumersurveydata..........................................................................................69
6. ObjectiveEvaluation..............................................................................................................................69
6.1. Advantages.....................................................................................................................................69
6.2. Disadvantages.................................................................................................................................69
6.3. Basicguidelines...............................................................................................................................69
6.3.1. Conductallobjectivetestsappropriatetotheexperimentforwhichequipmentisavailable.
70
6.3.2. Obtainnecessarytestingdevices...........................................................................................70
6.3.3. Bemeticulousaboutmaintenanceofobjectiveequipment..................................................70
6.3.4. Carefullydefinethesamplestobeusedforobjectivetesting...............................................70
6.3.5. Establishoperatingconditionsforobjectivetesting..............................................................70
6.4. EvaluationMethods........................................................................................................................70
6.4.1. ChemicalMethods..................................................................................................................70
6.4.2. PhysicoChemicalMethods....................................................................................................70
6.4.3. MicroscopicExamination........................................................................................................70
6.4.4. PhysicalMethods....................................................................................................................71
6.4.5. InstrumentsusedforLiquidsandSemisolids.........................................................................72
6.4.6. Instrumentsusedforsolids....................................................................................................74
6.4.7. FundamentalParameters.......................................................................................................75
7. TotalQualityManagement(TQM).........................................................................................................79
7.1. TQMasaFoundation.....................................................................................................................79
7.2. TenStepstoTotalQualityManagement(TQM)............................................................................79
7.3. PrinciplesofTQM...........................................................................................................................80
7.4. TQMinvolves..................................................................................................................................80
7.5. TQCandTQM.................................................................................................................................80
8. FoodLawsandStandards......................................................................................................................81
8.1. PreventionofFoodAdulterationAct..............................................................................................81
8.1.1. Administrativehierarchy........................................................................................................82
8.1.2. Powersoffoodinspectors......................................................................................................82
8.2. FruitProductsOrder.......................................................................................................................82
8.2.1. GuidelinesforSettingUpofUnitUnderFruitProductsOrder...............................................83
8.2.2. Part1(a):Sanitaryrequirementsofafactoryoffruitproducts.............................................83
8.2.3. Part1(B):Qualificationsoftechnicalstaff.............................................................................84
8.2.4. Minimumequipments&machineryforunitoperation.........................................................84

8.3. BureauofIndianStandards............................................................................................................84
8.3.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................84
8.3.2. QualityStandards...................................................................................................................85
8.3.3. AssociationwithInternationalStandardsBodies...................................................................86
8.3.4. StandardFormulation&Promotion.......................................................................................87
8.3.5. Laboratories............................................................................................................................87
8.3.6. ProductCertificationScheme.................................................................................................87
8.3.7. SchemeForeignManufacturers.............................................................................................87
8.3.8. SchemeforIndianImporters..................................................................................................87
8.3.9. ManagementSystemCertification.........................................................................................87
8.3.10. NationalInstituteofTrainingforStandardization(NITS).......................................................87
8.3.11. GrievanceCell.........................................................................................................................87
8.3.12. RajivGandhiNationalQualityAward.....................................................................................87
8.3.13. SmallScaleIndustryFacilitationCell......................................................................................88
8.3.14. NationalBuildingCodeofIndia,2005....................................................................................88
8.4. TheAGMARKStandard...................................................................................................................88
8.5. CodexAlimentariusCommission(CAC)..........................................................................................88
9. GeneralPrinciplesofFoodHygienebyCodexAlimentariusCommission(CAC)...................................90
9.1. SectionIObjectives......................................................................................................................90
9.1.1. TheCodexGeneralPrinciplesofFoodHygiene......................................................................90
9.2. SectionIIScope,UseandDefinition.............................................................................................90
9.2.1. Scope......................................................................................................................................91
9.2.2. Use..........................................................................................................................................91
9.2.3. 2.3Definitions.........................................................................................................................92
9.3. SectionIIIPrimaryProduction......................................................................................................92
9.3.1. EnvironmentalHygiene..........................................................................................................93
9.3.2. HygienicProductionofFoodSources.....................................................................................93
9.3.3. Handling,StorageandTransport............................................................................................93
9.3.4. Cleaning,MaintenanceandPersonnelHygieneAtPrimaryProduction................................93
9.4. SectionIVEstablishment:DesignandFacilities...........................................................................93
9.4.1. Location..................................................................................................................................94
9.4.2. PremisesandRooms...............................................................................................................94
9.4.3. Equipment..............................................................................................................................95
9.4.4. Facilities..................................................................................................................................96
9.5. SectionVControlofOperation....................................................................................................97
9.5.1. ControlofFoodHazards.........................................................................................................97
9.5.2. KeyAspectsofHygieneControlSystems...............................................................................98
9.5.3. IncomingMaterialRequirements...........................................................................................99
9.5.4. Packaging................................................................................................................................99
9.5.5. Water......................................................................................................................................99
9.5.6. ManagementandSupervision..............................................................................................100
9.5.7. DocumentationandRecords................................................................................................100
9.5.8. RecallProcedures.................................................................................................................100
9.6. SectionVIEstablishment:MaintenanceandSanitation............................................................100
9.6.1. MaintenanceandCleaning...................................................................................................100
9.6.2. CleaningProgrammes...........................................................................................................101
9.6.3. PestControlSystems............................................................................................................101
9.6.4. WasteManagement.............................................................................................................102
9.6.5. MonitoringEffectiveness......................................................................................................102
9.7. SectionVIIEstablishment:PersonalHygiene.............................................................................102
9.7.1. HealthStatus........................................................................................................................102
9.7.2. IllnessandInjuries................................................................................................................103
9.7.3. PersonalCleanliness.............................................................................................................103
9.7.4. PersonalBehaviour...............................................................................................................103
9.7.5. Visitors..................................................................................................................................103
9.8. SectionVIIITransportation.........................................................................................................103

9.8.1. General.................................................................................................................................104
9.8.2. Requirements.......................................................................................................................104
9.8.3. UseandMaintenance...........................................................................................................104
9.9. SectionIXProductInformationandConsumerAwareness.......................................................104
9.9.1. LotIdentification...................................................................................................................105
9.9.2. ProductInformation.............................................................................................................105
9.9.3. Labelling................................................................................................................................105
9.9.4. ConsumerEducation.............................................................................................................105
9.10. SectionXTraining...................................................................................................................105
9.10.1. AwarenessandResponsibilities............................................................................................105
9.10.2. TrainingProgrammes...........................................................................................................106
9.10.3. InstructionandSupervision..................................................................................................106
9.10.4. RefresherTraining................................................................................................................106
10. HazardAnalysisandCriticalControlPoint(HACCP).........................................................................106
10.1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................106
10.2. Prerequisiteprogrammes........................................................................................................107
10.2.1. GoodAgriculturalPractices..................................................................................................107
10.2.2. GoodManufacturingPractices.............................................................................................107
10.3. BasicprinciplesofHACCP.........................................................................................................108
10.4. DevelopingaHACCPplan.........................................................................................................109
10.5. ApplicationofHACCPtomycotoxincontrol.............................................................................113
10.6. Conclusions...............................................................................................................................116
10.7. AppendixI:Definitionofterms................................................................................................116
10.8. AppendixII:TasksinvolvedindevelopingHACCPsystem........................................................117
10.9. AppendixIII:ExampleofFormDescriptionandidentifieduseofproduct............................118
10.10. AppendixIV:AnexampleofdecisiontreetoidentifyCCPs.....................................................118
10.11. AppendixV:AnExampleofaHACCPWorksheet.....................................................................120
11. InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO).......................................................................120
11.1. ISO'sname................................................................................................................................120
11.2. Howitallstarted......................................................................................................................121
11.3. WhomakesupISO?..................................................................................................................121
11.4. Whatarestandards?................................................................................................................121
11.5. Whyisinternationalstandardizationneeded?........................................................................121
11.5.1. Worldwideprogressintradeliberalization..........................................................................122
11.5.2. Interpenetrationofsectors..................................................................................................122
11.5.3. Worldwidecommunicationssystems...................................................................................122
11.5.4. Globalstandardsforemergingtechnologies........................................................................122
11.5.5. Developingcountries............................................................................................................122
11.6. ISO9000andISO14000inbrief.............................................................................................123
11.7. ContentsofISO9001................................................................................................................123
11.8. SummaryofISO9001...............................................................................................................124
11.8.1. ISO22000..............................................................................................................................124
12. LaboratoryDesigning........................................................................................................................125
12.1. KeyConsiderationsinLaboratoryDesign:AnAnalyticalApproach.........................................125
12.2. StartingfromScratch................................................................................................................126
12.3. MakingModifications...............................................................................................................127
12.4. Innovation,AutomationUpgradeLabs....................................................................................128
12.5. AnalyticalLabsFacingChallenges.............................................................................................129
Index.............................................................................................................................................................131
TOCofTables
Table1Qualityattributesfortomatoes........................................................................................................12
Table2QualityAttributes.............................................................................................................................13
Table3PlaceswherefoodsweremishandledinsuchawaythatFoodbornediseasesoutbreaksresulted
........................................................................................................................................................................14
Table4AnIngredientSpecificationDocument.............................................................................................16
Table5AFoodProductFormulaDocument.................................................................................................17
Table6FoodProductStandardsFormat.......................................................................................................18
Table7DefinitionsPertainingtoQuality......................................................................................................24
Table8GlossaryofSamplingTerms..............................................................................................................44
Table9Colours'Specifications......................................................................................................................50
Table10Sensoryandconsumerdata:relativedifferencesinnature..........................................................67
Table11GlossaryofFoodTextureTestingTerminology..............................................................................75
Table12InstrumentsUsedinTextureAnalysis............................................................................................76
Table13InstrumentsinFoodAnalysis..........................................................................................................77
Table14Categorywisearearequirement,annualproductionlimitandlicencefeeforonetermsorpart
thereof(Ref.Clause5(2)andpartI(B)oftheSecondScheduleofFruitProductsOrder,1955....................83
Table15Minimumequipments&machineryforunitoperation.................................................................84
TableofPictures
Picture1Electricalthermometerwithdigitaldisplayandtwosensorsformeasuringairtemperature(left)
andthetemperatureofmeat,liquids,etc.(right).........................................................................................32
Picture2Electronicpsychrometer(hygrometer)andsensor(right)fordirectmeasurementoftherelative
airhumidity.....................................................................................................................................................34
Picture3Mechanicalinstrumenttoproveairtightclosureofcans..............................................................36
Picture4PortableelectricpHmeterwithsensor(glasselectrode).Theglasselectrodeisprotectedbya
removablecoverofflexiblesyntheticmaterialinordertoavoidbreakageandkeepthediaphragmofthe
sensorhumid..................................................................................................................................................38
Picture5Triggerandsterilecellotapeformicrobiologicalsamplingofthemeatsurface...........................39
Picture 6 Culture medium with various fields after incubation of different samples taken using the
techniqueshowninPicture5.........................................................................................................................39
Picture 7 Sampling microbial contamination on a defined surface area marked by sterile template with
sterileswabs...................................................................................................................................................40
Picture8Transferofthesampletakenwithswabontothesurfaceoftheculturemedium......................40
Picture9Bacterialcoloniesgrownfromonecelleachontheculturemediumaftertheincubationperiod.
........................................................................................................................................................................40
Picture10UniversalTextureAnalyser..........................................................................................................51
Picture11SpecimenEvaluationCardofPairedComparisionTest................................................................58
Picture12SpecimenEvaluationCardofDuoTrioTest...............................................................................59
Picture13SpecimenEvaluationCardofTriangleTest..................................................................................59
Picture14SpecimenEvaluationCardofRankingTest..................................................................................60
Picture15SpecimenEvaluationCardofSingleSample(Monadic)Test.......................................................60
Picture16SpecimenEvaluationCardofTwoSampleDifferenceTest.........................................................61
Picture17SpecimenEvaluationCardofMultipleSampleDifferenceTest..................................................61
Picture18SpecimenEvaluationCardofHedonicRatingTest......................................................................62
Picture19SpecimenEvaluationCardofNumericalScoringTest.................................................................63
Picture20SpecimenEvaluationCardofCompositeScoringTest................................................................63
Picture21SpecimenEvaluationCardofSensitivityThresholdTest.............................................................64
Picture22SpecimenEvaluationCardofDescriptiveFlavourProfile............................................................65
Picture23ApplicationofSensoryTesttoFoodIndustryProblems..............................................................65
Picture24NumberofPanelMembersandSamplesRequiredforSensoryTests........................................66
Picture25TypesofResistancetoForce........................................................................................................74
Picture26AnexampleofdecisiontreetoidentifyCCPs............................................................................119
TableofFigures
Figure1BasicPrincipalofaPenetrometer...................................................................................................13
Figure2QualityinFoodBusiness..................................................................................................................15
Figure3ManufacturingProcedureforUsebyProductionandQualityControlPersonnel.........................19
Figure4CriticalControlPointsfromaFreshCucumberProcess..................................................................20
Figure5SensoryandConsumerData...........................................................................................................67
Figure6CommonlyUsedStandardsinFoodIndustry..................................................................................85
Figure7TypicalSampleFlowforAnalysis...................................................................................................127
Figure8SampleOutlayPlansforFoodLaboratory.....................................................................................129

VedpalYadav,LecturerinFoodTechnology,GovernmentPolytechnic,MandiAdampur,Hisar,Haryana,India125052.
emailvedpalp@yahoo.com +919416589819 Page11of134
1. Introduction
1.1. Concept,objectivesandNeedof
1.1.1. Quality
Itisthecombinationofattributesorcharacteristicsofaproductthathavesignificanceindeterminingthe
degreeofacceptabilityoftheproducttoauser(USDAMarketingWorkshopReport,1951).
Quality can be defined as a measure of purity, strength, flavor, color, size, workmanship, and
condition,andoranyotherdistinctiveattributeorcharacteristicoftheproduct(GouldandGould,
1988).
Qualitymustbedefinedintermsofsomestandard/specification,oritmeansverylittle.
Quality=finestproductavailable.Conformancetodesign/expectations.
Quality is the degree of excellence and uniformity of a food as measured by various
factors/attributes/characteristicsagainstastandard.
Peoplegothroughaprocessofinspectiontoassurethatthe"Quality"ofwhattheyarepurchasingmeets
theirdefinitionofquality(measuresuptotheirstandards).
Qualitymonitoringisimperativeinpresenttimes.Thiscardinalprincipleisuniversallyacceptedbecauseit
enablestheproducerandorsellertorealizeappropriatepriceofhisproduceormerchandiseasthecase
be. The buyer or consumer gets the satisfaction for having paid the correct competitive price for the
similarquality.
Anyproducereleasedforsalemustconformtostatutorystandards.Countingthenumberofcommodities
broughtunderthesestatutorycontrolsisdifficultifnotimpossible.
Consequently there is an absolute need of food analysts at operative and supervisorylevel, food
manufacturers and their processing technologists, advocates and judges handling court cases about
qualitydisputes,studentsofanalyticalchemistryandfoodtechnology.Theirneedisnotonlyapreciseand
concise methodology but also detailed information about the scope of the tests. Legal standards of the
factorsundertest,differencesofresultsduetofactorshumanaswellasoperationalandinterpretationof
result.
Countrieswherefoodisabundant,peoplechoosefoodsbasedonanumberoffactorswhichcaninsum
bethoughtofas"quality."Qualityhasbeendefinedasdegreeofexcellenceandincludessuchthingsas
taste, appearance, and nutritional content. We might also say that quality is the composite of
characteristics that have significance and make for acceptability. Acceptability, however, can be highly
subjective.
Qualityandpriceneednotgotogether,butfoodmanufacturersknowthattheygenerallycangetahigher
price for or can sell a larger quantity of products with superior quality. often "value" is thought of as a
compositeofcostandquality.Moreexpensivefoodscanbeagoodvalueiftheirqualityisveryhigh.
Whenweselectfoodsandwhenweeat,weuseallofourphysicalsenses,includingsight,touch,smell,
taste,andevenhearing.Thesnapofapotatochip,thecrackleofabreakfastcereal,andcrunchofcelery
aretexturalcharacteristics,butwealsohearthem.Foodqualitydetectablebyoursensescanbedivided
intothreemaincategories:appearancefactors,texturalfactors,andflavorfactors.
1.1.2. QualityControl
Qualitycontrolisaprocessemployedtoensureacertainlevelofqualityinaproductorservice.Itmay
includewhateveractionsabusinessdeemsnecessarytoprovideforthecontrolandverificationofcertain
characteristics of a product or service. The basic goal of quality control is to ensure that the products,
services,orprocessesprovidedmeetspecificrequirementsandaredependable,satisfactory,andfiscally
sound.
Essentially,qualitycontrolinvolvestheexaminationofaproduct,service,orprocessforcertainminimum
levelsofquality.Thegoalofaqualitycontrolteamistoidentifyproductsorservicesthatdonotmeeta
companys specified standards ofquality. If aproblem is identified,thejobof aqualitycontrolteam or
professionalmayinvolvestoppingproductiontemporarily.Dependingontheparticularserviceorproduct,
aswellasthetypeofproblemidentified,productionorimplementationmaynotceaseentirely.
Quality control can cover not just products, services, and processes, but also people. Employees are an
importantpartofanycompany.Ifacompanyhasemployeesthatdonthaveadequateskillsortraining,
have trouble understanding directions, or are misinformed, quality may be severely diminished. When

qualitycontrolisconsideredintermsofhumanbeings,itconcernscorrectableissues.However,itshould
notbeconfusedwithhumanresourceissues.
Often,qualitycontrolisconfusedwithqualityassurance.Thoughthetwoareverysimilar,therearesome
basic differences. Quality control is concerned with the product, while quality assurance is process
oriented.
Evenwith suchaclearcutdifferencedefined, identifyingthedifferencesbetweenthetwocanbehard.
Basically, quality control involves evaluating a product, activity, process, or service. By contrast, quality
assurance is designed to make sure processes are sufficient to meet objectives. Simply put, quality
assuranceensuresaproductorserviceismanufactured,implemented,created,orproducedintheright
way;whilequalitycontrolevaluateswhetherornottheendresultissatisfactory.
1.1.2.1. QualityControlinFoodProcessingBusinesses
1.1.2.1.1. Introduction
Qualitycontrol(QC)isnotanoptionalextrainfoodprocessing;neitherisitsomethingthatisonlydoneby
large manufacturers. It is an essential component of any food processing business. The purposes of
qualitycontrolare:
Toprotectthecustomersfromdangers(egcontaminatedfoods)andensurethattheygettheweightand
qualityoffoodthattheypayfor.
Toprotectthebusinessfromcheatingbysuppliers,damagetoequipment(egstonesinrawmaterials)and
falseaccusationsbymiddlemen,customersorsuppliers.
Tobesurethatfoodlawsoperatinginacountryarecompliedwith.
Qualitycontrolneednotbetimeconsumingorexpensiveandtheresultsofqualitycontroltests should
helpsavemoneyinthelongrun.Ingeneral,thequalitycontrolproceduresusedshouldbeassimpleas
possibleandonlygivetherequiredamountofinformation(toolittleinformationmeansthetesthasnot
doneitsjob,toomuchinformationandmanagementdecisionsmaybedelayedorconfused).
Qualitycontrolisusedtopredictandcontrolthequalityofprocessedfoods.Itisnouseproducingafood,
testing it to find the quality and then trying to find a buyer for that particular batch of food. Quality
control is used to predict the quality of the processed food and then control the process so that the
expectedqualityisachievedforeverybatch.Thismeansthatqualityspecificationsmustbewrittenand
agreedwithsuppliersorsellersandcontrolpointsmustbeidentifiedintheprocess.
1.1.2.1.2. Qualityspecifications
The quality of foods or ingredients can be measured in different ways but one popular method is to
describe'qualityattributes',seeTable1.Aspecificationcanthenbewrittenandagreedwiththesupplier
or seller, which lists the quality attributes that are required in a food. An example of a quality
specification for tomatoes intended for processing into a paste or leather is shown in Table 1 Quality
attributesfortomatoes.
Table1Qualityattributesfortomatoes
Attribute Accept Reject
Colour Orange/red Morethan10%green
Size Any
Shape Any
Damage
splitting Lessthan5% Morethan5%
insect Lessthan5% Morethan5%
mould None Anyevidenceofmould
Hardness Softtooversoft Morethan10%hard
Anumberofpointsarisefromsuchaspecification:
A representative sample of the food must be tested to make sure the whole batch meets the
specification(forsmallbatchesitmightbepossibletoexamineeveryitem).Thesizeofsampleneededfor
testingcanbecalculated,butthisisfairlycomplexandusuallyunnecessaryforasmallscalebusiness.
The percentage of substandard items which cause a batch to fail the test can be increased or
decreased dependingonhowreliable the supplier isorhow importantthe particular attributeis to the
seller/manufacturer.

Someattributesmayneedtobetestedusingequipmenttoavoidargumentsoverinterpretation.
InFigure1thehardnesscouldbetestedwithasimple'penetrometer'todefinewhatis'hard'andwhatis
'soft'.

Figure1BasicPrincipalofaPenetrometer
Thesizeandshapeofthetomatoesisnotimportantbecausetheyaretobecrushedtoapulp.Inother
examples (eg fruit for bottling) the size might be important. The ripeness and flavour of the tomatoes
(assessedbycolourandhardness)anddamagecausedbypoorstorageandhandlingareveryimportant
andthespecificationconcentratesonthese.Eachspecificationtakesaccountoftheintendeduseofthe
productsandthelikelyimportantfaultsthatcouldbeexpected.
Table2QualityAttributes
QualityAttribute Example
Quantitative 6
Hidden
HarmfulSubstances Aflatoxiningroundnuts
Microbiological Number of bacteriainafood
Nutritivevalue Vitamincontentofafood
Additives Artificialflavours,thickeners,etc.
Sensory
Colour Ripenessoffruit
Size,shape(appearance) Sizeofchoppedfood,particlesizeofflour
Thicknessortexture Juiceconsistency,toughnessofmeat
Taste Saltiness,sweetness,sourness and bitterness
Flavour Characteristicflavouroftomato
1.1.2.1.3. Controlpoints
In every food process there are particular stages which affect the quality of the final product (eg the
amountofheatinggiventopasteurisedjuicesaffectsthecolour,flavourandstoragelifeorinsausagethe
amountandtypeofgrindingaffectsthetextureofthemeat).Thesestagesareidentifiedascontrolpoints
andqualitycontrolchecksaremadeatthesepointstocontroltheprocess.

Manufacturers therefore need to identify the control points in their process (using outside technical
assistanceifnecessary)andsetupaspecificationfortheoperatorstouse.Forexample,injammaking
the amount of pectin, fruit and sugar should be carefully controlled and weighing of ingredients is a
controlpoint(weightsofeachingredientspecifiedandeachcarefullyweighedout).Likewisetheacidityof
thejam,thesugarcontentafterboilingandthetemperatureoffillingareeachcontrolpoints.Themix
shouldbecheckedforcorrectacidity,thesugarcontentcheckedduringboilingusingathermometeror
refractometerandthetemperaturecheckedbeforefillingusingathermometer.
Checksatthecontrolpointscanthereforebeusedtocontroltheprocessandensurethateachbatchof
producthasasimilarquality.
1.1.3. QualityAssurance
Food manufacturers usually have two stated levels of quality for products marketed. One deals with a
product'squalityestablishedascompanypolicytomeetconsumerneedsandtheotherdealswithproduct
qualityintermsofmeetinggovernmentalregulationsandlaws.Brandedproductsmarketedbyacompany
are matters requiring the most careful attention by company management. It is a general rule that
companypolicyrelatingtobrandedproductqualityismorerigidthanthatrequiredtomeetgovernmental
regulations. Company policy statements generally include a statement demanding that all products
marketedmeetthelawsandregulationsofallfederal,stateandlocalgovernments.
TheNeed:TheepidemiologyoffoodbornehazardshasbeensummarizedbytheU.S.CentreforDisease
ControlTheiranalysisofwherefoodsaremishandledisgiveninthetablebelow.Whilethepercentageof
casestracedtofoodprocessingplantsislow(6%),onefactorycancreatewidespreaddifficultycompared
toahomeorarestaurant.
Theoutbreakstracedtofoodsfromfoodprocessingplantsarebecauseofinadequaterefrigerationaswell
as preparing foods in advance resulting in reinfection after the final heat processing, inadequate heat
processingandholdingfoodsattemperaturesthatfavorbacterialgrowth.
Table3PlaceswherefoodsweremishandledinsuchawaythatFoodbornediseasesoutbreaks
resulted
Place Number Percentage
Foodserviceestablishment 589 37
Homes 230 14
Foodprocessingplants 104 6
Unknownorunspecified 692 43
Total 1615 100
Processedfoodsthatreceivednoheattreatmentwereoftenmadeupofcontaminatedrawingredients.
The source of contamination with salmonellae was raw ingredients. In the few cases of contamination
withtrichinellae(increasinglyrareintheUnitedStates),theincomingporkwasinfested.
Heat process failures were common. Processes such as smoking, often failed to kill salmonellae or
trichinellae that were on or in the product. Clostridium botulinum cells multiplied and produced
neurotoxinsincannedorvacuumpackedfoodsaftertheirsporessurvivedimproperheatprocessing.
Postprocessingcontaminationwithsalmonellaeortrichinellaebycrosscontaminationfromrawproducts
to heat processed food by equipment or workers during subsequent handling was another significant
source. The frequency with which certain food processing plants have produced foods that have been
incriminated in foodborne disease outbreaks and the factors that led to contamination, survival or
multiplicationofpathogens.
Incomingrawmaterials(usuallyfoodsofanimalorigin)arerevealedashazardsintheprocessingofmeat,
poultry,eggs,bakedgoodscontainingeggs,milk,fishsaladsandconfections.
1.1.3.1. AModelProgramfortheFoodIndustry
Thedictionarydefinesqualityasanimportantcharacter,adegreeofexcellenceoranecessaryattribute.
AgroupofactivitiesdesignedtoassureastandardofexcellenceiscalledQualityControl.
Qualityorexcellenceinourfoodsupplyshouldbeanimportantconcerntoallfoodprocessors.Safetyand
wholesomenessarethemostimportantattributesoffoodquality.Thelackofqualityasitrelatestosafety
andwholesomenesscanresultinpersonalinjury,sicknessordeath.Foodborneillnessisanexampleof
sicknessorevendeathwhenunsafefoodsareproducedandeaten.

Certain foods or food productsaredefinedby regulationsor policiescalled standardsof identity.These

standardsofidentityaredefinitionsforaspecificfoodproducttoavoidconfusionormislabelingofsimilar
processedfoods.Milkisagoodexample.Thestandardforskimmilkislessthan1/2percentfat,whilethe
standardforwholemilkisatleast31/4percentfat.Qualitydefinedbyregulations,policiesorstandardsis
controlled by federal and state agencies. Failure to meet the degree of excellence defined by the
regulations, policies or standards of identity is illegal. The governmentcontrolled attributes of food are
another important measure of food quality. Therefore, the first category of food quality is critical
attributesandincludesfactorsthataffectsafety,wholesomenessorlegality.
Besides the critical attribute of safety, other properties of the food product should be used to define
overall quality. These other attributes are defined by industry, the processor or consumer demand. An
exampleofthisistheparticlesizeofflour,theshapeofafrankfurterorsausageorthecolorandflavor
ofsaladdressing.
Twoothercategoriesthatclassifyordescribeadditionalqualitycharacteristicsoffoodproductsarecalled
majorandminorattributes.
A major attribute is determined to be necessary for the food but not essential from a safety and legal
standpoint.Amajorattributecouldbefatcontentofhamburgermeatortheportionweightofgreenpeas
inafrozenprepareddinner.
A minor attribute is wanted but not absolutely essential to the product or not easily determined. For
instance,thedesirableflavorpropertiesoffoodsarehighlysubjective(dependentuponpeople),noteasily
measured and should be a minor attribute. However, flavor defects that can reduce sales should be
classifiedinthemajorcategory.

Figure2QualityinFoodBusiness.
The critical, major and minor attributes usually describe the key chemical, physical, and microbiological
properties of a food. The manufacturing process and many known or unknown factors will affect the
finished product. Therefore, a control program is the tool for the food processor to use to assure that
quality targets are met. Finally, to develop a quality control program, you must define expected food
qualityprovideasystemofqualitymeasurement,allowameansforactionnotreaction,helptominimize
costlyerrors,andreducetheriskoffoodsafetyandwholesomenessdefects.Whatisneededforaquality
controlprogram?Thefirststepisastrongcommitmentfrommanagement.Qualitycontrolmusthavethe
samepriorityastheprofitandlossstatementforthebusiness.
Quality doesn't cost, it pays. Beyond commitment, management must instill quality awareness
throughouttheorganizationalstructure.Asuccessfulqualityprogram needs people.Itisimportantthat
thefoodoperationpersonnelfunctionasateamandopenlycommunicatetoidentifyproblems,issuesor
opportunities. Once key elements of a quality control program are in place (management commitment,
qualityawareness,ateameffortandopencommunication),developanduseadditionaltools.
Thebasictoolsofqualitycontrolare:
IngredientSpecifications
ApprovedSupplierList
ProductFormulas
ProductStandards(Specifications)
ManufacturingProcedures
CriticalControlPointIdentification/SamplingProgram
InProcessAnalysis,RecordsandReportingPackagingSpecifications
LabelSpecifications
CleaningandSanitizingProgram
GoodManufacturingPractices(GMP)Requirements
RecallProgram

Warehousing,ShippingandReceivingProgram
LaboratoryAnalysis
1.1.3.2. IngredientSpecifications
Thequalityofthefinishedfoodproductaftermanufacturedependsonthe qualityoftherawmaterials
andingredients.Thebeststartingpointfordevelopingingredientspecificationsisthesupplier.Askfora
copyofthesupplier's ingredientspecifications.Reviewtheinformationandmodifythespecifications to
your needs. Discuss and settle specifications with the supplier. At times, specifications need to be
negotiatedwithsuppliers.Customspecificationsfromsuppliersarepossible.Theingredientspecifications
should be documented in a form consistent with the processor's needs. Ingredient specifications
documentshouldinclude:
NameofIngredient
InternalCodeNumber
EffectiveDate
BasicDescriptionofIngredient
SpecificationsCategorizedas:
Critical
Major
Minor
ActionandRejectLevels
IngredientStatement
The prepared ingredient specifications become a tool for control. The information under each heading
should be simple but informative. Figure 2 is an example of an ingredient specification. It is simple and
informative. The basic description is short and to the point. Critical specifications include two items
associatedwithpublicsafety.Criticalspecificationscanalsoincludefactorsinfluencingwholesomenessor
legality. Action levels are used as a reference point to identify a potential problem. If the ingredient
consistentlyreachesactionlevels,notifyyoursupplier.Therejectlevelisthepointofrefusingdeliveryof
the ingredient. The ingredient statement for the raw material is a reference point to assure that the
supplierhasnotchangedthematerial.Thefinalkeypointforingredientspecificationsisforthesupplierto
knowandagreetothecontentofthedocument.
Table4AnIngredientSpecificationDocument
GroundBlackPepper
CodeNumber:A001
Product Description: Ground black pepper shall be prepared from the dried, immature berries of
Pipernigrum.Thecolorcanvaryfromlightgraytoaspeckledblackgray.
EffectiveDate:Today'sdate
CriticalSpecifications: ActionLevel RejectLevel
Salmonella None Positivein100
E.Coli None Positive
MajorSpecifications: ActionLevel RejectLevel
Granulation 4.5% >5%
(retainedonaU.S>#35sieve)
VolatileOil 2.5% <2%
Moisture 11.5% >12%
Color lightgraytoblackgray offwhitetolightgray
Yeast/Mold <100pergram >100pergram
MinorSpecifications:None
IngredientStatement:GroundBlackPepper
1.1.3.2.1. ApprovedSupplierList
Foreachingredient,anapprovedsupplierlistshouldexistandbeavailabletoindividualsresponsiblefor
purchasingandqualitycontrol.Intheory,morethanonesupplierperingredientisdesirable.Agoodtarget

isthreesuppliersperingredient.Asupplierisaningredientmanufacturer,abrokeroradistributor.When
necessary,identifyboththemanufactureranddistributorontheapprovedsupplierlist.
Approveallsourcesofsupplyonlyaftercarefulevaluationandreviewoftheirperformanceintheproduct.
Forapprovingalternateingredientsourcestwokeyquestionsare:
Doestheingredientmeettheexistingorneededspecifications?
Doesthenewingredientprovidethesameordesiredfinishedproduct?
At times, only one acceptable supply source may be available because of special requirements. In this
case,alternatesourcesshouldbelistedforemergencypurposes.Theemergencysourceoftheingredient
should be one that has been tested and best approaches all specifications. The approved supplier list
shouldcontainthefollowinginformation:
IngredientNameandInternalCode
SupplierName,Address,KeyContactandPhoneNumber
TradeNameofIngredient
SupplierCodeNumber
1.1.3.2.2. ProductFormulation/Recipe
Proprietary formulas are important. For each food product, written documentation of the formula or
recipeshouldexistandbeavailableforusebyselectedindividuals.Theformulasshouldbeuseddailyasa
means to assure consistency between batches, lots and even days of production. Manufacturing
personnel need to know the recipe to assure that the product is formulated correctly. For highly
confidential formulas, the production worker does not need all the details. A simplified recipe can be
provided to assure that the secret stays a secret. The individual formula sheets can have a variety of
formats.Keyaspectsofanyformuladocumentare:
Nameoftheproduct.
Internalcodenumber.
Effectivedate.
Listingoftheingredients.
Listingoftheingredientcode.
Percentageformula.
Batchformula.
Batchyield.
Ingredientstatement.
Additional information that can be part of a formula document are packaging, lot size, regulatory
constraints,netweight,packagecountperbatch,etc.Beflexiblewiththeformatsincetheformulamay
purposefullybemodifiedandthekindofinformationneededmaychange.Ifnothingelse,thebatchsize
maychangeduetobusinessgrowthordecline.
Figure3isanexampleofaformulasheet.
Table5AFoodProductFormulaDocument
ChiliWithoutBeans
CodeNumber:B001
EffectiveDate:Today'sDate
Ingredients Code %Formula BatchFormula(lbs.)
Beef,75%lean A002 40.00 240.0
TomatoPaste,32%T.S. A003 11.74 70.4
Water A004 40.00 240.0
SpicePremix C001 3.93 23.6
CornStarch A005 4.33 26.0
100.0 600.0
SpicePremix C100
ChiliPowder A006 31.75 7lb.8oz.
Salt A007 21.17 5lb.
HVP A008 19.05 4lb.8oz.
Sugar A009 12.70 3lb.
Cumin,grounded A010 6.35 1lb.8oz.

Onionpowder A011 5.85 1lb.6oz.

Oregano,grounded A012 2.37 9oz.
GarlicPowder A013 0.76 3oz.
100.00 23lbs.10oz.
Batchyield:600lbs.
FinishedProductYield:595 lbs.
Ingredient Statement: Beef, Water, Tomato Paste, Corn Starch, Chili Powder, Salt,
HydrolyzedVegetableProtein,Sugar,Spice,OnionPowder,GarlicPowder.
1.1.3.2.3. ProductStandards
A key tool to assure quality in a finished processed food is the product standard document. Product
standards definethe food by physical, chemical andmicrobiological characteristics. Appearance,aroma,
flavorandtexturecanandshouldalsobeconsideredforproductstandards.
Physicalcharacteristicsincludesize,shape,dimensions,weight,volume,countperpackageorcontainer,
presence of fines, or any other special features which definetheparticular food.Moisture, fat,protein,
ash,fiberandcarbohydratesarethebasicchemicalcharacteristics.Additionalchemicalcriterionsuchas
salt, sodium, cholesterol, etc., are used to chemically define food products. Chemical standards are
necessary when using nutritional labeling or making label claims for low sodium, higher fiber or other
nutritionalfacts.
Microbiological standards will be dependent upon the specific food item. First consider food poisoning
organisms when developing product standards for a quality control program. Food safety is the
responsibilityoftheprocessorIfthefoodproductwillsupportthegrowthofapotentialfoodpoisoning
organism, identify the particular organism in the critical standards category as opposed to a major or
minor standard. Some typical food poisoning organisms are Salmonella, Clostridium botulinum,
Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium perfringens. Other microbiological standards such as a standard
plate count (SPC), yeast or mold may be appropriate for classification as major or minor standards. For
manyproducts,especiallythosesubjectedtocookingorotherthermalprocesses,useColiformsandE.coli
analysestoshowandcontrolpostprocesscontaminationofcookedfoods.Considermicroorganismsthat
cancausefoodspoilageinaparticularfoodproductwhenestablishingproductstandards.Yeastandmold
countsare essentialtocontrolprograms involvingfood itemswith loworrestrictedmoisturelevelslike
flour or cereals. A simple standard plate count is always a good general indicator for tracking bacterial
qualityandshouldbeconsideredatleastaminorcriterion.
Thesensorypropertiesofafoodproductarekeystotheconsumeracceptance.Flavor,texture,aromaand
appearance are criterion that should be defined to assure that the product meets design expectations.
Qualitative measures of sensory properties can be costly due to requirements for sophisticated
equipment.Qualitativetestingusingtastepanels,isanalternativetoquantitativemeasurements.Makea
sensoryevaluationforflavor,odorandtextureapartofaqualitycontrolprogram.
Establish a reject level for each product standard along with acceptable methodology. Base minimum
reject levels upon regulatory requirements and practical production experience. If a method of
measurementisnonexistent,thenthestandardisnonexistent.Thelastelementtoproductstandardsisa
simplestatementofingredientsasitwillappearonthelabel.
Table6 FoodProductStandardsFormat
GravyandBeefTips
CodeNumber:B002
EffectiveDate:Today'sDate
ProductCode:1743
CriticalStandards Standard Method
MeatContent minimum of 35% meat (fresh ProcessDate
basis)
Salmonella negativein100g #100
C.perfringens <10/g #101
Staphylococcus (coagulase <10/g #102
positive)
MajorStandards

Meatchunkssize 3/8"to5/8"chunks #200

Gravycolor (#3,4or5) ColorChart
Coliforms <10/g #103
E.coli <10/g #104
MinorStandards
GravyTexture a smooth consistency & free of #300
lumps
ProductFlavor amildmeatyflavor&aroma #301
StandardPlateCount <25,000/g #105
Ingredient Statement: Water, beef, flour, tomato paste, corn starch, salt, HVP, spices,
sugar.

Figure3ManufacturingProcedureforUsebyProductionandQualityControlPersonnel
1.1.3.3. ManufacturingProcedures
Foreachproduct,documentthemethodoffabricationorprocessingprocedurestoeaseduplicationfrom
lottolot,shifttoshiftanddaytoday.Asimplewaytoapproachthisisaclearandconcise"cookbook"

approach.Keystepsintheprocesswhichcanimpactuponyield,qualityorproductionefficiencyshouldbe
highlighted.Examplesofkeyprocessstepsmightbe"mixfor3minutesbeforeaddingspices"or"cooktoa
minimum internal temperature of 145 degrees F." Several key points to consider when identifying
important processing operations are time, temperature, equipment required, order of addition for
ingredientsandweight.

Figure4CriticalControlPointsfromaFreshCucumberProcess
Manufacturing procedures also should include special instructions to the line worker or quality control
personnel. An example instruction could be, "cross check" the net weight of five packages every hour.
Figure5showsasimplemanufacturingproceduretobeusedbyproductionandqualitycontrolpersonnel.
Once prepared, make manufacturing procedures or portions of the procedures available to production
employees.Usethecodumentasanemployeetrainingtool.
Evenwiththebestprocedures,employeeswillfinda"better"waytomanufacturetheproduct.Beopen
minded. If the new way is better, use it; if not, explain why. The key is for the employee to follow
instructions.
1.1.3.4. InProcessRecords
Itisimportanttoknowwhatishappeningwiththeproductandprocessduringmanufacturing.Inprocess
record keeping is a way of obtaining the information. Both quality control and production personnel
shouldparticipateinmaintainingadailymanufacturinglog.Thespecificproductweight,temperature,size
andshape,ingredientusage,productyield,scraporwaste,materialbalanceandreworkareexamplesof
measurementsmadeduringthemanufacturingprocess.Basethekindsofinprocessmeasurementsused
ineachoperationuponwhatiscalledCriticalControlPoints.Acriticalcontrolpointisastepintheprocess
orinproductformulationwheresmalldifferences,changesormistakescancausethefinishedproductto
beahealthhazard,illegalorcostlytothebusiness.Criticalcontrolpointsareidentifiable(Figure6).Some
critical control points are defined by regulation when public health or product identity are of concern.
Cooking temperatures, pasteurization time and temperature or allowable levels of ingredients are
processingvariablesoftentimesdefinedbyregulation.Criticalcontrolpointsmaybeselfimposedbecause
of desired label statements on the part of the processor. Net weight is one example while nutritional
labeling is another. The cost of a product can be increased by simple employee mistakes. In this case,
criticalcontrolpointsinprocessingsimplyrelatetothoseprocessingstepsthatinfluenceyieldorinferior
product.

Inprocess record keeping can be a manual or automatic operation and in some cases both. Employee
participationinrecordkeepingprovidesanopportunityforprideinworkmanship.Inprocessrecordsalso
areameansofmakingadjustmentstotheproductorprocessandpreventingsubstandardproduct.
Turninallinprocessrecordstosupervisorymanagementforreviewattheendofashiftorworkingday.
Thesupervisoryreviewallowsanopportunitytoidentifyproblemareasandtomakechangestoprevent
reoccurrence. In some food processing operations, like a poultry or red meat facility, these records are
availabletotheonsiteUSDAinspector.
1.1.3.5. PackagingandLabeling
Aqualitycontrolprogramshouldincludepackagingandlabeling.Oneofthefirstitemsthatinfluencethe
consumeristheappearanceofthepackageandthelabel.Twobasicpackagesaretypicallynecessaryfor
foodproducts.Theprimarypackageenclosesthefoodandhasdirectcontactwiththeproduct.Afilm,jar,
bottle, carton or box are some of the common primary packages. The secondary package is used to
assemble multiple packaged food items for shipment. The shipper or secondary package provides
protection,reduceshandlingofeachindividualbottleorcartonandisnecessaryforefficientmovementof
goodstotheconsumer.Somepackagedfoods,particularlymicrowaveableproducts,havethreepackage
components:thepouch,thecartonandtheshippingcase.
Poorpackagingorlabelingcancreatenegativeimpressionsrelativetoproductquality.Thisistrueforboth
simpleandcomplexpackagesorlabels.Packagingservestoprotectthefoodproductandallowsshipment
ofmultipleunits.Itemsforpackagingconsiderationare:
A statement from the supplier that the packaging is made of FDA and/or USDA approved
materials.Thepackagecompositionshouldbelistedonthestatement.
Dimensionsofcarton,jar,bottleorbox.
Strengthofthecontainerandsuitabilityforstacking,freezingormicrowaving.
Strength of seals or fit of the lid. For heat sealed packages, the temperature requirements for
sealingarecritical.
Ability to restrict or allow air flow, moisture or light. Permeability, thickness, flexibility and
temperatureresistancearespecificcriteriainthiscategory.
Graphics(illustration,pictureorvisualdesigns).
Labelformatandlegalrequirements.
Packagingmustbeselectedordesignedbasedupontheparticularfooditem.Freshfruitsandvegetables
requirepackagingthatprovidesprotectionwhileallowingairflowforpropercoolingandrespiration.Dairy
productsrequirepackagingtoinhibitlightpenetrationandexcessiveoxygenbecauseofthepotentialfor
flavordefectsduetooxidation,rancidityortheabsorptionofforeignflavor.Afinalexample,theteabag
mustprovidepermeabilitytomoisture.
Packagegraphics,bywordsorpictures,definethecontentsandserveaspointofpurchaseinformation.
Thelawrequiresproductname,ingredientstatementandmanufacturingordistributionlocationtobeon
thepackage.Governmentregulationslistmanyrequirementsforpackagingandevenextendtospecifying
the size or type or printing. Pictures or other graphics are optional and serve to inform the consumer.
Overall graphics must represent the contents of the container so mislabeling or misbranding does not
occur.Sometypicalpackageandlabeldefectsaresmears,scuffs,colorvariations,brokensealsleaks,short
fillandproductinfestationorspoilage.Thedefectscanbefoundinbothsingleunitpacksandmultipacks
(shippers).
Itistoafoodprocessor'sadvantagetodeveloppackagingandlabelspecificationsalongthesameformat
asingredientspecifications.
Materialsofconstructionareparticularlyimportantwheredirectcontactwiththefoodisinvolved.Certain
chemicalsorforeignmaterialsfrompackagingmaterialscancontaminatethefoodproduct.Thepackaging
material must meet FDA and/or USDA requirements. Use a reputable packaging supplier. The
manufacturerofthepackageisthemainsourceforpackagespecifications.Localdistributorscanobtain
theneededinformationfromthemanufacturer.
Dimensionsofthepackage,bothinnerandouter,aredefinedtopreventproblemssuchasunderorover
fill, shifting within the package, spillage or breakage of the container. Lack of control can be costly for
productloss,giveawayorlostsales.
Thestrengthofthecontainerandthesealsorthefitofthelidareimportantconsiderations.Failurewith
regard to these items can result in crushing, breakage or spillage. Most important is the potential for
physicalormicrobiologicalcontaminationwhenapoorsealofimproperlyfittingcapisapackagedefect.

