1.

Acknowledgement
We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of
many individuals. We would like to extend our sincere thanks to all of them.

We are highly indebted to Engr. Jefferson Walcien for his guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing
necessary information regarding the project and also for his support in completing the project.

We would like to express our gratitude towards our friends and Electronics Engineering Department of Saint Louis
University Baguio City for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help us in completion of this project.

Our thanks and appreciations also go to our colleagues in developing the project and people who have willingly
helped us out with their abilities.

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 2. Preface
This report is prepared to fulfil the requirement of the course, Material Science and Engineering (ECE415) in Saint
Louis University Baguio City.

The prime focus of this study is to discuss in class the Introduction to Material Science and Engineering in the scope
of Types of Materials to its Structure and Properties.

This study is divided into several sections. First is the introductory part, which includes the history and definition of
each type of Materials. Second is the structure and property of each type of material. The next couple of sections are
the functions and applications and the future breakthrough of each type of material.

The last part deals with summary, conclusion and some recommendation to overcome the problems using Material
Science and Engineering.

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 3. Definition of terms
Applications- the action of putting something into operation.

Atoms -are the basic units of matter and the defining structure of elements.

Atomic structure- a conventionalized, hypothetical concept of an atom, regarded as consisting of a central, positively
charged nucleus and a number of negatively charged electrons revolving about it in various orbits: the number and
arrangement of the electrons vary in the different elements

Chemical property- a property or characteristic of a substance that is observed during a reaction in which
the chemical composition or identity of the substance is changed.

Conductor- is an object or type of material that allows the flow of an electrical current in one or more directions. A
metal wire is a common electrical conductor.

Covalent bond- also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between
atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and
repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding.

Device - a thing made or adapted for a particular purpose, especially a piece of mechanical or electronic equipment.

Doping - Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconductors to alter their properties.

Electric field -a region around a charged particle or object within which a force would be exerted on other charged
particles or objects.

Electronegativity - is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons.

Electrons- a stable subatomic particle with a charge of negative electricity, found in all atoms and acting as the
primary carrier of electricity in solids.

Electric circuit - An electric circuit is a path in which electrons from a voltage or current source flow.

Electronic Systems - An Electronic System is a physical interconnection of components, or parts, that gathers
various amounts of information together with the aid of input devices such as sensors, responds in some way to this
information and then uses electrical energy in the form of an output action to control a physical process or perform
some type of mathematical operation on the signal.

Glass- a hard, brittle substance, typically transparent or translucent, made by fusing sand with soda, lime, and
sometimes other ingredients and cooling rapidly. It is used to make windows, drinking containers, and other articles.

Material- the matter from which a thing is or can be made.

Metallic bond- is the force of attraction between valence electrons and the metal ions. It is the sharing of many
detached electrons between many positive ions, where the electrons act as a "glue" giving the substance a definite
structure. It is unlike covalent or ionic bonding.

Molecular structure- The arrangement of chemical bonds between atoms in a molecule (or in an ion or radical with
multiple atoms), specifically which atoms are chemically bonded to what other atoms with what kind of chemical
bond, together with any information on the geometric shape of the molecule needed to uniquely identify the type of
molecule.

Molecules- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound
that can take part in a chemical reaction.

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Monomer- a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.

Periodic Table -a table of the chemical elements arranged in order of atomic number, usually in rows, so that
elements with similar atomic structure (and hence similar chemical properties) appear in vertical columns.

Physical property- can be observed or measured without changing the composition of matter. Physical properties are
used to observe and describe matter. Physical properties include: appearance, texture, color, odor, melting point,
boiling point, density, solubility, polarity, and many others.

Reducing agent- is an element or compound that loses (or "donates") an electron to another chemical species in a
redox chemical reaction.

Valence Band- The valence band is the highest range of electron energies in which electrons are normally present at
absolute zero temperature, while the conduction band is the lowest range of vacant electronic states.

Valence electron- is an electron that is associated with an atom, and that can participate in the formation of a
chemical bond; in a single covalent bond, both atoms in the bond contribute one valence electron in order to form a
shared pair.

4. Introduction
4.1 Purpose

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The purpose of this report is to gain knowledge about types of materials and its material and properties. The
report will also recommend preventive measures or solutions of some problems of society with the foundation
of Material Science and Engineering.

4.2 Background

Concrete is one of the oldest building materials with a history dating back to ancient Egypt. Today, concrete
comprised primarily of water, aggregate and cement is the most widely used material in the world. Despite
being a fairly low-impact material environmentally speaking, creating concrete still takes energy; thus the wide
deployment of the material is reflected in its significant carbon footprint. In response, the industry is beginning
to pursue more eco-friendly versions that would help curb energy requirements, and theyre using
supercomputers to do it.

As part of a recent study, scientists from the the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the
University of Strasbourg and Sika Corporation ran advanced simulations on Department of Energy
supercomputers to explore methods for achieving less energy-intensive concrete mixtures.

4.3 Methods Of Research

References are recovered from the articles in the World Wide Web and a book.

4.4 Scope

This report will address 3 key concepts; The Types of Materials, the material structure and properties and
finally the application of these materials.

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 5. Topic Presentation

5.1Metals

5.1.1 Historical Account

The nature of metals has fascinated humans for many centuries, because these materials provided people with tools
of unsurpassed properties both in war and in their preparation and processing. Pure gold and silver were known to
humans since the Stone Age. Lead and silver were fused from their ores as early as the fourth millennium BC.

Ancient Latin and Greek writers such as Theophrastus, Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, or Pedanius
Dioscorides, did not try to classify metals. The ancient Europeans never attained the concept "metal" as a distinct
elementary substance with fixed, characteristic chemical and physical properties. Following Empedocles, all
substances within the sublunary sphere were assumed to vary in their constituent classical elements of earth, water,
air and fire. Following thePythagoreans, Plato assumed that these elements could be further reduced to plane
geometrical shapes (triangles and squares) bounding space and relating to the regular polyhedra in the sequence
earth:cube, water:icosahedron, air:octahedron, fire:tetrahedron. However, this philosophical extension did not
become as popular as the simple four elements, after it was rejected by Aristotle. Aristotle also rejected the atomic
theory of Democritus, since he classified the implied existence of a vacuum necessary for motion as a contradiction
(a vacuum implies nonexistence, therefore cannot exist). Aristotle did, however, introduce underlying antagonistic
qualities (or forces) of dry vs. wet and cold vs. heat into the composition of each of the four elements. The word
"metal" originally meant "mines" and only later gained the general meaning of products from materials obtained in
mines. In the first centuries A.D. a relation between the planets and the existing metals was assumed as Gold:Sun,
Silver:Moon, Electrum:Jupiter, Iron:Mars, Copper:Venus, Tin:Mercury, Lead: Saturn. After electrum was
determined to be a combination of silver and gold, the relations Tin:Jupiter and Mercury:Mercury were substituted
into the previous sequence.

Arabic and medieval alchemists believed that all metals, and in fact, all sublunar matter, were composed of the
principle of sulfur, carrying the combustible property, and the principle of mercury, the mother of all metals and
carrier of the liquidity or fusibility, and the volatility properties. These principles were not necessarily the common
substances sulfur and mercury found in most laboratories. This theory reinforced the belief that the all metals were
destined to become gold in the bowels of the earth through the proper combinations of heat, digestion, time, and
elimination of contaminants, all of which could be developed and hastened through the knowledge and methods of
alchemy. Paracelsusadded the third principle of salt, carrying the nonvolatile and incombustible properties, in his tria
prima doctrine. These theories retained the four classical elements as underlying the composition of sulfur, mercury
and salt.

The first systematic text on the arts of mining and metallurgy was De la Pirotechnia by Vannoccio Biringuccio,
which treats the examination, fusion, and working of metals. Sixteen years later, Georgius Agricola published De Re
Metallica in 1555, a clear and complete account of the profession of mining, metallurgy, and the accessory arts and

6
sciences, as well as qualifying as the greatest treatise on the chemical industry through the sixteenth century. He
gave the following description of a metal in his De Natura Fossilium (1546).

Metal is a mineral body, by nature either liquid or somewhat hard. The latter may be melted by the heat of the fire,
but when it has cooled down again and lost all heat, it becomes hard again and resumes its proper form. In this
respect it differs from the stone which melts in the fire, for although the latter regain its hardness, yet it loses its
pristine form and properties. Traditionally there are six different kinds of metals, namely gold, silver, copper, iron,
tin and lead. There are really others, for quicksilver is a metal, although the Alchemists disagree with us on this
subject, and bismuth is also. The ancient Greek writers seem to have been ignorant of bismuth, wherefore
Ammonius rightly states that there are many species of metals, animals, and plants which are unknown to
us. Stibium when smelted in the crucible and refined has as much right to be regarded as a proper metal as is
accorded to lead by writers. If when smelted, a certain portion be added to tin, a bookseller's alloy is produced from
which the type is made that is used by those who print books on paper. Each metal has its own form which it
preserves when separated from those metals which were mixed with it. Therefore neither electrum nor Stannum [not
meaning our tin] is of itself a real metal, but rather an alloy of two metals. Electrum is an alloy of gold and silver,
Stannum of lead and silver. And yet if silver be parted from the electrum, then gold remains and not electrum; if
silver be taken away from Stannum, then lead remains and not Stannum. Whether brass, however, is found as a
native metal or not, cannot be ascertained with any surety. We only know of the artificial brass, which consists of
copper tinted with the colour of the mineral calamine. And yet if any should be dug up, it would be a proper metal.
Black and white copper seems to be different from the red kind. Metal, therefore, is by nature either solid, as I have
stated, or fluid, as in the unique case of quicksilver. But enough now concerning the simple kinds.