1.1.3.6. GoodManufacturingPracticesandSanitation
Federalregulationsdefinespecificprocedurestominimizethecontaminationoffoodproductsbypeople
in manufacturing, processing packaging and warehousing facilities. The regulations are called Good
ManufacturingProcedures(GMPs).GMPsareanintegralpartofqualitycontrol.Itistheresponsibilityof
food business management and ownership to know, practice, communicate and ensure that GMPs are
carriedoutbyemployees.AnoverviewofGMPsisasfollows:
Individualswithcommunicablediseasescannotworkinareaswherefoodcontaminationispossible.This
includesindividualswithboils,soresorinfectedwounds.
Foodhandlersmustfollowgoodpersonalhygienepractices.
Wearprotectiveclothing.
Cleanandsanitizehandsandgloves.
Nojewelry.
Usegloves(nonabsorbent)whenthejobrequireshandcovering.
Useeffectivehairrestraintsandcovering.
Eat,drinkorsmokeonlyindesignatedareas.
Trainemployeeseffectivelyinhygiene,sanitationandpestcontrol.
Along with GMPs, a cleaning and sanitizing program is essential. Cleaning and sanitizing should address
threebasicareas:
1. Exteriorfacilityandgrounds.
2. Internalfacilityincludingfloors,walls,ceilingsandventilationsystem.
3. Equipmentandallfoodcontactareas.
Acleaningandsanitizingprogrampreventsthebuildupofdirtanddebris,maintainsequipmentingood
repair,preventsgrowthandcontaminationfrommicroorganismsandpreventstheentryandharboringof
insects and other pests. The quality program should: outline specific activities to be performed, any
corrective measures, and schedules for cleaning and sanitizing, identify approved cleaning compounds,
sanitizersandbaitsanddefineastandard.Keepandmaintainproperrecords.
1.1.3.7. Warehousing
Warehousing involves three activities (receiving, storage and shipping) that are included in a quality
control program. The receiving operation is the foundation for processing finished food products of a
designatedquality.Guidelinesforincomingshipmentsare:
Besurethestoragespaceiscleanandconsistentwiththefirstinfirstoutrotationprinciple.FIFOorfirst
infirstoutrotationistheremovalofinventoryfromstorageinasystematicwaywhereearlierstockitems
areusedfirst.Thiscanbeaccomplishedbydatecodingtheinventoryaccordingtothedateofreceipt.
Beforeunloading,inspecttheconditionofthecarrier.Measuretemperature,observeandnotefoulodors,
spills,andinsects.Forrefrigeratedandfrozenproducts,temperatureiscritical.
Observetheconditionofthecontainersfordamagewhichcouldbeasourceofcontamination.
Collect random samples from the shipment and analyze or evaluate the samples in relation to
specifications.
Afterunloading,inspecttheconditionofthecarriersandnoticetheconditionofthefloorsandwalls.Take
noteofanydirt,filthorresiduesandevidenceofpreviousspills.
Donotacceptfood,ingredientorpackagingshipmentscombinedwithchemicalsorpoisonoussubstances.
Iftheshipmentdoesnotmeetspecifications,bepreparedtorejectallorpartoftheload.
Minimizedocktime.Moverefrigeratedorfrozenitemsdirectlyintostorage.
Datecodeallincomingshipmentsdirectlyonthecontainerorpalletloadforstockrotation.
Improper storage can adversely impact upon the quality of materials, ingredients and finished product.
Storageinanorderlymannerunderproperconditionsoftemperatureandhumidityisessentialtoquality.
Certainsuppliesoringredientsmayrequiresegregation.
Rotatetheinventory.Ifnotproperlymanageditemsmayruininstorageareas.
Shippingisthefinalstepinwhichafoodbusinesscanhavedirectcontrolonproductquality.Shipitemson
afirstinfirstoutbasisandusethesameguidelinesinshippingthatyoufollowedinreceiving.
1.1.3.8. LaboratoryAnalysis
The establishment of specifications and standards is meaningless without laboratory analysis or an
evaluationprogram.Laboratoryanalysisisthephaseinwhichaqualitycontrolprogramisimplemented

afterproductisproduced.Asamplingplan,alongwithananalysisfrequency(timescheduledefininghow
oftenanalysesaremade),isabsolutelynecessary.
Compilethemethodsof analysisusedinthelaboratoryinaspecialworkingnotebook.Microbiological,
chemicalandphysicalanalysesoffoodareavailableinthebook,officialMethodsofAnalysis,publishedby
the Association of official Analytical Chemists. For some analyses, very simple methods are used in the
laboratory.Byexample,forfruitsorvegetables,colormeasurementsandphysicaldefectsaresometimes
determinedbycomparingtheproducttoachart.Othermethods like aproteinorfatanalysisaremore
complicatedandrequirespecializedequipment.
Microbiological methods performed on product whether it is poultry, red meat, dairy, vegetable or
seafoodalsorequiresspecialinstrumentsandequipment.Incubatorsandanautoclavearenecessaryin
microbiological analyses. An incubator is used to control temperature conditions and allow bacteria to
growsogroupsofbacteria(colonies)canbecounted.Anautoclaveislikeasteamcooker.Thispieceof
equipmentisusedtosterilizelaboratoryglasswareanddestroybacteria,yeastormoldafterananalysis.
Destructionofthemicroorganismsisimportantsosafedisposalispossible.
Performalllaboratoryanalysesinaroomawayfromtheprocessingarea.Attimes,asmallfoodplantmay
nothaveaseparatearea.Therefore,therearethreewaystoobtainlaboratoryanalysisresults:
1. Inhouselab.
2. Outsideindependentlab.
3. Combinationofinhouseandindependentlab.
Appoint a qualified individual to conduct analyses, report the results and manage the job of quality
control. Have laboratory tests results recorded and compared to the specifications or standards.
Deviationsfromstandardsshouldbecommunicatedsothatadditionalactioncanbetakenifnecessary.
Manymethodsexistforthelaboratoryanalysisoffood.Examplesofsomemethodsare:
Standardplatecount,amicrobiologicalmethodusedtocountthenumbersofbacteriacontained
inaproduct.
Yeastandmoldcount,amicrobiologicalmethodusedtocountthenumberofyeastandmoldin
food.
Achemicalmethod(pH)whichdeterminesifafoodisacidic,neutralorbasic.
Moisture,achemicalmethodtodeterminetotalwater.
Protein,achemicalmethodtodeterminetheprotein.
Fat,achemicalmethodtodeterminetotalfat.
1.1.3.9. RecallPlan
Product recall is having to bring back product from the distribution system. Every food business is
susceptibletopotentialproductrecall.Thepublicimageofbusinessescanbedestroyedduringarecallifa
wellorganizedplanisnotimplemented.
1.1.3.9.1. Whywouldaproductberecalled?
Productsarerecoveredfromdistributionasaresultofvoluntaryactionbyabusinessfirmorinvoluntary
actionduetoFoodandDrugAdministrative(FDA)action.Thebasicreasonsforrecallarebestdescribed
bytheFDArecallclassifications:
CLASS 1 As a result of a situation where there is reasonable probability that the use or exposure to a
defectiveproductwillcauseaseriouspublichealthhazardincludingdeath.
CLASS II As a result of a situation where the use of or exposure to a defective product may cause a
temporaryadversehealthhazardorwhereseriousadversepublichealthhazard(death)isremote.
CLASSIIIAsaresultofasituationwhereuseoforexposuretoadefectiveproductwillnotcauseapublic
healthhazard.
An example of Class I product recall would be contamination with a toxic substance (chemical or
microbiological); A Class II product recall is where product is contaminated with food infection
microorganisms,whileaClassIIIexampleiswhereproductdoesnotmeetastandardofidentity.
Becauseofrecallpotential,a foodbusiness firmmustbepreparedfortheworstsituation.Arecallplan
shouldbedevelopedandcommunicatedtoappropriateindividualswithinthefirmbeforeanemergency
arises.Theplanshouldinclude:
An effective product coding system. Coding should be simple, yet broad enough to minimize
financialloss.Dateofmanufacture,datecodeplusshiftcode,lotcodeorvariouscombinationsare
possible.

A record keeping system to identify and associate specific product, product code, carrier and
destination.
Alist ofkey personnel and their assignedresponsibilities for a recall.Selectkeypersonnel from
each of the following areas: production, quality control, marketing, shipping/receiving and legal
counsel.
Acommunication systemwithinthe firmandasystemintothedistributionmarketingshipping/
receiving channels and legal counsel. A communication system iscritical to minimizerumor and
theexaggerationormisstatementofthefactsinandoutofthebusiness.
Establishedproceduresforevaluatingandcorrectingsituations.
Agoodrecallprogramislikeaninsurancepolicy.Theprogramwillnotpreventanadversesituationfrom
occurring.Itwill,however,helpthebusinessandpersonnelprepareforapossiblerecall.
Food quality is an expectation of consumers. To meet this consumer need, every food business should
develop and use an effective quality control program. Failure to meet consumer demand can cause a
declineinproductsalesandprofitability.Amajorproductfailurecantotallydestroyabusiness.Startor
update qualitycontrol practices now,andcontinue to buildthe program forthe future.Incasethere is
doubt,asktwoquestions:
1. Arewedoingthingsright?
2. Arewedoingtherightthings?
2. Principlesandfunctionsof
2.1. QualityControl,
Thevalidityofdiagnostictestresultsproducedineachlaboratoryisentirelydependentonthemeasures
employedbefore,during,andaftereachassay.Consistencyintheproductionofgoodresultsrequiresan
overallprogramthatincludesqualityassurance,qualitycontrol,andqualityassessment.Theaimofquality
controlissimplytoensurethattheresultsaregenerated.Manyvariablescanaffectthequalityofresults
Theeducationalbackgroundandtrainingofthelaboratorypersonnel
Theconditionofthespecimens
Thecontrolsusedinthetestruns
Theinterpretationoftheresults
Thetranscriptionofresults
Thereportingofresults

Table7DefinitionsPertainingtoQuality
Quality QCreferstothemeasuresthatmustbeincludedduringeachassaytoverifythatthetest
Control isworkingproperly.
Quality QA is defined as the overall program that ensures that the final results reported by the
Assurance laboratoryarecorrect.
Quality Qualityassessment(alsoknownasproficiencytesting)isameanstodeterminethequality
Assessment of the results generated by the laboratory. It is usually an external evaluation of the
laboratory's performance. Internal quality assessment programs can also be instituted.
Quality assessment is a challenge to the effectiveness of the QA and QC programs
generated by the test are correct. However, quality assurance is concerned with much
more:thattherighttestiscarriedoutontherightspecimen,andthattherightresultand
rightinterpretationisdeliveredtotherightpersonattherighttime"
2.2. PrincipalandFunctionsofQualityAssurance
Quality Assurance (QA) is the process to verify that the quality of work performed is actually what was
reported by quality control. Quality assurance is an audit function, used to verify that quality control is
being performed and performed properly. It may include review of QC documentation or conducting
actualtestingonaspotorperiodicbasis.QualityassuranceistypicallyperformedbytheOwnerorathird
partyinspectorontheOwnersbehalf.
Insimpleterms,thecontractorisfullyresponsibleforeveryaspectoftheprojectfromtheequipmentand
materials,andexperienceandtrainingofpersonnel,tothequalityofthefinalproduct.

Qualitycontrolbythecontractorismeanttoprovideinprocessverificationthatthecleaningandpainting
isbeingperformingasdesignedtoprovideaqualityfinalproduct.
QualityassurancebytheOwnerismeanttoverifythatthequalitycontrolimplementedbythecontractor
meetstherequirementsofthespecification,tofurtherassurethataqualityfinalproductwillresult.
QC is a fulltime requirement and has responsibilities for every aspect. QA can be full or part time or
performed at specific stages to verify the adequacy of the contractors QC. When the Owner does not
performQAorprovideslimitedQAinspection,halfofthetotalqualitymanagementprocessislost.Both
QCandQAarenecessarycomponentstoverifyingspecificationcomplianceandqualityworkmanship,but
the presence of the Owner (or third party inspector) performing QA on a project does not relieve the
contractoroftheresponsibilityofperformingQC.QCismorethantheperformanceanddocumentationof
inspections. The quality control process includes procedures for verifying that specifications, product
information, and revisions are communicated to the job site; verification that the equipment and
standardsemployedtoperformQCarefunctional,correctandtraceable;andproceduresfordocumenting
andresolvingdeviations,nonconformanceandcorrectiveactions.
2.2.1. WhatIsQualityAssuranceGoals,Functions,Benefits
Beforeventuringintothegoalsandfunctionsofqualitycontrol,itisimportanttoanswerthequestion
whatisqualityassurance?
To put it simply, assurance of quality encompasses a series of planned steps necessary to provide
businesseswithconfirmationofexpectedqualityfromtheirproductsorservices.Today,mosttopnotch
companiesemploytheservicesofqualityguaranteeprofessionalstoensurethattheircompanycontinues
tomaintainhighstandardsforalltheirproductsandservices.
Qualityispopularlydefinedasgettingthingsrighttheveryfirsttime. Thisdefinitionaptlydescribesthe
goalofqualityguaranteetoohelpingcompaniesavoidanyflawedproductsduringthemanufacturingor
developmentphasesandlaunchingproductsofthefinestquality.
Tofullyanswerthequestionwhatisqualityassurance,itisimportanttoaddthatqualitycontrolprocesses
are not confined to any one department of a business. It plays a vital role throughout the phases of
designing, development, manufacture, installation and servicing. Quality monitoring and assurance thus
helpsmaintainconsistentqualitywhilegeneratingconsiderablesavingsincostandtime.
2.2.1.1. EnerSysAnexampleofaCompany
2.2.1.2. QualityObjectives
Tostrivefortheupgradationofthetechnologytomeetcustomerrequirementsineverchanging
market
To upgrade the technology knowledge of all STPI personnel through continuous improvement
training
Toprovidestateofartdatacommunicationservicesasperacceptableinternationalstandards
Toprovidecomprehensiveserviceincludingprojectapprovals,importattestation,softwareexport
certificationetc.,inatimeboundmanner
Achievingcustomersatisfactionthroughthecombinedeffortsofplanningtheinfrastructureand
executingtheprojectsthroughdedicatedworkforce
2.2.1.3. CustomerFocus
Customers are the center of EnerSys's focus. They set the standards for performance, reliability, and
service.OurCustomersdefinethequalityweareexpectedtodeliver.
2.2.1.4. Leadership
OurgoalatEnerSysistoeffectivelyinterviewandhirequalifiedcandidatesintoourorganizationandthen
empowerthemtomakemeasurableimpactsonourcompany'sperformance.
Our corporate culture also believes in identifying key employees and providing to them pathways for
advancementthroughtheuseofsuccessionplanning.Whenwedolooktotheoutsidetohelpbuildour
team,ourextensiveinterviewprocessallowsustoidentifyacandidateskeystrengths,thatenablesusto
properly position them within our company to best utilize their education, past experience, and critical
thinking abilities. At EnerSys, Quality is the responsibility of every employee. Every employee must be
involved,motivated,andknowledgeableforustoremainsuccessful.

2.2.1.5. SystemApproachtoManagement
Byacknowledgingthatourbusinessiscomprisedofagroupofinterrelatedprocesses,weshall identify,
understandandultimatelymanagetheminasystematicmannerthatwillimproveourcompany'sresults
anddriveustomeetallourobjectives.
2.2.1.6. InvolvementofPeople
Ourassociatesaretheexpertsintheirrelativeareas,byrelyingonthemtomakedatadrivendecisions,we
not only empower our employees, but enable the corporation to benefit from their respective talents.
Creatingaworkenvironmentwhenassociatesarevaluedandcontributetotheteamisavitalfactortoour
success.
2.2.1.7. ProcessApproach
EnerSys iscommittedtomanaging ourbusiness as process. With thisknowledge, wecanfocusoneach
stepanditsinteractionwiththosedownstreamofit,inotherwordsutilizetheinput/outputmodel.Taking
this process approach enables us to ensure that nothing is overlooked and that there is seamless
executionofallactivities.
2.2.1.8. MutuallyBeneficialSupplierRelationships
WeatEnerSysstronglybelievethatoursuppliersaretheexpertsintheirrespectivefieldsandtherefore,
are best qualified to identify areas for improvement. Our close working relationships with our suppliers
arecrucialtothelongtermsuccessofourorganization.Whenevaluatingpotentialsuppliers,wenotonly
lookatthequalityoftheproductsorserviceprovidedintermsofFirstPassYieldandOnTimeDelivery,
weextendtheevaluationtoincludecompetitiveposition,price,valueanalysis,technicalcompetenceand
support,leadtimes,andcustomerfocus.
Byinvolvingoursuppliersatallstagesofandsettingclearexpectationsforquality,costanddelivery,we
canworktoprovidesetting
2.2.1.9. FactualApproachtoDecisionMaking
DataisthebasisforanydecisionmadewithinEnerSys,period.Withoutconsideringcriticalinformationwe
cannotensureeffectiveschoiceswillbemadetoachievetheorganizationsobjectives
2.2.1.10. ContinualImprovement
Inorderforanycompanytosucceedintoday'scompetitivemarketplace,theymustcontinuetolookfor
areas of improvement. Through comprehensive audits (internal, external, customer, and supplier) we
continuallystriveto identify areas when improvementmay beneeded. Ourdocumented corrective and
preventive action system have proven to be an effective tool in driving continuous improvement
throughoutallareasofEnerSys.
2.2.1.11. AreasforQualityObjectives
Continual Reduction in cycle time of processes, time for responses to customers, rejection,
downtimeoftheplant.
ContinualImprovementin Qualityof Identificationof customer requirements,quality of specs
for purchased products, relations with suppliers for inventory control and just in time
procurement,yields,ontimedelivery,designsofprocessesandproducts.
OurEnvironmentalObjectivesandtargetsinsomeofthefollowingareas,
AreasforEnvironmentalObjectivesandTargets:
Continual reduction in Pollution levels, resource consumption, use of hazardous and non
biodegradablematerials,wastages.
Continual improvement in house keeping, safety levels and are committed to review them
periodically.
Thispolicystatementisdisplayedatvariousplacesinourorganisationforthebenefitofallstakeholders.
Throughtraining programs andpractice, our peoplearemade to understandthe meaningof thispolicy
statement.
2.2.2. WhatMakesQualityControlImportant?
As market dynamics keep changing constantly, it is important to pay attention to the key business
processes that arenecessarytokeep acompanyrunning profitably.If acompanyplanstoimplement a

selfdesignedqualityimprovementprogram,therearemanythingstowatchoutforotherthanjustwhat
isqualityassurance.
Mostoften,suchqualityimprovementprogramsonlyaimtogeneratemoreincomeinsteadoffocusingon
improving processes related to generating this income. This is exactly why it is a good idea to assign
quality professionals to take care of all qualityrelated issues in a company. Being experts in all
departments,theseprofessionalswillbeabletooffervaluableadviceonimprovingstandardsofquality.
Perhapsthemostimportantoutcomeof employingaqualitychecking and assurancecompanyisthatit
guaranteestokeepthecompanywellaheadinthecompetition.Continuousreviewingandmodifyingof
businessoperationsformtheprimaryfunctionsofthisvitalsegmentofwhatisqualitycontrol.Thequality
monitoring experts then implement incremental changes to boost ongoing quality enhancement
programs. Easy to implement and measure, these incremental changes involve devising methods to
reduceproductionoroperatingcostsandimprovingtimeefficiencyofeverysingleprocess.
2.2.3. BenefitingBusinesses
Anongoingqualityenhancementprocessisacrucialcomponenttoimprovebusinessoperationsandstaff
moraleforalmosteverybusiness.Businessesthatcontinuouslystrivetoimprovetheirstandardsofquality
and customer service obviously gain a competitive edge. Today, most successful businesses feature
excellentqualitycontrolsystemsthatareregularlyreviewedforusefultipsonimprovingbusiness.Infact,
evenbuddingbusinessesnewtowhatisqualityassuranceareincreasinglyoptingtoincorporatequality
guaranteepoliciestoremaincompetitive.
Utilizingtheservicesofaqualitymonitoringcompanycanimprovethequalityofcorebusinessprocesses
in the long run. Even if the staff of the company is not directly involved in the quality enhancement
programs,theywillsoonbegintonoticethepositivechangeshappeningaroundthem.Fromtheseefforts
to enhance quality, the staff understands that the management is genuinely interested in improving
business operations and doing everything possible to achieve their goal. This spurs the staff to work
harder,performbetterandthusincreasesalesandrevenue.
QAincludessuchfactorsas:
Reportingresultsinatimelymanner
Beingsurethattheresultsarereportedtotheappropriateindividual
Makingsurethatthelaboratoryisfunctioninginthemostefficientway
Includingacontinuingeducationprogramforlaboratoryworkers
Evaluationoflaboratorypersonneltoidentifyareasforimprovement
Usingthemostreliabletests
Reviewingtranscriptionalmeasures
Verifyingfinalreports
2.2.4. QualityControl:MonitoringtheTestingProcess
Asmentionedpreviously,QCreferstothosemeasuresthatmustbeincludedduringeachassayinorderto
verifythatthetestisworkingproperly.Thefollowingitemsareessentialelementsofqualitycontrolthat
mustbeperformedduringeveryassay:EachrunmustincludeonefullsetofcontrolsThecontrolsforeach
testrunmustyieldresultswithinthelimitsofthemanufacturer'scriteriaforacceptabilityandvalidityof
therun.AlltestkitsmustbeusedbeforetheexpirationdatetoensurevalidresultsPhysicalparametersof
thetestsuchasincubationtimeandtemperaturemustbefollowedtoensureproperperformance
Ordinarily,eachtestkithasasetofpositiveandnegativecontrolthatistobeincludedineachtestrun.
These controls are considered to be internal controls, while any other controls included in the run are
referred to as external controls. Internal controls are essential for QC measures for each run and are
intendedforuseonlywiththelotnumberofthecorrespondingtestkit.Externalcontrolscanbeincluded
onaruntomonitorconsistentperformance,lottolotvariationbetweenkits,andtoserveasanindicator
ofassayperformanceonsamplesthatareborderlinereactors.
External controls, or otherwise known as internal quality control (IQC) specimens are used in internal
quality control programs, whereby IQC samples are included in serological assays. The IQC samples are
thenevaluatedagainstWestgardrules,wherebytheIQCvaluesareplottedinaShewharttypechart(this
may be in terms of arbitrary units or IQC o.d./Cutoff o.d.). Westgard rules define specific performance
limitsandaredesignedtodetectbothrandomandsystematicerrors.ofthesixcommonlyusedWestgard
rules,threearewarningrulesandtheotherthreearemandatoryrules.Thelatter,ifbrokenshouldresult
intherejectionofthetestrun.

2.2.4.1. WarningRules
1. Thecontrolvalueexceedsthemeanby2s.d.(p<.005)
2. Twoconsecutivevaluesexceedthetargetvalueonthesamesideofthemeanby2s.d.Thismay
indicatethepresenceofsystematicerrors.
3. Fourconsecutivecontrolvaluesexceedthesamelimit.Thisagainindicatesthepossiblepresence
ofsystematicerrorsandmayindicatetheneedtoperforminstrumentmaintenanceorequipment
calibration.
2.2.4.2. Mandatoryrules
1. The control value exceeds the target value by 3.s.d. (p<0.01:99.7% of values should lie within 3
s.d.)Thisindicatesthattheassayrunisoutofcontrol
2. WheretheIQCsampleistestedinduplicate,thedifferenceinSDbetweentheduplicatesshould
notexceed4SD
3. 10consecutivevaluesareonthesamesideofthemeanortargetvalue.Thisdetectssystematic
errors. This may happen when a new test batch or introduced or changes in the calibration of
equipment.
2.2.5. QualityAssessment
Qualityassessmentisameanstodeterminethequalityofresults.Itisusuallyanexternalevaluationofa
laboratory's performance that relies on incorporating proficiency panels of wellcharacterized sera into
the testing routine. External quality assessment (EQA) is now recognized as an essential component of
qualityassuranceandistheonlymeanstogivethelaboratorymanageranindependentmeansofensuring
thathisroutinequalitycontrolisadequateandeffective.
It is highly desirable for the laboratory itself to have an internal quality assessment program, whereby
anonymousclinicalsamplesaresubmittedtothelaboratory.Aninternalqualityassessmentschemecan
beusedtomonitorthequalityoftheworkmorefrequentlyandaccuratelythanEQAschemes,sinceEQA
samples are usually received infrequently and they are usually treated differently from the routine
specimens.Experienceatlaboratoriesthathaveaninternalqualityassessmentschemehasgenerallybeen
that internal schemes are much better at identifying quality problems in the laboratory than external
schemes.
2.3. BasicMethodsofQualityControl
Thedifferentcriterianeeddifferentmethodsofqualitycontrol,suchas:
organolepticevaluation
physicaltestmethods
chemicalanalysis
microbiologicalexamination
According to the accuracy needed, the control method applied can be simple or more complicated and
differentauxiliarytechnicaldevicesmustbeused.
Inordertoinformconsumersandmeatprocessorsaboutthequalityofmeatandmeatproducts,simple
and fast control methods are best suited in many cases, although exact details on residues, toxins and
specialfoodcomponentscanonlybeobtainedthroughspecializedlaboratories.
Basicmethodsforqualitycontrolmustinvolvelittleornoequipmentandobviouslysensoryevaluationwill
bemostimportant.Somephysicaltests,however,caneasilybeperformedusingsimpleinstrumentssuch
asthermometers,manometers,scales,etc.
By contrast, chemical and microbiological tests are more complicated. These methods not only require
standard equipment but also skilled and experienced personnel to do the tests and to interpret the
results.
Thequalityofmeatandmeatproductsisdefinedbythefollowingcriteria:

Palatability(typicaltextureandconsistency,juiciness,goodflavour);
Proportionofleanmeattofat;
Freshnessandadequateconservabilityoftheproducts;
Absenceofharmfulmicroorganismsorsubstances;and
Appropriate(preferablyminimal)useofadditivesandmeatextenders.
Thefollowingmainlyreferstothebasicmethodsofqualitycontrolusedinconnectionwiththehandling
andprocessingofmeat.Thesecontrol methodscaneasily beappliedformeatproducts processedwith
simplemeatpreservationtechniques.
2.3.1. OrganolepticEvaluation
Organolepticevaluationconsistsindescribingtheattributesoffood,inthisspecialcaseofmeatandmeat
products that can be perceived by the sense organs. The attributes to be evaluated are appearance,
colour,textureandconsistency,smellandtaste.
2.3.1.1. Appearance
Thewaymeatlooks,eitherasacarcassorasbonelessmeatcuts,hasanimportantimpactonitsobjective
orsubjectiveevaluation.Gradingisanobjectiveevaluationmethodinthiscontext.Traditionalmethodsof
carcass grading after slaughter involve the aspect of beef or pork sides, poultry carcasses, etc. Skilled
graders are able to classify different carcasses by checking the size, the volume of muscular tissue, fat
layers, etc. Although in modern grading procedures more and more technical equipment has been
incorporated, visual methods are still in use. They can be of special value in most developing countries
wherenoextremelysophisticatedmethodsareneeded.
Thewaytheconsumersortheprocessorschecktheappearanceofmeatissubjective.Differenceswillbe
registeredintherelationofleanmeatandfatincludingthedegreeofmarblingorintherelationofbones
and lean meat. Furthermore, unfavourable influences can be detected such as unclean meat surfaces,
surfacestoowetortoodry,orunattractivebloodsplashesonmuscletissue.
Processedmeat,ontheotherhand,canroughlybeevaluatedbyitsappearanceaccordingtothedifferent
rawmaterialsofwhichtheproductiscomposedandwheretheuseofsomecomponentsisexaggerated
(forinstancetoomanyparticlesofvisiblefatorconnectivetissue,etc.).Specialproducttreatments(for
instance chilling, freezing, cooking, curing, smoking, drying) or the kind and quality of portioning and
packaging(casings,plasticbags,andcans)willberecognizedbyevaluatingtheappearance.
2.3.1.2. Colour
Undernormalcircumstancesthecolourofmeatisintherangeofredandmaydifferfromdarkred,bright
redtoslightlyred;butalsopink,greyandbrowncolorsmayoccur.Inmanycasesthecolourindicatesthe
typeandstageofthetreatmenttowhichthemeathasbeensubjected,aswellasthestageoffreshness.
Injudgingmeatcolour,someexperienceisneededtobeabletodistinguishbetweenthecolourwhichis
typicalforaspecifictreatmentorwhichistypicalforspecificfreshness.Furthermore,meatderivingfrom
differentspeciesofanimalsmayhaveratherdifferentcolors,ascaneasilybeseenwhencomparingbeef,
porkandpoultrymeat.
The natural colour of fresh meat, except poultry meat, is dark red, caused by the muscle pigment,
myoglobin.Freshmeatsurfaceswhichhavebeenincontactwiththeairforonlyashortperiodturnintoa
bright red colour because of the influence of the oxygen in the air. Oxygen is easily aggregated to the
myoglobinanddrasticallychangesthecolourofthemeatsurfacesexposedtoit.Ontheotherhand,inthe
absenceofoxygen,forexampleinmeatcutspackagedinimpermeableplasticbags,meatsurfacesremain
orbecomedarkredagain.Thesameconditionsgenerallyprevailintheinteriorofmeatcutswhicharenot

reachedbyoxygen.Changesfromdarkredtobrightredarethereforetypicalandarenormalreactionsof
freshmeat.
Meatwhichisintheprocessoflosingitsfreshness,however,nolongershowsabrightredcolour,even
when intensively exposed to the air, because of the partial destruction of the red meat pigment which
resultsinagrey,brownorgreenishcolour.Oncetheseconditionsoccurtheconsumerhastodecide,after
carefully checking the appearance, together with testing smell and taste, whether the meat has to be
discardedasawholeorwhetherusecanbemadeofsomepartswhichsofarhavenotbeenaltered.
Remarkablechangesinthemeatcolouroccurwhenfreshmeathasbeenboiledorcooked.Itlosesitsred
colouralmostentirelyandturnstogreyorbrown.Thereasonforthisisthedestructionofthemyoglobin
throughheattreatment.Ontheotherhand,ithaslongbeenknownthatafterpickling(curing)freshmeat
withcuringingredients(nitrite),themeatcolourremainsredduringlongerstorageperiods,afterripening,
drying and even after intensive heat treatment. Obviously the original meat colour has not been
conserved,butachemicalreactionhastakenplaceduringthecuringprocesstransformingtheunstable
pigment of the fresh meat into a stable red pigment. This is the typical colour shown in sausages of all
types,rawandcookedhams,cornedbeef,etc.
It should also be noted that cured products have a longer shelflife than fresh meat because of the
conserving effect of the curing salt. However, cured products will also deteriorate under unfavorable
conditions, cooked cured products sooner than raw cured products. Cured products with a decreasing
keepingqualitycanberecognizedwhentheredcolourbecomespaleorchangestogreyorgreen.
2.3.1.3. Textureandconsistency(tendernessandjuiciness)
Meat prepared for the consumer should be tender and juicy. Meat tenderness depends on the animal
species from which the meat originates. Lamb, pork and poultry meat are sufficiently tender after
slaughter,butbeefrequiresacertainperiodofmaturationtoachieveoptimaleatingquality.
Texture and consistency, including juiciness, are an important criterion, still neglected by many
consumers,fortheeatingqualityofmeat.oftenconsumersdonotknowthattheeatingqualityofmeat
canbeupgradedbyripening,especiallyinthecaseofbeefandsimilarmeats.Thereisalsoagreatdealof
consumer negligence in how to prepare meat. It should be cooked to become sufficiently tender, but
cookingshouldnotbetoointenseotherwisethemeatbecomesdry,hardandwithnojuiciness.
Thesimplewaytochecktheconsistencyoffoodsisbychewing.Althoughthistestseemseasy,inpractice
itisrathercomplicated.Tastepanelistsneedexperience,particularlywhenthedifferentsampleshaveto
beranked,forexamplewhichsampleisthetoughest,thesecondtoughestorthetenderest.
The texture is of less importance in meat products, such as cured or canned products, sausages, etc.,
becausetheyareeithermadeofcomminutedmeatand/ormeatwhichhasundergoneheattreatmentor
longmaturationperiodsandwillthereforegenerallybetender.Ontheotherhand,inadequateprocessing
methods (too intensive cooking, curing, comminuting) may cause losses in the desired consistency and
juiciness,andthebestwaytocheckthisisbychewing.
2.3.1.4. Smellandtaste(aromaandflavour)
These characteristics are related to each other to a certain extent because they have to be evaluated
togetherforthereliabledeterminationofaproduct'sflavour.Thesmelloffreshmeatshouldbeslightly
acidic,increasinginrelationtothedurationoftheripeningperiodbecauseoftheformationofacidssuch
aslacticacid.Ontheotherhand,meatindecompositiongeneratesanincreasinglyunpleasantodorowing
to substances originating from the bacterial degradation of the meat proteins, such as sulphur
compounds,mercaptan,etc.

Thefreshnessofmeatisgenerallyindicatedbyitssmelltogetherwithitsappearanceandcolour.Sorting
out deteriorated meat is mandatory from the point of view of the product's palatability. It is also
important because of the fact that high bacterial contamination of meat in decomposition could be
accompanied by foodpoisoning bacteria (pathogens), which have a deleterious impact on consumers'
health. On the other hand, the best fresh meat can also be heavily contaminated with foodpoisoning
bacteria because these microorganisms do not cause organoleptic alterations by destruction of meat
proteins.Foodpoisoningcanthereforeonlybeavoidedbyproperhygienicmeathandling.Theflavourof
freshmeatcanalsobecheckedbyputtingsmallsamples(approx.10piecesof1cm3each)inpreheated
water of 80C for about five minutes (boiling test). The odor of the cooking broth and the taste of the
warmmeatsampleswillindicatewhetherthemeatwasfreshorindeteriorationorsubjecttoundesired
influences,forinstancerancidityofthemeatfat,andatypicalmeatflavourduetothefeedandthesex
(boartaint)oftheanimalortreatmentwithveterinarydrugsshortlybeforeslaughter.
Whenprocessingthemeat,thesmellandtasteofthemeatproductscandifferagreatdealowingtoheat
treatment and the use of salt, spices and food additives. Every meat product has its typical smell and
taste,andthetestpersonshouldknowaboutit.Changesinthesequalitiesindicatetheuseofimproper
rawmaterialsoradeteriorationofthemeatproductduringstorage.
Experienceisrequiredtobecomeacquaintedwiththetypicalflavour(smellandtaste)offoods.Onlyfour
basictastecomponentssweet,sour,bitterandsaltywillbeperceivedbythetastebuds.Thesereceptors
aresmallpapillaelocatedincertainareasofthetongue.However,theoverallflavourconsistsofsmelland
taste produced by the meat components and influenced and covered by spices and those compounds
produced by ripening or heat treatment. Flavour test panelists should be aware of these special cases.
Panelists should not smoke or eat spicy meals before starting the test and should rinse their mouth
frequentlywithwarmwaterduringthetest.
Sensoryevaluationplaysanimportantroleintheexaminationofmeatandmeatproducts.Notonlydoes
scientificsensoryevaluationwithskilledpanelistsusingspecialtestprogrammes andpointsystemsgive
reliable results, but useful results can also be obtained in a simple way at the consumer level. For the
averageconsumersensoryevaluationistheonlywaytodecidewhetherornotheorsheshouldbuyoreat
acertainproduct.
In developing countries consumers do not receive sufficient information and training on this point,
althoughitisoftentheonlymeansavailableforqualitycontrol.Sensoryevaluationiseasytounderstand
andtoperform.Whatisneededisabasicknowledgeofthecompositionoffoodsandtheirtypicaltexture,
colourandflavour.
2.3.2. PhysicalTestMethods
Physical test methods focus either on the actual condition of meat and meat products, or on the
conditionsaroundtheproduct,forexampleinstoragerooms,packages,etc.Equipmentwillbeneededfor
allthesetestswhichiseasilyapplicableandresistanttoutilizationundertheconditionsofpracticalmeat
handlingandprocessing.
2.3.2.1. Temperature
Storage of meat and meat products requires low temperatures to make sure that the growth of micro
organismswillberetarded(chillingbetween1to+4C)orinhibited(freezingpreferablyintherangeof18
to30C).
Cooking of meat requires high temperatures (starting from a temperature of about 55C needed for
denaturation,butgenerallyhighertemperaturesareapplied,upto100C).
Canning of meat requires temperatures above 100C, and for sterilized products where all micro
organismsareinactivated,atleast121C.

These examples demonstrate the importance of different temperatures for different purposes and the
necessityofexacttemperaturemeasurementsusingthermometersortemperaturerecorders.
Glass thermometers should not be used in direct contact with meat because they may break, leaving
undesired fragments in the meat, but they are useful when permanently fixed to walls of chillers or
productionroomsortocookingequipmentorautoclavesforeasycheckingoftherelevanttemperatures.
Mechanicalbimetalthermometers,utilizingtheextensionorcontractionofabimetalspiralundervarious
temperatures, are not very accurate and not sufficiently shockresistant for practical work in meat
industries.Nevertheless,theyarewidelyusedandcanserveforroughestimates.
Electricalthermometers(Picture1),consistingofasensorandabatterypoweredelectronicinstrument,
are well suited for meat industries. The sensor functions as a semiconductor. Under different
temperatures, differences in the electric conductibility of the sensor are produced. The temperature
whichthesensortakesupbycontacttothesurroundingmedia(water,air,meat,etc.)producesacertain
voltage in the electric system. This voltage is registered and displayed as a digital reading of the actual
temperatureontheinstrument.
Picture1Electricalthermometerwithdigitaldisplayandtwosensorsformeasuringairtemperature
(left)andthetemperatureofmeat,liquids,etc.(right).
Advantagesofmodernelectronicthermometersare:
noglassorotherpartsthatcaneasilybreak;
thesensorcanbeeasilypusheddeepintothemeat,aswellasintofrozenmeat,andisalsoheat
resistantundersterilizationtemperatures;
displayofthecorrecttemperaturewithinseconds;
nofrequentcalibrationnecessary;
awiderangeoftemperaturescanbecoveredusingoneinstrument(thetemperaturerangeofthe
instrumentsrecommendedforuseinmeatindustriesshouldbebetween+140Cand40C);and
accuratetemperaturemeasurement,alsoindecimals.

2.3.2.2. Humidity
Insomespecialfieldofmeatprocessingandstorage,airhumidityisofimportance.
In cutting rooms the humidity of the air should be below the level which would cause vapour
condensation on the surfaces of the meat being deboned and cut. Vapour condensation may enhance
bacterialgrowth.
Storagechillers forfresh meat require abalanced air humidity thatdoesnot causewet surfaces on the
meatwithresultingacceleratedbacterialgrowth,butontheotherhandkeepsevaporationlosseslow.The
relativehumidityrecommendedforthisspecialpurposeliesintherangeof70percent.
Chambers for the maturation of raw hams or dry sausages of the salami type require controlled air
humidity,startingfrom9095percentandafteracertainperiodfinalizingtheprocessat7075percent
relative humidity. This procedure is important for the balanced drying and ripening of the products.
Suitableinstruments(hygrometers)fortheexactmeasurementofrelativehumidityarethereforeneeded.
Insimplebutlessaccuratehygrometersahairorspecialsyntheticfibreisconnectedwithapointerand,
according to the contraction of the hair or fibre under dry conditions and its extension under wet
conditions,thepointerindicatestheactualrelativehumidityonanappropriatescale.
Amoreaccuratewayforhumiditycontrolisthepsychrometricsystem.Theseinstrumentsuseadryanda
wetsensortodefinetheambienttemperature.Thetemperatureindicatedbythewetsensorwillalways
be lower,in thiscase,becauseofevaporativecooling.Thedriertheair,themoreintensiveevaporative
cooling will be. Using both temperature values (dry and wet temperature), the value of the relative
humidityisdeterminedinpracticalworkusingatableforeasycalculation.
A modernized psychrometric system which uses electronic devices is available. In this case the humid
sensor has not actually to be kept wet, but consists of hygroscopic material with altering electrical
resistance.Therelativehumiditycalculatedfromthetemperaturesdeliveredbythesensorsbymeansofa
microprocessorisdirectlydisplayedontheinstrument(Fig.34).
2.3.2.3. Wateractivity(aw)
Wateractivityisthefreewateravailableformicrobialgrowthinafoodproduct.Freewateristhatpartof
thewatercontentthatcanbeeliminatedfromtheproductintheformofwatervapour.Hence,theterm
water activity is defined as the ratio of the water vapour pressure measured in the product and the
pressure of a saturated water vapour atmosphere at the same temperature. This physical definition is
used in connection with a number of meat products whose keeping quality depends on their water
content.Microorganismsneedacertaindegreeofmoisturetobeabletogrowonfoods.Theminimum
moisturecontentnecessaryformicrobialgrowthvarieswiththesinglespeciesofmicroorganismsandcan
beexpressedintermsofminimumwateractivityrequired.
Thelowestawvaluespermittinggrowthofspoilageorganismsare:
normalbacteria0.91
normalyeasts0.88
normalmoulds0.80
halophilic(NaCltolerant)bacteria0.77.
The keeping quality of dried meats and meat products without refrigeration depends on their water
activity. Dried meat such as biltong, charque, etc. reaches a sufficiently low water activity to be shelf
stable. However, water activity should decrease as fast as possible as slow drying could cause
deterioration in a prolonged phase of the process with a still high water activity. The situation is more
complicated in the case of products which cannot be dried too intensively such as dry sausages or raw

hams. The water activity of these products is relatively low but would still allow the growth of some
undesiredmicroorganisms.Underthesecircumstancesanappropriateshelflifehastobeensuredbythe
combinationofseveralinhibitingfactors,i.e.wateractivity,contentofsaltandcuringingredientsandthe
acidityoftheproduct.
Informationonthewateractivityofcertainproductscanbeimportantforfurtherhandling,packagingand
storage.Simplemethodsforthedeterminationofwateractivityarethereforeuseful.

Picture2Electronicpsychrometer(hygrometer)andsensor(right)fordirectmeasurementofthe
relativeairhumidity.
Aswateractivityrefersonlytothewateravailableformicrobialgrowthinaproduct,thechemicalanalysis
of the total moisture content is of limited value since it would also include the water bound by the
proteins.Theproperwaytodeterminewateractivityistomeasurethehumidityoftheremainingairina
hermeticallyclosedsmallcabinetwhichistoacertainextentfilledwiththeproductsample.Afterashort
time a hygroscopic equilibrium between the sample and the surrounding air will be reached. Thus, the
humidity determined inthe air is equivalent to thehumidity available intheproduct andwater activity
canbecalculated.
For the measurement of air humidity under these conditions, the same principles apply as previously
described. Simple devices utilize the extension or contraction of hairs or synthetic fibers, and more
sophisticatedandmoreexpensivesystemsuseelectronicdevices.
Thesampleisplacedinthebottompartofthetinandthenthelidofthetinthatcontainsthedeviceto
measurethehumidityishermeticallyscrewedon.Aftertwohours,hygroscopicequilibriumisreachedin
the can and the reading of the instrument corresponds to the actual water activity of the product,
provided the test has been carried out at a temperature of exactly 25C. If this temperature cannot be
maintained,correctivecalculationswillbenecessary.
Someexamplesforvaluesofwateractivity(aw)ofdifferentproductsareshown:
FreshRawMeat 0.990.98
CookedHam 0.980.96
FrankfurterTypeSausages 0.980.93
LiverSausage 0.970.95
RawCuredHam 0.960.80
DrySausage(SalamiType) 0.960.70

DryMeat 0.750.50
Acertainnumberofmicroorganismsareinhibitedataw0.95,butotherspeciesarestillabletogrow.Ataw
0.92allbacteriagroupsareinhibited,butthegrowthofmouldsandyeastsisstillpossible.
2.3.2.4. Airtightclosureofcans
For shelfstable canned meat products two aspects are important from the microbiological standpoint.
During sterilization, microorganisms and their spores have to be inactivated and the can must be
hermeticallysealedtoavoidfurthercontaminationoftheproductaftersterilization.
Invisiblesmallperforationsofthetinplateorsmalldefectsaftertheclosureofthelidwillinevitablyleadto
a recontamination by penetrating bacteria and after a short time spoilage of the canned product will
occur.Cansshouldthereforebecheckedfromtimetotimeforthesedefects.
Asimplemethod is availableforthispurpose.Usinganairpumpwitha specialdevicetopenetratethe

tinplate,theairispumpedintoaclosedbutemptycan(Fig.35).Theinternalpressurebuiltupinthecan
canbecontrolledbyamanometerconnectedwiththeairpump.Whendippingtheinflatedcanintowater
it can easily be seen whether the can is hermetically sealed and if not where the cause for the
permeabilityis,eitherintheprefabricatedbody(sidewallandbottom)ofthecanorintheareaofthelid
seam. In the latter case the function of the canclosing equipment in the processing plant has to be
thoroughlychecked.
2.3.2.5. Weightdifferences
Thehighwatercontentofmeat(approx.70percent)andmeatproducts(whichvariesfrom70percentto
10 percent) causes weight differences owing to evaporation losses or drip losses that occur during
handling,processingorstorage.
Unpackaged meat and meat products are especially subject to considerable evaporation losses. During
chillingofwarmcarcassesevaporationlossesof1to2percentcannotbeavoidedbutfurtherevaporation
lossesofchilledorfrozenmeatshouldnotoccurwhensuitablestorageconditions(nottoodry)orsuitable
packaging (plastic bags, containers, boxes) are employed. However, some drip losses of packaged meat
cannotbeavoided.
Duringmeatprocessingweightlossesofmeatbycooking,fryingorotherheattreatmentcanberegistered
andreachhighvalues(upto30to35percent).Theselossesareunavoidable.
On the other hand, some meat products require weight losses by evaporation to reach their specific
keeping quality, for example raw hams, dry sausages or dried meat. In this case, water activity as
previouslydescribedplaysanimportantrole.
Information on weight losses in meat handling and processing is important from the economic and
technologicalpointofview.Weightlossescaneasilybedeterminedusingscalesofdifferenttypes,suchas
suspensionscalesforcarcassesorbatchesofproductsandhorizontalscalesforpackagesorportions.
2.3.2.6. Saltconcentrationinbrines
Inadditiontodrycuringmethods(drysaltandcuringingredientsonthemeat),brinesarealsousedfor
pickling and curing the meat. Brines contain salt and in most cases also sugar and nitrite dissolved in
water.Withthiscuringprocess,meatiseitherimmersedintoabrineorthebrineisinjectedintothemeat
withspecialdevices.Inbothcasessaltisalimitingfactorforthesensoryqualityoftheproducts;inother
wordssaltisneededbutshouldnotexceed2.5to3percentincookedcuredproductsand4.5to5percent
inrawcuredanddriedproducts.