5.1.2 Structure of Metal

Atomic structure of a metal(see appendix 1)

Metals form giant structures in which electrons in the outer shells of the metal atoms are free to move. The metallic
bond is the force of attraction between these free electrons and metal ions. Metallic bonds are strong, so metals can
maintain a regular structure and usually have high melting and boiling points.

7
Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat, because the free electrons carry a charge or heat energy through
the metal. The free electrons allow metal atoms to slide over each other, so metals are malleable and ductile.

5.1.3 Properties of Metal

The structures of metals can be used to explain many of the characteristic physical properties of metals.

When asked to explain why metals have a characteristic metallic shine, or luster, many people would say that metals
reflect (literally, throw back) the light that shines on their surface. They might argue, in effect, that light bounces off
a metal's surface the way a racquetball bounces off the walls of a racquetball court. There is something wrong with
this analogy, however. Metals actually absorb a significant fraction of the light that hits their surface.

A portion of the energy captured when the metal absorbs light is turned into thermal energy. (You can easily
demonstrate this by placing your hand on the surface of a car that has spent several hours in the sun.) The rest of the
energy is reradiated by the metal as "reflected" light. Silver is better than any other metal at reflecting light, and yet
only 88% of the light that hits the surface of a silver mirror is reradiated. This raises an important question: Why do
metals absorb light when other substances, such as the glass in the car's windows, do not? Light is absorbed when
the energy of this radiation is equal to the energy needed to excite an electron to a higher-energy excited state or
when the energy can be used to move an electron through the solid. Because electrons are delocalized in metals and
therefore free to move through the solid metals absorb light easily. Other solids, such as glass, don't have electrons
that can move through the solid, so they can't absorb light the way metals do. These solids are colorless and can only
be colored by adding an impurity in which the energy associated with exciting an electron from one orbital to
another falls in the visible portion of the spectrum. Glass is usually colored by adding a small quantity of one of the
transition metals. Cobalt produces a blue color, chromium makes the glass appear green, and traces of gold give a
deep-red color.

Why are metals solid? Nonmetals such as hydrogen and oxygen are gases at room temperature because these
elements can achieve a filled shell of valence electrons by sharing pairs of electrons to form relatively small
molecules, such as H2 and O2, that are moving fast enough at room temperature to escape from the liquid into the
gaseous phase. Metals can't do this. There aren't enough electrons on a metal atom to allow it to fill its valence shell
by sharing pairs of electrons with one or two nearest neighbors. The only way a metal can obtain the equivalent of a
filled shell of valence electrons is by allowing these electrons to be shared by a number of adjacent metal atoms.
This is possible only if a large number of metal atoms are kept close together, and metals are therefore solids at
room temperature.

5.1.4 Applications

Metals are commonly used in:

Transportation -- Cars, buses, trucks, trains, ships, and airplanes.

Aerospace -- Unmanned and manned rockets and the space shuttle.

Computers and other electronic devices that require conductors (TV, radio, stereo, calculators, security
devices, etc.)

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 Communications including satellites that depend on a tough but light metal shell.

Food processing and preservation -- Microwave and conventional ovens and refrigerators and freezers.

Construction -- Nails in conventional lumber construction and structural steel inother buildings.

Biomedical applications -- As artificial replacement for joints and other prostheses.

Electrical power production and distribution -- Boilers, turbines, generators, transformers, power lines,
nuclear reactors, oil wells, and pipelines.

Farming -- Tractors, combines, planters, etc.

Household conveniences -- Ovens, dish and clothes washers, vacuum cleaners, blenders, pumps, lawn
mowers and trimmers, plumbing, water heaters, heating/cooling, etc.