Tocomplywiththeserequirements,simplemethodsfortestingsaltconcentrationinbrinesarenecessary.
Forthispurposesalimetershaveprovedtobeausefulpieceofequipment.Salimetersaredensimeters,
thegraduationshowingsaltconcentrations.Salimetersaredippedintothebrineandaccordingtoalower
orhighersaltcontenttheysinkdeeperorlessdeepintothebrine.Thereadingofthesalimetersatsurface
levelindicatesthesaltconcentrationofthebrine.Thevarioustechnologiesofmeatcuringusebrineswith
NaCIconcentrationsintherangeof8to22percent.

Picture3Mechanicalinstrumenttoproveairtightclosureofcans.
2.3.2.7. OtherPhysicalTestMethods
The physical test methods which have been described can easily be performed since the use of the
technicalequipmentnecessaryisnottoocomplicated.Otherphysicaltestmethodsexisttoo,forexample,
lightintensitymeasurement,colourmeasurementortextureandconsistencymeasurementsofmeatand
meat products. These tests require rather complicated and expensive instruments and skilled technical
personnel.Forroutinework,criteriasuchaslight,colour,textureandconsistencycanbeevaluatedina
satisfactorywaybyusingthecorrespondingsensorytestmethods.
2.3.3. Chemicalanalysis
Chemical characteristics of foods are related to the product itself and refer primarily to the content of
specific substances, which are important from the point of view of keeping quality, flavour, nutritional
value,etc.,orwhichmayalsorepresentharmfulresidues.
Thetestmethodsnecessaryaregenerallycomplicatedandneedsophisticatedequipment.However,there
arealsosomesimpleandquickmethodsforchemicaltestingwithsufficientaccuracywhichcanbeapplied
in the daily routine work such as pHmeasurement, moisture/fat/protein determination and various
screeningmethodsutilizingtestpaperstrips.
2.3.3.1. pHmeasurement
ThepHvalueoracidityofmeatisimportantinrelationtothemeat'smicrobiologicalandkeepingquality.
IntheliveanimalthepHvalueofthemusculartissueisabout7.0to7.1.Verysoonafterslaughteradrop
inthepHvalueisobservedandafterseveralhours(24hoursorless)thepHvaluereachesitslowestlevel

of about 5.6 to 5.8. The increasing acidity is because of the postmortem formation of lactic acid from
glycogen,asugarlikesubstancestoredintheliveanimal'smusclesforenergysupply.
InmeatlacticacidcausesadecreaseinpHvaluewhich is favorableforkeepingquality(lowpH inhibits

bacterialgrowth)andforflavour(acidityisoneofthecomponentsofmeatflavour).However,thepHof
meat is not uniform either in different carcasses or in different muscles of one carcass. Physiological
oscillations do not greatly harm meat quality but abnormal reactions in meat are of great economic,
hygienicandtechnologicalimpact.
TherearetwotypesofabnormalreactionwithregardtothepHinmeat.FirstthepHvaluemaydroptoo
fast and second it may not reach the normal low level several hours after slaughter, but remain in the
rangeof7.
BothabnormalitiescaneasilybedetectedbypHmeasurementinthemeat.AtoofastpHvaluedecrease
isevident, when onehour afterslaughterlow pHvalues in therange of 5.6 to 5.8 are already reached.
Thisphenomenonoccursonlyinpigsandthemeatremainspale,softandexudative(PSE).Becauseofits
paleness and wetness (low waterholding capacity), this meat should not be used for ham and sausage
manufacture(givesdry,tastelessproducts).
An insufficient decrease of the pHvalue, which occurs both in pork and beef, is of hygienic significance
becauseofthelackofbuildingupacertaindegreeofacidityandsuppressingmicrobiologicalgrowth.This
meatalsoremainsclosetopHvalue7afterseveralhours,andisdark,firmanddry(DFD).Itshouldnotbe
usedformeatandmeatproductswhichhavetobestoredoveralongerperiod,suchasvacuumpacked
meatcuts,drysausagesofthesalamitypeorcuredrawhams.However,itiswellsuitedforcookedmeat
productsbecauseofitsextremelygoodwaterholdingcapacity.
ItcanbeseenfromthisthatthepHmeasurementisofparticularimportancefortheselectionoftheraw
material for meat processing purposes. Hence, portable electric pHmeters are widely distributed and
utilizedinthemeatindustry(Fig.36).
ThepHismeasuredonmeatsurfacesorinthemeatitself,inthelattercasebypushingthesensorintothe
muscle or by means of an incision using a knife. The sensor consists of a glass electrode filled with an
electrolyte(solutionofKC1)andasensitiveglassmembraneattachedatthetop.
Through the membrane the difference in the hydrogenion concentration, which corresponds to the
acidityofthemeat,isdetectedanddigitallydisplayedontheattachedinstrument.
pHmeasurementonmeatcaneasilybeperformedbutthefollowingpointsmustbeconsidered:
theelectrodesensormustbecompletelyfilledwiththeelectrolyte;
theinstrumentmustbeadjusteddaily(calibrated)usingtwobuffersolutionswithpHvalues4and7;
aftereachmeasurementtheelectrodemustbecleanedusingdistilledwater;
before each measurement the temperature of the meat, meat product, etc. must be checked and the
instrumentadjustedaccordingly.
2.3.3.2. Moisture/fat/proteindetermination
Information about the moisture, fat and protein content is essential for the evaluation ofthe quality of
different meats and meat products. Determination methods have changed a great deal in this field in
recentyears.RevolutionarytechniqueswereintroducedusingXrays,infraredradiationormicrowavesin
automatic equipment for quick analyses of moisture, fat and protein. These modern methods are time
saving,theresultsaredeliveredwithinminutesorsecondsandhighnumbersofsamplescanbetested.
However,theequipmentisexpensiveandthereforenotsuitableforsmallindustries.Forroutinecontrols,
where not necessarily highly accurate but reliable results on moisture, fat, protein and anorganic
components(ash)areneeded,cheaperandlesscomplicatedmethodscanbeapplied.Aspeciallydesigned
laboratory scale, together with some other devices, is required. After homogenizing and weighing the

sample,itisfastdriedusinganinfraredbeam(oramicrowaveovenifavailable).Theweightdifferenceis
equivalenttotheproduct'swater(moisture)content.Thefatisthendissolvedusingafatextractingliquid
andremovedtogetherwiththeliquid.Thesolventisevaporated.Theweightoftheresiduerepresentsthe
fatcontentofthesample.Finally,thesampleischarredinamufflefurnaceandtheweightoftheresidue
istheashcontent.Sincethesumofthepercentagesofmoisture,fat,ashandproteinmustbe100,and
since the percentage of moisture, fat and ash is known, the protein content in percent is calculated as
follows: 100% minus the percent of moisture, fat and ash. This method is not precise, but it is fast,
providesusefulresultsaboutthecompositionofmeatandmeatproductsandcanbeappliedwithouthigh
costs.
Picture4PortableelectricpHmeterwithsensor(glasselectrode).Theglasselectrodeisprotectedbya
removablecoverofflexiblesyntheticmaterialinordertoavoidbreakageandkeepthediaphragmof
thesensorhumid.
For chemical evaluations a number of screening methods are also available using different test papers.
Theresultsareindicatedbychangesofthecolourofcertainareasonthepaperstrips.Thesetestpapers
are used for pHmeasurement, screening of the nitrite content and even for the screening of some
harmfulresiduessuchasantibiotics.pHmeasurementsonmeatwithteststripsarenegativelyinfluenced
bythemeatpigmentmakingthecolourdeterminationoftendifficultandthepHdeterminationnotvery
accurate.
2.3.4. MicrobiologicalExamination
Thesecontrolmethodscannotbecarriedoutwithoutlaboratoryequipment,becausetheyrequiresample
preparation under sterile conditions, incubation of the samples under constant temperatures and
sufficient microbiological knowledge on the part of the personnel involved to interpret the results.
However, the application of microbiological methods is the only way to obtain information about the
hygienicstatusofplaces,equipmentandfoods.Itistruethatuncleanconditionswillalwaysindicatehigh
microbiological contamination and one could argue that a thorough cleaningup rather than a further
microbiologicalanalysiswouldbeneededinthosecases.Buttherecouldalsobetheneedofdetectingthe
source of permanent contamination (for example through the water, movement of personnel, raw
material delivered, etc.) or of food poisoning bacteria. Under these circumstances microbiological
examinationscanoftenbeveryhelpfulandsolveimmediateproblems.
Somemethodssuitableforroutineworkshouldbementioned.

2.3.4.1. Triggermethods
Microbiologicalculturemediainspecialsmallmouldsarelightlypressedagainstwalls,equipment(knives,
machines), meat surfaces or hands of personnel. The microorganisms adherent to these objects are
absorbed by thesurfaceof theculture media,and afteradequate incubation (one to twodaysat30 to
37C), microbial colonies can be identified and counted on the media. Each one of the colonies grown
duringincubationcorrespondstoonemicroorganismwhichwasontheobjecttested.
Insteadofculturemediaaspecialsterilestripofcellotapetogetherwithatriggercanbeusedfortaking
samples from surfaces (Fig. 37). After that the cellotape is laid on a culture media for incubation. This
procedure allows the utilization of one culture medium for the incubation of different samples at the
same time (Fig. 38). However, there is one disadvantage with the trigger system. In the case of high
bacterialcontaminationofthesurfaces,testedbacterialcolonieswillgrowverydenselytogetherandcan
nolongerbecounted.
2.3.4.2. Swabmethod
Surface contamination related to a certain area can be sampled using a sterile swab. After rubbing the
swabgentlyalongthesurfacetobetested(Fig.39),itissuspendedonthesurfaceofaculturemedia.In
contrastwiththetriggermethod,bacterialcontaminationcanbespreadoverthewholesurface(Fig.40)
whichisimportantinthecaseofhighcontamination.Thusthesamplescanalwaysbeevaluatedsincethe
singlecoloniesarenotgrowntogether(Fig.41).However,themethodlackssomeaccuracysincebacteria
mayremainintheswab.

Picture5Triggerandsterilecellotapeformicrobiologicalsamplingofthemeatsurface.

Picture6Culturemediumwithvariousfieldsafterincubationofdifferentsamplestakenusingthe
techniqueshowninPicture5.

Picture7Samplingmicrobialcontaminationonadefinedsurfaceareamarkedbysteriletemplatewith
sterileswabs.

Picture8Transferofthesampletakenwithswabontothesurfaceoftheculturemedium.

Picture9Bacterialcoloniesgrownfromonecelleachontheculturemediumaftertheincubation
period.

3. Sampling
3.1. SamplingTechniques
Thevalueoftheresultofachemicalanalysisonawellpreparedlaboratorysamplewilldependonhow
representativethesampleisofthelot,batch,packageorconsignmentoftheparticularfoodfromwhichit
was taken and on kind of chemical information required. Foodstuffs are relatively heterogeneous
materials, so sampling and any subsequent separation are the greatest source of error in food analysis.
Theproblemmaybeminimizedbyselectingeitherrandomlyoraccordingtoaplan,severalsamplesfrom
the lot. In sampling foods and food products, sufficient material must be taken to compensate for the
variabilityinvolved.Thenumberofindividualsamplestobeselectedmaybecalculatedfromthefollowing
expression:
n = CN,
Where,
n = numberofindividualstobeselected
C = isafactorwhichrepresentsthedegreeofaccuracydesiredinthesample,and
N = lotsize.
Wheretheextentofvariabilityisnotknown,itisadvisabletoselectatleasttentimestheamounttobe
taken as a sample for analysis. The sample selected should be representative, and reflect all the
homogeneouspartsoftheheterogeneouspopulation.
Generally,theerrorsinsamplingaredueto
Lackofrandomnessinselection.
Changeincompositionofproductduringsampling
Nonhomogeneityoffood.
3.2. Sample
The AnalyticalCommission ofTerminologyof IUPAC (International Union ofPureand Applied Chemists)

has proposed the definition of sample as "A portion of material taken from the consignment and
selectedinsuchawaythatitpossessestheessentialcharacteristicsofthebulk."
Anidealsampleshouldbeidenticalinallitsintrinsicpropertieswiththebulkofthematerialfromwhichit
istaken.Thesampleshouldbelargeenoughforallintendeddetermination.Homogenoussamplesof250
garegenerallysufficient.Thesizeofthesamplevariesfromproductormaterialtomaterialandtypeof
analysise.g.samplesofspicesareoftenlimitedto100gandoffruitsorvegetablesincreasedto1000g.
Thesampleshouldbepackedandstoredinsuchawaythatnosignificantchangeoccurfromthemoment
ofsamplinguntiltheanalysisiscomplete.
3.3. PreparationofSamples
In order to obtain precise analytical results, the laboratory sample must be made as homogeneous as
possible so that, within the limits of analytical method used, the replicate analyses agree as closely as
possible.Thepurposeof sample preparation isto mix thoroughly a large sample in the laboratory. This
apparentlyhomogenous sample must bethenreduced in size and amount forsubsequentanalysis. The
problemsencounteredbytheanalystsinthepreparationofsamplesforanalysisinclude
1. Preparingrepresentativesmallsamplesfromlargesamples,
2. Lossofplantmaterial,
3. Removalofextraneousmaterialfromplantswithoutremovalofplantconstituents,
4. Enzymaticchangesbeforeandduringanalysis,
5. Compositionalchangesduringgrinding,vimetalcontaminationduringgrinding,
6. Changesinunstablecomponents,and
Specialpreparationproblemsinanalysisofoilseedmaterials.

Thesampletobepreparedshouldbefirsthomogenisedandthemethodofhomogenizationwilldepend
onthetypeoffoodbeinganalyzed.Anumberofveryety1cientelectricalmechanicaldevicesareavailable
toreducethesizeoffoodparticlesandtomixfoodproductsthoroughly.Mincers,graters,blendersand
homogenizers(fordry,moistandwetfoods)andvarioustypesofpowdermillsorgrindersareessential
equipmentinafoodlaboratory.Boththenatureoffoodmaterialandtheanalysistobeperformedmust
beconsideredintheselectionofinstrumentforgrinding.
3.3.1. Preparationofdryfoodsamples
Dryfoodsneedstobegroundtoatleastcoarsepowderbymeansofamechanicalgrinderandthenmix
thoroughlywithaspoonorspatula.
Bulksamplesofdryorpowderyfoodscanbereducedinsizebytheprocessknownasquartering.Forthis
spreadthematerialonthelargesheetofglazedpaper,glassorcleansurfaceoflaminatedbenchortable.
Drawacrossovertheheapedmaterial.Removethediagonallyoppositesegments.Remixtheremaining
segmentsanddrawacrossovertheheap.Againremovetwooppositesegmentandmixtheremaining.
Repeattheprocesseduntilabout250gremains.Ifneeded,againgrindthegranular,material.
Forgrindingofdrymaterials,mechanicalmethodsrangefromthesimplepestleandmortartoelaborate
and effective devices for grinding. For fine grinding of dry materials, powerdriven hammer mills are
widelyused.Hammermillsareusedtogrindsuchmaterialsascereals,oilmealsandmostfoods,which
arereasonablydryanddonotcontainexcessivelyhighamountsofoilorfat.Grindingofoilseedsoroil
rich samples present special problems. Dried fruits should be passed through chopper three times and
mixedthoroughly.Ifneeded,initially,grindingcanbedonebycoarsecuttingblade.Sonicandsupersonic
vibrations are also used for dispersion of foods. During sampling, it is important to keep the chemical,
physicalandenzymaticdegradationoflipidstoaminimum.
3.3.2. Preparationofmoistsolidfoods
Moistsolidfoodssuchasmeatproductsarebesthomogenisedbychoppingratherthanmincing.Cheese
andchocolatesarebestgratedfollowedbyhandmixingofthe,ratedmaterial.
Fordisintegrationsofmoistmaterialsvariousfineslicingdevicesareavailable.Somemoistmaterialsare
disintegratedbestbybowlcutters(leafyvegetables,fleshytubersandroots)ormeatmincers(fruits,roots
andmeatproducts).Chilledballmillscanbeusedtogrindfrozenmaterialswithoutpreliminarygrinding.
Grindingoffrozenfoodsreducesundesirablechemicalchanges.Thecommerciallyavailabletissuegrinders
arealsousedforsmallsampleofsoftmaterial.
Forpreparationofsampleoffreshfruitsandvegetables,firstofallitisessentialtoremoveadheringsoil
orsandbywashingorwipingwithdampcloth.Excessivewashingshouldbeavoidedtopreventleachingof
soluble solids. Then, separate the fresh tissues into core, outer and inner tissue depending on the
objectivesofanalysis.Forlargesizefruitsandvegetablecuttheseinfour/eightequalportionscontaining
inner to outer portion of fruits or vegetables. Remove the pits from the flesh of stone fruits and then
comminutethepreparedmaterialintheblender.
Forcannedfruitsandvegetablesifanalysisistobemadeonthecompositesample,mixandcomminute
the entire contents. But, if analyses are to be made on solid and liquid portions separately, drain the
contentsonasieveandcomminutethesolidmatterorcollecttheliquidasrequiredforanalysis.
3.3.3. Preparationofsemisolid/liquidfoods
Fluid foods are best emulsified by top or bottom driven blenders. Fruit juice beverages containing
insoluble matter, should be blended using highspeed blender to get uniform sample. Pureed products
suchastomatopuree,ketchup,fruitpulpsandstrainedfruitsandvegetablesshouldbethoroughlyshaken
beforesampling.
Gentle warming and mixing easily prepare oils and fats. Butter and margarine may be reemulsified by
shakingbyhandinaglassjarafterwarmingto35"Ctomeltthefat.
3.3.4. Enzymeinactivation
Enzyme naturally present may cause undesirable changes during preparation of samples for analysis.
Generally, if total contents of a specified compound are determined i. e. minerals, carbohydrates,
nitrogen, enzyme inactivation is not essential. But, if sugars, free and bound forms of lipids, groups of

protein are to be determined, the tissues must be killed in such a way that potentially troublesome
enzymesareimmediatelyandcompletelyinactivated.
Topreservetheoriginalstateofcomponentsinlivingtissues,severalmethodsofenzymeinactivationcan
be used. The treatment required for enzyme inactivation varies widely with the food size, consistency,
composition,andtheenzymepresentandintendedanalyticaldeterminations.
Enzymesmaybeinactivatedwithsteamorboilingalcohol.Fungalamylasesaregenerallyheatlabileand
can be inactivated at relatively low temperatures; some bacterial amylases are highly heat resistant.
Extractionofchlorogenicacidfromseedordrytissuesrequiresheatingto90100"Cfor1hrtoinactivate
polyphenolases.
Someenzymescanbeinactivatedbyinorganiccompoundsthatcauseirreversiblyenzymepoisoning,bya
shift in pH,orby saltingout.Themostcommon methodof inactivating enzyme includetreatment with
80% methanol or ethanol, icecold 5 10% perchloric or tichloroacetic acid or a mixture of methanol
chloroform2Mformicacid(12:5:3byvolume).
3.4. TypesofStatisticalSampling
The validity of the conclusions drawn from the analysis of a food depends, among other things, on the
methodsusedinobtainingandpreservingthesample.Samplingandanysubsequentseparationsmaybe
the greatest sources of error in food analyses. An ideal sample should be identical in all of its intrinsic
propertieswiththebulkofthematerialfromwhichitistaken.Inpractice,asampleissatisfactoryifthe
propertiesunderinvestigationcorrespondtothoseofthebulkmaterialwithinthelimitssetbythenature
ofthetest.AccordingtoKratochvilandTaylor(1981),themajorstepsinsamplingare
Identificationofthepopulationfromwhichthesampleistobeobtained,
Selectionandobtainingofgrosssamplesofthepopulation,and
Reductionofeachgrosssampletoalaboratorysizesamplesuitableforanalysis.
It has been shown that if the analytical uncertainty is less than one third of the sampling uncertainty,
additionalreductionoftheanalyticaluncertaintyisoflittlesignificance.
Statistical sampling approaches were reviewed by Springer and McClure (1988). Four types of sampling
methodswereconsidered:
3.4.1. SimpleRandomSampling
For populations, in which all elements have an equal and independent chance of being included in a
sample,
3.4.2. StratifiedRandomSampling
By separating the population elements into overlapping groups (strata) and selecting a simple random
samplefromeachstrata,
3.4.3. SystematicSampling
DrawingaIinKsamplefromalistofunits,and
3.4.4. JudgmentSampling
Drawingsamplesbasedonthejudgmentanexperienceoftheinvestigator.
Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthefourtypeswerediscussed.Thespecialproblemsencounteredin
sampling andsample preparation for detectionand quantitation ofnatural toxicants in foodsand feeds
werereviewedbyParkandPohland(1989).
Factorsaffectingtheabilityofaplantoobtainasamplethataccuratelyrepresentstheconcentrationsof
naturaltoxins(i.e.,mycotoxinsandseafoodtoxins)are:
Natureoftheanalyte,
Distributionoftheanalytethroughoutthelot,
Physicalcharacteristicsoftheproduct,
Accessibilityoftheproducttorandomrepresentativesampling,
Samplingprocedure,and
Sizeofsample.
Samplingplansarecomposedofthreecomponents:
1. Sampling,

2. Samplepreparation,and
3. Analysis.
Normally,samplingcontributesthelargestrelativeerrorwhereasanalysiscomprisestheleast.Automatic,
continuous stream samplers provide the most representative samples for commodities such as nuts,
cottonseed, and cereal grains. Good sample preparation equipment is available for these commodities;
theuseofthisequipmenttoobtainarepresentativetestsamplewasdescribed.
Table 8 Glossary of SamplingTerms

Term Definition
Sample A portion of a population or lot; may consist of an individual or groups of
individuals.
Subsample Aportiontakenfromasample;alaboratorysamplemaybeasubsampleofagross
sample;similarly,atestportionmaybeasubsampleofalaboratorysample.
Grosssample Alsocalledbulksample,lotsample;oneormoreincrementsofmaterialtakenfrom
alargerquantity(lot)ofmaterialforassayorrecordpurposes.
Compositesample Asamplecomposedoftwoormoreincrements.
Laboratorysample A sample, intended for testing or analysis, prepared from a gross sample or
otherwiseobtained;thelaboratorysamplemustretainthecompositionofthegross
sample; often reduction in particle size is necessary in the course of reducing the
quantity.
Testportion Alsocalledspecimen,testspecimen,testunit,aliquot;thatquantityofamaterialof
propersizeformeasurementofthepropertyofinterest;testportionsmaybetaken
fromthegrosssampledirectly,butoftenpreliminaryoperations,suchasmixingor
furtherreductioninparticlesize,arenecessary.
Segment Aspecificallydemarkedportion of alot,eitheractualorhypothetical.
Strata Segmentsofalotthatmayvarywithrespecttothepropertyunderstudy.
Population A generic term denoting any finite or infinite things, objects, or events in the
broadest concept; an aggregate determined by some property that distinguishes
thingsthatdoanddonotbelong.
Lot A quantity of bulk material of similar composition whose properties are under
study.
Increment An individual portion of material collected by a single operation of a sampling
device, from parts of a lot separated in time or space; increments may be either
testedindividuallyorcombined(composited)andtestedasaunit.
Individual Conceivableconstituentpart of thepopulation.
Bulksampling Samplingofamaterialthatdoesnotconsistofdiscrete,identifiable,constantunits,
butratherofarbitrary,irregularunits.
Homogeneity Thedegreetowhichapropertyorsubstanceisrandomlydistributedthroughouta
material;homogeneitydependsonthesizeoftheunitsunderconsideration;thusa
mixtureoftwomineralsmaybeinhomogeneousatthemolecularoratomiclevel,
buthomogeneousattheparticulatelevel.
Reduction Theprocessofpreparingoneormoresubsamplesfromasample.
3.5. SamplingTypesbyProcess
Samples for analysis should be large enough for all intended determinations. Homogeneous samples of
250g(orml)aregenerallysufficient.Samplesofspicesareoftenlimitedto100g,andthoseoffruitsand
vegetables increased to 1000 g. Samples should be packed and stored in such a way that no significant
changes occur from the moment of sampling until the analysis is completed. The container should be
identified clearly. official and legal samples must be sealed in such a. way that they cannot be opened
withoutbreakingtheseal.
The quality control laboratory analyzes various types of samples (Pearson 1958). Raw materials m
analyzed to determine whether the delivery approximates previous deliveries or if the material from a

newsupplierisuptothebuyingsample.Processcontrolsamplesaregenerallyanalyzedbyrapidinplant
tests (e.g., refractometer, hydrometer) as a guide to processing adjustments needed to produce an
acceptableanduniformproduct.Periodicchecksoffinishedproductsshowwhetherthefoodmeetslegal
requirements, is acceptable to the consumer, and has reasonable shelf life. Suppliers of raw materials
prior to delivery submit buying samples. Customers submit most complaint samples. In a competitive
market,informationaboutproductsbeingsoldbyothermanufacturersisofinteresttomanagement.The
compositionofcompetitors'samplesisalsovaluableindevelopingnewproducts.
AccordingtoKramerandTwigg(1970),factorsthatdetermineselectionofasamplingprocedureinclude
Purpose of inspectionacceptance or rejection, evaluation of average quality, and determination
ofuniformity;
Natureoflotsize,divisionintosublots,andloadingorstacking;
Natureoftestmaterialitshomogeneity,unitsize,previoushistory,andcost;
Natureoftestproceduressignificance,destructiveornondestructiveassayprocedures,andtime
andcostofanalyses.
3.5.1. ManualSampling
Samples are frequently taken manually. Apparently homogeneous materialssuchas singlephase liquids
orwellmixedpowdersshouldbemixedthoroughlyimmediatelybeforesampling.Rotatingandshakingin
aclosedcontainerthathasavolumeatleasttwicethatofthesamplecanmixsmallquantitiesofpowders
orsolutions.Mixingmayalsobeaccomplishedbypouringthematerialseveraltimesfromonecontainer
to another laboratory samples of powders or ground materials may be obtained by quartering of
thoroughly mixed samples, discarding two opposite quarters, remixing the remaining material, and
repeatingtheprocessuntilthesampleisreducedtoadesiredsize.Sampledividersthatmechanicallymix
anddividepowderedorgranularmaterialsmaybepurchasedfromseveralapparatussupplyhouses.
Probes andtriers generallysamplegranular or powderedsolids. Liquidsrequire thorough mixingbefore
sampling. Partly or completely frozen, crystallized, or solidified fluids must be liquefied completely and
mixed.Ifsuchmixingispracticallyunattainable,samplesmustbetakenatvariousheights.Milkmustbe
thoroughlymixedbecausethefatrisestothetopandthecompositionchangesonstanding.Ontheother
hand,excessivemixingofcreamisinadvisable.Butterandhardcheesesamplesaregenerallytakenwitha
stainless steel borer; soft cheeses are sampled, by cutting out a representative segment. The greatest
difficulty arises in sampling large fruits and vegetables. often selection of a large number of individual
units,tocompensateforvariation,isrequired.
3.5.2. ContinuousSampling
Incontinuousqualitycontroloperations,mechanicalsamplershavereplacedmanualsamplers.Thereare
threebasictypesofmechanicalsamplers(Johnson1963).Therifflecutteriscomposedofequallyspaced
dividers designed to remove continuously a small fraction of the stream. Usually, a riffle divides the
stream equally and the sample is passed through the same riffle or successive riffles for further
proportionalreductionofthesampletoaquantityconvenientforanalysis.Thisdeviceiscommonlyused
inlaboratoriesincuttingandquarteringalargersample.Thecircular(orVezin)samplercanbeusedfor
intermittentorcontinuoussamplingandissuitableforbothwetanddrymaterials.Thecutterappearsas
a truncated wedge of a circle that passes through the falling stream once each revolution. Size of the
segment or cutter opening determines the size of the sample. The sample is large (510% of the entire
stream)andasecondarysamplingisgenerallyrequired.Ifthefeedstreamisrelativelyhomogeneous,the
sampler can be converted to an intermittent type engaged by a magnetic brake and timer. The most
popular and least expensive sampling unit is the straight line sampler, which can be operated either
intermittentlyorcontinuously.Inthistypeofsampler,thecuttermovesinastraightlineandatuniform
speedacrosstheentirestream.
3.6. StorageandPreservationofSamples
Preparedsamplesmayundergochangesincompositionthroughevaporationorabsorptionofmoistureor
bytheactionofenzymesormicroorganisms.Thecomponentsthatarelikelytochangee.g.ascorbicacid

shouldbeanalysedimmediatelyafterpreparationinfreshmaterial.Productswhicharelikelytoundergo
microbialspoilagemaybepreservedbyusing)preservativesorbyfreezingorbydrying.
Sample containing moisture can be dried as rapid and at as low a temperature possible. Spreading the
sampleoverawideareacanfacilitatedrying.Generally,dryingat60"Cundervacuumisrecommended.If
the sample contain no heat sensitive or volatile compounds, heating for several minutes at 70 to 80"C
may be advisable. Such heating also inactivates most enzymes. During drying, certain components are
destroyed(enzymes,vitamins),otherarealmostinvariablymodified(proteinsandlipids)andsomeflavour
componentsarevolatilized.Ifdryingisnotdonecarefully,ceramelizationandsugarinversioninacidfoods
arelikelytooccur.
Some plant materials can be stored at 20 to 30 C provided they can be cooled to low temperature
within1h.Freezingofsamplesinairandmoistureproofcontainersbyrapidfreezingandstorageatless
than 6.7 C prevents microbial activity but not the enzyme activity which continues to occur at
temperature down to 40 C, although it a slower rate. Plant acid phosphatases function at 28 C in
frozen state, so, issues or extracts for studies of phosphate metabolism can be stored in the cold after
drying. Most foods are preserved best by freezedrying. Fresh foods, in which enzymes have not been
inactivatedpriortofreezing,areespeciallysusceptibleenzymaticattackduringandafterthawing.
Storage of dried products at 0 to 10 C minimizes deterioration. To minimize oxidative changes,
preservationatlowtemperaturesundernitrogenisrecommendedformostfoods.Storagenhermetically
closedcontainersreducecompositionalchangesofrelativelydryfoodsatabout40C.
Sample rich in lipids must be chilled rapidly prior to extraction or frozen quickly for storage. Dry fat
samples should be stored under nitrogen or dissolved in petroleum ether. Storage in ethyl ether is
undesirablebecauseittendstoformoxidativeperoxides.Dilutionwithpetroleumetherandflushingina
streamofpurenitrogenisagoodpracticefortemporaryprotection.Additionofantioxidants(0.10.05%
of Propyl gallate or santoquin) is effective provided it does not interfere with the analytical
determinations. Polyunsaturated fatty acid, are less damaged when stored in frozen (20 C) intact
tissuesthanaftertheyareextractedfromthetissues.
Whiletakingsamplesstoredatlowtemperatureforanalysis,eitherentirecontainershouldbewarmedto
roomtemperatureoraportiontransferredquicklytoaclean,drystopperedcontainertoavoidchangein
moisturecontent.
To reduce or eliminate microbial attack, preservatives such as sorbic acid, sodium benzoate, sodium
salicylate, tyrosin, formaldehyde, mercuric chloride, toluene, or thymol are used. Selection of
preservatives,however,willdependuponthenatureoffood,expectedcontamination,storageperiodand
analysistobeperformed.
Allpreparedfoodsamplesshouldberapidlytransferredtodryglassorplasticcontainerswithwellfitted
lid,clearlylabeledandstoredatasuitablelowtemperature.
3.7. SamplingErrors
Sampling errors are caused by several factors. Lack of randomness in sample selection may result from
either instrumental limitations or deficiencies and from human bias. Manual methods of sampling
powdered or granular materials are subject to numerous errors. Baker et al. (1967) studied the factors
thatbiassamplingbytriers.Thesefactorsinclude:
Particle shaperound particles flow into the sampler compartments more readily than angular
particlesofsimilarsize;
Surface adhesivenessan uncoated hygroscopic material flows into the sampler Compartment
morereadilythannonhygroseopicmaterialsofsimilarshapeandofeitherlargerorsmallersize;
and
Differential downward movement of particles (on the basis of size) when disturbed during
sampling.
Changesincompositionmayoccurduringoraftersampling.Typicalchangesincludegainorlossofwater,
loss of volatiles, physical inclusion of gases, reaction with container material or foreign matter in
container, and damage to fruits or vegetables by mechanical injury leading to enhanced enzymatic or
chemicalchanges.
Themainproblemarises,however,fromthenonhomogeneityofmanyfoods.Bothmacroheterogeneity
(amongvariousunitsofalot)andmacroheterogeneity(withinvariouspartsofaunit)arecommon.The
latter is especially important in determinations of vitamins and other minor components. For example,

nicotinicacidandthiamineareconcentratedinthealeuroneandscutellumtissuesofthewheatkernel;
epidermiscellsofgrapesarerichinanthocyaninpigments;andessentialoilsincitrusfruitsaremainlyin
cellsoftheflavedolayer.Butmajorcomponentsalsoaredistributedunevenly.Proteins,lipids,minerals,
andcrudefiberarehigherintheouterlayersthanintheendospermofcerealgrains;variationsinwater,
sugars,andorganicacidsarefoundinvarioustissuesoffruitsandvegetables;andtheunevendistribution
offatinmeatmakesitimperativetoexpresssomeanalyticalvaluesonafatfreebasis.
Mostofthesedifficultiesareovercomebyfinegrindingandmixingoflargesamples.Insomeinstances,
however, attempts to homogenize a food sample are wrought with difficulties; in others, apparently
homogeneouspreparationshaveatendencytosegregateorstratify.Failuretorecognizeandappraisethe
variationsinasamplemaylimitoreveninvalidateconclusionsfromanalyticaldata.
Tosummarize,theaimofsamplingistosecureaportionofthematerialthatsatisfactorilyrepresentsthe
whole.Themoreheterogeneousthematerial,thegreaterthedifficultiesandrequiredeffortstoobtaina
trulyrepresentativesample.
4. PhysicochemicalandMechanicalPropertiesofFood
Appearancefactorsincludesuchthingsassize,shape,wholeness,anddifferentformsofdamage,gloss,
transparency,color,andconsistency.Forexample,applejuiceissoldbothascloudyandclearjuice.Each
hasadifferentappearanceandisoftenthoughtofasasomewhatdifferentproduct.
Texturalfactorsincludehandfeelandmouthfeeloffirmness,softness,juiciness,chewiness,grittiness.The
texture of a food is often a major determinant of how little or well we like a food. For example, many
people do not like cooked liver because of its texture. Texture of foods can be measured with
sophisticatedmechanicaltestingmachines.
Flavorfactorsincludebothsensationsperceivedbythetonguewhichincludesweet,salty,sour,andbitter,
andaromasperceivedbythenose.Theformerareoftenreferredtoas"flavors"andthelatter"aromas,"
althoughthesetermsareoftenusedinterchangeably.Flavorandaromaareoftensubjective,difficultto
measureaccurately,anddifficulttogetagroupofpeopletoagree.Apartoffoodsciencecalledsensory
scienceisdedicatedtofindingwaystousehumanstoaccuratelydescribetheflavorsandothersensory
propertiesoffoods.
There are hundreds of descriptive terms that have been invented to describe flavor, depending on the
typeoffood.Expertteatastershavealanguagealloftheirown,whichhasbeenpasseddowntomembers
oftheirguildfromgenerationtogeneration.Thisistrueofwinetastersaswell.
4.1. SensoryVocabulary
Sensoryevaluationinvolvesusingoneormoreteststodeterminedifferentcharacteristicsoffoodsuchas
appearance, odour, taste and texture. A wide range of vocabulary is used to describe sensory
characteristicsoffoodproducts.
Taste: Thetonguecandetectfourbasictastes: sweet,sour,saltandbitter.Tastesmay bedescribedby
associationwithaparticularfood,e.g.meaty,mintyorfruity.Theintensitycanalsoberecorded.
Texture:Texturemaybeassessedthroughtouch.Whenfoodisplacedinthemouth,thesurfaceofthe
tongueandothersensitiveskinreactstothefeelofthesurfaceofthefood.Differentsensationsarefeltas
thefoodischewed.
Aroma: The nose detects volatile aroma released from food. An odour may be described in association
withaparticularfood,e.g.herby,cheesy,fishy.Theintensitycanalsoberecorded.
Appearance: A product's size, shape, colour and surface texture cam be described, e.g. large, small,
oblong,square,pink,yellow,rough.
Odour Taste Appearance Texture

Floral Sweet Heavy Brittle

Rotten Cool Flat Rubbery
Perfumed Bitter Fizzy Short
Acrid Zesty Crystalline Gritty
Musty Warm Wet Clammy
Fragrant Hot Cuboid Close
Scented Tangy Fragile Stodgy
Pungent Sour Dull Bubbly
Sharp Sandy
Rich Tacky
Salty Tender
Waxy
Open
Soft

Odour and taste work together to produce a These words may be used to describe either
flavour.Thesewordsmaybeusedtodescribe appearanceortextureoffoodproducts.
eitherodourortasteoffoodproducts.
FirmFlakyCrispFluffy
BlandRancidTartAcidic DryCrumblyLumpySmooth
StrongCitrusMildSpicy HardMushySticky
TaintedWeakSavoury
4.2. AppearanceFactors
Inadditiontosize,shape,andwholeness,pattern(e.g.,thewayolivesarelaidoutinajarorsardinesina
can)canbeanimportantappearancefactor.Wholenessreferstodegreeofwholeandbrokenpieces;the
price of canned pineapple goes down from the whole rings, to chunks, to bits. Appearance also
encompassesthepositiveandnegativeaspectsofproperlymoldedblueveinedcheeses,andthedefectof
moldybread,aswellasthequalityattributeofgroundvanillabeanspecksin vanilla icecream, andthe
defect of specks and sediment from extraneous matter. Although some ice cream manufacturers have
addedgroundvanillabeanasamarkofhighestquality,othershaveconcludedthatasoftenasnotaless
sophisticatedconsumermisinterpretsthesespecksandrejectstheproduct.
4.2.1. SizeandShape
Sizeandshapeareeasilymeasuredandareimportantfactors.Fruitsandvegetablescanbegradedforsize
by the openings they will pass through. The simple devices were the forerunners of current highspeed
automaticseparatingandgrading machines,althoughtheyare stillusedtosomeextentinfieldgrading
and in laboratory work. Size also can be approximated by weight after rough grading, for example,
determiningtheweightofadozeneggs.Shapemayhavemorethanvisualimportance,andthegradesof
certain types of such curiosities can become quite pickles include the degree of curvature important,
especiallyinthedesignofmachinestoreplacehandoperations.
Whenanengineerattemptstodesignamachineforautomaticallyfillingpicklesintojarsathighspeeds,it
must be recognized that all pickles are not shaped the same, and a machine that will dispense round
objects like olives or cherries can be totally inadequate. Mechanized kitchen, restaurant, and vending
systems for rapid mass feeding have become commonplace. Some of the most difficult engineering
problems encountered in such facilities were in designing equipment that would dispense oddshaped
foodpiecesintomovingdishes.
4.2.2. ColorandGloss
Foodcolornotonlyhelpstodeterminequality,itcantellusmanythings.Coloriscommonlyanindexof
ripeness or spoilage. Potatoes darken in color as they are fried and we judge the endpoint of frying by
color.Thebleachingofdriedtomatopowderonstoragecanbeindicativeoftoohighanoxygenlevelin
theheadspaceofthepackage,whereasthedarkeningofdriedtomatocanreflecttoohighafinalmoisture

levelinthepowder.Thecolorofafoodfoamorbattervarieswithitsdensityandcanindicateachangein
mixing efficiency. The surface color of chocolate is a clue to its storage history. These and many other
types of color changes can be accurately measured in the laboratory and in the plantall influence or
reflectfoodquality.
Ifthefoodisatransparentliquidsuchaswine,beer,orgrapejuice,orifacoloredextractcanbeobtained
from the food, then various types of calorimeters or spectrophotometers can be used for color
measurement. With these instruments, a tube of the liquid is placed in a slot and light of selected
wavelengthispassedthroughthetube.
Thislightwillbedifferentiallyabsorbeddependingonthecoloroftheliquidandtheintensityofthiscolor.
Two liquids of exactly the same color and intensity will transmit equal fractions of the light directed
throughthem.Ifoneoftheliquidsisajuiceandtheotheristhesamejuicesomewhatdilutedwithwater,
thelattersamplewilltransmitagreaterfractionoftheincominglightandthiswillcauseaproportionately
greaterresponseonthe instrument.Suchan instrumentcanalsomeasuretheclarityorcloudinessofa
liquid depending on the amount of light the liquid lets pass. There are several other methods for
measuring,thecolorofliquids.
Ifthefoodisliquidorasolid,wecanmeasureitscolorbycomparingthereflectedcolortodefinedcolored
tilesorchips.Thequalitycontrolinspectorchangestilesuntiltheclosestcolormatchismade andthen
defines the color of the food as being identical to the matching tile or falling between the two nearest
tiles.Workingwithtomatoproducts,onewouldneedtohaveonlyafewgreenandreddiskstocoverthe
usualrangeoftomatocolor.Thegradestandardsfortomatoeshavebeenbasedonsuchamethod.
Color measurement can be further quantified. Light reflected from a colored objectcan be divided into
three components, which have been termed value, hue, and chroma. Value refers to the lightness or
darknessofthecolorortheamountofwhiteversusblack;huetothepredominantwavelengthreflected,
which determines what the perceived color is (red, green, yellow, blue, etc); and chroma refers to the
intensitystrengthofthecolor.Thecolorofanobjectcanbepreciselydefinedintermsofnumericalvalues
of thesethree components.Anotherthreedimensionalcoordinatescale for describingcolorutilizes the
attributesoflightnessdarkness,yellownessblueness,andrednessgreenness.Thesedimensionsofcolor,
usedintristimuluscolorimetry,canbequantifiedbyinstrumentssuchastheHunterlabColorandColor
DifferenceMeter.
Foodsampleshavingthesamethreenumbershavethesamecolor.Thesenumbers,aswellasnumbers
representing value, hue, and chroma, vary with color in a systematic fashion that can be graphed to
produce a chromaticity diagram. The color chemist and quality controller can relate these numbers to
colorandthroughchangesinthenumberscanfollowgrossorminutechangesinproductsthatmayoccur
during ripening, processing, or storage. In similar fashion a quality controller can define the color of a
productandrelatethisinformationtodistantplantstobematchedatanyfuturedate.Thisisparticularly
usefulwherethefoodcolorissounstableastomaketheforwardingofastandardsampleunfeasible.
As with color, there are lightmeasuring instruments that quantitatively define the shine, or gloss, of a
foodsurface.Glossisimportanttotheattractivenessofgelatindesserts,butteredvegetables,andthelike.
The theory of color, the method of determining the relationship of color does not address the actual
factorsinfluencetheappearanceofthefooditself.
Of the sensory attributes of food, those related to appearance are the most susceptible to objective
measurement.Therearetwoseparatetypesofcategoriesofappearance:
1. Colorattributesrelatedtothewavelengthdistributionoflight.
2. Geometricattributesrelatedtothespecialdistribution.
Ofthesetwo,colorisbyfarthemostimportantsofarasfoodsgo.Themostfrequentuseoffoodcolor
measurementsisasobjectiveindicesoffoodquality.Theinitialconceptthatmustbestressedisthatcolor
specification of a material is simply the specification of a point of threedimensional space. This three
dimensionalspace,whethervisualormathematical,hasbecomeknownasacolorsolid.
OnoftheearliestandmostsuccessfulattempttodevelopavisualcolorsolidwasthatofA.H.Munsellin
theearly1900's.
Thecolortheoryisthatlightismadeofred,blue,andgreen.Thereareavarietyofstandardsincolorwork
which one must become familiar. In addition to those standards which we in foods are most familiar,
therearethemanyfoundthatpertaintootherareaswherecolorisimportant.Therearealmostasmany
colorants andcolorcomponentsastherearechemicalcompounds;however,theycanbeclassified into
majorcategories.

Brownsandblackishcolorscanbeeitherenzymaticornonenzymaticreactions.Themajornonenzymatic
reactionofgreatestinteresttoscientists,basedonrateofpublicationistheMaillardReaction,whichis
the dominant browning reaction. There are other less explained reactions, such as the blackening in
potatoesorthebrowninginorangejuice
NaturalColorantsofferanadvantageinthattheycanbeaddedtofoodswithouttakingintoconsideration
certificationbytheFDA.
Table9 Colours'Specifications
Red When Red Dye No. 1 was removed for potential carcinogenic influence. Red beets and the
betalainshavebeenexploredasapossiblesubstitute.Thebeetflavorintheextracthasbeena
problem.Unfortunately,duringprocessinginacidfoods(lessthanpH7)thecombinationofheat
andacidturnstheredcolorintoastrawcolor.
Thewinegrapeskinsserveasa sourceforredcolor.Althoughtheyare anthocyanins,theyare
unstable in storage, susceptible to pH changes and difficult to characterize chemically as
processingmaypolymerizeordegradethem.
Paprika powders and paprika oleoresins contain carotenoid pigments which serve as colorants;
however,theirdisadvantageisthattheyhaveadistinctivepepperyflavor.
Although natural, less acceptable are two red colorants from insects. Cochineal, when purified
formscarmine,comesfromthefemaleinsectwhichgrowonacactusandrootsofsometrees.
Carminehasananthrquionestructure.
Cathazanthinisanothernaturalcarotenoidwhichcanbesynthesized.
Monascus,amoldoncereals,isacolorantusedintheChina,Japan,Taiwan.
Yellow Carotenoids maycontributeanyellowcolor.Althoughtheseareavailablenaturallyfromplants
such as carrots, algae, and palm oil, they can be synthesized. Selected ones which has been
synthesizedarebetacarotene,apo8carotenalandethylapocarotenoate.
Annattoplantisa,relatively,watersolublecarotenoidfromtheannattoplant.
Althoughveryexpensive,saffronisayellowcolorantusedasaspiceduetoitscoloranddelicate
flavor.Itcomesfromthestigmasofthecrocusplant.
Turmeric, from the rhizomes of the curcuma plant, is a yellow colorant. It is often used with
cauliflowerinpickles.
CarthaminfromtheCarthemusplantisusedforyellowcolor.
Green Natural green colors come from chlorophyll and its derivatives. Copper chlorophyllis gives a
particularlybrillantgreencolorduetothereplacementoftheMgwithCu
Blue Theanthocyaninssuchasareinblueberriesoffersapotentialtoserveasacolorant.
Bluephycobilinsarebluegreenpigmentproteincomplexesfromalgae.
Brown Caramel is the primary "natural" colorant for foods and beverages. This comes from a
degradation of carbohydrates in acid or alkali with a catalysts. Extractants from the Maillard
reaction are also serving as a brown color. A number of other sources of brown colorants are
from the cocoa bean (pods, shells, stems) and fermented tea. These are a complex mixture of
flavonoids,phenolics,tannins,leucoanthocyanins,etc.
4.2.3. MeasuringTexture
Foodtexturecanbereducedtomeasurementsofresistancetoforce.Iffoodissqueezedsothatitremains
asonepiece,thisiscompressionaswiththesqueezingofbread.Ifaforceisappliedsothatonepartof
thefoodslidespastanother,itisshearingasinthechewingofgum.Aforcethatgoesthroughthefoodso
astodivideitcausescuttingasincuttinganapple.
Aforceappliedawayfromthematerialresultsintearingorpullingapart,whichisameasureofthefood's
tensilestrengthasinpullingapartamuffin.Whenwechewasteak,whatwecalltoughnessortenderness
is really the yielding of the meat to a composite of all of these different kinds of forces. There are
instruments to measure each kind of force, many with appropriate descriptive names but none exactly
duplicatewhatoccursinthemouth.
Manyspecializedtestinstrumentshavebeendevisedtomeasuresomeattributeoftexture.Forexample,
a succulometer uses compression to squeeze juice out of food as a measure of succulence. A
Tenderometer applies compression and shear to measure the tenderness of peas. A universal testing
machine fitted with the appropriate devices can measure firmness and crispness and other textural

parameters.Thisandsimilarinstrumentsfrequentlyareconnectedtoamovingrecordingchart.Thetime
forcecurvetracedonthechartgivesa graphicrepresentationoftheTheologicalpropertiesofthe food
item. When an apple half is tested, the tracing would show an initial high degree of force required to
break the skin, and then a change in force as the compressingshearing element enters and passes
throughtheapplepulp.
Variousformsofpenetrometerareinuse.Thesegenerallymeasuretheforcerequiredtomoveaplunger
afixeddistancethroughafoodmaterial.Aparticularpenetrometerusedtomeasuregelstrengthisthe
BloomGelometer.Inthisdevice,leadshotisautomaticallydroppedintoacupattachedtotheplunger.

Picture10UniversalTextureAnalyser
Theplungerpositionedabovethegelsurfacemovesafixeddistancethroughthegeluntilitmakescontact
withaswitchthatcutsofftheflowofleadshot.Theweightofshotingrams,which1%proportionaltothe
firmnessofthegel,isreportedasdegreesBloom.Thisisonewayofmeasuringthe"strength"ofgelatin
andtheconsistencyofgelatindesserts.Anotherkindofpenetrometer,alsoreferredtoasatenderometer,
utilizesamultipleneedleprobethatispressedintotheribeyemuscleofrawbeef.Theforceneededis
sensedbyatransduceranddisplayedonameter.Thecarefullyengineeredneedleprobewasdesignedto
give readings that correlate with the tenderness of the meat after cooking, while at the same time not
alteringtherawmeatforfurtheruse.
Severaloftheabovemethodsformeasuringtexturealterthefoodsamplebeingtested,sothatitcannot
be returned to a production batch. Since there are correlations between color and texture in some
instances,thereareapplicationswherecolormaybeusedasanindicationofacceptabletexture.Under
controlled conditions automatic color measurement may then be used as a nondestructive measure of
texture; this is done in the evaluation of the ripeness of certain fruits and vegetables moving along
conveyorbelts.Anothernondestructiveindicationoftextureisobtainedbytheexperiencedcheesemaker
whothumpstheoutsideofacheese,andlistenstothesound.
ThisgivesaroughindicationofthedegreeofeyeformationduringripeningofSwisscheese.Oneofthe
newermethodsofnondestructivetexturemeasurementmakesuseofsonicenergy,whichisabsorbedto
differentextentsdependingonthefirmnessofanobject.
4.2.3.1. TextureChanges
The texture of foods, likeshape andcolor, does not remain constant.Water changes playa majorrole.
Foodsalsocanchangetextureonageing.Textureoffreshfruitandvegetablesbecomessoggyasthecell
wallsbreakdownandthecellslosewater.Thisisreferredtoaslossofturgor.Asmorewaterislostfrom
thefruit,itbecomesdriedout,tough,andchewy.Thisisdesirableinthecaseofdriedapricots,prunes,
andraisins.Breadandcakeinthecourseofbecomingstalelosesomewaterandthisisaqualitydefect.
Steamingthebreadrefreshesitsomewhatbysofteningthetexture.Crackers,cookies,andpretzelsmust
beprotectedagainstmoisturepickupthatwouldsoftentexture.
Quiteapartfromchangesinthetextureofunprocessedfoods,therearethetexturalaspectsofprocessed
foods. For example, lipids are softeners and lubricants that the baker blends into a cake formula to
tenderizecake.Starchandnumerousgumsarethickeners;theyincreaseviscosity.
Proteininsolutioncanbeathickener,butifthesolutionisheatedandtheproteincoagulates,itcanform
a rigid structure as in the case of cooked egg white or coagulated gluten in baked bread. Sugar affects

texturedifferentlydependingonitsconcentration.Indilutesolutionitaddsbodyandmouthfeeltosoft
drinks. In concentrated solution it adds thickening and chewiness. In still higher concentrations it
crystallizesandaddsbrittlenessasinhardcandies.
Thefoodmanufacturernotonlycanblendfoodconstituentsintoanendlessnumberofmixturesbutmay
usecountlessapprovedingredientsandchemicalstohelpmodifytexture.
4.2.3.2. Consistency
Although consistency may be considered a textural quality attribute, in many instances we can see
consistency and so it also is another factor in food appearance. Chocolate syrup may be thinbodied or
thick and viscous; a tomato sauce can be thick or thin. Consistency of such foods is measured by their
viscosity, higher viscosity products being of higher consistency and lower viscosity being lower
consistency.
Thesimplestmethodtodetermineconsistencyistomeasurethetimeittakesforthefoodtoruffthrough
asmallholeofaknowndiameter;oronecanmeasurethetimeittakesformoreviscousfoodstoflow
downaninclinedplaneusingtheBostwickConsistometer.Thisdevicemightbeusedforketchup,honey,
orsugarsyrup.Thesedevicesarecalledviscometers.Thereareseveralothertypesofviscometersusing
suchprinciplesastheresistanceofthefoodtoafailingweightsuchasaball,andthetimeittakestheball
to travel a defined distance; and resistance to the rotation of a spindle, which can be measured by the
powerrequirementsofthemotorortheamountoftwistonawiresuspendingthespindle.
4.2.3.3. TextureTheoryandDiscussion
Textureisamechanicalbehavioroffoodsmeasuredbysensory(physiological/psychological)orphysical
(rheology)means.
Rheologyisthestudyofthescienceofdeformationofmatter.Therearefourmainreasonsforstudying
rheology.
1. Studyallowsinsightintostructure.
2. Usedinrawmaterialandprocesscontrolinindustry.
3. Applicationstomachinedesign.
4. Relevancetoacceptabilitybytheconsumer
However irregardless of the reason for study texture, it is difficult to classify and sharply understand
because of the enormous range of materials and food materials behave differently under different
conditions. Part of the problem is that to study the texture of foods one needs to have reference or
standardmaterials.Ifonehasagoodreferencematerialitshouldbestructureless(therearenoatoms),
isotropic(samepropertiesinalldirections),andimaginary(doesnotexistinreality).
If one really wanted to understand texture and the relationships of stressstrain and deformation, they
shoulddealwithrepresentativemodels.Someoftheseareasfollows:
Hookesolid(idealsolid)
KelvinVoigtmodel(viscoelasticsolid)
Binghammodel(idealplastic)
Maxwellmodel(viscoelasticliquid)
Newtonianfluid(idealliquid)
Texture testing in foods is based upon the action of stress and strain. Many of the methods are based
upon compression, shearing, shearpressure, cutting or tensile strength. These are reviewed in the
followingfigurewhichdefinestheidealreferencematerialsintermsofshearandstress.
4.2.3.4. FundamentalTesting
Fundamentalrheologicaltestresultsarereturnedintermsofkilograms,meters,andseconds.Whatever
the method used, the same result is obtained within the experimental error. Unfortunately food is
exceedinglycomplicatedrheologicallyandfundamentaltestingisoftenlaboriousandtimeconsumingand
does not give simple answers. An empirical method may provide very useful information even if the
resultscannotbecomparedfordifferentmethodsoftest.
4.2.3.5. EmpiricalTesting
Empiricaltestsarethosetestswhichhavebeenfoundtopracticallycorrelatewithtexturalquality.They
correlatewithtexturalqualities.Theymayincludepuncture,shear,andextrusiontests.

4.2.3.6. ApparentTesting
Manyofthetestsusedinevaluatingfoodsaredependentupontheconditionsandthemethodofhanding
theingredientsandfood.Followingaresomeareasthatareofinterest.
4.2.3.7. Viscosity
Viscosityissimplydefinedasbeingresistancetoflow.However,therealquestionisthetypeofflowhow
doesstressandstrainimpactit?ViscosityexistsasbothNewtonianandNonNewtonianfluids.
4.3. FlavorFactors
Flavorisacombinationofbothtasteandsmellsandislargelysubjectiveandthereforehardtomeasure.
Thisfrequentlyleadstodifferencesofopinionbetweenjudgesofquality.Thisdifferenceofopinionisto
beexpectedsincepeoplediffer intheirsensitivitytodetectdifferenttastesandodors,andevenwhere
theycandetectthem,peopledifferintheirpreference.Insomecultures,strongsmellingfishisdesirable,
whereasinotherssuchfishwouldbeunacceptable.
Theflavorofagivenfoodisdeterminedbyboththemixtureofsalt,sour,bitter,andsweettastesandby
the endless number of compounds which give foods characteristic aromas. Thus, the flavor of a food is
quitecomplexandhasnotbeencompletelydescribedformostfoods.Addingtothiscomplexityisthefact
thatthesamefoodisoftenperceiveddifferentlybydifferentindividuals.Thisdifferenceisduetocultural
andbiologicaldifferencesbetweenpeople.
4.3.1. InfluenceofColorandTextureonFlavor
Judgmentsaboutflavoroftenareinfluencedbycolorandtexture.Forexample,weassociatesuchflavors
as cherry, raspberry, and strawberry with the color red. Actually, the natural flavor essences and the
chemicalstheycontainarecolorless.Butinnaturetheyoccurinfoodsoftypicalcolorandsoweassociate
orangeflavorwiththeorangecolor,cherrywithred,limewithgreen,chickenflavorwithyellow,andbeef
flavorwithbrown.
IfgelatintypedessertsCarepreparedwithoutcolor,inexperiencedtasterswillfindithardtodistinguish
lime from cherry. If we color the limeflavored item red and the cherryflavored item green, then the
challenge becomes still greater. Butter and margarine may be colored by the addition of a dye. Many
consumerswillagreethatoftwosamples,theyellowonehasthestrongerbutterflavor,butthismaynot
actually be the case. This is the reason "blind" testing is often employed in flavor evaluation, colored
lightingbeingthemeansofmaskingoutaninfluencingcolor.
Texture can be equally misleading. When one of two identical samples of gravy is thickened with a
tastelessstarchorgum,manywilljudgethethickersampletohavethericherflavor.Thiscanbeentirely
psychological.However,thelinebetweenpsychologicalandphysiologicalreactionsisnotalwayseasyto
draw.Ourtastebudsrespondinacomplexfashionnotyetfullyunderstood.Manychemicalscanaffect
tasteresponsetoothercompounds.Itisentirelypossiblefortexturizingsubstancestoinfluencetasteand
flavor in a fashion that is not imaginary. If a thickener affects the solubility or volatility of a flavor
compound,itsindirectinfluenceonthenoseortonguecouldbeveryreal.
5. EvaluationofFoodQualitybySensoryEvaluation
Qualityistheultimatecriterionofthedesirabilityofanyfoodproduct.Foodqualitycanbeevaluatedby
sensoryandobjectivemethods.
5.1. SensoryEvaluation
Whenthequalityofafoodproductisassessedbymeansofhumansensoryorgans,theevaluationissaid
tobesensoryorsubjectiveororganoleptic.Everytimefoodiseatenajudgementismade.
Sensoryqualityisacombinationofdifferentsensesofperceptioncomingintoplayinchoosingandeating
afood.Appearance,flavourandmouthfeeldecidetheacceptanceofthefood.
The effective characteristic is not the property of the food, but the subject's reaction to the sensory
qualitiesoffoods.Thisreactionishighlyconditionedbyavarietyofpsychologicalandsocialfactorsandin
thefinalanalysis,playsavitalroleintheacceptanceandpreferenceoffoods.
5.2. SensoryCharacteristicsofFood

5.2.1. Appearance
Surface characteristics of food products contribute to the appearance. Scrambled egg with a very dry
surfaceisnotacceptable.Fudgewithaglossysurfaceisratedhigh.
Interior appearancecan alsobeevaluated. Lumps ina pudding or gravy which are notdesirablecan be
judgedbytheeye.
Sight plays a role in the assessment of the lightness of foods like the bread, cakes and idli. Keep this
perception of the size, shape of the foods and of such characteristics as transparency, opaqueness,
turbidity,dullnessandglossismediatedbytheorgansofsight.
Qualityoffishcanbeascertainedbythebrightnessoftheeyesoffish.Qualityofsweetlimescanbefound
outbyappearance.Iftheskinisthinitisjuicier.Infestationwithinsectscanbefoundoutinbrinjalbythe
appearanceofblackspotsonit.Completenessofcookingcanbejudgedbyappearanceinproductslike
meatandrice.
5.2.2. Colour
Inadditiontogivingpleasure,thecolouroffoodisassociatedwithotherattributes.Ripenessoffruitslike
banana,tomato,mango,guava,papayaandplumcanbeassessedbythecolour.Colourisusedasanindex
tothequalityofanumberoffoods.Thestrengthofcoffeeandteaisjudgedinpartbythecolourofthe
beverages.Thecolourofroastbeefisusedasanindextodoneness.Toast,dosa,andchapathiwhichare
toobrownarelikelytoberejectedinanticipationofscorchedbittertaste.
5.2.3. Flavour
The flavouroffoodhasthreecomponentsodour,tasteand acompositeof sensations knownasmouth
feel.
5.2.4. Odour
Theodouroffoodcontributesimmeasurablytothepleasureofeating.Asubstancewhichproducesodour
must be volatile and the molecules of the substance must come in contact with receptors in the
epithelium of the olfactory organ. It is estimated that the olfactory sense of man has the capacity to
distinguish16millionodours.
Aroma is able to penetrate even beyond the visual range when comparatively volatile compounds are
abundantasistrueinboilingsambar.
The volatility of aromas is related to the temperature of the food. High temperatures tend to volatilise
aromatic compounds, making them quite ap parent for judging; cool or cold temperatures inhibit
volatilisation.
5.2.5. Taste
Wevaluefoodforitstaste.Tastesensationwhichthetastebudsregisterarecategorisedassweet,salt,
sourorbitter.Tastebudsinthedifferentareasofthetonguearenotequallysensitivetoalltastestimuli
andatleastsometastecellsrespondtomorethanonestimulus.Tastebudsnearthetipofthetongueare
moresensitivetosweetandsalt.Thoseonthesidestosourandthosenearthebacktobitter.
Thesensationknownassourisassociatedwithhydrogenionssuppliedbyacidslikevinegarandbythose
foundinfruitsandvegetables.Salttasteisduetoionsofsalt.Sodiumchlorideissaidtobetheonlyone
withapuresaltsensation.
Substanceswhichelicitthesweetsensationareprimarilyorganiccompoundslikealcohols,certainamino
acids,andaldehydes.Glyceroltastesmildlysweet.Sugarsarethemainsourceofsweetnessinfood.Not
all sugars are equally sweet. Fructose gives the most intense sweet sensation followed by sucrose,
glucose,maltose,galactoseandlactose.Sweetnessappearstobeassociatedwiththehydroxylradicalson
thesugarmolecules.
The concentration required for identification is known as the "threshold" for that particular substance.
Individualsdifferintheirsensitivitytothefourtastesensationsandthethresholdforeachoftheprimary
tastesisusuallynotatthesamelevelinanyoneindividual.Thepleasantsensationsineatingcomemore
fromodourthanfromtaste.
5.2.5.1. Tasteinteraction
Foods contain mixture of substances which elicit all four taste sensations. Salt in sub threshold
concentration reduces the tartness of acid. Some threshold concentrations of salt also increase the

apparentsweetnessofsucrose.Theadditionofsalttolimejuice,sherbet,lassi,andtofruitslikeappleor
guavaimprovethetaste.
Converselyacidsinsubthresholdconcentrationintensifythesaltinessofsodiumchloridesoitiseasyto
over salt tart foods. Sugar in sub threshold concentration reduces the saltiness of sodium chloride so a
pinchofsugarmayimprovevegetablesoupthathasbeenoversalted.Sugaralsoreducesthesournessof
acidsandthebitternessofcoffee.
5.2.5.2. Mouthfeel
Textureandconsistencyandhotnessorburningsensationofpeppercanbefeltinthemouth.
5.2.5.3. Temperature
Hotandcoldsensationscontributetothecompositeflavourofafoodlikecoffee,souporicecream.Taste
sensationsarelessintenseasthetemperatureoffoodisloweredbelow20Candraisedabove30C.Thus
really hotcoffee is notas bitter as thatwhichhas cooled in the cup,iced coffee isnotas bitterasthat
whichiswarmbutnotreallyhot.Meltedicecreamtastesunpleasantlysweetalthoughinthefrozenstate
itisacceptable.
5.2.5.4. Texture
Textureinicecreamdependsuponthesizeofthecrystals.Howtheyfeelonthetongueischaracterizedas
coarseorfine.Coarsetexturedcrystallineproductsaresaidtobegrainy.
The brittleness of food is another aspect of texture. Tissues in a raw vegetable and fruit are brittle or
crunchy.Thecellsoffermoderateresistancetofractionbythepressureoftheteethe.g.crispnessofapple
andrawcarrots.
Tendernessinfruitsandvegetablesdependsonhoweasilythecellsseparate.Inmeatseaseofseparation
ofthelean(withoutfat)tissuedeterminesthetenderness.Tendernessinpastryisassessedbytheease
withwhichthecrispcrustbreaks.
5.2.5.5. Astringency
It is dry puckery sensation believed to be due to precipitation of the proteins in the saliva and in the
mucous membrane lining of the mouth which deprives them of their lubricating character. Astringent
substancesmayalsoconstricttheductsleadingfromthesalivaryglandstothemouth.Unripefruitslike
cashewfruit,woodapple,blueberryandgooseberryareastringent.
5.2.5.6. Consistency
Icecreamsmaybetoohardortoosoftwhichcanbefoundoutbymouthfeel.Gravies,saucesandsyrups
rangeinconsistencyfromthicktothin.Temperaturemayaffecttheconsistencyoffoode.g.ghee,butter,
cheeseandicecreams.
Theconsistencyofsoftcustardbesidesbeingthickorthinmaybesmoothorcurdled.Creamsoupsmaybe
smoothorlumpy.Gelsmayberubberyorfragile(easilybreakable).Particlesofcookedcerealcanbepasty
orseparateingrains.
5.2.5.7. Psychologicalfactors
In addition to colour, odour, taste and mouth feet certain psychological factors contribute to the
acceptabilityoffoods.Foodisacceptedwhenthereispleasantassociation.
5.3. ConductingSensoryTests
Sensorytestsarewellintegratedwiththeoverallplanofdevelopmentoftheproduct.
5.3.1. Trainedpanelmembers
Thesensoryqualities,particularlytheflavourattributesareessentiallytobemeasuredsubjectively.From
earlytimesthisjudginghasbeenthepreserveofexpertswhousedtoevaluatetea,coffeeandwine.With
the development of sensory evaluation techniques on scientific lines, the experts are being replaced by
panelswhosesensitivityandconsistencyhavebeenestablishedbytrainingandrepeatedtests.Thepanel
members analyse food products through properly planned experiments and their judgements are
quantifiedbyappropriatestatisticalanalysis.

5.3.2. Selectionofpanelofjudges
Actually one extremely discriminating pains taking and unbiased individual would suffice for tasting.
Furtheroneindividualmaynotbeabletodiscriminatedifferentaspectsoffoodquality.Henceapanelof
judgesmaybeused.Membersofthepanelshouldbecarefullyselectedandtrainedtofindoutdifference
inspecificqualitycharacteristicsbetweendifferentstimuliandalsodirectionandintensityofdifference.
Therequirementsforanidealpanelmemberareasfollows.
(i) He should be able to discriminate easily between samples and should be able to distinguish
appreciabledifferencesintasteandsmell.
(ii) Heshouldhavegoodhealth.Ifheissufferingfromcoldhissensitivitymaybeaffected.Asickpatient
cannotjudgethefoodcorrectly.Heshouldnotbehabituatedtochewingpanorsupari.
(iii) Heshouldbeexperiencedintheparticularfield.
(iv) Heshouldhavehighpersonalintegrity.Heshouldnotbeprejudiced.Heshouldbeabletoevaluate
objectively.
(v) Willingnesstospendtimeforthesensoryevaluationworkisrequired.
(vi) Heshouldhaveinterestinsensoryanalysisofsamplesandintellectualcuriosity.
(vii) Heshouldhaveabilitytoconcentrateandderiveproperconclusion.
(viii) Heshouldbeavailableandwillingtosubmittoperiodictesttogetconsistentresults.
Candidatespossessingthesequalitiesmustbeindexedwithdetailsofage,sex,specificlikesanddislikes
availability.
Therearedifferenttypesofpanels:
5.3.2.1. Trainedpanel
Laboratory panels must then be carefully trained for specific products or purposes. These tests aim at
finding differences in specific quality characteristics between different stimuli and also direction and/or
intensity of the difference. Periodically the panel is given refresher training and tests. The number of
membersinthetrainedpanelshouldbesmallvaryingfrom5to10.
5.3.2.2. Discriminative,communicativeorsendtrainedpanels
These panels are constituted of technical people and their families, who are normally familiar with the
qualities of different types of food. They are capable, with few preliminary test runs, of following
instructionsfortestsgiven,discriminatingdifferencesandcommunicatingtheirreactions.Suchpanelsof
2530areusedtofindtheacceptabilityorpreferenceoffinalexperimentalproductspriortolargescale
consumertrials.
5.3.2.3. Consumerpanels
Such panels are made up of untrained people chosen at random to represent a crosssection of the
populationforwhichtheproductisintended.Thegreaterthenumberthegreaterthedependabilityofthe
result.Agroupofnotlessthan100isconsideredtheminimum.
5.3.3. Testinglaboratory
Testinglaboratoryconsistsofthreeseparateunits.
5.3.3.1. Receptionroom
wherethepanelmembersmeetthepersoninchargeofthelaboratoryandgetacquaintedwiththetype
ofthesamplestobetested.
5.3.3.2. Samplepreparationroom
whichiscleanandwellequippedforthepreparationandservingofsamples.
5.3.3.3. Testbooths
arewheretheactualsensoryevaluationofthesamplesarecarriedoutbythepanelmembers.
Theentiretestinglaboratoryshouldbeairconditioned,freefromnoiseandextraneousodours.
Wheneversampleswithdifferenceincoloursaretested,colourlightsshouldbeusedtomaskthe
colourofthesamples.
Stainless steel, glass and dishes and cups and plain serving china are the most convenient as
utensils.

5.3.4. Preparationofsamples
Samplesforpresentationmustbefromhomogeneouslot.Carefulsamplingofthefoodisnecessaryfor
sensoryevaluation.Samplestobetestedshouldbepreparedbyidenticalmethods.Allsamplesshouldbe
at the same temperature, optimum level and kept constant during the test. Stainless steel forks and
spoonscanbeusedfortastingthesamples.
Samplesarepresentedwith3to5digitcodemarkingstoobscuretheidentityofthesamples.Theorderof
presentationshouldalsoberandomisedwithineachtestsession.
5.3.5. Techniquesofsmellingandtasting
Forodourtestsoffoodproductsaspecialtechniqueisusedtoperceivethearomamoreclearly.Smelling
isdonewithshort,rapidsequenceofsniffs.Tastingofcoffeeorteaorfruitjuiceisdonebyslurping.One
teaspoonoftheliquidisrolledonthetonguesothattheliquidreachesallpartsofthetonguewherethe
tastebudsarelocated.
5.3.6. Testingtime
Testingshouldbedoneatatimewhenthepanelmembersarefresh.Thetesttimeisgenerallybetween
10to12inthemorning.Toomanysamplesshouldnotbegivenastheymayproducefatigueandleadto
errorsintheresults(Notmorethan45samplesatatime).
5.3.7. Designofexperiment
Experimentalerrorcanbeminimisedthroughtheuseoftechniquesofrandomizing.Astatisticaldesignis
usedinordertomeasurevariablesseparatelyandtogetherandtoestablishthesignificanceofresults.The
experimentshouldbedesignedonthebasisoftheaccuracyneededandtheamountofsampleavailable.
5.3.8. Reasonsfortestingfoodquality
5.3.8.1. Toknowtheconsumerpreference
Thishelpstheproducertodiscoverwhichqualitiesoftheproductneedtobedevelopedandemphasized.
Heshouldobtainthecrosssectionofallpotentialconsumers.Consumerpreferencepanelsmayconsistof
several hundred persons and the products are tested under ordinary conditions of use. The results are
considered to represent the taste of the significant portion of the population and are used to predict
marketoutlookforaproduct.
5.3.8.2. Toknowtheeffectofvariationinprocessingonquality
Tests are done to investigate the influence of factors in production. They should have the ability to
distinguishamongdegreesofdifferenceinflavour.Themembersofthistypeofpanelarenotrequiredto
be expert tasters of the product under investigation. Their highly developed ability to identify different
tastesinsimilarproductsisthekeyqualityrequired.Itspurposeistodeterminewhetheragivenvariation
inprocessinghasalteredthequalityofflavouroftheproducts.Itisalsousedtotesttheeffectsofstorage
andpackagingontwoitemsoriginallyalikebutsubjectedtodifferentstorageenvironment.
To detect the presence of offquality: Here the panel members are usually trained to recognise and to
evaluate the standard flavours of food so that they can use their powers of discrimination consistently,
e.g.rancidityinfatsandbutter.
5.3.9. EvaluationCard
The questionnaire or score card should be prepared carefully for each test. The card should be clearly
typedorprinted.Itshouldbesimpleanduseunambiguoustermsanddirectionsinthedesiredsequence
ofactionasaguidetotheevaluation.
Thedesignofscorecardsforsensoryevaluationischallenginganddifficultbecausethekeycharacteristics
of the product need to be evaluated on paper in a way that permits the judges to transmit their
assessments ofthe samples accuratelytotheresearcher. A score card with toomuch detail andclutter
maydiscouragecarefuljudgement;toobriefaformmayfailtoobtainsomeimportantinformation.
Ascorecardmaybeassimpleasindicatingwhichsampleisdifferentasisdonewhenduotrioortriangle
testing is the mode being used. A sheet for indicating rank order for a single characteristic also is
extremelysimple.Itisinthedescriptiveteststhatthescorecardbecomesacriticalpartoftheplanning
foranexperiment.
A table utilising the hedonic ratings ranging from unacceptable to very acceptable is relatively easy to
construct.

No single score card fits all experiments. Instead, the score cardneeds to be developed for the specific
experiment.Allscorecardsshouldcontainthedateandnameofthejudge.
5.4. TypesofTests
Differentsensorytestsareemployedforfoodevaluation.Thetestsaregroupedintofourtypes.
(i) Differencetests.
(ii) Ratingtests.
(iii) Sensitivitytests.
(iv) Descriptivetests.
Theselectionofaparticulartestmethodwilldependonthedefinedobjectiveofthetest,accuracydesired
andpersonnelavailableforconductingtheevaluation.
5.4.1. DifferenceTests
5.4.1.1. PairedComparisonTest
(i) Thepanelmembersreceiveseveralpairsofsamples.Thesemaybedifferentorthesamesamples
ineachpair.Samplesarealwaysgivenincodenumbers.
(ii) Different samples are given in each pair which differ in the intensity of one characteristic e.g.
sweetness,bitternessorrancidity.Ineachpairthesamplewithmoreorlessintensetastewill
havetobepickedout.

Picture11SpecimenEvaluationCardofPairedComparisionTest
5.4.1.2. DuoTrioTest
Thistestemploysthreesamples,twoidenticalandonedifferent.Thepanelisfirstgivenoneofthepairof
identicalsamplesasknownreferencesampleandthentheothertwosuccessivelyinrandomorder,and
askedtomatchoneofthesewiththefirst.Apositiveanswerisrequiredevenifitisaguess.Thechance
probabilityofplacingthesamplesinacertainorderisonehalf.
Trainedoruntrainedpanelistscanbeused.

Picture12SpecimenEvaluationCardofDuoTrioTest
5.4.1.3. TriangleTest
Thistestemploysthreesamples,twoidenticalandonedifferent,presentedsimultaneouslytothepanel.
Thejudgeisaskedtodeterminewhichofthethreetheoddsampleis.Apositiveanswerisrequiredevenif
itisaguess.Sinceallthreesamplesareunknown,thechanceprobabilityofplacingthesampleinacertain
order is onethird. Two samples A and B can be presented in two combinations AAB and BBA and for
replicationinsixdifferentarrangementsAAB,ABA,BAA,BAB,ABBandBBA.
Note:Withexperienceitispossibletostudyanotherdimension,thedegreeofdifferenceinthistest.

Picture13SpecimenEvaluationCardofTriangleTest
5.4.2. RatingTests
These tests give more quantitative data than difference tests and can be used for the analysis of more
thantwosamplesatthesametime.
5.4.2.1. RankingTest
Thistestisusedtodeterminehowseveralsamplesdifferonthebasisofasinglecharacteristic.Acontrol
neednotbeidentified.Panelistsarepresentedallsamplessimultaneously(includingastandardorcontrol
ifused)withcodenumbersandareaskedtorankallsamplesaccordingtotheintensityofthespecified

characteristic.Inconsumeranalysis,thepanelistsareaskedtorankthecodedsamplesaccordingtotheir
preference.

Picture14SpecimenEvaluationCardofRankingTest
5.4.2.2. SingleSample(Monadic)Test
Thistestisusefulfortestingfoodsthathaveanaftertasteorflavourcarryoverwhichprecludestestinga
second sample at the same session.Thepanel list is askedto indicatethepresenceorabsence and/or
intensity of a particular quality characteristic. With trained panelists, the completed analyses of two or
moresamplesevaluatedatdifferenttimescanbecompared.Also,inmarketandconsumeranalysis,the
resultsofdifferentsamplesevaluatedatdifferenttimes byadifferentsetof untrainedpanelistscanbe
compared.

Picture15SpecimenEvaluationCardofSingleSample(Monadic)Test
5.4.2.3. TwoSampleDifferenceTest
Thistestisavariationofthepairedcomparisontestandmeasurestheamountofdifference.Eachtasteris
servedfourpairsofsamples.Eachpairconsistsofanidentifiedreferenceandcodedtestsample.Intwo
pairs,thetestsampleisaduplicateofthereferencesample.Intheothertwopairs,thetestsampleisthe
test variable. The panelist is asked to judge each pair independently as to the degree of difference
between the test sample and standard on a scale of 'O' representing no difference to '3' representing
extremedifference.Additionalquestionsondirectionofdifferencecanalsobeasked.Thepanelistisnot
toguessandheispanelisedforguessingthroughthecodedduplicatestandardsintwopairs.

Picture16SpecimenEvaluationCardofTwoSampleDifferenceTest
5.4.2.4. MultipleSampleDifferenceTest
In this test, more than one test variable can be evaluated per session but with reduced reliability. Each
panelist is served 36 samples depending upon the number of test variables. One sample is a known
standard.Thepanelistcompareseachcodedsamplewiththe knownstandard.Onecodedsample isa
duplicateofthestandard.Whateverscorethepanelistassignstotheblindstandardissubtractedfromthe
scoreheassignstothetestvariables. Thepanelist isnottoguess.Directionanddegreeofdifference is
alsotobejudged.

Picture17SpecimenEvaluationCardofMultipleSampleDifferenceTest
5.4.2.5. HedonicRatingTest
Hedonicratingrelatestopleasurableornonpleasurableexperiences. The hedonicratingtestisusedto
measuretheconsumeracceptabilityoffoodproducts.Fromonetofoursamplesareservedtothepanelist
atonesession.Heisaskedtoratetheacceptabilityoftheproductonascale,usuallyof9points,ranging
from'likeextremely'todislikeextremely.Scaleswithdifferentrangesandotherexperiencephrasescould
alsobeused.Theresultsareanalysedforpreferencewithdatafromlargeuntrainedpanels.
Semitrained panels in smaller number are used to screen a number of products for selecting a few for
consumerpreferencestudies.

Whenpronouncedaftereffectsaremetwith,precludingtestingofasecondsampleorwhenindependent
judgements are sought for, separate cards are used for each product. When relative preference is the
objectofstudy,cardswithmultiplecolumnsforthenumberoftestsamplesareused.

Picture18SpecimenEvaluationCardofHedonicRatingTest
5.4.2.6. NumericalScoringTest
Oneormoresamplesarepresentedtoeachpanelistinrandomorderoraccordingtoastatisticaldesign.
Thepanelistevaluateseachsampleonaspecificscaleforaparticularcharacteristicindicatingtheratingof
thesamples.Thepanelistsaretrainedtofollowthesensorycharacteristicscorrespondingtotheagreed
qualitydescriptionsandscores.Withoutthisunderstandingtheratingwillnotbeofanyuse.

Picture19SpecimenEvaluationCardofNumericalScoringTest
5.4.2.7. CompositeScoringTest
Theratingscaleisdefinedsothatspecificcharacteristicofaproductareratedseparately.Thedefinition
oftheratingscaleisweighedsothatthemostimportantcharacteristicswillaccountforalargepartofthe
totalscore.Theresultingscoresarecompoundedforanyonepanelisttoarriveatacompositescore.This
method is helpful in grading products and comparison of quality attributes by indicating which
characteristicisatfaultinapoorproduct.Itgivesmoreinformationthanthestraightnumericalmethod.
Thepanelistsaretrainedtoevaluatethedimensionsoftheindividualqualitycharacteristiccritically,and
intheuseoftheweighedscale.

Picture20SpecimenEvaluationCardofCompositeScoringTest
5.4.3. SensitivityTests
Sensitivitytestsaredonetoassesstheabilityofindividualtodetectdifferenttastes,odoursandfeelthe
presenceofspecificfactorslikeastringencyorhotness(pepper).Thesetestsareusedtoselectandtrain
panel members for evaluating the quality of products containing spices, salt and sugar, e.g. tomato
ketchuporsauce.Forthispurposethresholdtestsfortherecognitionofbasictastes(sweet,sour,bitter
andacid)areemployedforselectingthepanelmembers.
5.4.3.1. SensitivityThresholdTest
Sensitivityteststomeasuretheabilityofanindividualtosmell,tasteorfeelspecificcharacteristicsinfood
orbeveragesorpuresubstancesareusedfrequentlyinselectingforevaluationsinproductresearchand
development.Also,theyareusedtoestablishintensityofsensoryresponseofafoodorfoodcomponents.
Threshold is defined as a statistically determined point on the stimulus scale at which a transition in a
seriesofsensationsorjudgementsoccurs.
Therearemainlythreetypesofthresholdasdescribedbelow:

(a) Stimulus detection threshold is thatmagnitude ofstimulus atwhich a transition occursfromno

sensationtosensation.
(b) Recognitionidentificationthresholdistheminimumconcentrationatwhichastimulusiscorrectly
identified.
(c) Terminalsaturationthresholdisthemagnitudeofastimulusabovewhichthereisnoincreasein
theperceivedintensityofthestimulus.
The recognition threshold tests with basic tastes or odours are most frequently employed for panel
selection and with materials such as spices for assessing the intensity of odour or flavour as the main
threshold value by a trained panel. The threshold value is given as a mere number which is the
denominatorofthedilutionwheretheodourorflavourisrecognized.Thesetestsarealsousedwherea
minimumdetectabledifferenceofanadditiveorofanoffflavouraretobeestablished.

Picture21SpecimenEvaluationCardofSensitivityThresholdTest
5.4.3.2. DilutionTest
Dilution tests are designated to establish the smallest amount of an unknown material, developed as a
substituteforastandardproductthatcanbedetectedwhenitismixedwiththestandardproduct,e.g.,
margarine in butter, dried whole milk in fresh milk, synthetic orange flavour ingredients with natural
flavour and so on. The quality of the test material is represented by the dilution number which is the
percentofthetestmaterialinthemixtureofthestandardproductsuchthatthereexistsajustidentifiable
differenceinodourandtastebetweenthem.Thebiggerthedilutionnumberthebetteristhequalityof
thetestmaterial.

5.4.4. DescriptiveFlavourProfileMethod
This is both qualitative and quantitative description method for flavour analysis in products containing
differenttastesandodour.Fortomatoketchuptheflavourprofileanalysisisgiven.

Picture22SpecimenEvaluationCardofDescriptiveFlavourProfile

Picture23ApplicationofSensoryTesttoFoodIndustryProblems


Picture24NumberofPanelMembersandSamplesRequiredforSensoryTests
5.5. Limitationsofsensoryevaluation
1. Theresultmaybehighlyvariable.
2. Peoplewithcoldsorotherhealthproblemstemporarilylosetheirmaximumeffectiveness.
3. Emotionalburdensmayinfluenceanindividual'sability.
5.6. InterpretationofSensoryResultsinStatisticalQualityControl
5.6.1. Thequalityandnatureofsensoryandconsumerdata
Thesedataaregeneratedbygroupsofpeoplewhoareconsumers,foodcompanystafforothersrecruited
to participate in food trials for varying lengths of time. Such participants are viewed in different ways
dependingontheapplication;iftheyareassessingfoodsamplesthentheycanbereferredtoasjudges,
assessors or panellists. The data from this type of source will provide sensory data by various sensory
evaluationtests.Withinthistypethereisanotherdivision:datageneratedbyselected,trainedpanellists
are viewed as trained panel sensory data and that from consumers (untrained or lay respondents) as
consumer sensory data. Separating the data sources in this way is by no means clearcut as many

practitionersuseconsumerpanelsfortestswhichotherslimittotrainedpanelwork;somesensorytests
(such as difference tests) are commonly used by both forms of panel. Additionally, when time permits,
trainingconsumerscanalsobeincorporatedinsomeexperiments.Thereareawidevarietyofstatistical
applications to sensory data, with identification of product preference and differences being common
objectives.
Thesecondmaindataformisthatoriginatingfromconsumersinsurveyswhereviewsandperceptionson
food issues, concepts, etc., are recorded and these are referred to as consumer survey data (Figure 5).
Here,theparticipantscanbeviewedasrespondentsforgeneralquestionnairetrialsorassubjectswhen
differingconditionsareadministeredtogroups,e.g.halfofthesubjectsreceivebranddetailsofproducts
inthequestionnaire,andtheotherhalfdonot.Measurementsystemsbasedonhumanparticipantsinthe
above formats result in data that is noisy in terms of error,when compared with instrumental data.
People are prone to a large number of physiological and psychological influences, which affect their
performanceinsuchexercises.Thesearedescribedindetailinsensorytexts(e.g.StoneandSidel1993),
but they also affect performance of consumers in surveys. Although both forms of data are subject to
relatively large error due to their origin, the extent of effects tends to be higher for consumer sources.
Additionally, consumer data (sensory and survey) have much more variability due to individual
characteristicsintermsoflikesanddislikes,opinions,beliefs,etc.Trainedpanelsensorydatasufferless
from error due to the training and constant monitoring procedures that are employed. Methods of
evaluation of error sources are an important application to these latter data. Accepting the divisions
above,therearethreetypesofdatathatarerelativelydistinctinanumberofways(Table10Sensoryand
consumer data: relative differences in nature.Table 10). Trained panel data have a lower subjectivity as
their nature approaches objectivity like an instrument, due to training and use of standards, etc. Again,
this separationbasedon errorlevel isnotsacrosanctsomeresearchpointstowards littledifference
andconsumerdatashouldnotbeviewedasinferiorinthis
respect.

Figure5SensoryandConsumerData
Table10Sensoryandconsumerdata:relativedifferencesinnature.
Sources Subjectivenature Errorlevel Analysismethods
Trainedpanelsensory Low Low Parametric
Consumersensory High High Parametric,nonparametric
Consumersurvey High High Nonparametric,parametric
5.6.2. Experimentaldesignissues
Giventhelargenumberofpossiblesourcesofunwantedvariationinsuchdata(sensoryandconsumer),
scientists must use experimental design to combat them. For experimentation with food units, all
proceduresinpresentationofthesamplesmustbecontrolled,intermsofunitsize,shape,container,etc.
The extent of this does depend on the characteristics of individual foods. The use of specially designed
sensoryboothsisafeatureofsuchcontrol.Theseensureminimisationofdistractionandprovideacalm
environmentfortheassessment.Moreadvancedversionsincludepositivepressureconditions(toprevent
ingress of foreign odours) and computer control of test instructions and data collection to obviate the
errors that can occur during manual data collection. When participants assess all samples, related tests
areusedwiththerandomisedcompleteblock(RCB)beingcommon.Forconsumersensorytrials,itisnot
usualforrepeatsessionstobeheld,butfortrainedpanelsthisisthenorm.Inthelattercase,additional
blockingcanbeusedforrepeatsessions.
5.6.3. Descriptivestatistics
Once data are collected, they are in the form of a recorded list or a computer file. Organisation and
analysisrequirethatthedataareenteredorloadedintoananalysispackage.Forthemajorityofexamples
inthisbook,ExcelisusedfollowedbyMinitabandreferenceismadetoMegastatforExcel.Inallcases,
dataareenteredasacolumnofnumbersorcategories(nominaldata).Alabelorheadingisassignedto
identify the data and if necessary nonnumerical data can be coded as numbers for the purposes of
analysis(NB:thisdoesnotchangethelevelofmeasurement).Dataareblockedinoneormorecolumns
andthesamplesize(n)isgiven.
Thenameofthestatisticislistedontheleftandtheformulaisenteredinthenextcelltotheright.The
nature of the function used is displayed in the adjoining cell. Use of the Toolpak and some functions
requirevariationfromthis,butdatawillalwaysbeidentifiedandsomeguidancegiven.Insomeexamples,
statisticsrequiredinlatercalculationsinthesametableareidentifiedbyanabbreviatednameforusein
laterformulae.
Excelcalculations produce valueswith manydecimal points.Inmostcircumstances,these areexcessive
considering the preciseness with which the original datawere measured. Additionally, readability is
reduced. Thus, the majority of values are adjusted to display two decimal places, but any permanent
roundingshouldnotbedoneuntilthefinalresultisobtained.DatalayoutforMinitabissimilarandthisis
followedbyselectionoftheparticulargraph,statisticoranalysismethodfromamenu.Samplesizesare
chosentofitthecircumstanceswhereverpossiblebutsomearelimitedforreasonsofspace(typicallyten
datavalues).
Thefirststagesofanalysisareoftenthosethatsummarisethedata.Underthisheadingcomesdescriptive
statistics,whicharemethodsusedtosummarisethecharacteristicsofasample,e.g.theaveragevalue,
but which also includes displays with graphs and tables. Excel charts are produced by selecting the
column(s)ofdataandthenchoosingtheChartWizard.
5.6.4. Worked example of paired preference test Analysis of paired preference test by
binomialmethod.
Initial prototypes (A and B) of a new product were examined by a small panel of consumers for
preference.Apairedpreferencetestwasused.Twentysevenparticipantscompletedthetestand20out
ofthe27chosetheAproductsample.DoesthisindicatepreferenceofAoverB?
Pairedpreferencetest
Objective:Toestablishwhethertwoproductsdifferintermsofpreference
Question:IsthereasignificantdifferencebetweenAandBintermsofpreference?
Experimentdesign:Paireddesign27consumerspresentedwithtwosubsamplesoftwoproductsAand
B,inbalancedpresentationorder,codedwithrandomthreedigitnumbers
Result: Sample Numberpreferring
A 20
B 7
Thus,thereare27trialsand20agreements
Statisticalhypotheses:
H0ProportionA=ProportionB(numberspreferringA=numberspreferringB)
H1ProportionAProportionB(numberspreferringAorBarenotequal;twotail)

Significantlevel:5%(0.05)
Selectionoftest:
Levelofmeasurementisnominal;discretedata(counts);numberofgroups=2,independent.Therefore
nonparametrictestfortwogroupproportionsbinomialtest.
Calculation(Excel):
Probability(twotail)duetochance:
=(1BINOMDIST(numberofagreements1,numberoftrials,0.5,True))2
=(1BINOMDIST(19,27,0.5,True))2
p=0.00962=0.0192(p<0.05)
Conclusion:H0isrejectedandH1isacceptedthereisadifferenceinpreference:productsampleAis
preferredoverB.
5.6.5. Analysisofconsumersurveydata
Questionnairesfortestingofconsumerfoodhabits,viewsandopinionscanincludeawidevarietyoflevels
of measurement and scale forms. A few of the many possibilities, and data of interest in research, are
listedbelow:
Types,forms,brandsoffoodcommoditiesandfoodproductsconsumed
Frequencyofconsumption
Views,opinions,attitudes,beliefsonfoodissues,concepts,etc.
Foodpurchasinghabitsandintentions
Testsoffoodknowledgeandawareness
Ratingoffactorsimportantinfoodchoice
Reasonsforlikesanddislikes
Demographicquestionsofimportanceinfoodhabits
6. ObjectiveEvaluation
Methodsofevaluatingfoodqualitythatdependonsomemeasureotherthanthehumansensesareoften
calledobjectivemethodsofevaluation.
6.1. Advantages
Confidencecanbegainedastheyarereproducible.
Theresultswouldbeaccurate.Humansensitivityisnotinvolved.Minutedifferencescanbenoticedby
doingobjectivetests.
Theyarelesssubjectedtoerrorswhencomparedtosensorymethods.
Thesemethodsprovidepermanentrecord.Sothatcomparisoncanbemadeoveraperiodoftime.
Theyarenotaffectedbyfactorsotherthantheonebeingmeasured.
Emotionalburdensandindividualabilitycanbeovercome.
6.2. Disadvantages
Itistimeconsuming.
Itisexpensive.
Technicalknowledgeisrequired.
Instrumentsmaynotbeavailablesometimes.
Someaspectsoffoodcannotbeevaluatedbyobjectivemethodse.g.,flavour.
Usuallybothsensoryandobjectivemethodsaredone.Objectiveevaluationsupplementorreinforcethe
dataobtainedsubjectivelythroughsensoryevaluation.
6.3. Basicguidelines

6.3.1. Conduct all objective tests appropriate to the experiment for which equipment is
available.
Forexample,checkingthepHofmixturespriortoandafterheating.Thisinformationoftenisvaluablein
explaining results. Flow properties of batters or certain other mixtures prior to heat treatment can be
measuredandthatinformationusedininterpretingandexplainingresults.
6.3.2. Obtainnecessarytestingdevices.
Inthepreliminarytestingphaseofanexperiment,analyseallstepsinthepreparationoftheproductand
study the final product to determine whether there are specific characteristics that might be tested
objectivelyifadditionaltestingequipmentcouldbeprocuredordevelopedfortheexperiment.
6.3.3. Bemeticulousaboutmaintenanceofobjectiveequipment.
Before using any equipment, the good researcher will check to be certain the machine is operating
correctlyinallaspects.
6.3.4. Carefullydefinethesamplestobeusedforobjectivetesting.
A template of the item being tested often is an essential tool in obtaining comparable samples for
objective tests. The dimensions of pastry or cookie samples being tested for tenderness on the
Shortometermustbeidentical.Toobtainthesesamples,thethicknessofthemixturepriortobakingmust
becontrolledprecisely.
6.3.5. Establishoperatingconditionsforobjectivetesting.
Forexample,thetemperatureofastarchpastebeingutihsedforalinespreadtestmustbespecificand
controlledsothattheeffectoftemperatureonviscosityofstarchpastesisnotanuncontrolledvariablein
themeasurement.Samplestobecontrolledinsize,storageandtemperature.Eachexperimentneedsto
bedesignatedtoeliminateuncontrolledvariablesinobjectivetesting.
6.4. EvaluationMethods
6.4.1. ChemicalMethods
Chemicalsareestimatedinfoodspoilagelikeperoxidesinfats.Adulterantsinfoode.g.,presenceofstarch
inmilk,metanilyellowinturmericpowderandlossofnutrientsduringcookingcanbeestimated.
6.4.2. PhysicoChemicalMethods
(a) MeasurementofhydrogenionconcentrationcanbefoundbytheuseofpHmeter.Itutilizesaglass
indicatingelectrodeandareferenceelectrodetocompletetheelectricalcircuit.
(b) Sugar concentration can be found by refractometer. It is used to determine the concentration of a
sugar solution. Light is refracted as it passes through sugar solution, with the specific values being
calibrated in degrees, Brix, an indication of the percent of sucrose in the solution. Brix or Balling
hydrometer gives directly the percentage of sugar by weight in the syrup. It is always necessary to
makeatemperaturecorrectionsincethehydrometersareusuallycalibratedat20C.Eachinstrument
used by canners usually covers a range of only 10Brix, e.g. 1020, 2030, 3040, 4050, 5060 Brix
respectivelyandaregraduatedin1/10thdivisions.Brixisdefinedaspercentsucrosemeasuredbya
Brixhydrometer.Sincecontinueduseofhydrometersinhotsyrupsaffectstheiraccuracy,theyshould
becheckedfrequentlybymoreaccurateinstruments.
(c) Polariscopeisusedforquantitativeanalysisofsugar.
6.4.3. MicroscopicExamination
Some properties of foods depend on their structure and valuable information can be obtained by
microscopicexamination.Someexamplesaregivenbelow.
1. Typeoforganismspresentinfermentedproductslikeidlibatter.
2. Examinationofstarchcellsunderthemicroscopeforidentification.
3. Spoilageofthefoodcanbefoundoutbyobservingtheorganismsunderthemicroscope.
4. Sizeofcrystalsinsugarisrelatedtosmoothnessoftheproduct.
5. Numberandsizeoftheaircellsinbattersandfoams.