5.1.5 Future Breakthrough

Remember the feared T-1000 (or Prototype Series 1000) assassin robot from James Camerons 1991 movie
Terminator 2: Judgement Day? A milestone achievement by scientists on the properties of liquid metal has made
them predict that some day in the future the shape-shifting killer robot could be a reality. Yikes!

A team of researchers at RMIT University in Melbourne, Australia, are credited with discovering this mechanism of
basically letting liquid metal shape-shift on its own, without any external stimulus. According to reports, the
scientists claim to have created switches and pumps that are self-driven in a particular liquid metal alloy which can
allow future electronic devices and circuits to behave like living, breathing tissue and at a stretch, may be like the
formidable T-1000 Terminator, too, some day in the distant future.

The lead researcher to announce this liquid metal breakthrough, Professor Kourosh Kalantar-zadeh, had this to say
about the achievement, according to The Independent, We adjusted the concentrations of acid, base and salt
components in the water and investigated the effect. Simply tweaking the waters chemistry made the liquid metal
droplets move and change shape, without any need for external mechanical, electronic or optical stimulants.

Through this discovery, the research team were able to create moving objects that have the potential of operating
autonomously. On the basis of the fundamental discovery of this peculiar liquid metal property, Prof Kourosh
believes that it may be possible to build a 3D liquid metal humanoid on demand like the T-1000 Terminator.

It would indeed be a momentous day in the history of human scientific inquiry if we ended up creating a liquid metal
entity thats virtually indestructible or even self-repairing by quickly changing shapes. Obviously, the researchers
agree that given the pace of their current effort, such a reality where complex liquid metal materials performing
Terminator T-1000s acts like passing through prison bars and sliding under a door to regenerate and reconstitute
its original form wont be achieved any time soon. But sci-fi lovers arent exactly time-sensitive, are they?

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 5.2Ceramics

5.2.1 Historical Account

Ceramics is one of the most ancient industries on the planet. Once humans discovered that clay could be dug up and
formed into objects by first mixing with water and then firing, the industry was born. As early as 24,000 BC, animal
and human figurines were made from clay and other materials, then fired in kilns partially dug into the ground.

Almost 10,000 years later, as settled communities were established, tiles were manufactured in Mesopotamia and
India. The first use of functional pottery vessels for storing water and food is thought to be around 9000 or 10,000
BC. Clay bricks were also made around the same time.

Glass was believed to be discovered in Egypt around 8000 BC, when overheating of kilns produced a colored glaze
on the pottery. Experts estimate that it was not until 1500 BC that glass was produced independently of ceramics and
fashioned into separate items.

Fast forward to the Middle Ages, when the metal industry was in its infancy. Furnaces at that time for melting the
metal were constructed of natural materials. When synthetic materials with better resistance to high temperatures
(called refractories) were developed in the 16th century, the industrial revolution was born. These refractories
created the necessary conditions for melting metals and glass on an industrial scale, as well as for the manufacture of
coke, cement, chemicals, and ceramics.

Another major development occurred in the second half of the 19th century, when ceramic materials for electrical
insulation were developed. As other inventions came on the scene-including automobiles, radios, televisions,
computers-ceramic and glass materials were needed to help these become a reality, as shown in the following
timeline.

Timeline of Selected Ceramic and Glass Developments

Year Development

24,000 B.C. Ceramic figurines used for ceremonial purposes

14,000 B.C. First tiles made in Mesopotamia and India

9000-10,000 Pottery making begins

B.C.

5000-8000 Glazes discovered in Egypt

B.C.

1500 B.C. Glass objects first made

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1550 A.D. Synthetic refractories (temperature resistant) for furnaces used to make steel, glass, ceramics,
cement

Mid 1800s Porcelain electrical insulation

Incandescent light bulb

1920s High-strength quartz-enriched porcelain for insulators

Alumina spark plugs
Glass windows for automobiles

1940s Capacitors and magnetic ferrites

1960s Alumina insulators for voltages over 220 kV

Application of carbides and nitrides

1970s Introduction of high-performance cellular ceramic substrates for catalytic converters and
particulate filters for diesel engines

1980s High temperature superconductors

Table 1

5.2.2 Structure of Ceramics

The properties of ceramic materials, like all materials, are dictated by the types of atoms present, the types of
bonding between the atoms, and the way the atoms are packed together. The type of bonding and structure helps
determine what type of properties a material will have.