6.4.4. PhysicalMethods
6.4.4.1. Weight
Weightofafoodindicatesthequalitylikeincaseofappleoregg.
6.4.4.2. Volume
Liquidvolumescanbemeasuredbyusingmeasuringcups.
Solidfoodvolumecanbefoundbydisplacementmethod.Inthismethodthevolumecanbecalculatedby
subtractingthevolumeofseedsheldbyacontainerwithabakedproductfromthatofvolumeofseeds
withoutthebakedproduct.Usuallymustardseedsareused.
6.4.4.3. Specificvolume
Thedeterminationofspecificvolumeofanyproductshouldbedonewithcareandaverageofreplicatesis
tobetakensinceexperimentalerrorsarelikelytobelarge.Measurementofbulkvolumeinaporousand
spongy product like idli is difficult. The volume may be measured by displacement with solvents like
kerosene. The idli is given a momentary dip in molten wax to seal off the pores. Increase in volume is
takenasthemeasureofitsbulkvolume.

Specificvolume= Bulkvolume
Wt.ofthesubstance
6.4.4.4. Indextovolume
Itcanbefoundbymeasuringtheareaofasliceoffoodwithaplanimeter.Itisimportanttouseaslice
thatisrepresentativeoftheproductsuchasacentreslice.
Index to volume is ameasurementmadeby firsttracingdetailed outlineof a cross sectionof the food.
Thistracingcanbedonewithasharplypointedpencilorapenorbymakingaclearinkblotofthecross
section.Theinkblotismadesimplybypressingthecrosssectionofthesamplelightlyontoaninkedstamp
padandthenmakingtheimprintoftheinkedsampleonpaper.
A planimeter can also be used to trace the entire outline of the sample, being careful to follow all
indentations and protrusions so that the final measure recorded on the planimeter represents the
circumferenceoftheslice.
6.4.4.5. Specificgravity
It is a measure of the relative density of a substance in relation to that of water. The measurement is
obtainedbyweighingagivenvolumeofthesampleandthendividingthatweightbythesamevolumeof
water.Thistechnique isused forcomparingthe lightnessofproductsphysicallyunsuitedtothevolume
measurements e.g., egg white foams. Potatoes with low specific gravity (waxy type potatoes) have
cookingcharacteristicsdifferentfromthoseofpotatoeswithacomparativelyhigherspecificgravity.
6.4.4.6. Moisture
Pressfluids:Initialweightofthesampleisnoted.Aftertheappropriatepressurehasbeenappliedfora
controlled length of time, the sample is again weighed. The difference between the two weights
representstheamountofjuicecontainedintheoriginalsamplee.g.juicinessofmeats,poultryandfish.
Drying: The weight of the original sample is determined and then the food is dried until the weight
remainsconstant.
6.4.4.7. Wettability
Baked products can be tested for moisture level by conducting a test for wettability. For this test, the
sample is weighed before being placed for 5 seconds in a dish of water. Immediately at the end of the
lapsedtime,thesampleisremovedfromthewaterandweighedagaintodeterminetheweightgain.High
moistureretentionissynonymouswithgoodwettability,asignthatacakeprobablywillbeconsideredto
beappropriatelymoistwhenjudgedsubjectively.
6.4.4.8. Cellstructure
Cell structure of baked products is an important characteristic to measure the uniformity, size and
thicknessofcellwars.
Photocopies of crosssectional slices give this valuable information. This techniques gives third
dimensionalviewintothecellsonthecutsurfaceofthesampleandgivestheactualsizeclearly.

Size ofthe grain:This can be foundbyusing photographyor inkprintswithstamppad or sand

retentione.g.idli.Retentionofsandismoreifthegrainsarecoarse.Cuttheidiiinto2piecesandtakeone
pieceandpressitonthestamppadandtakeanimpressiononthepaper.Inkprintsmaybelessclearbut
satisfactoryforsomepurposes.
Photography:Thismaybecolourorblackandwhite.Theymaynotrepresentthesamplesizeso
amarkedrulershouldbekeptadjacent.
6.4.4.9. ColourMeasurement
Colour is the first quality attribute a consumer perceives in food. Change of colour is generally
accompaniedbyflavourchanges.
Colour Dictionaries. The dictionary of Maerz and Paul is most commonly used. The dictionary
consistsof56charts.Sevenmaingroupsofhuesarepresentedinorderoftheirspectra.Foreachgroup
there are 8 plates. In place of colour dictionary, colour reproduced on secondary standards such as
paintedtestpanels,rings,discsorplasticmodelsmaybeused.
Amaskofneutralgreyhavingtwoopeningsisused.Thesizeofeachopeningshouldbeequaltothesize
oftheindividualcolourpatchinthesheet.Anopeningshouldbeplacedoverthesampleandtheother
overdifferentpatchesonthechartuntilamatchisachievedandthecolourisnoted.
Disc colorimeter. Here the discs have radial slits so that a number of them may be slipped
togetherwithvaryingportionsofeachshowing.Thediscsarespunonaspindleatabout2700rpmsothat
thecoloursmergeintoasinglehuewithoutflickering.Thetestsampleisplacedadjacenttothespinning
discundercontrolledilluminationandbothareviewedsimultaneously.
Colouredchips:Asimplemethodistomatchthecolourofthefoodwiththecolourchipsorcolour
glass,chartorcolourtiles.Thismethodisnotverysatisfactoryasitisdifficulttomatchthefoodwithone
smallblockofcolourorthechart.Thedataaredifficulttotabulateandanalysealso.
Spectrophotometer:Visualmatchingofcoloursissubjecttoshortcomingsofhumanobservers.To
overcomethisspectrophotometercanbeused.Inthis,tubewiththeliquidisplacedinaslotandlightof
selectedwavelengthispassesthroughthetube.Thislightwillbedifferentiallyabsorbeddependingupon
thecolouroftheliquidandtheintensityofthecolour.Twoliquidsofexactlythesamecolourandintensity
willtransmitequalfractionsofthelightdirectedthroughthem.Ifoneoftheliquidisajuiceandtheother
isthejuicedilutedwithwater,thelattersamplewilltransmitagreaterfractionoftheincominglightand
this will cause a proportionately greater deflection of the sensing needle on the instrument. Such an
instrumentcanalsomeasuretheclarity,cloudinessofaliquiddependingontheamountoflighttheliquid
allowstopass.
6.4.4.10. TextureEvaluation
Variousinstrumentsareusedtomeasurethetextureofliquids,semisolidsandsolids.Rheologyisdefined
asthescienceofdeformationandflowofmatter.Ithasthreeaspectselasticity,viscousflowandplastic
flow.
Thescienceofrheologydealswiththemeasurementofvariousmechanicalpropertiesoffoods.Astudyof
Theologicalpropertiesoffoodsisimportant,fortworeasons.
(i) Todeterminetheflowpropertiesofliquidfoodstuffs.
(ii) Toascertainthemechanicalbehaviourofsolidfoodswhenconsumedandduringprocessing.
6.4.5. InstrumentsusedforLiquidsandSemisolids.
Theresistanceorinternalfrictiontotheflowofliquidsisnormallyknownasviscosity.
Viscosity or consistency is an important factor in influencing the quality of a large number of food
products.Themoreimportantamongthesearecreamstylecom,saladcreams,tomatoproducts,jellies,
jams,mayonnaise,syrups,andfruitpulpswheretheacceptabilitylargelydependsontheirhavingproper
consistencyorviscosity.Measurementofthisfactorfortherawmaterialortheproductatvariousstages
of manufacture serves as an aid in checking or predicting the consistency of the final product. Further,
such quality control measurements also serve as indicators in calculating the amount of an ingredient
(thickeningagent,etc.)thatshouldbeaddedinaparticularfoodproduct.Durationandamountofheat
applied in a process may also be suitably regulated to some extent by viscosity measurements as heat
penetrationandconsistencyarecloselyinterrelated.

6.4.5.1. PercentSag
The depth of a sample such as jelly is measured in its container by using a probe. The product then is
unmouldedontoaflatplate.Thegreaterthepercentsag,themorelenderisthegel.
PercentSag= (depthincontainerdepthinplate) x 100

depthincontainer
6.4.5.2. Stromerviscometer
It is used to measure the viscosity or consistency of certain food products and to give an index of the
resistanceofthesampletoflow.Thenumberofsecondsrequiredfortherotortomake100revolutions
hasbeenusedtomeasuretheconsistencyofsomefoodsamples.
6.4.5.3. BrookfieldSynchrolectricViscometer
Thisisbasedonmeasurementofresistancetorotationofaspindleimmersedinthetestmaterial.Thiscan
be usedsuccessfully inmeasuringthe consistencyof custards,piefillings, tomatoproducts,cream style
corn,mayonnaise,saladdressingsanddairyproducts.
6.4.5.4. BostwickConsistometer
Thisisusedformeasuringtheconsistencyoftomatoketchupandsauce.Bostwickconsistometerconsists
of a channel (2 x l2") with sides which art high. It has triggered gate on one side. A centimeter scale is
etched on floor ofthechannel. Theuseof this instrument is basedon thetheorythat lengthof flow is
proportionaltoconsistency.
6.4.5.5. EffluxTubeViscometer
Itmeasuresthetimenecessaryforaquantityoffluidtopassthroughanorificeorcapillaryunderstandard
pressuree.g.tomatopuree.
6.4.5.6. AdamsConsistometer
Whilethisconsistometerwasdesignedprimarilyformeasuringconsistencyofcreamstylecom,thereare
possibilitiesofusingitinmeasuringtheconsistencyofotherproductsliketomatopuree,applesauceand
fruitpulps.
The Adams consistometer has been designed and constructed to accommodate a greater mass and
measuretheunrestrainedflowinaudirectionsmeansofconcentriccircles.Itconsistsofalargemetaldisc
upon which i engraved 20 concentric circles, increasing 0.2,5 inches in radius. A steel truncated cone,
whichcanbeliftedvertically,fitstightlyagainstthediscsoCthecircumferenceoftheconecoincideswith
theinnermostcircles.
Filltheconewiththesampletothelevel.Thenraisetheconequicklyandafter30seconds,measurethe
consistencyofthecreamstylecornbycordingtheextentofflowoftheproductatfourequidistantpoints
as indicated on the calibrated disc. Average the four values thus determined to obtain an average
consistencyvaluefortheproduct.AsimplerversionofthisprincipleisusedinLinespreadtest.
6.4.5.7. Penetrometer
Apenetrometeralsomaybeusedtomeasuretendernessofsomefoods.Thisdeviceconsistsofaplunger
equipped with a needle or a cone that is allowed to penetrate the sample by gravitational force for a
selected period of time. The larger the reading the longer the distance the more tender is the product.
Gels and many baked products are particularly well suited to tenderness measurements using the
penetrometer.
TheBloomgelometerisaspecialtypeofpenetrometerinwhichleadshotdropsintoacupwhichforcesa
plunder into the sample. When sufficient weight has been added to the cup to move the plunger a set
distance,thetestiscompletedandtheamountofshotrequiredisdeterminedasthemeasureofthetest.
6.4.5.8. BrabenderFarinograph
Thisisusedtomeasuretheplasticityofwheatdoughforpreparingbreadproducts.Itisdesignedtostudy
thephysicalpropertiesofthedoughbyrecordingtheforcerequiredtoturnthemixerplatesthroughthe
dough.Theforcerequiredincreasesasthesolutiondevelopsduringmixingandlaterdecreasesassolution
isslowlybrokendownbyovermixing.

6.4.6. Instrumentsusedforsolids
Foodtexturecanbereducedtomeasurementsofresistancetoforce.
Ifwesqueezefoodsothatitremainsasonepieceiscalledcompressione.g.bread.
Ifweapplyaforcesothatonepartofthefoodslidespastanotheritisshearinge.g.chewinggum.
Iftheforcegoesthroughthefoodsoastodivideitaswecallitcuttinge.g.cuttinganapple.
Iftheforceisappliedawayfromthematerial,thefoodpullsapartbywhichwemeasuretensile
strengthe.g.chapathi.
6.4.6.1. MagnessTaylorPressuretester(compression)
It consists of a plunger of variable diameter which is pressed into the fruit to a given depth. The sprint
attachedtotheplungercontractsandmeasuresthecompressionforcee.g.peas(suitabilityofpeasforthe
harvestortofindoutthecorrectstageofripeningofafood).
6.4.6.2. Succulometer(compression)
Thisinstrumentisusedtomeasurethematurityofcornandstoragequalityofapplesasdeterminedby
thevolumeofjuiceextractedundercontrolledconditionsofpressureandtime.
6.4.6.3. Tenderometer(compressionandshearing)
Thisisanexampleofaninstrumentbasedonshearingforceinwhichcompressionisprecededbyshearing
actione.g.suitabilityofpeasforpreservation.

Picture25TypesofResistancetoForce
6.4.6.4. Fibrometer
Thisisbasedonthecuttingprincipleandusedtodifferentiatematurestocksfromthetenderstockse.g.
greenbeans.

6.4.6.5. Shortometer
Thisdeviceconsistsofaplatformcontainingtwoparallel,dullbladesonwhichthesamplerests.Athird
bladeisactuatedbyamotortopressdownonthesampleuntilthesamplesnaps.Theforcerequiredto
breakthesampleisthemeasureofthetendernessoftheproduct.
6.4.6.6. ChristalTexturometer(cutting)
Thisisdesignedwithseriesofrodswhicharepushedintothemeatsample.Theharderthemeatmore
forceisrequiredtoPenetrate.
6.4.6.7. Volodkevichbitetenderometer(cuttingandshearing)
Thisattemptstoimitatetheactionofteethonfood.Itrecordstheforceofbitingonapieceoffoodwhich
results in deformation and this determines the total energy utilised for this deformation e.g. meat and
meatproducts.
Grindingandextensibility:Thepowerusedbyahouseholdfoodgrinderismeasured.Increased
tough ness would increase the current consumption of the grinder. Extensibility has proved to be
inverselyrelatedtotenderness.
6.4.6.8. Kramershearpress
This is a multipurpose instrument with same power unit and with different test cell assemblies. This
instrumentiswidelyused.
6.4.7. FundamentalParameters
Table11GlossaryofFoodTextureTestingTerminology
Parameter SensorialDefinition InstrumentalDefinition Units
ParametersasDenotedwithinOriginalSzczesniaketal(1963)andBourne(1978)TPAWork
Primary 5 basic parameters utilized in determining the manner in which a food handles and
behavesinthemouth.
Hardness Force required compressing a food Peak force of the first Newtons
between the molars. Defined as force compressioncycle. (N)
necessarytoattaingivendeformation. Max force may occur when
samplebreaks, or it may occur
laterinthecycleasthesample
is flattened and deformed to a
highgivendeformation.
Springiness Rateatwhichadeformedmaterialgoes Height that the food recovers Meters
back to its undeformed condition after during the time that elapses (m)
thedeformingforceisremoved between the end of the first
biteandthestartofthesecond
bite.
Adhesiveness The work necessary to overcome the The negative area for the first Joules
attractiveforcesbetweenthesurfaceof bite, representing the work (J)
the food and the surface of other necessary to pull the
materials with which the food comes compressing plunger away
intocontact(e.g.tongue,teeth,palate). fromthesample.
Workrequiredtopullfoodawayfroma Positioning of probe must
surface. ensure break is formed on
retraction.
Cohesiveness The strength of internal bonds making The ratio of positive force Ratio
upthebodyoftheproduct(greaterthe during the second to that of Dimensionl
valuethegreaterthecohesiveness) the first compression cycle ess
(downwardstrokesonly)
Viscosity Force required to draw a liquid from a Rateofflowperunitforce
spoonoverthetongue

Table11GlossaryofFoodTextureTestingTerminology
Parameter SensorialDefinition InstrumentalDefinition Units
Secondary 3additionalparametersincludedtomakecharacterizationasmeaningfulaspossibleto
individualsaccustomedtopopularterminology,whilstretainingrheologicalprinciples.
Fracturability Force at which a material fractures. Thefirstsignificantbreakinthe Newtons
(Brittleness) Related to the primary parameters of firstcompressioncycle. (N)
hardness and cohesiveness, where
brittle materials have low cohesiveness. Taken as first peak force prior
Not all foods fracture and thus value to force dropping by at least
may relate to hardness if only single 5%.
peak is present. Brittle foods are never
adhesive.
Gumminess Energy required disintegrating a SEMI Calculated parameter: Product Newtons
SOLIDfoodproducttoastatereadyfor ofHardnessxCohesiveness (N)
swallowing. Related to foods with low Semisolid products undergo
hardnesslevels. permanent deformation and
havenospringiness.
Chewiness Energy required chewing a SOLID food Calculated Parameter: Product Joules
product to a state where it is ready for of Gumminess x Springiness (J)
swallowing. Attribute is difficult to (essentiallyprimaryparameters
quantifypreciselyduetocomplexitiesof of Hardness x Cohesiveness x
mastication e.g. saliva at body temp. Springiness)
with a variety of force actions (shear,
compression, grinding, tearing and
penetration).
Table12InstrumentsUsedinTextureAnalysis
Texture Type of Texture Instrument
Parameter MeasuringDevice
Firmness Penetrometer MagnessTaylor Fruit Pressure tester, Christel
Texturometer, Maturometer, modified Cherryburrell
MeterInstron
Resistance to Compressimeter BakerCompressimeter
compression
Tenderness Shearingdevices Christel Texturometer, AlloKramer Shear Press, Lee
KramerShearPress,WarnerBratzlerShearPress,Pabst
Texture Tester, Dassow's Shearjaw Device, Texture
Analyzer
Cuttingfirmness Cuttingdevice Asparagus Fiberometer, Cherry Burrell Curd, Tension
Meter
Texture close to Masticometer Volodkevich bits Tenderometer, Denture
mastication (firmness, Tenderometer, MIT Denture Tenderometer, General
hardness, FoodsTexturometer,AlloKramerShearPress
cohesiveness,
crispness,springiness)
Hardness,crispness Shortometer
Extrusion Extrusion FIRA/NIRDExtruder
Resistancetoflow Viscosity,capillary OstwaldViscometer,CannonFenskeViscometer,Lamb
CapillaryViscometer,ContinuousPureeConsistometer
Resistancetoflow Viscosity,rotational MacMichael Viscometer
Brookfield Viscometer
Vibratory Viscometer
ZahnViscometer

Table12InstrumentsUsedinTextureAnalysis
Texture Type of Texture Instrument
Parameter MeasuringDevice
Resistancetoflow Viscosity,other Haake Rotovisko Viscometer, Hoeppler Viscometer,
Brabender Visco/Amylograph, PartenMagberg Falling
Number,StromerViscometer
Consistency of semi Consistometer Adams Consistometer, Bostwick Consistometer,
solid BrabenderAmylograph,KramerShearPress, Rotovisco
Rheometer
Elasticity Extension,elasticity Brabender Extensograph, Chopin Alveograph, Simon
"Research" Extensometer, Mixograph, Brabender
Farinograph,Resistograph,Rheograph
Gelstrength Empiricalmethods Bloom Gelometer, Boucher Electronic Jelly Tester,
F.I.R.A.JellyTester,ExchangeRidgelimeter
Gelstrength Fundamentaltests WeissenbergRheogoniometer,AirTurbineViscometer,
Parallel Plate Viscoclastometer, "u" tube, Freely
oscillating float, Velocity of propagation of transverse
waves, Tinwalled aluminum tube immersed in gel
oscillated electromagnetically, Chainomatic balance
relaxometer,OscillatingConcentricCylinder
Gelstrength Multipurposeunits Instron Universal Testing Machine, Food Technology's
Texture Test, System (Kramer Shear Press), General
FoodsTexturometer
Table13InstrumentsinFoodAnalysis
Image Information/Resources
Theseareanumberofmanytemperaturemeasuringdevices.Since
somuchoffoodqualityisinfluencedbytemperatureitisimportant
toselectoneofthesedevicestoquantitatethehistory.

Thethermocoupleisessentiallytwodifferentmetalsjoinedatone
end and hooked up to some voltage detector at the other. This
particular thermocouple is made of copper and constantan. It is
hookedtoatemperaturerecorderwhichconvertsthevoltageinto
temperature.

There are a number of different types of thermometers. This is a
griddlethermometer.
Thisisthelinesourcesetupwhichallowedthegatheringofdatato
calculate the thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity.
Essentially, it consists of a wire of known resistance and length
where one can send a voltage down. This voltage will cause a
temperaturechangeinthesamplearoundthewire.Also,withina
set distance there is a thermocouple to measure the temperature
change. Through the fantastic process of computerization and the
expertise of mechanical engineering, thermal properties can be
calculatedfromthisdata.
Thepycnometerisalittleknowndevicetomeasurespecificgravity
of foam products. The advantage is that one can put the sample
intothesmallcontainer,screwonthelid,wipeofftheextrasample
that comes out the top and weigh the totality. This can be
comparedtothepreviousweightofwater.

Specific gravity of fruits and vegetables, such as potatoes, can be
determinedbyusingsolutionsofvarioussaltconcentrations.

MeasuringofdistancecanbedonewithVerniercalipers.

Certainly,arulerisaneffectivecrudemethodofevaluatinglength,
widthorotherdistanceparameters.

This visopan allows for projection on a screen of microscopic
slides/materials/andsuch.
History, quality control and experimental control can be assisted
with by the weighing of ingredients. In this particular picture, the
cakebatterisbeingweighedasitisplacedinthepan.
7. TotalQualityManagement(TQM)
TotalQualityManagement(TQM),abuzzwordphraseofthe1980's,hasbeenkilledandresurrectedona
numberofoccasions.Theconceptandprinciples,thoughsimpleseemtobecreepingbackintoexistence
by"bitsandpieces"throughtheevolutionoftheISO9001ManagementQualitySystemstandard.
Companies who have implemented TQM include Ford Motor Company, Phillips Semiconductor, SGL
Carbon,MotorolaandToyotaMotorCompany.
The latest changes coming up for the ISO 9001:2000 standards "Process Model" seem to complete the
embodiment. TQM is the concept that quality can be managed and that it is a process. The following
informationisprovidedtogiveanunderstandingofthekeyelementsofthisprocess.
TotalQualityManagement(TQM)involves
Total=Qualityinvolveseveryoneandallactivitiesinthecompany.
Quality=ConformancetoRequirements(MeetingCustomerRequirements).
Management=Qualitycanandmustbemanaged.
TQM = A process for managing quality; it must be a continuous way of life; a philosophy of perpetual
improvementineverythingwedo.
7.1. TQMasaFoundation
TQMisthefoundationforactivitieswhichinclude;
MeetingCustomerRequirements
ReducingDevelopmentCycleTimes
JustInTime/DemandFlowManufacturing
ImprovementTeams
ReducingProductandServiceCosts
ImprovingAdministrativeSystemsTraining
7.2. TenStepstoTotalQualityManagement(TQM)
PursueNewStrategicThinking
KnowyourCustomers
SetTrueCustomerRequirements
ConcentrateonPrevention,NotCorrection
ReduceChronicWaste

PursueaContinuousImprovementStrategy
UseStructuredMethodologyforProcessImprovement
ReduceVariation
UseaBalancedApproach
ApplytoAllFunctions
7.3. PrinciplesofTQM
Qualitycanandmustbemanaged.
Everyonehasacustomerandisasupplier.
Processes,notpeoplearetheproblem.
Everyemployeeisresponsibleforquality.
Problemsmustbeprevented,notjustfixed.
Qualitymustbemeasured.
Qualityimprovementsmustbecontinuous.
Thequalitystandardisdefectfree.
Goalsarebasedonrequirements,notnegotiated.
Lifecyclecosts,notfrontendcosts.
Managementmustbeinvolvedandlead.
Planandorganizeforqualityimprovement.
ProcessesmustbeManagedandImproved
7.4. TQMinvolves
Definingtheprocess
Measuringprocessperformance(metrics)
Reviewingprocessperformance
Identifyingprocessshortcomings
Analyzingprocessproblems
Makingaprocesschange
Measuringtheeffectsoftheprocesschange
Communicatingbothwaysbetweensupervisoranduser
7.5. TQCandTQM
Total Quality Control (TQC) is not a new concept. The orginal book entitled 'Total Quality Control' was
written by Armand Feigenbaum, in 1951, where he noted the universal importance of quality to
customers:
"Qualityisthebasiccustomerdecisionfactorforanexplosivelygrowingnumberofproductsandservices
todaywhetherthebuyerisahousewife,anindustrialcorporation,agovernmentagency,adepartment
storechainoramilitarydefenseprogram."
Asaresult,heproposedthatqualitybemoveoutofthefactoryfloor,whereitmostlylivedthen,andinto
therestofthecompany.Inhiswords(andhisitalics):
"Qualityisinitsessenceawayofmanagingtheorganization."
ItwasthusanextensionofQualityControl(QC)tothetotalityofthewholecompany.
The term TQC was not, however, a term that sat well with American management, so some kind soul
converteditintoTQM,orTotalQualityManagement.BS.4778:Part2(1991)describeditas:
'A management philosophy embracing all activities through which the needs and expectations of the
customerandthecommunityandth4objectivesoftheorganizationaresatisfiedinthemostefficientand
costeffectivewaybymaximizingthepotentialofallemployeesinacontinuingdriveforimprovement.'
TQMwaswellacceptedandbecameaverypopularworldwidefad.However,aswithmostfads,thebasics
weresoundbuttheimplementationinthemajorityofcompanieswasfundamentallyflawed.So,formany
firms, the round of blaming took its usual course, with most fingers pointed on the fad and any handy
consultantsorinternalpeoplewhohadnailedtheircolorstoohighonthemast.

This, of course, is excellent news for companies who are serious about quality. Whilst the benefits of a
temporaryqualityfocusfadeintothecostcuttingdust,therealplayerswillreaptherealrewards.System
foroptimizingproductionbasedonideasdevelopedbyJapaneseindustriesfromthe1950son.Thesystem,
whichblendsWesternandEasternideas,beganwiththeconceptofqualitycircles,inwhichgroupsof10
20workersweregivenresponsibility forthequalityoftheproductstheyproduced.Itgraduallyevolved
into various techniques involving both workers and managers to maximize productivity and quality,
includingclosemonitoringofstaffandexcellentcustomerservice.Theconceptofkaizen,thenotionthat
improvementmustinvolveallmembersofacompany,iscentraltoTQC
8. FoodLawsandStandards
Effectivemeansoffoodqualitycanbeachievedbylegislativemeasures,certificationschemesandpublic
participation and involvement in the programme. The Government of India is fully aware to the
possibilitiesoffoodbeingadulterated.Ithastherefore,empoweredseveralagenciesandpromulgateda
numberofactsandorderstocontractthismenace.Agenciesandinstitutionshavealsobeencreatedto
laydownstandardsforthequalityoffoods.Themannerinwhichthefoodisprocessedandpackagedis
alsocoveredbyanumberofregulations.
8.1. PreventionofFoodAdulterationAct
OneoftheearlyactstobepromulgatedinthisconnectionwasthePreventionofFoodAdulterationActof
1954,whichhasbeeninforcesinceJune1,1955.Theobjectiveofthisactwastoensurethatfoodarticles
sold to the customers are pure and wholesome. It also intended to prevent fraud or deception and
encouragesfairtradepractices.Theactwasamendedin1964andagainin1976inthelightofexperience
gained,toplugloopholesofescapeintheActandtoinsurestringentpunishmentforthoseindulgingin
this nefarious practice. The act prohibits the manufacture, sale and distribution of not only adulterated
foods but also foods contaminated with microorganisms and toxicants and misbranded foods. P.F.A.
specifiesmicrobialstandardsforpasteurisedmilk,milkpowder,skimmedmilkpowder,infantmilkfood,
tomatosauce,jam,maltedmilkfoodandaflatoxinforgroundnut.
AcentralfoodlaboratoryestablishedundertheActislocatedatCalcuttaforthepurposeofreportingon
suspected food products. The Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, has also been
recognisedasanotherlaboratoryforthetestingofadulteratedfoodsfortheSouthernRegions.Acentral
committeeforfoodstandardshasbeenconstitutedundertheActandhasbeenchargedwiththefunction
ofadvisingtheCentralGovernmentonmattersrelatingtotheFoodstandards.Provisionshavebeenmade
intheActfortheappointmentofFoodInspectorsbythestateGovernmentsandtheirpowershavebeen
defined. The StateGovernment will setup foodtesting laboratory and will appointPublic Analysts with
adequatestafftoreportonsuspectedfoods.
According to the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, an article of food shall be deemed to be
adulterated.
If the article sold by a vendor is not of the nature, substance or quality demanded by the
purchaserandistohisprejudice,orisnotofthenature,substanceofqualitywhichitpurportsor
isrepresentedtobe.
If the article contains any other substance which affects, or if the article is so processed as to
affectinjuriouslythenature,substanceorqualitythereof.
Ifanyinferiororcheapersubstancehasbeensubstitutedwhollyorinpartforthearticle,soasto
affectinjuriouslythenature,assubstanceorqualitythereof.
Ifanyconstituentofthearticlehasbeenwhollyorinpartabstractedsoastoaffectinjuriouslythe
nature,substanceorqualitythereof.
If the article had been prepared, packed or kept under unsanitary conditions whereby it has
becomecontaminatedorinjurioustohealth.

If the article consists wholly or in part of any filthy, putrid, disgusting, rotten, decomposed or
diseased animal or vegetable substance or is insectinfested or otherwise unfit for human
consumption.
Ifthearticleisobtainedfromadiseasedanimal.
Ifthearticlecontainsanypoisonousandingredientwhichrendersitscontentsinjurioustohealth.
If the container of the article is composed, whether wholly or in part of any poisonous or
deleterioussubstancewhichrendersitscontentsinjurioustohealth.
Ifanycolouringmatterotherthanthatprescribedinrespectthereofandinamountsnotwithin
theprescribedlimitsofvariabilityispresentinthearticle.
If the article contains any prohibited preservative or permitted preservative in excess of the
prescribedlimits.
If the quality or purity of the article falls below the prescribed standard or its constituents are
presentinquantitieswhichareinexcessoftheprescribedlimitsofvariability.
8.1.1. Administrativehierarchy
TheFoodHealthAuthorityisappointedatstatelevelwhoistheDirectorofPublicHealthandPreventive
Medicine.Heisresponsibleforthegoodqualityandstandardsoffoodsavailabletotheconsumers.Under
FHA there is a Local Health Authority appointed in, each city in every state. The Food Inspector is
appointed by the Central or State Government by notification in official gazette. The Food Inspector
undergoesathreemonthstraininginfoodinspectionandsampling.
8.1.2. Powersoffoodinspectors
1. Totakesampleofanyfoodarticlefrom
(a) Anypersonsellingsucharticle.
(b) Any person who is in the course of delivering or preparing to deliver such article to a
purchaserorconsignee.
(c) Aconsigneeafterdeliveringofanysucharticletohim.
2. TosendsuchsampleforanalysistothePublicAnalyst(PA)oflocalareaWhentheFoodInspector
wantstoliftsuspectedfoodtheshopkeepermustfirstbetold.Thereshouldbeawitnesspresent
whentheFoodInspect(liftsthesample.150gofthesampleisnecessarytobesentforanalysis.
600gofsampleiscollectedusuallyandsenttoRiponBuildings,CorporationofMadras,orKings
Institute, Guindy, Madras or Central Food Laboratory, Calcutta or Central Food Technological
ResearchInstitute,Mysore.Thereiscertainproceduretocollectthesampleandseatitinabottle.
ThesealedboilhasalabelonitinwhichthecodenumberoftheInspector,addressoftshopand
dateandtimeofcollectionarewritten.
When individuals doubt adulteration in food stuffs they have to inform the Food Health Authority.
SamplescanbesentforanalysisonlyaftergettingorderfromFoodHealthAuthority.
If persons are found guilty of selling such adulterated food, the persons involved can be convicted.
Severity of sentence would depend on the gravity of the offence. For example, a vendor found
adulteratingthefoodwithingredientsinjurioustohealthwouldtoliableforamuchheaviersentencethan
avendorinvolvedinonlymixinganinferioringredientnotinjurioustohealth.
8.2. FruitProductsOrder
TheGovernmentofIndiapromulgatedaFruitProductsorderin1946.In1955,theorderwasrevised.The
Fruit Products order (FPO) lays down statutory minimum standards in respect of the quality of various
fruits and vegetable products and processing facilities. Packaging fruits and vegetables of a standard
below the minimum prescribed standards is an offence punishable by law. Periodic inspection by
government inspectors in registered establishments is carried out to ensure conformity of standards by
processors.
This order is operated by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Ministry of Food Processing Industries.
Manufacture of labelling of fruit and vegetable products can be carried out only after a valid licence is
issued by the licensing officer after himself satisfying with regard to the quality of product, sanitation,
personnel,machineryandequipment,workareaasrequiredintheorder.Licenseeisempoweredtoput
theFPOstandardmarkontheproduct.

8.2.1. GuidelinesforSettingUpofUnitUnderFruitProductsOrder
No person shall carry on the business of a manufacture of fruit products including synthetic syrups,
syntheticvinegarandaeratedsweetenedbeveragesexceptunderandinaccordancewiththetermsofan
effectivelicencegrantedtohimunderFPO.
Table14Categorywisearearequirement,annualproductionlimitandlicencefeeforonetermsor
partthereof(Ref.Clause5(2)andpartI(B)oftheSecondScheduleofFruitProductsOrder,1955
Category For manu For storage Licence fees Annual production permissible
facturing and office foronetermor percalendaryear
premises purpose partthereof
(In Sq. (In sq.
metres) metres)
Homescale`B 25 25 Rs.100/ Upto10M.T.
Cottagescale 60 60 Rs.250/ Above 10 M.T. but less than 50
M.T.
Smallscale`A 100 100 Rs.400/ Above 50 M.T. but less than 100
M.T. with installed capacity not
exceeding1M.T./day.
Smallscale`B 150 150 Rs.600/ Below 250 M.T. with installed
capacitynotexceeding2M.T.per
day.
Largescale 300 300 Rs.1500/ Above 250 M.T. with installed
capacityexceeding2M.T.perday.
Note: (1)Areaoccupiedbymachineryshallnotbemorethan50%ofthemanufacturingarea.
(2)TheminimumheightofthefactorypremisesunderHomeScale`BandCottageScalecategoriesis10
feetandforsmallscale&largescalecategories14feet.
Every manufacturer shall manufacture fruit products in conformity with the sanitary requirements and
appropriatestandardsofqualityandcompositionspecifiedintheSecondScheduleofFPO.
8.2.2. Part1(a):Sanitaryrequirementsofafactoryoffruitproducts
1. ThePremisesshallbeadequatelylighted,ventilated&cleanedbywhitewashing/colourwashingoroil
painting.
2. Windows & all openings shall be well screened with wiremesh & the doors fitted with automatic
closingsprings,roofshallbepermanent,floorcemented.
3. The equipments and the factory shall not be used for manufacture of repugnant products like fish,
meat,eggsetc.However,permissionmaybegrantedasaspecialcaseifarrangementsaremadefor
disinfectionofpremisesafterchangingfrommeatproductstofruitproducts(onemonthidlegapwill
berequiredforchangeover).
4. The premises shall be located in a sanitary place with open surroundings, preferably in industrial
area/estates.Thepremisesshallnotbeusedasorcommunicateddirectlywithresidence.
5. Adequate arrangements for cleaning equipments, machinery, containers tables and raw materials
shallbeprovided.
6. Copper,brassorironequipments,containersorvesselsarenotpermitted,inthepreparation,packing
orstorageoffruitproducts,onlyaluminium,stainlesssteel,glassortinsequipmentareallowed.
7. Thewaterusedshallbepotableandshallbegotexaminedchemicallyandbacteriologicallybyapublic
HealthLaboratory(ifno municipalwateris availableatthe premises).The watersampleshouldbe
drawnforsuchexaminationbythepublicHealthAuthorityoftheareawherethepremisesislocated
orshouldbedrawninthepresenceoftheaboveauthority.Freefollowingtapwaterof1kilolitreper
dayshallbemadeavailable.
8. Adequatedrainagesystemandprovisionsfordisposalofrefuseshallbemade.
9. Sufficientnumberoflatrine&urinalsshallbeprovidedforworkers.
10. Wherevercookingisdoneonopenfire,properoutletsforsosmoke/steametc.likechimney,exhaust
fanetc.shallbeprovided.
11. Theworkersengagedinthefactoryshallbehealthyandshallbemedicallyexamined,inoculatedand
vaccinatedwheneverrequired.

12. The workers shall be provided with aprons, headwars gloves etc. and shall be personally neat and
tidy.
8.2.3. Part1(B):Qualificationsoftechnicalstaff
Productionshallbesupervisedbyapersonpossessingoneofthefollowingqualifications:
Smallscale: (1)B.Sc.withChemistry/Agricultureasoneofthesubjects.
(2)ADiplomaoracertificateinfruitpreservationoracourseofatleast3monthsduration
fromarecognizedinstitution.
Largescale: (1)B.Sc.(Tech.) with Food Technology/Chemical Engineering with at least one year
experienceinfruitpreservationfactory.
(2)B.Sc.withCFTRIDiplomaorDiplomaofKalamassery(KeralaGovernment)Polytechnic.
(3)B.Sc. with Chemistry/Agriculture with three years experience in fruit preservation
factory.
8.2.4. Minimumequipments&machineryforunitoperation
Table15Minimumequipments&machineryforunitoperation
1. Washingofrawmaterials 1)Rectangulartankswithfalsebottomofnotlessthan20
gallonscapacity
2. Washingofbottles 1) Tankshavingnotlessthan40gallonscapacity.
2) Bottle washing machine, brushes (*machine, rack,
trolley).
3) Buckets(*Sterlisingtanks).
3. PreparationofFruit/Veg. 1) 21/2 Ft. high table with aluminium/ steel top having
areanotlessthan20Sq.ft.
2) Notlessthan12trays.
3) Stainlesssteelknives.
4) Equipmentforblanching
4. Juicing,pulping&Mising 1) Juice extractor of basket press (* pulping
machine/hydraulicpress).
2) Steetsieve.
3) Vesselsofnotlessthan100litrescapacity.
5. Processing 1) Furnace/Gasstoves(*Boiler)
2) Vessels/Steamjacketkettle.
3) Ladle.
4) Thermometer,hydrometer(Refractometer)
5) Sensitivebalanceforweighingchemicals,colouretc.
6. Fermentation 1) Barrels/Carboys/Earthenjars.
7. Filling&sealing 1) Mugs/Funnels(*Fillingmachine).
2) Crowncorkmachine/R.O.sealingmachine.
3) Weighingbalance.
8. Exhausting, Processing for 1) Tankswithcrates/ExhaustBox.
cans&bottles. 2) DoubleSeamer/Semiautomaticcansealer.
3) Coolingtankswithcrates/cranes.
4) Pressurecooker/retorts/sterilisingequipments.
5) Incubator/pressurecantester.
6) *Pasteuriser.
9. Carbonationoraeration 1) Power driver aerated machine or semiautomatic
aeratingandsealingmachine.
Note*RequiredforSmallScale and LargeScaleunitsonly.
8.3. BureauofIndianStandards
8.3.1. Introduction
Food is the basic need of all living organisms and hence, its quality is of top priority. Food processing
involvesnumberofunitoperationsformaterialhandlingandtherearealwayschancesthatthefoodmay
be contaminated or adulterated. The food is said to be contaminated if food is injurious to health and

containfilthy,putridrottenodourofinsectpestsetc.andhazardsmayoccur.However,afoodissaidto
be adulterated if it contains any other substance which affects the nature and quality product or
substance is substituted with cheaper substance. So, it is essential to set the minimum limits of the
desirablecharacteristicsrequiredandthemaximumlimitsoftheundesirablecomponentsthatthefood
shouldcontain.Thishelpstosetcommonstandardsforcommoditiesandtopreventconfusionamongthe
consumers.
8.3.1.1. WhyFoodStandards?
FoodStandardsareforthefollowingreasons:
Thecontaminationof food can affect a largenumber ofpopulationsatatime and hazards may
occur.Sostandardsareneededtopreventthetransmissionofthediseases.
Consumer must get the product for which he has paid and to limit the sale of unsatisfactory
products.
The processors may add any prohibited preservative or permitted preservative in excess of the
prescribedlimits.Sostandardsareneededtochecksuchmalpractices.
Tosetcommonstandardsforcommoditiesandpreventsconfusionamongconsumers.
Tosimplifythemarketingoffood.
Standardsaremadetosetthelimitsofthepreservatives/additives/methodofapplicationsfor
productionofthequalityproducttosellitnationallyorinternationally.
Standardsaremadetopreventadulterationsoffoodproducts.
8.3.1.2. WhyFoodLaws?
FoodLawsareforthefollowingreasons:
Tomaintainthequalityofthefoodproducedinthecountry.
Topreventexploitationoftheconsumersbythesellers.
Tosafeguardthehealthoftheconsumers.
Toestablishcriteriaforqualityofthefoodproducts.
8.3.2. QualityStandards
Quality standards in relation to any food article of food mean the standards notified by the Food
Authority.GovernmentalorPrivatebodiesthatestablishstandardsmaybethesubjectofacertification
programme. Food quality standards are the body of rules directly concerning foodstuffs, whether they
take the form of official, semiofficial or factory form, and whatever the aspect treated, from food
ingredients to retail marketing. So, number or agencies and organization are involved at national and
international level to make the standards implement and regulate them. The four standards which are
commonlyusedasshownbelow:

Quality
Standards
Legal CompanyorVoluntary Industry Consumeror Grade

Standards Standards Standards Standards

Figure6CommonlyUsedStandardsinFoodIndustry
8.3.2.1. LegalStandards
Theseareestablishedbyfederal,central,stateormunicipalagenciesandaregenerallymandatory.These
aresetupbythelaworthroughregulation.Theygenerallyconcernedwithfreedomfromadulterationby
insects,mould,yeastsandpesticides.
8.3.2.2. CompanyorVoluntaryStandards
These are established by various segments of the food industry. These standards generally represent
consumerimageandbecomesymbolofproductquality.Theseareusedbyprivatefirmsorsupermarkets.

8.3.2.3. IndustryStandards
These standards are established by an organizational group to maintain the quality of the given
commodity.Thesestandardsbecomeeffectivebypressurewhereotherlegalstandardsarenotinvolved.
8.3.2.4. ConsumerorGradeStandards
These standards represent consumer's requirements of the product and generally based on the
experience of the industry for consumers. Out of these, the legal standards are most important. The
government empowered agencies promulgated a number of acts and orders to minimise the menace.
Severalagenciesandinstitutionshavealsobeencreatedtolaydownstandardsforthequalityoffoods.
The manner in which the food is processed and packaged is also covered by a number of regulations.
Several types of standards apply for evaluation, testing and monitoring dietary supplements. The food
standards and their regulations are used as yardsticks for assurance of the food safety and consumer
health.Thesestandardsencouragethesafetyandqualityoftheproductsbymanufacturer,makingsure
thatthefoodproductmeetsthedesiredstandards.Differentcountrieshavedifferentstandardsbasedon
the type of product being manufactured, environmental and cultural practices, raw material etc. So, in
India, food manufacturer follow Indian standard to sell their products in the domestic markets and
internationalstandardtoexporttheproductsoutofcountry.
TheBureauofIndianStandards(BIS)isthenationalStandardsBodyofIndiaworkingundertheaegisof
Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution, Government of India. It is established by the
Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986 which came into effect on 23 December 1986. The Minister in
charge of the Ministry or Department having administrative control of the BIS is exofficio President
(EmaadAmin)oftheBIS.
The organization was formerly the Indian Standards Institution (ISI), set up under the Resolution of the
then Department of Industries and Supplies No. 1 Std.(4)/45, dated 3 September 1946. The ISI was
registeredundertheSocietiesRegistrationAct,1860.
Asacorporatebody,ithas25membersdrawnfromCentralorStateGovernments,industry,scientificand
researchinstitutions,andconsumerorganizations.ItsheadquartersareinNewDelhi,withregionaloffices
in Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai, Chandigarh and Delhi, and 20 branch offices. It also works as WTOTBT
enquirypointforIndia.
TheBureauofIndianStandardsoperatesaCertificationMarkSchemeundertheBISAct,1986.Standards
coveringmorethan450differentfoodproductshavebeenpublished.
Standardsarelaidforvegetableandfruitproducts,spicesandcondiments,animalproductsandprocessed
foods.Oncethesestandardsareaccepted,manufacturerswhoseproductsconformtothesestandardsare
allowedtouseBISlabeloneachunitoftheirproduct.TheproductsarecheckedforqualitybytheBISin
theirownnetworkoftestinglaboratoriesatDelhi,Bombay,Calcutta,Madras,ChandigarhandPatnaorin
anumberofpublicandprivatelaboratoriesrecognisedbythem.
Thecertificationschemeisbasicallyvoluntaryincharacterbutforanumberofitemsaffecting,ithasbeen
madecompulsorybytheGovernmentofIndiathroughvariousstatutorymeasuressuchasE.C.ActorPFA
rules.
SomeoftheitemswhichrequirecompulsoryBIScertificationunderPFAare:
Foodcoloursandfoodcolourpreparation
Naturalfoodcolours
Foodadditives
Infantmilkfood
Infantformula
Milkcerealbasedweaningfood
Milkpowder
Condensedmilk
8.3.3. AssociationwithInternationalStandardsBodies
BISisafoundermemberofInternationalOrganisationforStandardization(ISO)
It represents India in ISO,the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the International
TelecommunicationUnion(ITU)andtheWorldStandardsServiceNetwork(WSSN)

8.3.4. StandardFormulation&Promotion
One of the major functions of the Bureau is the formulation, recognition and promotion of the Indian
Standards.Ason31March2008,18446StandardsformulatedbyBIS,areinforce.Thesecoverimportant
segmentsofeconomy,whichhelptheindustryinupgradingthequalityoftheirproductsandservices.
BIShasidentified14sectorswhichareimportanttoIndianIndustry.ForformulationofIndianStandard,it
has separate Division Council to oversee and supervise the work. The Standards are regularly reviewed
and formulated in line with the technological development to maintain harmony with the International
Standards.
8.3.5. Laboratories
Tosupporttheactivitiesofproductcertification,BIShasachainof8laboratories.Theselaboratorieshave
established testing facilities for products of chemical, food, electrical and mechanical disciplines.
Approximately,25000samplesarebeingtestedintheBISlaboratorieseveryyear.Incertaincaseswhereit
is economically not feasible to develop test facilities in BIS laboratories and also for other reasons like
overloadingofsamples,equipmentbeingoutoforder,theservicesofoutsideapprovedlaboratoriesare
alsobeingavailed.Exceptforthetwolabs,alltheotherlabsareNABL(NationalAccreditationBoardfor
TestingandCalibrationLaboratiories)accredited.Itoperatesalaboratoryrecognitionschemealso.
8.3.6. ProductCertificationScheme
ProductCertificationsaretobeobtainedvoluntarily.For,someoftheproductslikeMilkpowder,Drinking
Water, LPG Cylinders, Thermometers etc., certification is mandatory. Because these products are
concernedwithhealthandsafety.
8.3.7. SchemeForeignManufacturers
AllforeignmanufacturersofproductswhointendtoexporttoIndiaarerequiredtoobtainaBISproduct
certification license. Towards this, BIS launched its Product Certification Scheme for overseas
manufacturers in the year 1999. Under the provisions of this scheme, foreign manufacturers can seek
certification from BIS for marking their product(s) with BIS Standard Mark. If or otherwise, the foreign
manufacturerhasnotsignedanMoUwithBIS,ithastosetupaliaisonofficeinIndiawiththepermission
ofReserveBankofIndia.Otherwise,anauthorizedrepresentativeoragentneedstobeappointedbythe
foreignfirm.
8.3.8. SchemeforIndianImporters
IndianimporterswhointendtogetCertificationMarkmayapplyforthelicense.However,theassessment
visitispaidtotheoriginalproductmanufacturer.
8.3.9. ManagementSystemCertification
QualityManagementSystemCertificationSchemeIS/ISO9001
EnvironmentalManagementSystemCertificationSchemeIS/ISO14001
OccupationalHealthandSafetyManagementSystemCertificationSchemeIS18001
HazardAnalysisandCriticalControlSchemeIS/ISO22000
ServiceQualityManagementSystemCertificationSchemeIS15700
8.3.10. NationalInstituteofTrainingforStandardization(NITS)
ItisatraininginstituteofBISwhichissetupin1995.ItisfunctioningfromNoida,UttarPradesh,India.The
primaryactivitiesofNITSare:
InHouseandOpenTrainingProgrammeforIndustry
InternationalTrainingProgrammeforDevelopingCountries(commonwealthcountries)
TrainingProgrammetoitsemployees.
8.3.11. GrievanceCell
IfanycustomerreportsaboutthedegradedqualityofanycertifiedproductatGrievanceCell,BISHQs,BIS
givesredressaltothecustomer.
8.3.12. RajivGandhiNationalQualityAward
Itwasinstitutedin1991toawardthepioneersofIndustryinqualityproducts&serviceseveryyear.

8.3.13. SmallScaleIndustryFacilitationCell
SSIFacilitationCellbecameoperationalsince26May1997.TheaimoftheCellistoassistthesmallscale
entrepreneurswhoarebackboneoftheIndianindustry.Ithasanincentiveschemetopromotesuchunits
togetcertifiedwithISIMark.
8.3.14. NationalBuildingCodeofIndia,2005
Itisacomprehensivebuildingcode forregulatingthebuildingconstructionactivities acrossthecountry
which came with the contribution of around 400 experts. The code was first published in 1970 at the
instanceofthePlanningCommissionofIndia.
8.4. TheAGMARKStandard
The word AGMARK is a derived from Agricultural Marketing. The AGMARK standard was set up by the
Directorate of Marketing and Inspection of the Government of India by introducing an Agricultural
produceActin1937.Theword'AGMARK'sealensuresqualityandpurity.AsampleAGMARKsealisgiven
below:
AgmarkBesan
Sl.No.B162002
GradeStandard
PlaceofPacking..............................DateofPacking.................................
NetWeight..........................................
ThisLabelisthePropertyoftheGovernmentofIndia.
A lot of care is taken in laying down the AGMARK grade and in affixing the AGMARK quality label. The
qualityofaproductisdeterminedwithreferencetothesize,variety,weight,colour,moisture,fatcontent
andotherfactorsaretakenintoaccount.Theactdefinesqualityofcereals,spices,oilseeds,oil,butter,
ghee,legumesandeggsandprovidesforthecategorizationofcommoditiesintovariousgradesdepending
onthedegreeofpurityineachcase.Thegradesincorporatedaregrades1,2,3and4orspecial,good,fair
and ordinary. The standards also specify the types of packaging to be used for different products. The
physical and chemical characteristics of products are kept in mind while formulating the AGMARK
specifications.
TheDirectorateofMarketingandInspectionofCentralGovernmenthas21laboratoriesand50suboffices
spreadalloverthecountry.TheCentralAGMARKLaboratoryatNagpur,continuouslycarriesoutresearch
anddevelopmentworkinthisfield.
The Certificate ofAuthorization is granted onlytothoseinthetrade havingadequate experience and
standing in the market. The staff of the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection or of the State
Governmentisgenerallypresentatthetimeofselectionofgoods,theirprocessing,gradingandpacking
beforeapplyingtheappropriateAGMARKlabels.
Gradingofcommoditieslikeghee,butter,vegetableoils,atta,spicesandhoneyisvoluntary.Ontheother
hand,gradingofcommoditiesliketobacco,walnuts,spices,basmatirice,essentialoils,onions,potatoes
aremeantforexportiscompulsoryunderAGMARK.
AGMARKensuresthequalityofproducetotheimporters.
The process of grading and administering the programme entails some cost hence graded products are
pricedslightlymore.Consideringthequalitythatisassuredthatlittleextracostisworthpaying.
Grading of agricultural commodities has three main purposes. Firstly, it protects the producer from
exploitation.Byknowingthequalityandgradeofhisproduce,heisinbetterbargainingpositionagainst
thetrader.Secondly,itservesasameansofdescribingthequalityofcommoditiestobepurchasedorsold
bythebuyersandsellersalloverthecountryandabroad.Thisestablishesacommontradelanguageand
avoidstheneedforphysicalcheckingandhandlingatmanypoints.Thirdly, itprotectstheconsumerby
ensuringthequalityofproductshepurchases.
8.5. CodexAlimentariusCommission(CAC)
FAO/WHO Food standards programme is called CODEX ALIMENTARIUS. The codex Alimentarius which
meansFoodLaworFoodcodeinLatinisacombinedsetofstandards,codesorpracticesandother
modelregulationsavailableforcountriestouseandapplytofoodininternationaltrade.

The Codex Alimentarius collects international standards, practices, processes, guidelines, and
recommendations related to food, food production, and food safety. In 1963, the Food and Agriculture
Organization and the World Health Organizationtwo United Nations agenciesestablished the Codex
Alimentarius Commission with the goal of establishing a set of standards and practices for the
international food commoditiestrade thatwouldprotectconsumers.TheWorldTradeOrganizationhas
since recognized the Codex as the relevant authoritative work when resolving international disputes
pertainingtofoodsafetyandconsumerhealth.
The Codex is inspired in name and aim by the Codex Alimentarius Austriacus (CAA), a collection of
standards and product descriptions pertaining to food used by the AustroHungarian Empire, and later
Austria.WorkontheCAAbeganin1891,withportionsofitcirculatinginformallyinthenexttwodecades
until it was collected in three volumes and published between 1910 and 1917. Although the CAA was
producedprincipallybyuniversitiesandthefoodindustryitself,andprimarilyestablishedtheidentityand
propertreatmentofvariousfoods,itwasreliedonbythecourtsystemasanauthoritativereference.In
1975, it was finally formally incorporated into the body of Austrian law, by which time its spiritual
descendent, the Codex Alimentarius, had been formulated. During the early years of the European
EconomicCommunity,leadinguptotheEuropeanUnion,theideaofapanEuropeanCodexAlimentarius
hadbeenexploredandeventuallyhelpedleadtotheUNsponsoredCodex.
TheCodexispublishedinEnglish,French,Spanish,Chinese,andArabicandisupdatedperiodicallytokeep
upwithchangesintheworldandnewsafetyrelatedinformation.officially,itismeanttocoverallfoods,
butinthecourseofitsdevelopmentithascometofocusprincipallyonfoodthatissoldtotheconsumer
(flourandbreadanddrypasta,forinstance,ratherthanunprocessedwheat).
Specificstandardsandpracticesdocumentsareproducedformeatproducts(includingprocessedorcured
meats and the handling of frozen meat products); fish and other seafood products; milk and dairy
products; vegetables, fruits, fruit juices, and processed products composed thereof; cereals and dried
legumesandproductsderivedtherefrom;fatsandproductsderivedtherefrom;andspecialmiscellaneous
productsthatdonotfitabroadcategorybutrequirespecialmention(suchasbottledwater;sugar,honey,
andothersweeteners;chocolateanimportantfoodcommodity;babyfood;andbabyformula).
Furthermore, in addition to those vertical topics, documents cover horizontal topics that are not
limited to one type of food: food labeling (including nutrition information, health benefit claims,
ingredients,andthelanguageusediningredients,suchaswhatismeantbyartificialcoloringornatural
flavors), food additives (including not only flavorings and food coloring but also acidity regulators,
anticaking agents, antifoaming agents, antioxidants, bulking agents, emulsifiers, humectants, stabilizers,
thickeners, and, of course, preservatives), the prevention of and appropriate response to food
contaminants (including specific guidelines for radionuclides, aflatoxins, and mycotoxins), maximum
residue limits for pesticides, food hygiene (specific practices designed to limit the risk in the handling,
preparation,andpackagingoffood),andbiotechnologyderivedfoodssuchasDNAmodifiedcrops.
The Codex is formulated as a reference document, not a code of law, and the commission is not
empoweredtoenforcethesestandardsonanynationorentitywithinthatnation.However,justasthe
CAAwasusedas anauthoritativesourcebytheAustroHungariancourts,sotoohasthemodernCodex
beenrecognizedbytheWorldTradeOrganization,whichis,infact,empoweredtoenforcestandardson
entitiesengagedininternationaltrade.Thoughthisrecognitiondoesnotprecludetheauthorityofother
informationsources,theCodexhasbeencriticizedforessentiallyhavingtheforceoflawwithoutsothe
criticswouldarguebeingcomposedbyacommissionrunasrigorouslyasalegislativebodywouldbe
onethatisnotinfluencedbythelegislatorsorelectorateofthecountriesitsstandardsaffect.
Furthermore, manyparticularly alternative health enthusiastsfind issue with the Codex's handling of
vitamins,minerals,andotherhealthsupplements.Thereisnointernationalconsensusonthehandlingof
nonpharmaceutical health supplements, whether vitamin C pills or herbal supplements that claim to
preventortreatcancer.Insomecountries,therelevantfactoriswhetheranyhealthclaimsaremadeby
theselleroronthelabel;inothers,thisisnotimportant.Insomecountries,suchproductsaretreatedas
overthecounter drugs; in others, they are not. A recent question in U.S. law is whether food items
traditionallysoldforconsumptionasopposedtovitaminpillsthathavenonontherapeuticpurposecan
beadvertisedwithreferencetotheirhealthbenefits,andinsuchcases,whatclaimsmaybemadebefore
the product is classified as a drug. (Cheerios cereal crossed what is by general estimation a vague line
when its boxes were labeled with new language claiming in six weeks, Cheerios can reduce bad
cholesterolbyanaverageof4percent,whichtheFDAdeemedwasapharmaceuticalclaimmadebya
nonpharmaceuticalproduct.)U.S.alternativehealthenthusiastsfearthatwheninternationalbodieshave

jurisdiction over such matters, their rights to dietary supplements (as outlined in the 1994 Dietary
SupplementHealthandEducationAct)areabridged.often,allegationsaremadethatthecommissionis
unduly influencedor even in the pocket ofthe pharmaceuticals industry, and that it is therefore
motivatedtodiscounttheefficacyofandeventocriminalizeanyremediesortreatmentsotherthan
thoseofthatindustry.
The duel objectives of the codex Alimentarius commission are to protect the health of consumers and
facilitateandinternationaltrade.
Codex commodity standards cover such foods as fruit juices, cereals, meat products etc. General
standards cover areas applicable to most foods such as labelling additives, contaminants, methods of
analysis.Itcoversaspectssuchasfoodhygieneandtechnologicalpractices.Theyareusedbyprocessors
to ensure that foods are microbiologically safe and are fit for human consumption e.g., codex code of
hygienicpracticeoflawacidcannedfoods.MaximumResidueLimits(MRLS)havebeensetforpesticides.
Specifications for food grade quality of additives form an important part of codex work. World
consumersdayiscelebratedeveryyearon15thMarch
9. GeneralPrinciplesofFoodHygienebyCodexAlimentariusCommission(CAC)
People have the right to expect the food they eat to be safe and suitable for consumption. Foodborne
illnessandfoodborneinjuryareatbestunpleasant;atworst,theycanbefatal.Buttherearealsoother
consequences.Outbreaksoffoodborneillnesscandamagetradeandtourism,andleadtolossofearnings,
unemployment and litigation. Food spoilage is wasteful, costly and can adversely affect trade and
consumerconfidence.
International food trade, and foreign travel, are increasing, bringing important social and economic
benefits. But this also makes the spread of illness around the world easier. Eating habits too, have
undergone major change in many countries over the last two decades and new food production,
preparation and distribution techniques have developed to reflect this. Effective hygiene control,
therefore, is vital to avoid the adverse human health and economic consequences of foodborne illness,
foodborne injury, and food spoilage. Everyone, including farmers and growers, manufacturers and
processors,foodhandlersandconsumers,hasaresponsibilitytoassurethatfoodissafeandsuitablefor
consumption.
These General Principles lay a firm foundation for ensuring food hygiene and should be used in
conjunction with each specific code of hygienic practice, where appropriate, and the guidelines on
microbiological criteria. The document follows the food chain from primary production through to final
consumption, highlighting the key hygiene controls at each stage. It recommends a HACCPbased
approachwhereverpossibletoenhancefoodsafetyasdescribedinHazardAnalysisandCriticalControl
Point(HACCP)SystemandGuidelinesforitsApplication(Annex).
ThecontrolsdescribedinthisGeneralPrinciplesdocumentareinternationallyrecognizedasessentialto
ensure the safety and suitability of food for consumption. The General Principles are commended to
Governments, industry (including individual primary producers, manufacturers, processors, food service
operatorsandretailers)andconsumersalike.
9.1. SectionIObjectives
9.1.1. TheCodexGeneralPrinciplesofFoodHygiene
identifytheessentialprinciples of foodhygiene applicable throughoutthefood chain(including primary
productionthroughtothefinalconsumer),toachievethegoalofensuringthatfoodissafeandsuitable
forhumanconsumption;
recommendaHACCPbasedapproachasameanstoenhancefoodsafety;
indicatehowtoimplementthoseprinciples;and
provideaguidanceforspecificcodeswhichmaybeneededforsectorsofthefoodchain;processes;or
commodities;toamplifythehygienerequirementsspecifictothoseareas.
9.2. SectionIIScope,UseandDefinition

9.2.1. Scope
9.2.1.1. TheFoodChain
This document follows the food chain from primary production to the final consumer, setting out the
necessary hygiene conditions for producing food which is safe and suitable for consumption. The
document provides a baseline structurefor other,morespecific,codes applicableto particularsectors.
SuchspecificcodesandguidelinesshouldbereadinconjunctionwiththisdocumentandHazardAnalysis
andCriticalControlPoint(HACCP)SystemandGuidelinesforitsApplication(Annex).
9.2.1.2. RolesofGovernments,Industry,andConsumers
Governmentscanconsiderthecontentsofthisdocumentanddecidehowbesttheyshouldencouragethe
implementationofthesegeneralprinciplesto:
protectconsumersadequatelyfromillnessorinjurycausedbyfood;policiesneedtoconsiderthe
vulnerabilityofthepopulation,orofdifferentgroupswithinthepopulation;
provideassurancethatfoodissuitableforhumanconsumption;
maintainconfidenceininternationallytradedfood;and
provide health education programmes which effectively communicate the principles of food
hygienetoindustryandconsumers.
Industryshouldapplythehygienicpracticessetoutinthisdocumentto:
providefoodwhichissafeandsuitableforconsumption;
ensure that consumers have clear and easilyunderstood information, by way of labelling and
other appropriate means, to enable them to protect their food from contamination and
growth/survivaloffoodbornepathogensbystoring,handlingandpreparingitcorrectly;and
maintainconfidenceininternationallytradedfood.
Consumers should recognize their role by following relevant instructions and applying appropriate food
hygienemeasures.
9.2.2. Use
Eachsection inthisdocumentstatesboththeobjectivestobeachievedandtherationalebehindthose
objectivesintermsofthesafetyandsuitabilityoffood.
Section III covers primary production and associated procedures. Although hygiene practices may differ
considerablyforthevariousfoodcommoditiesandspecificcodes shouldbeappliedwhereappropriate,
somegeneral guidance is given in this section. Sections IVtoXsetdown the generalhygiene principles
whichapplythroughoutthefoodchaintothepointofsale.SectionIXalsocoversconsumerinformation,
recognizingtheimportantroleplayedbyconsumersinmaintainingthesafetyandsuitabilityoffood.
There will inevitably be situations where some of the specific requirements contained in this document
arenotapplicable.Thefundamentalquestionineverycaseiswhatisnecessaryandappropriateonthe
groundsofthesafetyandsuitabilityoffoodforconsumption?
The text indicates where such questions are likely to arise by using the phrases where necessary and
whereappropriate.Inpractice,thismeansthat,althoughtherequirementisgenerallyappropriateand
reasonable,therewill neverthelessbe some situationswhere it is neithernecessarynor appropriate on
thegroundsoffoodsafetyandsuitability.Indecidingwhetherarequirementisnecessaryorappropriate,
anassessmentoftheriskshouldbemade,preferablywithintheframeworkoftheHACCPapproach.This
approach allows the requirements in this document to be flexibly and sensibly applied with a proper
regardfortheoverallobjectivesofproducingfoodwhichissafeandsuitableforconsumption.Insodoing

ittakesintoaccountthewidediversityofactivitiesandvaryingdegreesofriskinvolvedinproducingfood.
Additionalguidanceisavailableinspecificfoodcodes.
9.2.3. 2.3Definitions
ForthepurposeofthisCode,thefollowingexpressionshavethemeaningstated:
Cleaningtheremovalofsoil,foodresidue,dirt,greaseorotherobjectionablematter.
Contaminant any biological or chemical agent, foreign matter, or other substances not intentionally
addedtofoodwhichmaycompromisefoodsafetyorsuitability.
Contaminationtheintroductionoroccurrenceofacontaminantinfoodorfoodenvironment.
Disinfection the reduction, by means of chemical agents and/or physical methods, of the number of
microorganismsintheenvironment,toalevelthatdoesnotcompromisefoodsafetyorsuitability.
Establishmentanybuildingorareainwhichfoodishandledandthesurroundingsunderthecontrolof
thesamemanagement.
Food hygiene all conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety and suitability of food at all
stagesofthefoodchain.
Hazardabiological,chemicalorphysicalagentin,orconditionof,foodwiththepotentialtocausean
adversehealtheffect.
HACCPasystemwhichidentifies,evaluates,andcontrolshazardswhicharesignificantforfoodsafety.
Food handler any person who directly handles packaged or unpackaged food, food equipment and
utensils,orfoodcontactsurfacesandisthereforeexpectedtocomplywithfoodhygienerequirements
Foodsafetyassurancethatfoodwillnotcauseharmtotheconsumerwhenitispreparedand/oreaten
accordingtoitsintendeduse.
Foodsuitabilityassurancethatfoodisacceptableforhumanconsumptionaccordingtoitsintendeduse.
Primaryproductionthosestepsinthefoodchainuptoandincluding,forexample,harvesting,slaughter,
milking,fishing.
9.3. SectionIIIPrimaryProduction
Objectives:
Primary production should be managed in a way that ensures that food is safe and suitable for its
intendeduse.Wherenecessary,thiswillinclude:
avoidingtheuseofareaswheretheenvironmentposesathreattothesafetyoffood;
controllingcontaminants,pestsanddiseasesofanimalsandplantsinsuchawayasnottoposeathreatto
foodsafety;
adoptingpracticesandmeasurestoensurefoodisproducedunderappropriatelyhygienicconditions.
Rationale:
To reduce the likelihood of introducing a hazard which may adversely affect the safety of food, or its

suitabilityforconsumption,atlaterstagesofthefoodchain.
9.3.1. EnvironmentalHygiene
Potential sources of contamination from the environment should be considered. In particular, primary
foodproductionshouldnotbecarriedoninareaswherethepresenceofpotentiallyharmfulsubstances
wouldleadtoanunacceptablelevelofsuchsubstancesinfood.
9.3.2. HygienicProductionofFoodSources
The potential effects of primary production activities on the safety and suitability of food should be
consideredatalltimes.Inparticular,thisincludesidentifyinganyspecificpointsinsuchactivitieswherea
highprobabilityofcontaminationmayexistandtakingspecificmeasurestominimizethatprobability.The
HACCPbasedapproachmayassistinthetakingofsuchmeasuresseeHazardAnalysisandCriticalControl
(HACCP)PointSystemandGuidelinesforitsApplication(Annex,page33).
Producersshouldasfaraspracticableimplementmeasuresto:
control contamination from air, soil, water, feedstuffs, fertilizers (including natural fertilizers),
pesticides,veterinarydrugsoranyotheragentusedinprimaryproduction;
controlplantandanimalhealthsothatitdoesnotposeathreattohumanhealththroughfood
consumption,oradverselyaffectthesuitabilityoftheproduct;and
protectfoodsourcesfromfaecalandothercontamination.
In particular, care should be taken to manage wastes, and store harmful substances appropriately. On
farm programmes which achieve specific food safety goals are becoming an important part of primary
productionandshouldbeencouraged.
9.3.3. Handling,StorageandTransport
Proceduresshouldbeinplaceto:
sort food and food ingredients to segregate material which is evidently unfit for human
consumption;
disposeofanyrejectedmaterialinahygienicmanner;and
Protect food and food ingredients from contamination by pests, or by chemical, physical or
microbiological contaminants or other objectionable substances during handling, storage and
transport.
Care should be taken to prevent, so far as reasonably practicable, deterioration and spoilage through
appropriatemeasureswhichmayincludecontrollingtemperature,humidity,and/orothercontrols.
9.3.4. Cleaning,MaintenanceandPersonnelHygieneAtPrimaryProduction
Appropriatefacilitiesandproceduresshouldbeinplacetoensurethat:
anynecessarycleaningandmaintenanceiscarriedouteffectively;and
anappropriatedegreeofpersonalhygieneismaintained.
9.4. SectionIVEstablishment:DesignandFacilities
Objectives:
Dependingonthenatureoftheoperations,andtherisksassociatedwiththem,premises,equipmentand

facilitiesshouldbelocated,designedandconstructedtoensurethat:
contaminationisminimized;
design and layout permit appropriate maintenance, cleaning and disinfections and minimize airborne
contamination;
surfacesandmaterials,inparticularthoseincontactwithfood,arenontoxicinintendeduseand,where
necessary,suitablydurable,andeasytomaintainandclean;
whereappropriate,suitablefacilitiesareavailablefortemperature,humidityandothercontrols;and
thereiseffectiveprotectionagainstpestaccessandharbourage.
Rationale:
Attentiontogoodhygienicdesignandconstruction,appropriatelocation,andtheprovisionofadequate
facilities,isnecessarytoenablehazardstobeeffectivelycontrolled.
9.4.1. Location
9.4.1.1. Establishments
Potential sources of contamination need to be considered when deciding where to locate food
establishments,aswell as theeffectivenessof anyreasonable measuresthat might be takento protect
food.Establishmentsshouldnotbelocatedanywherewhere,afterconsideringsuchprotectivemeasures,
itisclearthattherewillremainathreattofoodsafetyorsuitability.Inparticular,establishmentsshould
normallybelocatedawayfrom:
environmentallypollutedareasandindustrialactivitieswhichposeaseriousthreatofcontaminatingfood;
areassubjecttofloodingunlesssufficientsafeguardsareprovided;
areaspronetoinfestationsofpests;
areaswherewastes,eithersolidorliquid,cannotberemovedeffectively.
9.4.1.2. Equipment
Equipmentshouldbelocatedsothatit:
permitsadequatemaintenanceandcleaning;
functionsinaccordancewithitsintendeduse;and
facilitatesgoodhygienepractices,includingmonitoring.
9.4.2. PremisesandRooms
9.4.2.1. DesignandLayout
Where appropriate, the internal design and layout of food establishments should permit good food
hygiene practices, including protection against crosscontamination between and during operations by
foodstuffs.
9.4.2.2. InternalStructuresandFittings
Structures within food establishments should be soundly built of durable materials and be easy to
maintain, clean and where appropriate, able to be disinfected. In particular the following specific
conditionsshouldbesatisfiedwherenecessarytoprotectthesafetyandsuitabilityoffood:
thesurfacesofwalls,partitionsandfloorsshouldbemadeofimperviousmaterialswithnotoxic
effectinintendeduse;
wallsandpartitionsshouldhaveasmoothsurfaceuptoaheightappropriatetotheoperation;
floorsshouldbeconstructedtoallowadequatedrainageandcleaning;
ceilingsandoverheadfixturesshouldbeconstructedandfinishedtominimizethebuildupofdirt
andcondensation,andthesheddingofparticles;

windows should be easy to clean, be constructed to minimize the build up of dirt and where
necessary, be fitted with removable and cleanable insectproof screens. Where necessary,
windowsshouldbefixed;
doorsshouldhavesmooth,nonabsorbentsurfaces,andbeeasytocleanand,wherenecessary,
disinfect;
working surfacesthatcome intodirect contactwithfood shouldbe in soundcondition, durable
and easy to clean, maintain and disinfect. They should be made of smooth, nonabsorbent
materials, and inert to the food, to detergents and disinfectants under normal operating
conditions.
9.4.2.3. Temporary/MobilePremisesandVendingMachines
Premises and structures covered here include market stalls, mobile sales and street vending vehicles,
temporarypremisesinwhichfoodishandledsuchastentsandmarquees.
Such premises and structures should be sited, designed and constructed to avoid, as far as reasonably
practicable,contaminatingfoodandharbouringpests.
In applying these specific conditions and requirements, any food hygiene hazards associated with such
facilitiesshouldbeadequatelycontrolledtoensurethesafetyandsuitabilityoffood.
9.4.3. Equipment
9.4.3.1. General
Equipmentandcontainers(otherthanonceonlyusecontainersandpackaging)comingintocontactwith
food, should be designed and constructed to ensure that, where necessary, they can be adequately
cleaned,disinfectedandmaintainedtoavoidthecontaminationoffood.Equipmentandcontainersshould
bemadeofmaterialswithnotoxiceffectinintendeduse.Wherenecessary,equipmentshouldbedurable
and movable or capable of being disassembled to allow for maintenance, cleaning, disinfection,
monitoringand,forexample,tofacilitateinspectionforpests.
9.4.3.2. FoodControlandMonitoringEquipment
Inadditiontothegeneralrequirementsinparagraph4.3.1,equipmentusedtocook,heattreat,cool,store
orfreezefoodshouldbedesignedtoachievetherequiredfoodtemperaturesasrapidlyasnecessaryin
theinterestsoffoodsafetyandsuitability,andmaintainthemeffectively.Suchequipmentshouldalsobe
designed to allow temperatures to be monitored and controlled. Where necessary, such equipment
shouldhaveeffectivemeansofcontrollingandmonitoringhumidity,airflowandanyothercharacteristic
likelytohaveadetrimentaleffectonthesafetyorsuitabilityoffood.Theserequirementsareintendedto
ensurethat:
harmfulorundesirablemicroorganismsortheirtoxinsareeliminatedorreducedtosafelevelsor
theirsurvivalandgrowthareeffectivelycontrolled;
whereappropriate,criticallimitsestablishedinHACCPbasedplanscanbemonitored;and
temperatures and other conditions necessary to food safety and suitability can be rapidly
achievedandmaintained.
9.4.3.3. ContainersForWasteandInedibleSubstances
Containers for waste, byproducts and inedible or dangerous substances, should be specifically
identifiable,suitablyconstructedand,whereappropriate,madeofimperviousmaterial.Containersused
to hold dangerous substances should be identified and, where appropriate, be lockable to prevent
maliciousoraccidentalcontaminationoffood.

9.4.4. Facilities
9.4.4.1. WaterSupply
An adequate supply of potable water with appropriate facilities for its storage, distribution and
temperaturecontrol,shouldbeavailablewhenevernecessarytoensurethesafetyandsuitabilityoffood.
PotablewatershouldbeasspecifiedinthelatesteditionofWHOGuidelinesforDrinkingWaterQuality,or
water of a higher standard. Nonpotable water (for use in, for example, fire control, steam production,
refrigeration and other similar purposes where it would not contaminate food), shall have a separate
system. Nonpotable water systems shall be identified and shall not connect with, or allow reflux into,
potablewatersystems.
9.4.4.2. DrainageandWasteDisposal
Adequatedrainageandwastedisposalsystemsandfacilitiesshouldbeprovided.Theyshouldbedesigned
andconstructedsothattheriskofcontaminatingfoodorthepotablewatersupplyisavoided.
9.4.4.3. Cleaning
Adequate facilities, suitably designated, should be provided for cleaning food, utensils and equipment.
Suchfacilitiesshouldhaveanadequatesupplyofhotandcoldpotablewaterwhereappropriate.
9.4.4.4. PersonnelHygieneFacilitiesandToilets
Personnelhygienefacilitiesshouldbeavailabletoensurethatanappropriatedegreeofpersonalhygiene
canbemaintainedandtoavoidcontaminatingfood.Whereappropriate,facilitiesshouldinclude:
adequatemeansofhygienicallywashinganddryinghands,includingwashbasinsandasupplyof
hotandcold(orsuitablytemperaturecontrolled)water;
lavatoriesofappropriatehygienicdesign;and
adequatechangingfacilitiesforpersonnel.
Suchfacilitiesshouldbesuitablylocatedanddesignated.
9.4.4.5. TemperatureControl
Depending on the nature of the food operations undertaken, adequate facilities should be available for
heating, cooling, cooking, refrigerating and freezing food, for storing refrigerated or frozen foods,
monitoring food temperatures, and when necessary, controlling ambient temperatures to ensure the
safetyandsuitabilityoffood.
9.4.4.6. AirQualityandVentilation
Adequatemeansofnaturalormechanicalventilationshouldbeprovided,inparticularto:
minimizeairbornecontaminationoffood,forexample,fromaerosolsandcondensationdroplets;
controlambienttemperatures;
controlodourswhichmightaffectthesuitabilityoffood;and
controlhumidity,wherenecessary,toensurethesafetyandsuitabilityoffood.
Ventilation systems should be designed and constructed so that air does not flow from contaminated
areastocleanareasand,wherenecessary,theycanbeadequatelymaintainedandcleaned.

9.4.4.7. Lighting
Adequate natural or artificial lighting should be provided to enable the undertaking to operate in a
hygienicmanner.Wherenecessary,lightingshouldnotbesuchthattheresultingcolourismisleading.The
intensityshouldbeadequatetothenatureoftheoperation.Lightingfixturesshould,whereappropriate,
beprotectedtoensurethatfoodisnotcontaminatedbybreakages.
9.4.4.8. Storage
Where necessary, adequate facilities for the storage of food, ingredients and nonfood chemicals (e.g.
cleaningmaterials,lubricants,fuels)shouldbeprovided.
Whereappropriate,foodstoragefacilitiesshouldbedesignedandconstructedto:
permitadequatemaintenanceandcleaning;
avoidpestaccessandharbourage;
enablefoodtobeeffectivelyprotectedfromcontaminationduringstorage;and
where necessary, provide an environment which minimizes the deterioration of food (e.g. by
temperatureandhumiditycontrol).
Thetypeofstoragefacilitiesrequiredwilldependonthenatureofthefood.Wherenecessary,separate,
securestoragefacilitiesforcleaningmaterialsandhazardoussubstancesshouldbeprovided.
9.5. SectionVControlofOperation
Objective:
Toproducefoodwhichissafeandsuitableforhumanconsumptionby:
formulatingdesignrequirementswithrespecttorawmaterials,composition,processing,distribution,and
consumerusetobemetinthemanufactureandhandlingofspecificfooditems;and
designing,implementing,monitoringandreviewingeffectivecontrolsystems.
Rationale:
To reduce the risk of unsafe food by taking preventive measures to assure the safety and suitability of
foodatanappropriatestageintheoperationbycontrollingfoodhazards.
9.5.1. ControlofFoodHazards
Food business operators should control food hazards through the use of systems such as HACCP. They
should:
identifyanystepsintheiroperationswhicharecriticaltothesafetyoffood;
implementeffectivecontrolproceduresatthosesteps;
monitorcontrolprocedurestoensuretheircontinuingeffectiveness;and
reviewcontrolproceduresperiodically,andwhenevertheoperationschange.
Thesesystemsshouldbeappliedthroughoutthefoodchaintocontrolfoodhygienethroughouttheshelf
lifeoftheproductthroughproperproductandprocessdesign.
Control procedures may be simple, such as checking stock rotation calibrating equipment, or correctly
loading refrigerated display units. In some cases a system based on expert advice, and involving

documentation,maybeappropriate.AmodelofsuchafoodsafetysystemisdescribedinHazardAnalysis
andCriticalControl(HACCP)SystemandGuidelinesforitsApplication(Annex).
9.5.2. KeyAspectsofHygieneControlSystems
9.5.2.1. TimeandTemperatureControl
Inadequate food temperature control is one of the most common causes of foodborne illness or food
spoilage.Suchcontrolsincludetimeandtemperatureofcooking,cooling,processingandstorage.Systems
shouldbeinplacetoensurethattemperatureiscontrolledeffectivelywhereitiscriticaltothesafetyand
suitabilityoffood.
Temperaturecontrolsystemsshouldtakeintoaccount:
the nature of the food, e.g. its water activity, pH, and likely initial level and types of micro
organisms;
theintendedshelflifeoftheproduct;
themethodofpackagingandprocessing;and
howtheproductisintendedtobeused,e.g.furthercooking/processingorreadytoeat.
Suchsystemsshouldalsospecifytolerablelimitsfortimeandtemperaturevariations.
Temperaturerecordingdevicesshouldbecheckedatregularintervalsandtestedforaccuracy.
9.5.2.2. SpecificProcessSteps
Otherstepswhichcontributetofoodhygienemayinclude,forexample:
chilling
thermalprocessing
irradiation
drying
chemicalpreservation
vacuumormodifiedatmosphericpackaging
9.5.2.3. MicrobiologicalandOtherSpecifications
Management systems described in paragraph 5.1 offer an effective way of ensuring the safety and
suitabilityoffood.Wheremicrobiological,chemicalorphysicalspecificationsareusedinanyfoodcontrol
system,suchspecificationsshouldbe basedonsoundscientificprinciplesandstate,whereappropriate,
monitoringprocedures,analyticalmethodsandactionlimits.
9.5.2.4. MicrobiologicalCrossContamination
Pathogens can be transferred from one food to another, either by direct contact or by food handlers,
contactsurfacesortheair.Raw,unprocessedfoodshouldbeeffectivelyseparated,eitherphysicallyorby
time,fromreadytoeatfoods,witheffectiveintermediatecleaningandwhereappropriatedisinfection.
Access to processing areas may need to be restricted or controlled. Where risks are particularly high,
accesstoprocessingareasshouldbeonlyviaachangingfacility.Personnelmayneedtoberequiredtoput
oncleanprotectiveclothingincludingfootwearandwashtheirhandsbeforeentering.
Surfaces, utensils, equipment, fixtures and fittings should be thoroughly cleaned and where necessary
disinfectedafterrawfood,particularlymeatandpoultry,hasbeenhandledorprocessed.

9.5.2.5. PhysicalandChemicalContamination
Systems should be in place to prevent contamination of foods by foreign bodies such as glass or metal
shardsfrommachinery,dust,harmfulfumesandunwantedchemicals.Inmanufacturingandprocessing,
suitabledetectionorscreeningdevicesshouldbeusedwherenecessary.
9.5.3. IncomingMaterialRequirements
Norawmaterialoringredientshouldbeacceptedbyanestablishmentifitisknowntocontainparasites,
undesirablemicroorganisms,pesticides,veterinarydrugsortoxic,decomposedorextraneoussubstances
which would not be reduced to an acceptable level by normal sorting and/or processing. Where
appropriate,specificationsforrawmaterialsshouldbeidentifiedandapplied.
Raw materials or ingredients should, where appropriate, be inspected and sorted before processing.
Wherenecessary,laboratorytestsshouldbemadetoestablishfitnessforuse.Onlysound,suitableraw
materialsoringredientsshouldbeused.
Stocksofrawmaterialsandingredientsshouldbesubjecttoeffectivestockrotation.
9.5.4. Packaging
Packaging design and materials should provide adequate protection for products to minimize
contamination,preventdamage,andaccommodateproperlabelling.Packagingmaterialsorgaseswhere
used must be nontoxic and not pose a threat to the safety and suitability of food under the specified
conditionsofstorageanduse.Whereappropriate,reusablepackagingshouldbesuitablydurable,easyto
cleanand,wherenecessary,disinfect.
9.5.5. Water
9.5.5.1. InContactWithFood
Onlypotablewater,shouldbeusedinfoodhandlingandprocessing,withthefollowingexceptions:
forsteamproduction,firecontrolandothersimilarpurposesnotconnectedwithfood;and
in certain food processes, e.g. chilling, and in food handling areas, provided this does not
constituteahazardtothesafetyandsuitabilityoffood(e.g.theuseofcleanseawater).
Water recirculated for reuse should be treated and maintained in such a condition that no risk to the
safetyandsuitabilityoffoodresultsfromitsuse.Thetreatmentprocessshouldbeeffectivelymonitored.
Recirculatedwaterwhichhasreceivednofurthertreatmentandwaterrecoveredfromprocessingoffood
by evaporation or drying may be used, provided its use does not constitute a risk to the safety and
suitabilityoffood.
9.5.5.2. AsAnIngredient
Potablewatershouldbeusedwherevernecessarytoavoidfoodcontamination.
9.5.5.3. IceandSteam
Ice should be made from water that complies with section 4.4.1. Ice and steam should be produced,
handledandstoredtoprotectthemfromcontamination.
Steam used in direct contact with food or food contact surfaces should not constitute a threat to the
safetyandsuitabilityoffood.

9.5.6. ManagementandSupervision
The type of control and supervision needed will depend on the size of the business, the nature of its
activities and the types of food involved. Managers and supervisors should have enough knowledge of
foodhygieneprinciplesandpracticestobeabletojudgepotentialrisks,takeappropriatepreventiveand
correctiveaction,andensurethateffectivemonitoringandsupervisiontakesplace.
9.5.7. DocumentationandRecords
Where necessary, appropriate records of processing, production and distribution should be kept and
retainedforaperiodthatexceedstheshelflifeoftheproduct.Documentationcanenhancethecredibility
andeffectivenessofthefoodsafetycontrolsystem.
9.5.8. RecallProcedures
Managers should ensure effective procedures are in place to deal with any food safety hazard and to
enable the complete, rapid recall of any implicated lot of the finished food from the market. Where a
producthasbeenwithdrawnbecauseofanimmediatehealthhazard,otherproductswhichareproduced
undersimilarconditions,andwhichmaypresentasimilarhazardtopublichealth,shouldbeevaluatedfor
safetyandmayneedtobewithdrawn.Theneedforpublicwarningsshouldbeconsidered.
Recalledproductsshouldbeheldundersupervisionuntiltheyaredestroyed,usedforpurposesotherthan
human consumption, determined to be safe for human consumption, or reprocessed in a manner to
ensuretheirsafety.
9.6. SectionVIEstablishment:MaintenanceandSanitation
Objective:
Toestablisheffectivesystemsto:
ensureadequateandappropriatemaintenanceandcleaning;
controlpests;
managewaste;and
monitoreffectivenessofmaintenanceandsanitationprocedures.
Rationale:
Tofacilitatethecontinuingeffectivecontroloffoodhazards,pests,andotheragentslikelytocontaminate
food.
9.6.1. MaintenanceandCleaning
9.6.1.1. General
Establishmentsandequipmentshouldbekeptinanappropriatestateofrepairandconditionto:
facilitateallsanitationprocedures;
functionasintended,particularlyatcriticalsteps(seeparagraph5.1);
preventcontaminationoffood,e.g.frommetalshards,flakingplaster,debrisandchemicals.
Cleaningshouldremove foodresiduesanddirtwhichmaybea sourceofcontamination.The necessary

cleaning methods and materials will depend on the nature of the food business. Disinfection may be
necessaryaftercleaning.