(See Appendix 2)

Ceramics usually have a combination of stronger bonds called ionic (occurs between a metal and nonmetal and
involves the attraction of opposite charges when electrons are transferred from the metal to the nonmetal); and

11
covalent (occurs between two nonmetals and involves sharing of atoms). The strength of an ionic bond depends on
the size of the charge on each ion and on the radius of each ion.

The greater the number of electrons being shared, is the greater the force of attraction, or the stronger the covalent
bond.

These types of bonds result in high elastic modulus and hardness, high melting points, low thermal expansion, and
good chemical resistance. On the other hand, ceramics are also hard and often brittle (unless the material is
toughened by reinforcements or other means), which leads to fracture.

(See appendix 3)

In general, metals have weaker bonds than ceramics, which allows the electrons to move freely between atoms.
Think of a box containing marbles surrounded by water. The marbles can be pushed anywhere within the box and
the water will follow them, always surrounding the marbles. This type of bond results in the property called
ductility, where the metal can be easily bent without breaking, allowing it to be drawn into wire. The free movement
of electrons also explains why metals tend to be conductors of electricity and heat.

Plastics or polymers of the organic type consist of long chains of molecules which are either tangled or ordered at
room temperature. Because the forces (known as van der Waals) between the molecules are very weak, polymers are
very elastic (like a rubber band), can be easily melted, and have low strength. Like ceramics, polymers have good
chemical resistance, electrical and thermal insulation properties. They are also brittle at low temperatures. The
following table provides a general comparison of the properties between the three types of materials.

General Comparison of Materials

Property Ceramic Metal Polymer

Hardness Very High Low Very Low

Elastic modulus Very High High Low

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High temperature strength

Thermal expansion High Low Very Low

Ductility Low High High

Corrosion resistance High Low Low

Wear resistance High Low Low

Electrical conductivity Depends on material High Low

Density Low High Very Low

Thermal conductivity Depends on material High Low

Magnetic Depends on material High Very Low

Note: For general comparison only; specific properties depend on the materials specific composition and how it is
made.

These three material types can also be combined in various ways to form composites to take advantage of each
materials properties. For instance, ceramic particles or fibers can be added to a ceramic or metal matrix to improve
the mechanical properties and/or produce a special property the matrix by itself generally would not have. Polymers
are also reinforced with glass fibers for a wide range of construction and structural applications.

5.2.3 Properties of Ceramics

Ceramics once referred purely to pottery and to articles made by firing materials extracted from Earth. Today, the
term has a much broader definition. Ceramics are generally thought of as inorganic and nonmetallic solids with a
range of useful properties, including very high hardness and strength, extremely high melting points, and
good electrical and thermal insulation.

The best-known ceramics are pottery, glass, brick, porcelain, and cement. But the general definition of a ceramica
nonmetallic and inorganic solidis so broad that it covers a much wider range of materials. At one end of the scale,
ceramics include simple materials such as graphite and diamond, made up from different crystalline arrangements of
the element carbon. But at the other end of the scale, complex crystals of yttrium, barium, copper, and oxygen make
up the advanced ceramics used in so-called high-temperature superconductors (materials with almost no

13
electrical resistance). Most ceramics fall somewhere between these extremes. Many are metal oxides, crystalline
compounds of a metal element and oxygen. Others are silicides, borides, carbides, and nitrides, respectively made
from silicon, boron, carbon, and nitrogen. Some of the most advanced ceramic materials are combinations of
ceramics and other materials known as ceramic matrix composites (CMCs).

Ceramics are best known as brittle solids particularly suited for withstanding high temperatures but, in fact, the
different materials used in ceramics can give them a wide range of properties. The classic properties of ceramics
include durability, strength and brittleness, high electrical and thermal resistance, and an ability to withstand the
damaging effects of acids, oxygen, and other chemicals because of their inertness (chemical unreactivity). But not
all ceramics behave in this way. For example, graphite is a very soft ceramic and conducts electricity well, whereas
diamond is a very good conductor of heat. Ceramics called ferrites are particularly good conductors of electricity
and superconductors have almost no electrical resistance at all. Ceramic matrix composites, made by embedding
fibers of a strengthening material in what is known as a ceramic matrix, are not at all brittle.

The properties of a particular ceramic depend not just on the materials from which it is made but also on the way
they are joined togetherin other words, on its crystalline structure. Diamond is strong because all of its
carbon atoms are bonded tightly to other carbon atoms. Graphite (such as that used in pencil "leads") shears because
it is made up from different layers. Although the carbon atoms are tightly bonded within a given layer, the different
layers are held together only by much weaker bonds. China clay (also called kaolin) behaves in a similar way to
graphite, with its constituentaluminum, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms tightly bonded into flat sheets. But the
weak bonds between those sheets are easily broken when water surrounds them and it is this that makes wet clay so
easy to mold. When china clay is fired,heat removes the water, and the chemicals inside the clay rearrange
themselves into crystals of aluminum silicate tightly bonded by silicate glass, which is overall very much stronger.