Cleaning chemicals should be handled and used carefully and in accordance with manufacturers
instructions and stored, where necessary, separated from food, in clearly identified containers to avoid
theriskofcontaminatingfood.
9.6.1.2. CleaningProceduresandMethods
Cleaning can be carried out by the separate or the combined use of physical methods, such as heat,
scrubbing,turbulentflow,vacuumcleaningorothermethodsthatavoidtheuseofwater,andchemical
methodsusingdetergents,alkalisoracids.
Cleaningprocedureswillinvolve,whereappropriate:
removinggrossdebrisfromsurfaces;
applying a detergent solution to loosen soil and bacterial film and hold them in solution or
suspension;
rinsing with water which complies with section 4, to remove loosened soil and residues of
detergent;
drycleaningorotherappropriatemethodsforremovingandcollectingresiduesanddebris;and
where necessary, disinfection with subsequent rinsing unless the manufacturers instructions
indicateonascientificbasisthatrinsingisnotrequired.
9.6.2. CleaningProgrammes
Cleaninganddisinfectionprogrammesshouldensurethatallpartsoftheestablishmentareappropriately
clean,andshouldincludethecleaningofcleaningequipment.
Cleaninganddisinfectionprogrammesshouldbecontinuallyandeffectivelymonitoredfortheirsuitability
andeffectivenessandwherenecessary,documented.
Wherewrittencleaningprogrammesareused,theyshouldspecify:
areas,itemsofequipmentandutensilstobecleaned;
responsibilityforparticulartasks;
methodandfrequencyofcleaning;and
monitoringarrangements.
Where appropriate, programmes should be drawn up in consultation with relevant specialist expert
advisors.
9.6.3. PestControlSystems
9.6.3.1. General
Pestsposeamajorthreattothesafetyandsuitabilityoffood.Pestinfestationscanoccurwherethereare
breeding sites and a supply of food. Good hygiene practices should be employed to avoid creating an
environmentconducivetopests.Goodsanitation,inspectionofincomingmaterialsandgoodmonitoring
canminimizethelikelihoodofinfestationandtherebylimittheneedforpesticides.[Insertreferenceto
FAOdocumentdealingwithIntegratedPestManagement].
9.6.3.2. PreventingAccess
Buildingsshouldbekeptin good repair and conditiontopreventpest accessandtoeliminatepotential

breedingsites.Holes,drainsandotherplaceswherepestsarelikelytogainaccessshouldbekeptsealed.
Wiremeshscreens,forexampleonopenwindows,doorsandventilators,willreducetheproblemofpest
entry.Animalsshould,whereverpossible,beexcludedfromthegroundsoffactoriesandfoodprocessing
plants.

9.6.3.3. HarbourageandInfestation
The availability of food and water encourages pest harbourage and infestation. Potential food sources
shouldbestoredinpestproofcontainersand/orstackedabovethegroundandawayfromwalls.Areas
bothinsideandoutsidefoodpremisesshouldbekeptclean.Whereappropriate,refuseshouldbestored
incovered,pestproofcontainers.
9.6.3.4. MonitoringandDetection
Establishmentsandsurroundingareasshouldberegularlyexaminedforevidenceofinfestation.
9.6.3.5. Eradication
Pest infestations should be dealt with immediately and without adversely affecting food safety or
suitability.Treatmentwithchemical,physicalorbiologicalagentsshouldbecarriedoutwithoutposinga
threattothesafetyorsuitabilityoffood.
9.6.4. WasteManagement
Suitable provision must be made for the removal and storage of waste. Waste must not be allowed to
accumulateinfoodhandling,foodstorage,andotherworkingareasandtheadjoiningenvironmentexcept
sofarasisunavoidablefortheproperfunctioningofthebusiness.
Wastestoresmustbekeptappropriatelyclean.
9.6.5. MonitoringEffectiveness
Sanitationsystemsshouldbemonitoredforeffectiveness,periodicallyverifiedbymeanssuchasauditpre
operationalinspectionsor,whereappropriate,microbiologicalsamplingofenvironmentandfoodcontact
surfacesandregularlyreviewedandadaptedtoreflectchangedcircumstances.
9.7. SectionVIIEstablishment:PersonalHygiene
Objectives:
Toensurethatthosewhocomedirectlyorindirectlyintocontactwithfoodarenotlikelytocontaminate
foodby:
maintaininganappropriatedegreeofpersonalcleanliness;
behavingandoperatinginanappropriatemanner.
Rationale:
Peoplewhodonotmaintainanappropriatedegreeofpersonalcleanliness,whohavecertainillnessesor
conditionsorwhobehaveinappropriately,cancontaminatefoodandtransmitillnesstoconsumers.
9.7.1. HealthStatus
People known, or suspected, to be suffering from, or to be a carrier of a disease or illness likely to be

transmittedthroughfood,shouldnotbeallowedtoenteranyfoodhandlingareaifthereisalikelihoodof
theircontaminatingfood.Anypersonsoaffectedshouldimmediatelyreportillnessorsymptomsofillness
tothemanagement.
Medicalexaminationofafoodhandlershouldbecarriedoutifclinicallyorepidemiologicallyindicated.

9.7.2. IllnessandInjuries
Conditions which should be reported to management so that any need for medical examination and/or
possibleexclusionfromfoodhandlingcanbeconsidered,include:
jaundice
diarrhoea
vomiting
fever
sorethroatwithfever
visiblyinfectedskinlesions(boils,cuts,etc.)
dischargesfromtheear,eyeornose
9.7.3. PersonalCleanliness
Food handlers should maintain a high degree of personal cleanliness and, where appropriate, wear
suitable protective clothing, head covering, and footwear. Cuts and wounds, where personnel are
permittedtocontinueworking,shouldbecoveredbysuitablewaterproofdressings.
Personnelshouldalwayswashtheirhandswhenpersonalcleanlinessmayaffectfoodsafety,forexample:
atthestartoffoodhandlingactivities;
immediatelyafterusingthetoilet;and
afterhandlingrawfoodoranycontaminatedmaterial,wherethiscouldresultincontaminationof
otherfooditems;theyshouldavoidhandlingreadytoeatfood,whereappropriate.
9.7.4. PersonalBehaviour
People engaged in food handling activities should refrain from behaviour which could result in
contaminationoffood,forexample:
smoking;
spitting;
chewingoreating;
sneezingorcoughingoverunprotectedfood.
Personaleffectssuchasjewellery,watches,pinsorotheritemsshouldnotbewornorbroughtintofood
handlingareasiftheyposeathreattothesafetyandsuitabilityoffood.
9.7.5. Visitors
Visitorstofoodmanufacturing,processingorhandlingareasshould,whereappropriate,wearprotective
clothingandadheretotheotherpersonalhygieneprovisionsinthissection.
9.8. SectionVIIITransportation
Objectives:
Measuresshouldbetakenwherenecessaryto:
protectfoodfrompotentialsourcesofcontamination;
protectfoodfromdamagelikelytorenderthefoodunsuitableforconsumption;and
provideanenvironmentwhicheffectivelycontrolsthegrowthofpathogenicorspoilagemicroorganisms
andtheproductionoftoxinsinfood.

Rationale:
Foodmaybecomecontaminated,ormaynotreachitsdestinationinasuitableconditionforconsumption,
unless effective control measures are taken during transport, even where adequate hygiene control
measureshavebeentakenearlierinthefoodchain.
9.8.1. General
Food must be adequately protected during transport. The type of conveyances or containers required
dependsonthenatureofthefoodandtheconditionsunderwhichithastobetransported.
9.8.2. Requirements
Wherenecessary,conveyancesandbulkcontainersshouldbedesignedandconstructedsothatthey:
donotcontaminatefoodsorpackaging;
canbeeffectivelycleanedand,wherenecessary,disinfected;
permit effective separation of different foods or foods from nonfood items where necessary
duringtransport;
provideeffectiveprotectionfromcontamination,includingdustandfumes;
caneffectivelymaintainthetemperature,humidity,atmosphere andotherconditions necessary
toprotectfoodfromharmfulorundesirablemicrobialgrowthanddeteriorationlikelytorenderit
unsuitableforconsumption;and
allowanynecessarytemperature,humidityandotherconditionstobechecked.
9.8.3. UseandMaintenance
Conveyancesandcontainersfortransportingfoodshouldbekeptinanappropriatestateofcleanliness,
repairandcondition.Wherethesameconveyanceorcontainerisusedfortransportingdifferentfoods,or
nonfoods,effectivecleaningand,wherenecessary,disinfectionshouldtakeplacebetweenloads.
Whereappropriate,particularlyinbulktransport,containersandconveyancesshouldbedesignatedand
markedforfooduseonlyandbeusedonlyforthatpurpose.
9.9. SectionIXProductInformationandConsumerAwareness
Objectives:
Productsshouldbearappropriateinformationtoensurethat:
adequateandaccessibleinformationisavailabletothenextpersoninthefoodchaintoenablethemto
handle,store,process,prepareanddisplaytheproductsafelyandcorrectly;
thelotorbatchcanbeeasilyidentifiedandrecalledifnecessary.
Consumersshouldhaveenoughknowledgeoffoodhygienetoenablethemto:
understandtheimportanceofproductinformation;
makeinformedchoicesappropriatetotheindividual;and
preventcontaminationandgrowthorsurvivaloffoodbornepathogensbystoring,preparingandusingit
correctly.
Information for industry or trade users should be clearly distinguishable from consumer information,
particularlyonfoodlabels.

Rationale:
Insufficient product information, and/or inadequate knowledge of general food hygiene, can lead to
products being mishandled at later stages in the food chain. Such mishandling can result in illness, or
products becoming unsuitable for consumption, even where adequate hygiene control measures have
beentakenearlierinthefoodchain.
9.9.1. LotIdentification
Lot identification is essential in product recall and also helps effective stock rotation. Each container of
foodshouldbepermanentlymarkedtoidentifytheproducerandthelot.CodexGeneralStandardforthe
LabellingofPrepackagedFoods(CODEXSTAN11985)applies.
9.9.2. ProductInformation
Allfoodproductsshouldbeaccompaniedbyorbearadequateinformationtoenablethenextpersonin
thefoodchaintohandle,display,storeandprepareandusetheproductsafelyandcorrectly.
9.9.3. Labelling
Prepackagedfoodsshouldbelabelledwithclearinstructionstoenablethenextpersoninthefoodchain
to handle, display, store and use the product safely. Codex General Standard for the Labelling of
PrepackagedFoods(CODEXSTAN11985)applies.
9.9.4. ConsumerEducation
Health education programmes should cover general food hygiene. Such programmes should enable
consumers to understand the importance of any product information and to follow any instructions
accompanyingproducts,andmakeinformedchoices.Inparticularconsumersshouldbeinformedofthe
relationshipbetweentime/temperaturecontrolandfoodborneillness.
9.10. SectionXTraining
Objective:
Those engaged in food operations who come directly or indirectly into contact with food should be
trained,and/orinstructedinfoodhygienetoalevelappropriatetotheoperationstheyaretoperform.
Rationale:
Trainingisfundamentallyimportanttoanyfoodhygienesystem.
Inadequate hygiene training, and/or instruction and supervision of all people involved in food related
activitiesposeapotentialthreattothesafetyoffoodanditssuitabilityforconsumption.
9.10.1. AwarenessandResponsibilities
Food hygiene training is fundamentally important. All personnel should be aware of their role and
responsibility in protecting food from contamination or deterioration. Food handlers should have the
necessary knowledge and skills to enable them to handle food hygienically. Those who handle strong
cleaning chemicals or other potentially hazardous chemicals should be instructed in safe handling
techniques.

9.10.2. TrainingProgrammes
Factorstotakeintoaccountinassessingtheleveloftrainingrequiredinclude:
the nature of the food, in particular its ability to sustain growth of pathogenic or spoilage micro
organisms;
themannerinwhichthefoodishandledandpacked,includingtheprobabilityofcontamination;
theextentandnatureofprocessingorfurtherpreparationbeforefinalconsumption;
theconditionsunderwhichthefoodwillbestored;and
theexpectedlengthoftimebeforeconsumption.
9.10.3. InstructionandSupervision
Periodicassessmentsoftheeffectivenessoftrainingandinstructionprogrammesshouldbemade,aswell
asroutinesupervisionandcheckstoensurethatproceduresarebeingcarriedouteffectively.
Managers and supervisors of food processes should have the necessary knowledge of food hygiene
principles and practices to be able to judge potential risks and take the necessary action to remedy
deficiencies.
9.10.4. RefresherTraining
Trainingprogrammesshouldberoutinelyreviewedandupdatedwherenecessary.Systemsshouldbein
placetoensurethatfoodhandlersremainawareofallproceduresnecessarytomaintainthesafetyand
suitabilityoffood.
10. HazardAnalysisandCriticalControlPoint(HACCP)
"Anounceofpreventionisworthapoundofcure"
10.1. Introduction
HACCP was originally developed as a microbiological safety system in the early days of the US manned
spaceprogrammeinordertoguaranteethesafetyofastronauts'food.Upuntilthattimemostfoodsafety
systemswerebasedonendproducttestingandcouldnotfullyassuresafeproductsas100%testingwas
impossible.Aproactive,processfocusedsystemwasneededandtheHACCPconceptwasborn.
The original system was designed by the Pillsbury Company working alongside NASA and the US army
laboratoriesatNatick.ItwasbasedontheengineeringsystemFailure,ModeandEffectAnalysis(FMEA)
whichlookedatwhatcouldpotentiallygowrongateachstageintheoperationalongwithpossiblecauses
andthelikelyeffect,beforeapplyingeffectivecontrolmechanisms.
HACCPisasystemthatidentifies,evaluatesandcontrolshazardswhicharesignificantforfoodsafety.Itis
astructured,systematicapproachforthecontroloffoodsafetythroughoutthecommoditysystem,from
theploughtotheplate.Itrequiresagoodunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweencauseandeffectin
ordertobemoreproactiveanditisakeyelementinTotalQualityManagement(TQM).HACCPbuildson
the foundations of wellestablished quality management systems such as Good Manufacturing Practice
(GMP),GoodHygienicPractice(GHP),GoodAgriculturalPractice(GAP),andGoodStoragePractice(GSP).
The HACCP concept has been successfully applied in the control of quality as well as safety in lowacid
cannedfoodsintheUSA,andmanyfoodcompaniesinEuropeandtheUSAhaveadoptedtheapproach.
Increasingly, regulatory bodies have recognised the usefulness of this tool and its 'principles' have has
been incorporated into legislative requirements by both the EU (in the General Hygiene regulations for
managingfoodsafety(93/43/EEC)),andtheUnitedStatesFederalDepartmentofAgriculture(CPR123).
TheNationalAdvisoryCommitteeonMicrobiologicalCriteriaforFoods(NACMCF)providedguidelineson
HACCP including generic plans and decision trees in 1992, and the Codex Alimentarius Commission

adopted the HACCP system at its twentieth session in 1993. HACCP systems can be incorporated into
otherqualityassurancesystemssuchastheISO9000series(Figure7).
Althoughconceivedasafoodsafetysystemforboththeagriculturalandprocessingsystems,itisinthe
latterthatHACCPhasfoundmostapplicationhitherto.Thisisprimarilybecauseitismucheasiertoapply
aHACCPsysteminafactorywherethereisasinglemanagementor'owner',andwhereitispossibleto
completely prevent a food safety hazard, or eliminate, or reduce it to an acceptable level. In the
commoditysystemthereareoftenmanydisparate'owners'ofthecommodityasitpassesfromthefarm
totheconsumer,andcompletecontrolmaybeunobtainable.ThisManual aimstoaddressthissubject,
basing the approach as closely as possible on the Codex Code of General Principles on Food Hygiene
(1997), which emphasises the importance of GMP/GAP/GHP as sound foundations to incorporate the
HACCPapproachanddevelopauserfriendlyFoodSafetyManagementSystem.
10.2. Prerequisiteprogrammes
Prerequisite programmes such as GAP, GMP and GHP must be working effectively within a commodity
system before HACCP is applied. If these prerequisite programmes are not functioning effectively then
theintroductionofHACCPwillbecomplicated,resultinginacumbersome,overdocumentedsystem.
10.2.1. GoodAgriculturalPractices
10.2.1.1. PrimaryProduction
Primaryfoodproductionshouldbemanagedtoensurethatfoodissafeandwholesomefortheconsumer.
Production will start on the farm, in the sea or lake or even within a forest. It is essential that certain
ground rules are followed. Land used for crop or horticulture production should be fit for purpose and
shouldnothavepreviouslybeencontaminatedwithheavymetals,industrialchemicalsorenvironmental
waste. Such hazards will be transferred into the food chain rendering the commodity unfit for human
consumption.Farmersshouldcontrolproductionsothatcontaminationofthecrop,proliferationofpests,
and diseases of animals and plants, do not compromise food safety. Good Agricultural Practices (GAP),
including Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) where appropriate, should be adopted to make sure that the
harvestedcommoditywillnotpresentafoodhazardtotheconsumer.
GoodStoragePractices(GSP)shouldbefollowedwhenthecommodityisstoredonthefarm.Aswellas
being covered in Food Hygiene Basic Texts (CODEX) there are also four ISO procedures that cover the
storageofcerealsandpulses(ISO6322series).GSPshouldalsobefollowedforstoragethroughoutthe
commoditysystem.
10.2.2. GoodManufacturingPractices
10.2.2.1. EstablishmentDesignandFacilities
Thestructureandlocationofaprocessingplantneedstobeconsideredinrelationtothenature
ofoperationsandrisksassociatedwiththem.
Food premises should be designed to minimise possibilities of contamination of commodity or
product.
Design and layout should permit maintenance, cleaning and disinfection of the site to minimise
airbornecontamination.
All surfaces that come into contact with food should be nontoxic, as well as being easy to
maintainandcleaninordertopreventanyadditionalcontamination.
Suitablefacilitiesshouldexistfortemperatureandhumiditycontrol,whenrequired.
Effectivemeasuresshouldexisttopreventaccessbypests

10.2.2.2. ControlofOperation
Effective control measures should be in place to reduce the risk of contamination of the commodity or
foodsupplysuchthatitissafeandfitforpurpose:
Adequatetime,temperatureorhumiditycontrols
Foodgradepackaging
Potablewatersupplies
Maintenanceofequipment
MaintenanceandSanitation
Procedures and work instructions should exist to demonstrate an adequate level of maintenance of an
establishment as well as efficient practices for cleaning, waste management, and pest control. Overall,
theseoperationswillsupporttheongoingcontrolofpotentialfoodhazardsthatmaycontaminatefood.
10.2.2.3. PersonnelHygiene
Measuresneedtobeinplacetoensurethatfoodhandlersdonotcontaminatefood.Thisobjectivecanbe
attainedbymaintaininganappropriatelevelofpersonalcleanlinessandfollowingguidelinesforpersonal
hygiene.
10.2.2.4. Transportation
Themethodoftransportationshouldbesuchthatmeasuresaretakentopreventanycontaminationor
deterioration of the commodity. Commodities or product that need to be transported in certain
environments should be appropriately controlled, e.g. chilled, frozen, or stored under specific humidity
levels.
Containersandconveyorsusedfortransportingfoodneedtobemaintainedingoodconditionandbeeasy
toclean.
Containersusedforbulktransfershouldbedesignatedandmarkedspecificallyforfooduseonly.
10.2.2.5. Training
All food handlers should be trained in personal hygiene, as well as in the specific operation with which
theyareworking,toalevelcommensuratewiththeirduties.Foodhandlersshouldalsobesupervisedby
trainedsupervisors.
An ongoing training programme for food handlers is paramount to the success of a Food Safety
ManagementSystem
10.2.2.6. ProductInformationandConsumerAwareness
The end product should beaccompanied by adequateinformationtoensure that personnelat the next
stage in the food chain will handle, store, process, prepare and display the product safely. Since the
consumermayberesponsibleforperformingtheultimatecontrolmeasure,thecookingofrawmeator
fish,theyshouldhavealltherelevantinformationrequiredtocarryoutthisstepeffectively.
All batches of food should be easily identified, by a batch or lot number, to allow traceability of the
commodityifrequired.
10.3. BasicprinciplesofHACCP

Therearesevendiscreteactivitiesthatarenecessarytoestablish,implementandmaintainaHACCPplan,
andthesearereferredtoasthe'sevenprinciples'intheCodexGuideline(1997).
Thesevenprinciplesare[1]:
1) Principle1Conductahazardanalysis.
Identifyhazardsandassesstherisksassociatedwiththemateachstepinthecommoditysystem.Describe
possiblecontrolmeasures.
2) Principle2DeterminetheCriticalControlPoints(CCPs)
Acriticalcontrolpointisastepatwhichcontrolcanbeappliedandisessentialtopreventoreliminatea
foodsafetyhazard,orreduceittoanacceptablelevel.ThedeterminationofaCCPcanbefacilitatedby
theapplicationofadecisiontree,suchastheonegiveninAppendixIV.
3) Principle3Establishcriticallimits.
Each control measure associated with a CCP must have an associated critical limit which separates the
acceptablefromtheunacceptablecontrolparameter.
4) Principle4Establishamonitoringsystem
Monitoring is the scheduled measurement or observation at a CCP to assess whether the step is under
control,i.e.withinthecriticallimit(s)specifiedinPrinciple3.
5) Principle 5 Establish a procedure for corrective action, when monitoring at a CCP indicates a
deviationfromanestablishedcriticallimit.
6) Principle6EstablishproceduresforverificationtoconfirmtheeffectivenessoftheHACCPplan.
Such procedures include auditing of the HACCP plan to review deviations and product dispositions, and
randomsamplingandcheckingtovalidatethewholeplan.
7) Principle7Establishdocumentationconcerningallproceduresandrecordsappropriatetothese
principlesandtheirapplication
[1]
pleaserefertoAppendix1foradefinition of thetermsusedinthissection
10.4. DevelopingaHACCPplan
TherearetwelvetasksrequiredtodevelopaHACCPplanandthesearedesignedtoensurethattheseven
principlesareappliedcorrectly.Principle1,whichistoconductahazardanalysis,requiresthatthefirst
fivetaskshaveallbeenaddressedinalogicalandhonestmannersothatallrealhazardsassociatedwith
thecommodityhavebeenidentified.Thetwelvetasksarediscussedbrieflybelow,andlistedinAppendix
II.
1. Task1EstablishaHACCPteam
To fully understand the commodity system and be able to identify all likely hazards and CCPs, it is
importantthattheHACCPteamismadeupofpeoplefromawiderangeofdisciplines.Theteamshould
include:
A team leader to convene the group and to direct the work of the team ensuring that the concept is
properly applied. This person must be familiar with the technique, be a good listener and allow all
participantstocontribute.

A specialist with a detailed knowledge of the commodity system is required. This specialist will have a
majorroleintheproductionofthecommodityflowdiagrams.
Several specialists, each with an understanding of particular hazards and associated risks, e.g. a
microbiologist,achemist,amycotoxicologist,atoxicologist,aQCmanager,aprocessengineer.
People,suchaspackagingspecialists,rawmaterialbuyers,distributionstafforproductionstaff,farmers,
brokers,whoareinvolvedwiththeprocess,andhaveworkingknowledgeofit,maybebroughtintothe
teamtemporarilyinordertoproviderelevantexpertise.
Theteam'sprogressandresultsoftheanalysisshouldberecordedbyatechnicalsecretary.
If anychangesaremadetocompositionoroperationalprocedures,itwillbenecessarytoreassessthe
HACCPplaninthelightofthechanges.
The first activity of the HACCP team is to identify the scope of the study. For example, will the whole
commoditysystembecovered,oronlyselectedcomponents?Thiswillmakethetaskmoremanageable
andspecialistscanbeaddedtotheteamasandwhentheyarerequired.
2. Task2Describetheproduct
To start a hazard analysis, a full description of the product, including customer specification, should be
prepared using a form such as that given in Appendix III. This should include information relevant to
safety, e.g. mycotoxin regulation/target level, composition, physical/chemical properties of the raw
materialsandthefinalproduct,theamountofwateravailableformicrobialgrowth(aw),theamountof
acidoralkaliintheproduct(pH).Alsoinformationregardinghowtheproductistobepackaged,stored
andtransportedshouldalsobeconsideredtogetherwithfactsregardingits'shelflifeandrecommended
storage temperatures. Where appropriate, labelling information and an example of the label should be
included.ThisinformationwillhelptheHACCPteamtoidentify'real'hazardsassociatedwiththeprocess.
3. Task3Identifytheproduct'sintendeduse
How the product is intended to be used is an important consideration. Information on whether the
productwillbeconsumeddirectly,orbecooked,orbefurtherprocessed,willallhaveabearingonthe
hazard analysis, see task 6). The nature of the target group for the product may also be relevant,
particularly if it includes susceptible groups such as infants, the elderly, and the malnourished. The
likelihoodofmisuseofaproductshouldalsobeconsidered,suchastheuseofpetfoodasahumanfood,
either by accident or design. This information can be recorded on the same form as the product
description,seeAppendixIII.
4. Task4Drawupthecommodityflowdiagram
Thefirstfunctionoftheteamistodrawupadetailedcommodityflowdiagram(CFD)ofthecommodity
system,orthatpartofitwhichisrelevant.Theexpertiseofthecommodityspecialistisimportantatthis
stage.Commoditysystemswilldifferindetailindifferentpartsoftheworld,andevenwithinonecountry
theremaybeanumberofvariants.Secondaryprocessingwillneedtobedetailedforeachfactory,using
generic flows only as a guide. Examples of commodity flow diagrams are included in the case studies
presentedinChapter3.
5. Task5Onsiteconfirmationofflowdiagram
UponcompletionoftheCFD,membersoftheteamshouldvisitthecommoditysystem(e.g.farm,storeor
manufacturing area) to compare the information present on the CFD with what actually happens in
practice.Thisisknownas"walkingtheline",astepbysteppracticetocheckthatallinformationregarding
materials,practices,controlsetc.havebeentakenintoconsiderationbytheteamduringthepreparation

of the CFD. Information such as time of harvest, drying procedures, storage conditions, the marketing
chain, socioeconomic factors, grading systems and any incentive for improved quality or safety, and
processing systems, should be collected and included in the CFD as appropriate. The site for which the
HACCP plan is being designed should be visited as many times as possible to ensure that all relevant
informationhasbeencollected.
6. Task6Identifyandanalysehazard(s)(Principle1)
Effective hazard identification and hazard analysis are the keys to a successful HACCP Plan. All real or
potentialhazardsthatmayoccurineachingredientandateachstageofthecommoditysystemshouldbe
considered.FoodsafetyhazardsforHACCPprogrammeshavebeenclassifiedintothreetypesofhazards:
Biological: typically foodborne bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella, Listeria and E. coli, also viruses,
algae,parasitesandfungi.
Chemical:Therearethreeprincipletypesofchemicaltoxinsfoundinfoods:naturallyoccurringchemicals,
e.g. cyanides in some root crops, and allergenic compounds in peanuts; toxins produced by micro
organisms,e.g.mycotoxins,andalgaltoxins;andchemicalsaddedtothecommoditybymantocontrolan
identifiedproblem,e.g.fungicidesorinsecticides.
Physical:contaminantssuchasbrokenglass,metalfragments,insectsorstones.
The probability that a hazard will occur is called a risk. The risk may take a value from zero to one
dependingonthedegreeofcertaintythatthehazardwillbeabsentorthatitwillbepresent.Afterhazard
identification,ahazardanalysismustbeconductedtounderstandtherelativehealthrisktomanoranimal
posed by the hazard. It is a way of organizing and analyzing the available scientific information on the
natureandsizeofthehealthriskassociatedwiththehazard.Theriskmayhavetobeassessedsubjectively
and simply classified as low, medium, or high. Only those hazards considered by the HACCP team to
presentanunacceptableriskofbeingpresentaretakenforwardtoStage7,Principle2.
Onceafoodsafetyhazardhasbeenidentified,thenappropriatecontrolmeasuresshouldbeconsidered.
Theseareanyactionoractivitythatcanbeusedtocontroltheidentifiedhazard,suchthatitisprevented,
eliminated,orreducedtoanacceptablelevel.Thecontrolmeasuremayalsoincludetrainingofpersonnel
foraparticularoperation,coveredbyGAP,GMP,andGHP.
7. Task7Determinethecriticalcontrolpoints(CCPs)(Principle2).
Eachstepinthecommodityflowdiagram,withinthescopeoftheHACCPstudy,shouldbetakeninturn
andtherelevanceofeachidentifiedhazardshould beconsidered.Itisalsoimportanttorememberthe
statedscopeoftheHACCPanalysisatthisstage.Theteammustdeterminewhetherthehazardcanoccur
atthisstep,andifsowhethercontrolmeasuresexist.Ifthehazardcanbecontrolledadequately,andis
notbestcontrolledatanotherstep,andisessentialforfoodsafety,thenthisstepisaCCPforthespecified
hazard. A decision tree can be used to determine CCPs, and an example of the Codex decision tree is
includedinAppendixIV.However,theHACCPteam'sjudgment,expertiseandknowledgeoftheprocess
arethemajorfactorsinestablishingCCPs.
Ifastepisidentifiedwhereafoodsafetyhazardexists,butnoadequatecontrolmeasurescanbeputin
placeeitheratthissteporsubsequently,thentheproductisunsafeforhumanconsumption.Production
shouldceaseuntilcontrolmeasuresareavailableandaCCPcanbeintroduced.
8. Task8EstablishcriticallimitsforeachCCP(Principle3)
CriticallimitsmustbespecifiedandvalidatedforeachCCP.Criteriaoftenusedincludemeasurementsof
temperature,time,moisturelevel,pH,wateractivity,andsensoryparameterssuchasvisualappearance.
Inthecaseofmycotoxinsforexample,theymayincludethemoisturecontentorthetemperatureofthe

commodity. All critical limits, and the associated permissible tolerances, must be documented in the
HACCPPlanWorksheet,andincludedasspecificationsinoperatingproceduresandworkinstructions.
9. Task9Establishamonitoringprocedure(Principle4)
Monitoring is the mechanism for confirming that critical limits at each CCP are being met. The method
chosenformonitoringmustbesensitiveandproducearapidresultsothattrainedoperativesareableto
detectanylossofcontrolofthestep.Thisisimperativesothatcorrectiveactioncanbetakenasquicklyas
possiblesothatlossofproductwillbeavoidedorminimised.
Monitoringcanbecarriedoutbyobservationorbymeasurement,onsamplestakeninaccordancewitha
statisticallybasedsamplingplan.Monitoringbyvisualobservationisbasicbutgivesrapidresults,andcan
therefore be acted upon quickly. The most common measurements taken are time, temperature and
moisturecontent.
10. Task10Establishcorrectiveaction(Principle5)
Ifmonitoringindicatesthatcriticallimitsarenotbeingmet,thusdemonstratingthattheprocessisoutof
control,correctiveactionmustbetakenimmediately.Thecorrectiveactionshouldtakeintoaccountthe
worstcasescenario,butmustalsobebasedontheassessmentofhazards,riskandseverity,andonthe
final use of the product. Operatives responsible for monitoring CCPs should be familiar with and have
receivedcomprehensivetraininginhowtoeffectacorrectiveaction.
CorrectiveactionsmustensurethattheCCPhasbeenbroughtbackundercontrol.Theymustalsoinclude
appropriatedispositionofanyaffectedcommodityorproduct.Wheneverpossibleanalarmsystemshould
be introduced which will activate when monitoring indicates that the critical limit is being approached.
Corrective action can then be applied to preempt a deviation and prevent the need for any product
disposition.
11. Task11VerifytheHACCPplan(Principle6)
OncetheHACCPplanhasbeendrawnup,andalloftheCCPshavebeenvalidated,thenthecompleteplan
mustbeverified.OncetheHACCPplanisinroutineoperation,itmustbeverifiedandreviewedatregular
intervals.Thisshouldbeataskofthepersonchargedwiththeresponsibilityforthatparticularcomponent
ofthecommoditysystemTheappropriatenessofCCPsandcontrolmeasurescanthusbedetermined,and
the extent and effectiveness of monitoring can be verified. Microbiological and/or alternative chemical
testscanbeusedtoconfirmthattheplanisincontrolandtheproductismeetingcustomerspecifications.
Aformalinternalauditingplanofthesystemwillalsodemonstrateanongoingcommitmenttokeepthe
HACCPplanuptodate,aswellasrepresentinganessentialverificationactivity.
Waysinwhichthesystemcanbeverifiedinclude:
collectingsamplesforanalysisbyamethoddifferentfromthemonitoringprocedure
askingquestionsofstaff,especiallyCCPmonitors
observingoperationsatCCPs
formalauditbyindependentperson
It is important to remember that the HACCP system is set up for a particular formulation of product
handledandprocessedinagivenway.
12. Task12Keeprecord(Principle7)
Record keeping is an essential part of the HACCP process. It demonstrates that the correct procedures
havebeenfollowedfromthestarttotheendoftheprocess,offeringproducttraceability.Itprovidesa
recordofcompliancewiththecriticallimitsset,andcanbeusedtoidentifyproblemareas.Furthermore,

the documentation can be used by a company as evidence of 'Due Diligence Defense' as required, for
instance,bytheFoodSafetyAct1990(HMSO),intheUK.
Records that should be kept include: all processes and procedures linked to GMP, GHP, and CCP
monitoring,deviations,andcorrectiveactions.
Documents should also include those that recorded the original HACCP study, e.g. hazard identification
and selection of critical limits, but the bulk of the documentation will be records concerned with the
monitoringofCCPsandcorrectiveactionstaken.Recordkeepingcanbecarriedoutinanumberofways,
rangingfromsimplechecklists,torecordsandcontrolcharts.Manualandcomputerrecordsareequally
acceptable,butadocumentationmethodshouldbedesignedthatisappropriateforthesizeandnatureof
theenterprise.
10.5. ApplicationofHACCPtomycotoxincontrol
Oncetasks1to5havebeencompletedthefollowingwillbeinplace:aHACCPteam,aDescriptionand
Intended Use table, and averifiedCommodity FlowDiagram. This will provide information on a specific
commodityfromauniquesource,andthisinformationisrequiredtocompletethehazardanalysis.
Task6Mycotoxinhazardanalysisandidentificationofpossiblecontrolmeasures
HazardAnalysis
a) Identificationofmycotoxinhazard
For a given commodity system in a particular location, the HACCP team need to first consider which, if
any,ofthemycotoxinsknowntoconstituteafoodsafetyhazardarelikelytobepresent.
Over 300 mycotoxins are known, butonly a relatively few ofthese arewidely accepted as presenting a
significant food or animal feed safety risk. These hazardous mycotoxins are listed in Tables 1 and 2 in
Chapter1.oftheseonlythefollowingmycotoxinshaveregulatorylimitssetbyoneormorecountries:the
aflatoxins(includingaflatoxinM1),ochratoxinA,zearalenone,patulin,ergotalkaloids,anddeoxynivalenol.
Guideline limits exist for fumonisin B1 and regulatory limits are likely to be set in the near future. The
regulatory limits are taken as the target levels and should be included in the Product Description table.
Mycotoxin limits can also be set by the customer in specific contracts and it is possible that these may
includemycotoxinsnotsubjecttoregulatorylimits.
Theriskofaparticularmycotoxinhazardshouldbeestimatedusingwellestablisheddataontherelative
susceptibilities of commodities to given mycotoxins and the climatic conditions required for the
mycotoxins to be produced. The EU has identified the following animal feed ingredients, and their
products,asbeinghighlysusceptibletoaflatoxincontamination:maize,groundnutcake,cottonseedcake,
babassu, palm kernel cake and copra cake. The EU has also identified the following foodstuffs as highly
susceptibletoaflatoxincontamination:driedfigsandotherdriedfruit,groundnuts,pistachiosandother
edible nuts and cereals. These commodities are specified in the respective EC regulations (1525/98
amendingregulation194/97).Maizegrownintemperateclimateswouldbelesslikelytobecontaminated
with aflatoxin, but could be contaminated with trichothecene mycotoxins or fumonisin B1. Although
publishedmycotoxinsurveydataexistsformanycommodities,itisimportantthatsurveillancestudiesare
performedifmycotoxindataislackingforaparticularcommodity,orforproductioninaparticularclimatic
zone.
b) IdentificationofstepsintheCommodityFlowDiagram(CFD)wheremycotoxincontaminationismost
likelytooccur
Oncethemycotoxinhazard(s)hasbeenidentified,eachstepintheCFDmustbeconsideredinturnand
the likelihood of mycotoxin contamination occurring must be assessed. Usually published scientific data

willbeavailabletoactasaguide,butitmaybenecessarytocommissionastudytodetermine,orconfirm
that thecorrectsteps havebeen identified. The situation maychange from yeartoyear, and season to
season,sotherewillneedtobeanelementofmycotoxinsurveillanceintheHACCPplan.
Animportantfacttoestablishiswhetherpreharvestcontaminationwithmycotoxinsislikelyorwhether
contaminationoccursprimarilypostharvest.MycotoxinsproducedbyFusariumspp,suchasfumonisinB1
areinvariablyproducedpreharvest,butclimaticconditionseffectthedegreeofblightandtheresultant
level of mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxins can be produced both preharvest and postharvest and
climatic conditions can have a significant bearing: drought stress favours preharvest contamination,
whereaspostharvesthandlingduringtherainyseasonfavourspostharvestaflatoxincontamination.
Itisrarelypossibletobecertainthatpreharvestmycotoxinlevelsarebelowregulatoryortargetlevelsin
the commodity system, so postharvest mycotoxin control measures can often only prevent or reduce
ADDITIONAL contamination, rather than prevent the hazard completely. Consequently it is often
necessary to introduce a segregation step to remove any batches containing an unacceptable level of
mycotoxin.
c) PossibleMycotoxinControlMeasures
Themosteffectivemycotoxincontrolmeasuresistodrythecommoditysuchthatthewateractivity(aw)is
toolowtosupportmouldgrowthand/orpreventmycotoxinproduction.Topreventthegrowthofmost
mouldstheawneedstobe0.70,whichtranslatestoamoisturecontentofapproximately14%formaize
and 7.0% for groundnuts at 20C (the corresponding moisture content decreases as the temperature
increases). Each toxigenic mould has its own minimum water activity for growth and mycotoxin
productionandthesetranslateintomoisturecontentsforeachcommodity.Thesemoisturecontentsare
termed'safe'andwouldbethecriticallimitforthecontrolmeasure.
Itisimportanttospecifyatarget'safe'moisturecontentwithamaximumaswellasanaveragevalue,e.g.
14%nopartexceeding15%.Ifonlyanaveragevalueisspecifieditmayconcealalargerangeofmoisture
contents within the batch and the commodity would not be safe from mould growth and mycotoxin
contamination.Adryingprocessisrequiredwhichdriesevenlyandthecriticallimitsmustbesetbearing
thisinmind.ValidationofsuchaCCPmustinvolvemoisturedeterminationofmultiplesamples.
Ifthecommodityisatan'unsafe'moisturecontentforlongerthan48hours,thenmouldcangrowand
mycotoxins be produced. Hence limiting the time that the commodity spends in the 'unsafe' moisture
content window to less than 48 hours is a control measure. This explains why timely sundrying can
sometimesbesaferthandelayedmechanicaldrying.Twodaysonadryingfloorwithoccasionalturning
canoftenachievethetarget'safe'moisturecontent,whereasabacklogatthemechanicaldriercanresult
inthecriticallimitof48hoursnotbeingmet.
Once produced, it is not usually possible to remove mycotoxins, other than by physical separation
(grading) techniques. To apply this type of control measure, representative samples of batches of
commodityarecollectedandtestedforselectedmycotoxins.Onlythosebatchescontaininglessthanthe
criticallimitofmycotoxin,asspecifiedinofficialregulations,areaccepted.Forsomecommodities,suchas
blanched groundnuts, colour sorters may be effective in rejecting individual highaflatoxin nuts and
accumulatinglowaflatoxinnuts,andmaybeclassifiedasacontrolmeasure.
There are a few examples where effective chemical detoxification is possible, such as ammoniation of
certainanimalfeedingredientsandrefiningofvegetableoils.Thesearecontrolmeasuresthatwouldalso
besuitableforapplicationatacriticalcontrolpointforaflatoxin,butonlyforthespecifiedcommodities.
ItisessentialthatGAP,GSP,andGMPprerequisitesareinplace,andsimplyensuringthatthisisthecase
can significantly reduce the risk of the mycotoxin hazard. Examples of procedures which fall within the
scopeoftheseprerequisitesinclude:irrigation,insectcontrol,useofresistantvarieties,anduseofpallets
instore.

Task7DetermineCriticalControlPoints(CCPs)
DeterminationofCCPscanbeachievedusingawelldesigneddecisiontree,ifnecessary,tosupplement
theknowledgeandexperienceoftheHACCPteam(seeAppendixIV).EachstepintheCFDisconsideredin
turn,andthequestionsansweredinsequence.Itshouldbenotedthatitisnecessarytobeabletoanswer
YestoQuestion1(Dopreventativecontrolmeasuresexist?)beforeaCCPcanbeestablished.TheCodex
1997definitionofacontrolmeasureisanyactionandactivitythatcanbeusedtopreventoreliminatea
foodsafetyhazard,orreduceittoanacceptablelevel.
There are commodity systems, such as the production of apple juice (Case study 5), where control
measures are possible at a number of steps, and each is capable of achieving a known percentage
reductioninthelevelofmycotoxin.Itispossible,therefore,tocalculatetheacceptablelevelofpatulinat
each step and perform validation. If the risk of the acceptable level of mycotoxin being exceeded is
consideredtobesufficientlylow,thentheHACCPteammaydetermineeachofthestepsasCCPs.
Task8EstablishcriticallimitsforeachCCP
Whenthecontrolmeasureissegregationbasedonmycotoxinanalysis,thenthecriticallimitwilloftenbe
set at the acceptable level, which in turn will be set at, or below, the regulatory mycotoxin limit.
Acceptablelevels,andanyassociatedcriticallimits,cansometimesbesethigherthanaregulatorylimit,
provided that a subsequent step can guarantee to attain the acceptable level of hazard in the final
product.
For control measures that involve drying to a 'safe' moisture content, the parameter that will be
measured,andforwhichcriticallimitswillbeset,willusuallybeparameterssuchasthetemperatureof
thedrierandthedwelltime,e.g.foracontinuousflowdrierthecriticallimitfortemperaturecouldbe80
+/2Candthecriticallimitfordwelltimecouldbe20+/1minute.
Criticallimitsforchemicaldetoxificationcouldbethetemperatureandpressureofthereactionvesseland
thedwelltime.
Task9EstablishamonitoringsystemforeachCCP
The monitoring system must be a scheduled measurement, usually of a basic parameter such as
temperatureortime,todetectanydeviationfromthecriticallimits.
When segregation of acceptable and unacceptable batches is required in the agricultural system, for
exampleatasecondarytrader,thenrapidtestingproceduresareneededtotestincomingbatches.
Anumberofsemiquantitativeimmunoaffinityrapidtestkitsareavailablewhichworktoastatedtarget
level, eg 5 or 20 k/kg of the appropriate mycotoxin. Here the critical limit would normally be the
presenceorabsenceofacolouredderivative.MoretraditionalminicolumnandTLCdilutiontoextinction
techniquescanstillbeusefulforsegregationofbatchesatthefactorygate,andforthesethepresenceor
absenceofabluefluorescentbandorspotisthecriticallimit.
Task10Establishacorrectiveaction
Therearetwosortsofcorrectiveaction.Thefirstisactiontoregaincontrol.Forinstanceifacriticallimit
foramoisturecontentisnotattained,thenthecorrectiveactioncouldbetocheckthespecificationofthe
drierandeffectrepairs,orperhapstoincreasethetemperaturesettingorthedwelltime.Thesecondtype
ofcorrectiveactionistoisolatetheproductproducedwhilsttheCCPwasoutofcontrolandamendthe
productdisposition,byeitherdiscardingordowngradingit,orreprocessingitifthisisappropriate.
Task11Establishverificationprocedures

Atregular,specified,intervalsthecompleteHACCPplanshouldbeverifiedbycheckingthatthelevelsof
mycotoxin in the final product are within acceptable levels. If this is found not to be the case, then
immediatelytroubleshootingshouldbecarriedouttoidentifythestepatwhichthehazardhasbecome
out of control. Critical limits may need to be amended, or a new control measure may need to be
validated and introduced. Similarly, if a review of deviations and product dispositions indicated an
unacceptabledegreeofcontrolataparticularCCP,thenrevisionswillneedtobemade.
Task12Establishdocumentationandrecordkeeping
Standard HACCP documentation and record keeping is appropriate, but the complexity of the records
shouldreflectthesophisticationofthestepinthecommoditysystem.
10.6. Conclusions
1. HACCPisapowerfultoolwithapplicationtothecontrolofmycotoxinsinthecommoditysystem.
2. UndertakingaHACCPstudyfocusesthethinkingofeveryoneinvolvedwiththeproductonthedetails
oftheprocess,andpromotesagreaterawarenessofsafetyissues.
3. Implementation of a HACCP system is not an end in itself. The ongoing maintenance of the HACCP
planiswherethebenefitreallylies.
10.7. AppendixI:Definitionofterms
Based on Codex Alimentarius: HACCP System and Guidelines for its Application; Annex to CAC/RCP1
(1969),Rev.3(1997)
Control(verb):Totakeallnecessaryactionstoensureandmaintaincompliancewithcriteriaestablished
intheHACCPplan.
Control(noun):Thestatewhereincorrectproceduresarebeingfollowedandcriteriaarebeingmet.
Controlmeasure:Anyactionandactivitythatcanbeusedtopreventoreliminateafoodsafetyhazardor
reduceittoanacceptablelevel.
Corrective action: Any action to be taken when the results of monitoring at the CCP indicate a loss of
control.
CriticalControlPoint(CCP):Astepatwhichcontrolcanbeappliedandisessentialtopreventoreliminate
afoodsafetyhazardorreduceittoanacceptablelevel.
Critical limit: A criterion which separates acceptability from unacceptability, when monitoring a critical
controlpoint.
Deviation:Failuretomeetacriticallimit.
Flowdiagram:Asystematicrepresentationofthesequenceofstepsoroperationsusedintheproduction
ormanufactureofaparticularfooditem.
HACCP:Asystemthatidentifies,evaluates,andcontrolshazardswhicharesignificantforfoodsafety.
HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure control of
hazardswhicharesignificantforfoodsafetyinthesegmentofthefoodchainunderconsideration.
Hazard: A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the potential to cause an
adversehealtheffect.