In general, most ceramics are:

hard,

wear-resistant,

brittle,

refractory,

thermal insulators,

electrical insulators,

nonmagnetic,

oxidation resistant,

prone to thermal shock, and chemically stable.

5.2.4 Applications

Knife blades: the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife,
although it is more brittle and can snap from a fall onto a hard surface.

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 Carbon-ceramic brake disks for vehicles are resistant to brake fade at high temperatures.

Advanced composite ceramic and metal matrices have been designed for most modern armoured fighting
vehicles because they offer superior penetrating resistance against shaped charges (such as HEAT rounds)
and kinetic energy penetrators.

Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic armoured vests to repel large-
calibre rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as small arms protective inserts, or SAPIs. Similar material
is used to protect the cockpits of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of the material.

Ceramics can be used in place of steel for ball bearings. Their higher hardness means they are much less
susceptible to wear and typically last for triple the lifetime of a steel part. They also deform less under load,
meaning they have less contact with the bearing retainer walls and can roll faster. In very high speed
applications, heat from friction during rolling can cause problems for metal bearings, which are reduced by the
use of ceramics. Ceramics are also more chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments where steel
bearings would rust. In some cases, their electricity-insulating properties may also be valuable in bearings. Two
drawbacks to ceramic bearings are a significantly higher cost and susceptibility to damage under shock loads.

In the early 1980s, Toyota researched production of an adiabatic engine using ceramic components in the
hot gas area. The ceramics would have allowed temperatures of over 3000 F (1650 C). The expected
advantages would have been lighter materials and a smaller cooling system (or no need for one at all), leading
to a major weight reduction. The expected increase of fuel efficiency of the engine (caused by the higher
temperature, as shown by Carnot's theorem) could not be verified experimentally; it was found that the heat
transfer on the hot ceramic cylinder walls was higher than the transfer to a cooler metal wall as the cooler gas
film on the metal surface works as a thermal. Thus, despite all of these desirable properties, such engines have
not succeeded in production because of costs for the ceramic components and the limited advantages. (Small
imperfections in the ceramic material with its low fracture toughness lead to cracks, which can lead to
potentially dangerous equipment failure.) Such engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass production
is not feasible with current technology.

Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for gas turbine engines. Currently, even blades made
of advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of operating
temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving aircraft greater range
and payload for a set amount of fuel.

Recent advances have been made in ceramics which include bioceramics, such as dental implants and
synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral component of bone, has been made synthetically from a
number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic materials. Orthopedic implants
coated with these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory
reactions so are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue engineering scaffolds. Most hydroxyapatite
ceramics are very porous and lack mechanical strength, and are used to coat metal orthopaedic devices to aid in
forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopaedic plastic screws to aid in
reducing the inflammation and increase absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make
strong, fully dense Nano crystalline hydroxyapatite ceramic materials for orthopaedic weight bearing devices,
replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopaedic materials with a synthetic, but naturally occurring, bone
mineral. Ultimately, these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorporation of
protein collagens, synthetic bones.

High-tech ceramic is used in watchmaking for producing watch cases. The material is valued by
watchmakers for its light weight, scratch resistance, durability and smooth touch. IWC is one of the brands that
initiated the use of ceramic in watchmaking.

5.2.5 Future Breakthrough

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Researchers at HRL Laboratories, LLC, have achieved a new milestone in 3D printing technology by demonstrating
an approach to additively manufacture ceramics that overcomes the limits of traditional ceramic processing and
enables high temperature, high strength ceramic components.

HRL's Senior Chemical Engineer Zak Eckel and Senior Chemist Dr. Chaoyin Zhou invented a resin formulation that
can be 3D printed into parts of virtually any shape and size. The printed resin can then be fired, converting it into a
high strength, fully dense ceramic. The resulting material can withstand ultrahigh temperatures in excess of 1700C
and exhibits strength ten times higher than similar materials.

Ceramics are much more difficult to process than polymers or metals because they cannot be cast or machined
easily. Traditionally ceramic parts are consolidated from powders by sintering, which introduces porosity and limits
both achievable shapes and final strength. "With our new 3D printing process we can take full advantage of the
many desirable properties of this silicon oxycarbide ceramic, including high hardness, strength and temperature
capability as well as resistance to abrasion and corrosion." says program manager Dr. Tobias Schaedler.