Hazardanalysis:Theprocessofcollectingandevaluatinginformationonhazardsandconditionsleadingto
their presence to decide which are significant for food safety and therefore should be addressed in the
HACCPplan.
Monitor: The act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements of control

parameterstoassesswhetheraCCPisundercontrol.
Step: A point, procedure, operation or stage in the food chain including raw materials, from primary
productiontofinalconsumption.
Validation:ObtainingevidencethattheelementsoftheHACCPplanareeffective.
Verification: The application of methods, procedures, tests and other evaluations, in addition to
monitoringtodeterminecompliancewiththeHACCPplan.
Additionaldefinitionstoconsider.
Acceptablelevel:Thelevelofasafetyhazardwhichisconsideredtopresentanacceptable,lowrisktothe
consumer. The acceptable level of the final product, sometimes referred to as a target level, should be
stated in the product description and would normally be set at, or below, any regulatory limits. An
acceptable level for a hazard at an intermediate step in the commodity flow diagram can be set higher
thanthatofthefinalproduct,providedthattheacceptablelevelinthefinalproductwillbeachieved.
Commoditysystem:Thecompletesystem,including:allpreandpostharvestactivitiessuchasgrowing,
harvesting,drying,storage,processing,marketing,andpreparationforhomeconsumption.
Commodityflowdiagram:Aflowdiagramwhichdetailsandnumberseachstepinthecommoditysystem.
Decisiontree:AseriesofquestionslinkeddiagrammaticallytobeansweredwithYesorNo.Theanswers
determinewhichpathisfollowedandwhichdecisionthisleadsto.
Primarytrader:Thefirsttraderinthemarketingchainwhotypicallybuyssmallquantitiesofcommodity
direct from farmers and accumulates these for dispatch to a secondary trader. The primary trader will
oftencarryoutpartialdryingandtemporarystorage.
Product disposition: How the product is to be utilised. If a deviation occurs at a CCP, then part of the
correctiveactionwillbetoamendtheproductdisposition.
Realhazard:Ahazardwhichhasbeenidentifiedashavingasignificantriskofbeingpresent.
Risk: May take a value from zero to one depending on the degree of certainty that the hazard will be
absentorthatitwillbepresent
Safemoisturecontent:themoisturecontentatorbelowwhichtoxigenicmouldscannotgrow.Relatesto
aminimumwateractivityformouldgrowthandtoxinproduction.
Secondarytrader:Atraderwhotypicallybuyscommodityfromaprimarytraderand(further)driesand
storesit.
Target level: The acceptable level of a hazard in the final product, such as the regulatory level of
mycotoxininaproductdescription.
10.8. AppendixII:TasksinvolvedindevelopingHACCPsystem
(BasedonCodex1997)

Task1. AssembleanHACCP team

Task2. Describeproduct

Task3. Defineessentialcharacteristics oftheproduct and intendeduse

Task4. ConstructaCommodityFlowDiagram

Task5. OnsiteConfirmationofFlowDiagram

Task6. ListallPotentialHazards
ConductaHazardAnalysis
IdentifyControlMeasures

Task7. DetermineCCPs

Task8. EstablishCriticalLimitforeachCCP

Task9. EstablishaMonitoringSystemforeachCCP

EstablishCorrectiveAction
Task10.
fordeviationsthatmayoccur

Task11. EstablishVerificationprocedures

Task12. EstablishDocumentation and RecordKeeping
10.9. AppendixIII:ExampleofFormDescriptionandidentifieduseofproduct
Nameofproduct
Fulldescription ofproductincludingstructure/variety,processingparameters,additiveconcentrations,
storageinstructions,pH/Aw/moisturelevels,andanymycotoxintargetlevels(regulatoryortocustomer
specification).
Customerspecification
Conditionsofstorageanddistribution
ShelfLife
Packaging
Instructionsonthelabel
TargetConsumer
Recommendationforfurtherprocessingrequiredbeforeconsumption
Intendeduse,e.g.willtheendproductbecookedbeforeconsumption?
10.10. AppendixIV:AnexampleofdecisiontreetoidentifyCCPs

(The definition of control measure in Codex 1997 has been modified slightly for application to the
productionchain.Thedefinitionnow includes activitiesusedtopreventfurthercontamination).Answer
questionsinsequence
Picture26AnexampleofdecisiontreetoidentifyCCPs
*Proceedtonexthazard
**Acceptablelevelsneedstobedefined

10.11. AppendixV:AnExampleofaHACCPWorksheet
1.
DescribeProduct
2.
CommodityFlowDiagram
3.
HACCPAnalysisPlan

Step Hazard(s) Control Control Critical Monitoring Corrective Records
Measures Limits Procedure Actions

4.
Verification

11. InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO)
The International Organization forStandardization (ISO) is aworldwide federation ofnational standards
bodiesfromsome140countries,onefromeachcountry.
ISO is a nongovernmental organization established in 1947. The mission of ISO is to promote the
development of standardization and related activities in the world with a view to facilitating the
internationalexchangeofgoodsandservices,andtodevelopingcooperationinthespheresofintellectual,
scientific,technologicalandeconomicactivity.
ISO'sworkresultsininternationalagreementswhicharepublishedasInternationalStandards.
11.1. ISO'sname
Manypeoplewillhavenoticedaseeminglackofcorrespondencebetweentheofficialtitlewhenusedin
full, International Organization for Standardization, and the short form, ISO. Shouldn't the acronym be
"IOS"?Yes,ifitwereanacronymwhichitisnot.
Infact,"ISO"isaword,derivedfromtheGreekisos,meaning"equal",whichistherootoftheprefix"iso"
that occurs in a host of terms, such as "isometric" (of equal measure or dimensions) and "isonomy"
(equalityoflaws,orofpeoplebeforethelaw).

From "equal" to "standard", the line of thinking that led to the choice of "ISO" as the name of the
organization is easy to follow. In addition, the name ISO is used around the world to denote the
organization, thus avoiding the plethora of acronyms resulting from the translation of "International
Organization for Standardization" into the different national languages of members, e.g. IOS in English,
OINinFrench(fromOrganisationinternationaledenormalisation).Whateverthecountry,theshortform
oftheOrganization'snameisalwaysISO.
11.2. Howitallstarted
International standardization began in the electrotechnical field: the International Electrotechnical

Commission(IEC)wascreatedin1906.PioneeringworkinotherfieldswascarriedoutbytheInternational
Federation of the National Standardizing Associations (ISA), which was set up in 1926. The emphasis
withinISAwaslaidheavilyonmechanicalengineering.
ISA'sactivitiesceasedin1942,owingtotheSecondWorldWar.FollowingameetinginLondonin1946,
delegates from 25 countries decided to create a new international organization "the object of which
would be to facilitate the international coordination and unification of industrial standards". The new
organization,ISO,begantofunctionofficiallyon23February1947.
ThefirstISOstandardwaspublishedin1951withthetitle,"Standardreferencetemperatureforindustrial
lengthmeasurement".
11.3. WhomakesupISO?
ISOismadeupofitsmemberswhoaredividedintothreecategories:
AmemberbodyofISOisthenationalbody"mostrepresentativeofstandardizationinitscountry".Thus,
onlyonebodyineachcountrymaybeadmittedtomembershipofISO.
Amemberbodytakestheresponsibilityfor:
informingpotentiallyinterestedpartiesintheircountryofrelevantinternationalstandardization
opportunitiesandinitiatives;
ensuring that a concerted view of the country's interests is presented during international
negotiationsleadingtostandardsagreements;
providing their country's share of financial support for the central operations of ISO, through
paymentofmembershipdues.
Memberbodiesareentitledtoparticipateandexercisefullvotingrightsonanytechnicalcommitteeand
policycommitteeofISO.
Acorrespondentmemberisusuallyanorganizationinacountrywhichdoesnotyethaveafullydeveloped
nationalstandardsactivity.Correspondentmembersdonottakeanactivepartinthetechnicalandpolicy
developmentwork,butareentitledtobekeptfullyinformedabouttheworkofinteresttothem.
ISOhasalsoestablishedathirdcategory,subscribermembership,forcountrieswithverysmalleconomies.
Subscribermemberspayreducedmembershipfeesthatneverthelessallowthemtomaintaincontactwith
internationalstandardization.
11.4. Whatarestandards?
Standardsaredocumentedagreementscontainingtechnicalspecificationsorotherprecisecriteriatobe
usedconsistentlyasrules,guidelines,ordefinitionsofcharacteristics,toensurethatmaterials,products,
processesandservicesarefitfortheirpurpose.
For example, the format of the credit cards, phone cards, and "smart" cards that have become
commonplaceisderivedfromanISOInternationalStandard.Adheringtothestandard,whichdefinessuch
featuresasanoptimalthickness(0,76mm),meansthatthecardscanbeusedworldwide.
International Standards thus contribute to making life simpler, and to increasing the reliability and
effectivenessofthegoodsandservicesweuse.
11.5. Whyisinternationalstandardizationneeded?

Theexistenceofnonharmonizedstandardsforsimilartechnologiesindifferentcountriesorregionscan
contributetosocalled"technicalbarrierstotrade".Exportmindedindustrieshavelongsensedtheneed
toagreeonworldstandardstohelprationalizetheinternationaltradingprocess.Thiswastheoriginofthe
establishmentofISO.
International standardization is wellestablished for many technologies in such diverse fields as

informationprocessingandcommunications,textiles,packaging,distributionofgoods,energyproduction
andutilization,shipbuilding,bankingandfinancialservices.Itwillcontinuetogrowinimportanceforall
sectorsofindustrialactivityfortheforeseeablefuture.
Themainreasonsare:
11.5.1. Worldwideprogressintradeliberalization
Today's freemarket economies increasingly encourage diverse sources of supply and provide
opportunities for expanding markets. On the technology side, fair competition needs to be based on
identifiable, clearly defined common references that are recognized from one country to the next, and
from one region to the other. An industrywide standard, internationally recognized, developed by
consensusamongtradingpartners,servesasthelanguageoftrade.
11.5.2. Interpenetrationofsectors
Noindustryintoday'sworldcantrulyclaimtobecompletelyindependentofcomponents,products,rules
of application, etc., that have been developed in other sectors. Bolts are used in aviation and for
agricultural machinery; welding plays a role in mechanical and nuclear engineering and electronic data
processinghaspenetratedallindustries.Environmentallyfriendlyproductsandprocesses,andrecyclable
orbiodegradablepackagingarepervasiveconcerns.
11.5.3. Worldwidecommunicationssystems
The computer industry offers a good example of technology that needs quickly and progressively to be
standardizedatagloballevel.Fullcompatibilityamongopensystemsfostershealthycompetitionamong
producers, and offers real options to users since it is a powerful catalyst for innovation, improved
productivityandcostcutting.
11.5.4. Globalstandardsforemergingtechnologies
Standardization programmes in completely new fields are now being developed. Such fields include
advancedmaterials,theenvironment,lifesciences,urbanizationandconstruction.Intheveryearlystages
of new technology development, applications can be imagined but functional prototypes do not exist.
Here,theneedforstandardizationisindefiningterminologyandaccumulatingdatabasesofquantitative
information.
11.5.5. Developingcountries
Development agencies are increasingly recognizing that a standardization infrastructure is a basic
conditionforthesuccessofeconomicpoliciesaimedatachievingsustainabledevelopment.Creatingsuch
aninfrastructureindevelopingcountriesisessentialforimprovingproductivity,marketcompetitiveness,
andexportcapability.
Industrywide standardization is a condition existing within a particular industrial sector when the large
majority of products or services conform to the same standards. It results from consensus agreements
reachedbetweenalleconomicplayersinthatindustrialsectorsuppliers,users,andoftengovernments.
They agree on specifications and criteria to be applied consistently in the choice and classification of
materials, the manufacture of products, and the provision of services. The aim is to facilitate trade,
exchangeandtechnologytransferthrough:
enhancedproductqualityandreliabilityatareasonableprice;
improvedhealth,safetyandenvironmentalprotection,andreductionofwaste;
greatercompatibilityandinteroperabilityofgoodsandservices;
simplificationforimprovedusability;

reductioninthenumberofmodels,andthusreductionincosts;
increaseddistributionefficiency,andeaseofmaintenance.
UsershavemoreconfidenceinproductsandservicesthatconformtoInternationalStandards.Assurance
of conformity can be provided by manufacturers' declarations, or by audits carried out by independent
bodies.
11.6. ISO9000andISO14000inbrief
TheISO9000andISO14000familiesareamongISO'smostwidelyknownstandardsever.ISO9000and
ISO 14000 standards are implemented by some 760 900 organizations in 154 countries. ISO 9000 has
become an international reference for quality management requirements in businesstobusiness
dealings,andISO14000iswellonthewaytoachievingasmuch,ifnotmore,inenablingorganizationsto
meettheirenvironmentalchallenges.
TheISO9000familyisprimarilyconcernedwith"qualitymanagement".Thismeanswhattheorganization
doestofulfil:
thecustomer'squalityrequirements,and
applicableregulatoryrequirements,whileaimingto
enhancecustomersatisfaction,and
achievecontinualimprovementofitsperformanceinpursuitoftheseobjectives.
The ISO 14000 family is primarily concerned with "environmental management". This means what the
organizationdoesto:
minimizeharmfuleffectsontheenvironmentcausedbyitsactivities,andto
achievecontinualimprovementofitsenvironmentalperformance.
The vast majority of ISO standards are highly specific to a particular product, material, or process.
However,thestandardsthathaveearnedtheISO9000andISO14000familiesaworldwidereputationare
knownas"genericmanagementsystemstandards".
"Generic"meansthatthesamestandardscanbeapplied:
toanyorganization,largeorsmall,whateveritsproduct
includingwhetherits"product"isactuallyaservice,
inanysectorofactivity,and
whetheritisabusinessenterprise,apublicadministration,oragovernmentdepartment.
"Generic"alsosignifiesthatnomatterwhattheorganization'sscopeofactivity,ifitwantstoestablisha
qualitymanagementsystemoranenvironmentalmanagementsystem,thensuchasystemhasanumber
ofessentialfeaturesforwhichtherelevantstandardsoftheISO9000orISO14000familiesprovidethe
requirements.
"Management system" refers to the organization's structure for managing its processes or activities
thattransforminputsofresourcesintoaproductorservicewhichmeettheorganization'sobjectives,such
as satisfying the customer's quality requirements, complying to regulations, or meeting environmental
objectives.
11.7. ContentsofISO9001
ISO9001:2008QualitymanagementsystemsRequirementsisadocumentofapproximately30pages
which is available from the national standards organization in each country. Outline contents are as
follows:.

Pageiv:Foreword
Pagesvtovii:Section0Intro
Pages1to14:Requirements
Section1:Scope
Section2:NormativeReference
Section3:Termsanddefinitions(specifictoISO9001,notspecifiedinISO9000)
Section4:QualityManagementSystem
Section5:ManagementResponsibility
Section6:ResourceManagement
Section7:ProductRealization
Section8:Measurement,analysisandimprovement
Thestandardspecifiessixcompulsorydocuments:
1) ControlofDocuments(4.2.3)
2) ControlofRecords(4.2.4)
3) InternalAudits(8.2.2)
4) ControlofNonconformingProduct/Service(8.3)
5) CorrectiveAction(8.5.2)
6) PreventiveAction(8.5.3)
Inadditiontothese,ISO9001:2008requiresaQualityPolicyandQualityManual(whichmayormaynot
includetheabovedocuments).
11.8. SummaryofISO9001
Thequalitypolicyisaformalstatementfrommanagement,closelylinkedtothebusinessandmarketing
plan and to customer needs. The quality policy is understood and followed at all levels and by all
employees.Eachemployeeneedsmeasurableobjectivestoworktowards.
Decisionsaboutthequalitysystemaremadebasedonrecordeddataandthesystemisregularlyaudited
andevaluatedforconformanceandeffectiveness.
Recordsshouldshowhowandwhererawmaterialsandproductswereprocessed,toallowproductsand
problemstobetracedtothesource.
You need to determine customer requirements and create systems for communicating with customers
aboutproductinformation,inquiries,contracts,orders,feedbackandcomplaints.
Whendevelopingnewproducts,youneedtoplanthestagesofdevelopment,withappropriatetestingat
eachstage.Youneedtotestanddocumentwhethertheproductmeetsdesignrequirements,regulatory
requirementsanduserneeds.
Youneedtoregularlyreviewperformancethroughinternalauditsandmeetings.Determinewhetherthe
quality systemisworking and what improvementscanbemade.Deal with pastproblems andpotential
problems. Keep records of these activities and the resulting decisions, and monitor their effectiveness
(note:youneedadocumentedprocedureforinternalaudits).
You need documented procedures for dealing with actual and potential nonconformances (problems
involving suppliersorcustomers,or internalproblems). Make sure no one usesbadproduct,determine
whattodowithbadproduct,dealwiththerootcauseoftheproblemseekingandkeeprecordstouseasa
tooltoimprovethesystem.
11.8.1. ISO22000
ISO22000isastandarddevelopedbytheInternationalOrganizationforStandardizationdealingwithfood
safety.ThisisageneralderivativeofISO9000.
11.8.1.1. ISO22000standard
The ISO 22000 international standard specifies the requirements for a food safety management system
thatinvolvesthefollowingelements:
interactivecommunication
systemmanagement
prerequisiteprograms
HACCPprinciples

Criticalreviewsoftheaboveelementshavebeenconductedbymanyscientists.Communicationalongthe
food chain is essential to ensure that all relevant food safety hazards are identified and adequately
controlled at each step within the food chain. This implies communication between organizations both
upstream and downstream in the food chain. Communication with customers and supplies about
identifiedhazardsandcontrolmeasureswillassistinclarifyingcustomerandsupplierrequirements.
Recognitionoftheorganization'srole andpositionwithinthe foodchain isessentialtoensureeffective
interactive communication throughout the chain in order to deliver safe food products to the final
consumer.
Themosteffectivefoodsafetysystemsareestablished,operatedandupdatedwithintheframeworkofa
structured management system and incorporated into the overall management activities of the
organization.Thisprovides maximum benefit fortheorganization and interested parties. ISO 22000 has
beenalignedwithISO9001inordertoenhancethecompatibilityofthetwostandards.
ISO 22000 can be applied independently of other management system standards or integrated with
existingmanagementsystemrequirements.
ISO22000integratestheprinciplesoftheHazardAnalysisandCriticalControlPoint(HACCP)systemand
applicationstepsdevelopedbytheCodexAlimentariusCommission.Bymeansofauditablerequirements,
itcombinestheHACCPplanwithprerequisiteprogrammes.Hazardanalysisisthekeytoaneffectivefood
safety management system, since conducting a hazard analysis assists in organizing the knowledge
required to establish an effective combination of control measures. ISO 22000 requires that all hazards
thatmaybereasonablyexpectedtooccurinthefoodchain,includinghazardsthatmaybeassociatedwith
the type of process and facilities used, are identified and assessed. Thus it provides the means to
determineanddocumentwhycertainidentifiedhazardsneedtobecontrolledbyaparticularorganization
andwhyothersneednot.
Duringhazardanalysis,theorganizationdeterminesthestrategytobeusedtoensurehazardcontrolby
combiningtheprerequisiteprogrammesandtheHACCPplan.
ISOisdevelopingadditionalstandardsthatarerelatedtoISO22000.Thesestandardswillbeknownasthe
ISO22000familyofstandards.Atthepresenttime,thefollowingstandardswillmakeuptheISO22000
familyofstandards:
ISO 22000 Food safety management systems Requirements for any organization in the food
chain.
ISO 22001 Guidelines on the application of ISO 9001:2000 for the food and drink industry
(replaces:ISO15161:2001).
ISO22002PrerequisiteprogrammesonfoodsafetyPart1:Foodmanufacturing
ISO22003Foodsafetymanagementsystemsforbodiesprovidingauditandcertificationoffood
safetymanagementsystems.
ISO22004FoodsafetymanagementsystemsGuidanceontheapplicationofISO22000:2005.
ISO22005TraceabilityinthefeedandfoodchainGeneralprinciplesandbasicrequirementsfor
systemdesignandimplementation.
ISO22006QualitymanagementsystemsGuidanceontheapplicationofISO9002:2000forcrop
production.
ISO22000isalsousedintheFoodSafetySystemsCertification(FSSC)SchemeFS22000.FS22000is
aGlobalFoodSafetyInitiative(GFSI)approvedscheme.
12. LaboratoryDesigning
12.1. KeyConsiderationsinLaboratoryDesign:AnAnalyticalApproach
Thereareseveralintegratedfactorsthataffectthequalityoftheanalyticaltestingprocessforfoodand
dietarysupplementproductsandingredients.Fromascientificperspective,theexpertiseofthelaboratory
staffandqualityoftheinstrumentationarecertainlyofprimaryimportance.Fromaregulatoryviewpoint,
adherence to mandates such as Good Laboratory Practices (GLPs) are key to compliance and the
acceptabilityofthedata.Wealsomustnotforgetmanagementexpectationsforareturnoninvestment
and customer demands that place a premium on efficiency and quick turnaround times without
compromisingtheaccuracyandintegrityofthedata.Althoughtoolssuchaselectronicdeliveryofdataare
invaluable in attaining these goals, what is sometimes overlooked is that all of these factors are
significantlyimpactedbythephysicaldesignofthelaboratoryandtheprocessesitpromotes.Regardless

ofwhetheryouaredesigninganewlaboratoryormodifyinganexistingfacility,theinteractionofallthese
factorsandtheirimpactonwhatiscriticaltosuccessmustbeconsidered.
12.2. StartingfromScratch
With purposebuilt laboratoryspace youhavethe luxuryof startingwith ablank slateand can take full
advantage of engineering the space to achieve the ideal relationships between staff, equipment and
space. This exercise starts with the development of a highlevel sample flow process map (Figure 1),
identifyingtheprimarystepsinthetestingpathwayofatypicalsample.Staffinputisaninvaluablefactor
in laboratory design. Although standard operating procedures (SOPs) define the testing process, the
nuancesusedbyexperiencedscientistsandtechnicianstofacilitateaccurateandefficientassaysshould
becapturedandtakenintoconsiderationintheplanningprocess.Anothervaluableexerciseistheuseof
timeofmotionstudiestohelpdeterminethedistancetraveledbyanalystsasasampleprogressesthrough
the testing process. This will allow an evaluation of the needed coordination between functional areas
(e.g., sample preparation, vitamin chemistry) and their locations potential effect on the efficiency and
accuracyofthetestingprocess.Withthisinformationinhand,abasicconceptofthefloordesignbasedon
theactualsampleflowanddatacollectionprocedurescanbedeveloped.
Afterestablishingthebasicflow,anumberofotherfactorsandrelationshipsmustbeevaluated,including
sample volume, staffing numbers and myriad support systems issues. Capacity is based not only on
historical numbers, but considerations for future expansions and modifications based upon projected
business plans and customer expectations for growth. The development of capacity models is used to
determine not only space, but number of instruments, storage requirements, and mechanical support
issues such as glassware washing, fume hoods, network connections and piping of gas for
instrumentation.
Severaltoolscanaidinthebrainstorminganddevelopmentofideas.Certainlythedevelopmentofamore
detailedfunctionalprocessmapthatfurtherbreaksdownthebasicflowchartintomorespecificstepsand
phases should be generated at some point. The level of minutia included in the diagram is highly
dependentonthesizeandcomplexityoftheoperationandtheknowledgebaseofthoseinvolvedinthe
planning.Forexample,abreakdownofvitaminanalysisintoextraction,separationandquantificationmay
besufficientforsomeprojects,whereasmorespecificassayinformationcouldbeappropriateforother
situations.
ByusingrudimentaryCADfloorplans,apuzzleapproachinvolvingmodelactivityblockssizedtocapacity
scale (Figure 2) can be employed to better visualize workflow. Although this may be reminiscent of
childrens building blocks and appear to be a simplistic approach, this tool can be very valuable in the
brainstormingstagetoexploremanypossibilitiesfortestsampleflowandstaffaccessibility.Inaddition,if
the laboratory is a standalone facility, space for administrative offices, technology hubs and platforms,
andevenacafeteriamustbeincluded.
Throughout this process, representatives of the design firm must be involved to provide increasingly
detailed versions of floor plans.This will encourage thediscussion aboutfeaturesthatcould potentially
increase the efficiency of the system. An open/generic concept is best and most adaptable for future
modifications.Inadditionopentechnicianareaswithinareasonableproximitytoworkareafacilitatestaff
interactionandopencommunication.
Figure7TypicalSampleFlowforAnalysis
12.3. MakingModifications
Although sample flow is still a vital consideration, physical and budgetary impediments might limit the
flexibility to completely modify laboratory space. Redesigning existing facilities is more than purchasing
newfurnitureandrequiresastepbacktogettheviewfrom50,000feet.Whenlookingatmodifyingand
updating operations, you must evaluate the entire system including staff, equipment, procedures and
spacetoidentifyfactorsthatarecriticaltosuccess.Thesearethecomponentsoftheprocessthatmake
theoperationsuccessful.Likethepurposebuiltprocess,agoodplacetostartistogenerateaprocessmap
that identifies all the steps in the sample handling and testing process. However, in modifying existing
space,theprioritizationoftheissuesthatareidentifiedascriticaltosuccessisessential.

Factorsthatarecriticaltosuccessinclude:
importancetoquality;
errorfreedata;
errorfreereports;
properdocumentation;
validateddataacquisitionsystems;
impactondelivery;
ontimereports;
realtimedataacquisition;
centralizeddatabases;
influenceoncost;and
operationswithinbudget.
Identify one or two of the critical success factors upon which to set the direction of the renovation.For
example,inalaboratorysetting,themostcriticalfactorsmaynotbecostandpricing,butbeidentifiedas
errorfree, accurate data. A further breakdown shows that welltrained and motivated staff is the key
component in attaining this goal. Although education and experience are certainly a primary factor in
maintaininganexpertstaff,otherlessobviousfactorssuchasquietworkareas,easyaccesstocomputers,
andproximitytosupervisoryandseniorscientificstaffareessentialforsuccess.Atalowerlevel,accessto
samples and support areas such as sample preparation must also be a consideration. Regardless of the
factorsidentifiedasmostcriticalforsuccess,designandreengineertheoperationbasedonprioritiesand
customerexpectations.
12.4. Innovation,AutomationUpgradeLabs
Electronicdatasystemshaverevolutionizedthescientificlaboratory.Trackingofsamples,datacollection,
review and reporting are now all done using automated systems. Computer systems must be a key
componentofplanning.Dataportsfornetworkaccessshouldbespreadliberallytoprovidelinkstothe
laboratory information management system (LIMS) as well as to data collection and storage systems.
Wherever possible, common terminals should be used. With todays powerful systems, multiple
instruments can be controlled from a common workstation that can reduce the number of acquisition
devices and simplifies the backup process. Workstations housed in nonlaboratory areas can preserve
preciousspaceandincreaseefficiencyandworkersatisfaction.
Thereareseveralsolutionstoconservingspaceandpromotingaccuracy.Theuseofrackingsystemsand
dedicatedinstrumentroomsallowsareductionoftheclutteronlabcountersandfreesupbenchspacefor
more efficient wet chemistry assays and extraction processes. Wherever possible, dedicated equipment
should be employed for both scientific and economic reasons. One of the primary causes of assay
variability is the setup of the instrumentation. By designating space for specific assays, problems
associated with instrument setup can be drastically reduced. In addition, moving an instrument is time
consumingandaffectsnotonlythebottomlinebutschedulesaswell.
Lookforcentralizationofchemicals,glasswarewashingfacilitiesandstoragetoreducecosts.Innovative
approachessuchastheuseofoffshiftingcandilutefixedcostsandeasetechniciancongestion.Adequate
and comfortable space for staff is essential for employee morale and to facilitate effective supervisory
spanofcontrol. Other staffing considerations include the number of supervisory personnel and
correspondingofficespace.Manyorganizationshavefoundthataheadcount ofsevento11employees
per manager is ideal. However this is dependent on the amount of technical or nonsupervisory
obligations.
Certainly there are a plethora of other financial and business exercises involved in the due diligence
processandconstructionofananalyticalfacility.However,takingthetimetothoroughlyunderstandand
evaluate sample volume and flow allows the modeling of different alternatives and ensures functional
areasarebalancedtobestfit.Inordertoincreaseefficiencyandaccuracyoftestingprograms,scientific

methods are continually evolving. It is important that laboratory design and sample flow are similarly
dynamicandplayanintegralroleinmaintainingaccuracyaswellaspromotingefficiencyinthelaboratory.
Randall Smith and Richard Crowley are with Covance Laboratories, a fullservice analytical laboratory
serving the dietary supplement and functional food industries. For more information, visit
www.covance.com/analytical.
Figure8SampleOutlayPlansforFoodLaboratory
12.5. AnalyticalLabsFacingChallenges
Theworkdonebyananalyticallaboratoryprovidesthefoundationforregulatoryandlegalcomplianceon
nutritional and microbial requirements, as well as the basis for marketing and health claims. Emerging
issuesoffoodsafetyandproductcredibilityposemanychallengestotheanalyticalchemistandquality
controlstaffresponsibleforensuringaccuracyandreliabilityofdata.
To learn more about meeting consumer demands and regulatory requirements in todays marketplace,
more than 80 professionals from the scientific and business sides of food and dietary supplement
companies attended a special regulatory and scientific symposium sponsored by Covance Laboratories
andtheUniversityofWisconsinFoodResearchInstitute,Madison.
Sessionscoveredsuchtopicsasnewanalyticalmethodsforantioxidantactivity,luteinandcontaminants;
performanceevaluationoftestingmethodology;andimplementationofSixSigmatoensurequalityina
business. In addition, speakers addressed issues concerning proposed GMPs (good manufacturing
practices)fordietarysupplementsandtheimpactofCodexonthesupplementindustry.
In response to questions on Codex and differing international regulations, Jim Roza, vice president of
business development, technology and sciences with SourceOne Global Partners, said: One advantage
Codexwillhaveforcompaniesthatproduceproductsandsellthemoverseas,itkindoflevelstheplaying
field. ...Wecan adhere to one standard and gain access toallthese countries.Ithasbeen beneficialin
thatrespect.

Panelistsfurtheraddressedmarketplacedriversforlaboratoryneedsinthefuture.DavidMorrison,vice
president of scientific and regulatory affairs at The Vitamin Shoppe, spoke about the need to build
consumerconfidenceinaproductsqualityandefficacythroughtestingandestablishingthesciencebase
behindingredients.Headdedthateffectivestrategiesforassuringqualitytoconsumersincludecompany
brandsandbrandedingredients.
Roza also identified market drivers for functional foods as ease of compliance and convenience for
consumerswhomightneedtotakemanytabletsorcapsulesofasupplementtogetthesameamountina
servingofafood;existingandnewhealthclaimsthatheraldthegoodsciencebehindtheproduct;andthe
valueaddedaspectsflavormasking,increasedbioavailabilityandimprovedflavor.
Puttingtheworkoflaboratoriesinperspective,DarrylSullivan,Covancesseniormanager,foodanddrug
analysis, said there are many similarities in the testing needs of supplements and functional foods. He
addedthattodaysconsumersaremoreinformedandgoodcompaniesneedtoinformthemonproduct
safetyandthequalitytestingthatsupportsit.Heconcluded:Thescientificcommunity,Ithink,hasahuge
responsibilityinthiseffortmovingforward.Itisincumbentonustomakesurethatwehavegoodscience
andthatwehavevery,verygoodmethodologytoconductthesetestswith.

Index
Acceptablelevel...............................................121 ConsumerorGradeStandards..........................89
AdamsConsistometer.................................76,80 Consumerpanels...............................................59
Adhesiveness.....................................................78 ContainersForWasteandInedibleSubstances99
Administrativehierarchy...................................85 Contaminant......................................................95
AirQualityandVentilation..............................100 Contamination...................................................95
Airtightclosureofcans......................................37 ContentsofISO9001.......................................129
ApparentTesting...............................................55 ContinualImprovement....................................28
Appearance............................................31,50,56 ContinuousSampling.........................................48
AppearanceFactors...........................................50 Control1, 26, 83, 84, 91, 94, 96, 101, 112, 113,
ApprovedSupplierList.......................................18 118,119,120,122,125,129,130
AreasforQualityObjectives..............................28 Controlmeasure..............................................120
Aroma................................................................50 ControlofFoodHazards..................................101
Association with International Standards Bodies ControlofOperation...............................101,112
.......................................................................90 Controlpoints....................................................14
Astringency........................................................57 Correctiveaction.....................................116,120
Automation......................................................133 crispness............................................................80
AwarenessandResponsibilities......................109 CriticalControlPoint(CCP)..............................120
BasicMethodsofQualityControl......................30 Critical Control Points from a Fresh Cucumber
BasicprinciplesofHACCP................................112 Process...........................................................22
BenefitingBusinesses........................................29 Criticallimit......................................................121
Blue....................................................................53 CustomerFocus.................................................27
BostwickConsistometer....................................76 Cuttingfirmness.................................................79
BrabenderFarinograph...............................76,80 decisiontree....................113,115,119,123,124
Brittleness..........................................................79 Decisiontree....................................................121
BrookfieldSynchrolectricViscometer...............76 DefinitionsPertainingtoQuality.......................26
Brown................................................................53 Descriptionandidentifieduseofproduct.......123
Bulksampling.....................................................47 DescriptiveFlavourProfileMethod...................68
BureauofIndianStandards.........................88,89 Descriptivestatistics..........................................71
Cellstructure.....................................................74 DesignandLayout.............................................98
Chemicalanalysis...............................................38 Designofexperiment........................................59
ChemicalMethods.............................................73 Deviation..........................................................121
Chewiness..........................................................79 DifferenceTests.................................................60
ChristalTexturometer(cutting).........................78 DilutionTest.......................................................67
Cleaning...............................95,97,100,104,105 Disccolorimeter.................................................75
CleaningProceduresandMethods.................105 Discriminative, communicative or send trained
CleaningProgrammes......................................105 panels.............................................................58
CodexAlimentariusCommission(CAC).......92,93 Disinfection................................................95,104
cohesiveness......................................................80 DocumentationandRecords...........................104
Cohesiveness.....................................................78 DrainageandWasteDisposal..........................100
ColorandGloss..................................................51 Drying.................................................................74
Colour..........................................................31,56 DuoTrioTest.....................................................61
ColourDictionaries............................................75 EffluxTubeViscometer.....................................76
ColourMeasurement.........................................75 Elasticity.............................................................80
Colouredchips...................................................75 EmpiricalTesting................................................55
Colours'Specifications.......................................52 EnvironmentalHygiene.....................................96
Commodityflowdiagram................................121 environmentalmanagement...........................128
Commoditysystem..........................................121 Enzymeinactivation...........................................45
CompanyorVoluntaryStandards.....................89 Equipment.......................................33,87,98,99
Compositesample.............................................46 Eradication.......................................................106
CompositeScoringTest.....................................66 Establishment......................95,97,104,106,111
Compressimeter................................................79 EstablishmentDesignandFacilities.................111
ConductingSensoryTests..................................58 Establishments...................................98,104,106
Consistency..................................................54,58 EvaluationCard..................................................60
Consistencyofsemisolid..................................80 EvaluationMethods...........................................73
ConsumerEducation.......................................109

EvaluationofFoodQualitybySensoryEvaluation IceandSteam..................................................103
.......................................................................56 identify60,71,94,101,109,113,114,117,120,
Experimentaldesignissues................................71 123,124,132
Extrusion............................................................80 IllnessandInjuries...........................................107
Facilities...............................................97,99,100 implement.............................89,94,96,101,113
FactualApproachtoDecisionMaking...............28 IncomingMaterialRequirements....................102
Fibrometer.........................................................77 Increment..........................................................46
firmness.............................................................80 Indextovolume.................................................74
Firmness.............................................................79 Individual...........................................................47
FlavorFactors....................................................55 IndustryStandards.............................................89
Flavour...............................................................56 InfluenceofColorandTextureonFlavor..........55
Flowdiagram...................................................121 IngredientSpecificationDocument...................17
FoodControlandMonitoringEquipment.........99 IngredientSpecifications...................................17
Foodhandler......................................................96 Innovation........................................................133
Foodhygiene.............................................95,109 InProcessRecords.............................................22
FoodLaws..........................................................88 InstructionandSupervision.............................110
FoodLawsandStandards..................................84 InstrumentsinFoodAnalysis.............................80
FoodProductFormulaDocument.....................18 InstrumentsUsedinTextureAnalysis...............79
FoodProductStandardsFormat.......................19 InternalStructuresandFittings.........................98
Foodsafety........................................96,115,130 International Organization for Standardization
FoodStandards..................................................88 (ISO).............................................................125
Foodsuitability..................................................96 InvolvementofPeople.......................................28
FoodTextureTestingTerminology....................78 ISO14000.........................................................128
Fracturability......................................................79 ISO22000...........................................91,129,130
FruitProductsOrder..........................................86 ISO22000standard.........................................130
FundamentalParameters..................................78 ISO9000...........................................111,128,129
FundamentalTesting.........................................55 JudgmentSampling...........................................46
Gelstrength.......................................................80 KeyAspectsofHygieneControlSystems........101
GoodAgriculturalPractices.............................111 Kramershearpress............................................78
GoodManufacturingPractices........................111 Labelling...........................................................109
GoodManufacturingPracticesandSanitation..23 Laboratories.......................................................90
Green.................................................................52 LaboratoryAnalysis...........................................24
GrievanceCell....................................................91 LaboratoryDesigning.......................................130
Grosssample.....................................................46 Laboratorysample.............................................46
Guidelines for Setting Up of Unit Under Fruit Leadership.........................................................27
ProductsOrder..............................................86 LegalStandards..................................................89
Gumminess........................................................79 Lighting............................................................100
HACCP94, 95, 96, 99, 101, 110, 111, 113, 114, Limitationsofsensoryevaluation......................69
115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 125, Location.............................................................98
130 Lot......................................................................46
HACCPplan113, 114, 115, 116, 118, 120, 121, LotIdentification..............................................109
130 MagnessTaylorPressuretester(compression)77
HACCPWorksheet...........................................125 MaintenanceandCleaning..............................104
Handling,StorageandTransport.......................97 MaintenanceandSanitation...................104,112
HarbourageandInfestation............................106 ManagementandSupervision.........................103
hardness............................................................80 Managementsystem.......................................128
Hardness......................................................78,80 ManagementSystemCertification..............90,91
Hazard....91,94,96,101,117,121,122,125,130 Mandatoryrules................................................30
Hazardanalysis........................................121,130 ManualSampling...............................................47
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Manufacturing Procedurefor Useby Production
(HACCP)..........................................94,110,130 andQualityControlPersonnel......................21
HealthStatus...................................................106 ManufacturingProcedures................................21
HedonicRatingTest...........................................64 MeasuringTexture.............................................53
Homogeneity.....................................................47 MicrobiologicalandOtherSpecifications........102
Humidity............................................................35 MicrobiologicalCrossContamination.............102
HygienicProductionofFoodSources................96 MicrobiologicalExamination.............................41

MicroscopicExamination..................................73 ProductFormulation/Recipe.............................18
Moisture............................................................74 ProductInformation........................108,109,112
Moisture/fat/proteindetermination.................40 Product Information and Consumer Awareness
monitor............................................101,104,129 .............................................................108,112
Monitor............................................................121 ProductStandards.............................................19
MonitoringandDetection...............................106 Psychologicalfactors.........................................58
MonitoringEffectiveness.................................106 Quality...............................................................12
Mouthfeel.........................................................57 QualityAssessment.....................................26,30
MultipleSampleDifferenceTest.......................63 QualityAssurance........................................15,26
MutuallyBeneficialSupplierRelationships.......28 QualityAttributes..............................................14
mycotoxinhazard............................117,118,119 QualityControl............................................12,26
NationalBuildingCodeofIndia,2005...............91 QualityControlinFoodProcessingBusinesses.13
NationalInstituteofTrainingforStandardization Quality Control: Monitoring the Testing Process
(NITS).............................................................91 .......................................................................29
NumericalScoringTest......................................65 QualityObjectives..............................................27
ObjectiveEvaluation..........................................72 Qualityspecifications.........................................13
Odour.................................................................56 QualityStandards..............................................88
OrganolepticEvaluation....................................31 RajivGandhiNationalQualityAward................91
OtherPhysicalTestMethods.............................38 RankingTest.......................................................62
Packaging...........................................86,103,123 RatingTests........................................................62
PackagingandLabeling......................................23 Realhazard......................................................122
PairedComparisonTest.....................................60 Reasonsfortestingfoodquality........................59
Penetrometer........................................14,76,79 RecallPlan..........................................................25
PercentSag........................................................76 RecallProcedures............................................104
PersonalBehaviour..........................................107 Receptionroom.................................................59
PersonalCleanliness........................................107 Red.....................................................................52
PersonalHygiene.............................................106 Reduction...........................................................47
PersonnelHygiene.....................................97,112 RefresherTraining...........................................110
PersonnelHygieneFacilitiesandToilets.........100 Resistancetocompression................................79
PestControlSystems.......................................105 Resistancetoflow..............................................80
pHmeasurement...............................................39 review..............................101,113,120,129,133
Photography......................................................75 Risk...................................................................122
PhysicalandChemicalContamination............102 Safemoisturecontent.....................................122
PhysicalMethods...............................................74 Saltconcentrationinbrines...............................38
PhysicalTestMethods.......................................33 Sample.........................................................43,46
Physicochemical and Mechanical Properties of Samplepreparationroom.................................59
Food...............................................................49 Sampling............................................................43
PhysicoChemicalMethods...............................73 SamplingErrors..................................................49
Population.........................................................46 SamplingTechniques.........................................43
PossibleMycotoxinControlMeasures............118 SamplingTypesbyProcess................................47
Powersoffoodinspectors.................................85 SchemeforIndianImporters.............................90
PremisesandRooms.........................................98 SchemeForeignManufacturers........................90
Preparationofdryfoodsamples.......................44 Secondarytrader.............................................122
Preparationofmoistsolidfoods.......................44 Segment.............................................................46
Preparationofsamples......................................59 Selectionofpanelofjudges..............................58
PreparationofSamples.....................................44 SensitivityTests.................................................66
Preparationofsemisolid/liquidfoods..............45 SensitivityThresholdTest..................................66
Pressfluids.........................................................74 Sensoryandconsumerdata..............................70
PreventingAccess............................................105 SensoryCharacteristicsofFood........................56
PreventionofFoodAdulterationAct..........84,85 SensoryEvaluation............................................56
PrimaryProduction..............................96,97,111 SensoryVocabulary...........................................50
Primarytrader.................................................122 Shortometer..........................................73,78,80
PrincipalandFunctionsofQualityAssurance...26 SimpleRandomSampling..................................45
ProcessApproach..............................................28 SingleSample(Monadic)Test...........................62
ProductCertificationScheme............................90 SizeandShape...................................................51
Productdisposition..........................................122 Sizeofthegrain.................................................75

SmallScaleIndustryFacilitationCell.................91 TheCodexGeneralPrinciplesofFoodHygiene.94
Smellandtaste(aromaandflavour).................33 TimeandTemperatureControl.......................101
Specificgravity...................................................74 Toknowtheconsumerpreference...................59
SpecificProcessSteps......................................102 Toknowtheeffectofvariationinprocessingon
Specificvolume..................................................74 quality............................................................60
Spectrophotometer...........................................75 TQC..............................................................83,84
springiness.........................................................80 TQCandTQM....................................................83
Springiness.........................................................78 TQM...............................................82,83,84,110
StandardFormulation&Promotion..................90 Trainedpanel.....................................................58
Step..........................................................121,125 Trainedpanelmembers.....................................58
Storage...........................34,35,48,100,110,111 Training................................83,91,109,110,112
StorageandPreservationofSamples................48 TrainingProgrammes......................................110
Strata.................................................................46 Transportation.........................................107,112
StratifiedRandomSampling..............................45 TriangleTest......................................................62
Stromerviscometer...........................................76 Triggermethods................................................41
Subsample........................................................46 TwoSampleDifferenceTest..............................63
Succulometer.....................................................77 TypesofStatisticalSampling.............................45
Swabmethod.....................................................41 TypesofTests....................................................60
SystemApproachtoManagement....................28 UniversalTextureAnalyser................................53
SystematicSampling..........................................46 Validation.................................................118,121
Targetlevel......................................................122 Verification......................................121,123,125
TasksinvolvedindevelopingHACCPsystem...122 Viscosity.......................................................55,78
Taste............................................................50,57 Visitors.............................................................107
Tasteinteraction................................................57 Volodkevich bite tenderometer (cutting and
Techniquesofsmellingandtasting...................59 shearing)........................................................78
Temperature................................................34,57 Volume...............................................................74
TemperatureControl.......................................100 Warehousing......................................................24
Temporary/Mobile Premises and Vending WarningRules....................................................30
Machines.......................................................98 WasteManagement........................................106
Tenderness........................................................79 Water.....................18,19,20,35,54,90,99,103
Tenderometer........................................53,77,80 Wateractivity(aw).............................................35
Testbooths........................................................59 WaterSupply.....................................................99
Testportion.......................................................46 Weight...............................................................74
Testinglaboratory.............................................59 Weightdifferences............................................37
Testingtime.......................................................59 Wettability.........................................................74
Texture...................................................50,54,57 What Is Quality Assurance Goals, Functions,
Texture and consistency (tenderness and Benefits..........................................................27
juiciness)........................................................32 WhatMakesQualityControlImportant?..........29
TextureChanges................................................54 Whywouldaproductberecalled?....................25
Textureclosetomastication.............................80 Worldwidecommunicationssystems..............127
TextureEvaluation.............................................75 Yellow................................................................52
TheAGMARKStandard......................................91

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FoodAnalysis

Certain foods or food productsaredefinedby regulationsor policiescalled standardsof identity.These

Onionpowder A011 5.85 1lb.6oz.

Meatchunkssize 3/8"to5/8"chunks #200

Asimplemethod is availableforthispurpose.Usinganairpumpwitha specialdevicetopenetratethe

InmeatlacticacidcausesadecreaseinpHvaluewhich is favorableforkeepingquality(lowpH inhibits

The AnalyticalCommission ofTerminologyof IUPAC (International Union ofPureand Applied Chemists)

Table 8 Glossary of SamplingTerms

Odour Taste Appearance Texture

Floral Sweet Heavy Brittle

(a) Stimulus detection threshold is thatmagnitude ofstimulus atwhich a transition occursfromno

Size ofthe grain:This can be foundbyusing photographyor inkprintswithstamppad or sand

PercentSag= (depthincontainerdepthinplate) x 100

Legal CompanyorVoluntary Industry Consumeror Grade

Cleaningshouldremove foodresiduesanddirtwhichmaybea sourceofcontamination.The necessary

Buildingsshouldbekeptin good repair and conditiontopreventpest accessandtoeliminatepotential

People known, or suspected, to be suffering from, or to be a carrier of a disease or illness likely to be

Monitor: The act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements of control

Task1. AssembleanHACCP team

International standardization began in the electrotechnical field: the International Electrotechnical

International standardization is wellestablished for many technologies in such diverse fields as

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