The novel process and material could be used in a wide range of applications from large components in jet engines
and hypersonic vehicles to intricate parts in microelectromechanical systems and electronic device packaging.

The HRL team's research paper, "Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Derived Ceramics," has been published in the
January 1st issue of Science.

5.3 Polymers

5.3.1 Historical Account

Polymers is a term used since 1866 by Berthelot who, in an article published in the Bulletin of the Chemical Society
of France, noted that styrolene (styrene), heated at 200 during a few hours, transforms itself into a
resinous polymer. It was the first recognized synthetic polymer. But it was Hermann Staudinger, in the year 1920,
which was the first to propose the concept of polymers in the sense we use today. It lead to the Nobel prize in 1953
for his work which is at the base of all science of macromolecules. It is, however, only during the following decade
that the macromolecular theory definitively replaced the micellar theory to which it was opposed.

Man had always used natural polymers in the form of textile fibres and material shapes. The scarcity of some of
them had mobilized researchers, at the end of 19th century, to transform natural polymers into artificial polymers.
Thus, they created nitrocellulose (celluloid, artificial silk) for the replacement of the ivory, silk, or many materials
presenting of the new properties likely to generate new applications (ebonite by extreme vulcanization of the natural
rubber).

An important stage had been reached with the industrial production of the first synthetic polymers (Bakelite,
synthetic rubbers). But it is a result of the theory suggested by Staudinger that their variety increased in a
considerable way. He was the seminal researcher and the majority of synthetic polymers used today result from its
work.

In 1933, the firm ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries), in the United Kingdom, succeeded for the first time in the
polymerization of ethylene. The result was a completely new material: low density polyethylene. It is about a
polymer of extreme importance, still produced nowadays on the scale of several tens of million tons.

16
It is during this same decade (1938), that W. Carothers and his research team (Dupont de Nemours), discovered
polyamides (nylons) and showed that the chemistry of polymers could generate materials whose mechanical
characteristics could be higher than those of natural polymers.

As of the decade 1940-1950, polymers were used as substitutes for a number of traditional materials. This operation
was not always treated with the respect it deserved, which lead to a reputation of poor quality of the objects
manufactured. The research carried out in the industrial and academic laboratories resulted in reducing and
eliminating the principal defects of the polymers, which are now used for the most sophisticated applications and the
most advanced fields of technology.

The juries of the Nobel prize wanted to honor this still young science, by awarding the prizes of Chemistry or
Physics to a number of its representatives: Staudinger was the rewarded first, but subsequent prizes include Ziegler
and Natta, Flory, McDiarmid, Shirakawa, Heeger, and more recently, the trio of Chauvin, Grubbs and Schrock.
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes was also honored by the jury with the Nobel Prize; polymers were only one of his centers of
interest but his name is known to of all polymer scientists for his theories in the field of the science of polymers.

Because of their economic importance, the industry of polymers has produced a multitude of research tasks and
stimulated, upstream, academic research of great quality. This is strongly supported by industrial circles with their
strength in developing basic research into products.

The universality of polymers is now well established. They are present in all fields of industrial production as an
additive or structural materials and are impossible to circumvent. The improvement of their properties gradually
removed their bad reputation and, at the present time, one can now say There are no bad polymers, only bad
applications of them.

In the table hereafter, some major dates which marked the important stages of this young science are shown.

Important stages in the history of polymers

1838: A. Payen identifies a compound of formula (C6H10O5)N that is extracted from wood which he names
cellulose.

1844: CH. Goodyear carries out the vulcanization of natural rubber by using sulfur.

1846: C. Schonbein prepare the first artificial polymer, nitrocellulose, by esterification of cellulose by means
of a nitrosulphuric acid mixture.

1866: Discovery of polystyrene by M. Berthelot.

1883: Artificial silk is obtained per H. de CHARDONNET, by spinning a concentrated nitrocellulose

solution.

1907: First synthetic rubbers by polymerization of conjugated polymerization, A. Hoffmann.

1910: Industrialization of the process of production of first synthetic polymer, by L. Baekeland; the phenol-
formol resins are produced under the name of bakelite.

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1919: H. Staudinger proposes the macromolecular theory, thus opening the way for the science and the
technology of polymers.

1925: Confirmation of the macromolecular theory by Th. Svedberg; He succeeds in measuring the molar mass
of a polymer by ultracentrifugation.

1928: K. Meyer and H. Mark establish the link between molecular structure and crystallographic structure of
polymers.

1933: Radical polymerization of ethylene under high pressure, by E. Fawcett and R. Gibson (I.C.I.).

1938: First synthetic polyamides (nylons) produced by W. Carothers (Of DuPont de Nemours).

1942: P. Flory and M. Huggins propose the first theory on the behavior of polymers in solution.

1943: The family of polyurethanes is discovered by O. Bayer.

1947: T. Alfrey and C. Price propose the theory of chain.

1953: F. Crick and J. Watson (Nobel Prize of medicine 1962) propose the double helix structure of the DNA.

1953: K. Ziegler polymerize ethylene under low pressure.

1954: G. Natta discovers isotactic polypropene.

1955: Establishment of a relation between the relaxation time of polymer chains and the variation at the glass
transition temperature by M. Williams, R. Landel and J. Ferry.

1956: Discovery of living polymerization by M. Szwarc.

1957: First polymeric monocrystals obtained by A. Keller.

1959: Development of the size exclusion chromatography by J. Moore.

1960: Discovery of thermoplastic elastomers starting from block copolymers.

1970-1980: Development of the laws of scale and concept of reptation of polymeric chains in the molten state,
by P-G. de Gennes.

1974: Development of aromatic polyamides by the firm DuPont de Nemours.

1980: W. Kaminsky and H. Sinn use the combination aluminoxanes/metallocenes for the polymerization of
olefins.

1982: T. Otsu introduces the concept of controlled radical polymerization.

1986: The first dendrimers are synthesized by D. Tomalia.

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1994: The controlled radical polymerization by atom transfer, is developed by Mr. Sawamoto and K
Matyjaszewski

2000: H. Shirakawa, A.J. Heeger and A.G. McDiarmid obtain the Nobel Prize of Chemistry for their work on
intrinsic conducting polymers.

2005: Nobel Prize of Chemistry awarded to Y. Chauvin, R. Grubbs and R. Schrock, for their work on the
reaction of metathesis and its application to polymers.

5.3.2 Structure of Polymers

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

The physical characteristics of a polymer depend not only on its molecular weight and shape but also on
differences in the structure of the molecular chains. Modern polymer synthesis techniques permit considerable
control over various structural possibilities. This section discusses several molecular structures including linear,
branched, crosslinked, and network, in addition to various isomeric configurations.

Linear polymers are those in which the repeat units are joined together end to end in single chains. These long
chains are flexible and may be thought of as a mass of spaghetti, as represented schematically in Figure 14.7a, where
each circle represents a repeat unit. For linear polymers, there may be extensive van der Waals and hydrogen
bonding between the chains. Some of the common polymers that form with linear structures are polyethylene,
poly(vinyl chloride), polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate), nylon, and the fluorocarbons.

Branched Polymers may be synthesized in which side-branch chains are connected to the main ones, as indicated
schematically in Figure 14.7b; these are fittingly called branched polymers. The branches, considered to be part of
the main-chain molecule, may result from side reactions that occur during the synthesis of the polymer. The chain
packing efficiency is reduced with the formation of side branches, which results in a lowering of the polymer
density.Those polymers that form linear structures may also be branched. For example, high density polyethylene
(HDPE) is primarily a linear polymer, while low density polyethylene (LDPE) contains short chain branches.

Crosslinked Polymers, adjacent linear chains are joined one to another at various positions by covalent bonds, as
represented in Figure 14.7c. The process of crosslinking is achieved either during synthesis or by a nonreversible
chemical reaction. Often, this crosslinking is accomplished by additive atoms or molecules that are covalently
bonded to the chains. Many of the rubber elastic materials are crosslinked; in rubbers, this is called vulcanization.

19
Network Polymers Multifunctional monomers forming three or more active covalent bonds, make three-dimensional
networks (Figure 14.7d) and are termed network polymers. Actually, a polymer that is highly crosslinked may also
be classified as a network polymer. These materials have distinctive mechanical and thermal properties; the epoxies,
polyurethanes, and phenol-formaldehyde belong to this group. Polymers are not usually of only one distinctive
structural type. For example, a predominantly linear polymer might have limited branching and crosslinking.

5.3.3 Properties Of Polymers

The majority of manufactured polymers are thermoplastic, meaning that once the polymer is formed it can be heated
and reformed over and over again. This property allows for easy processing and facilitates recycling. The other
group, the thermosets, cannot be remelted. Once these polymers are formed, reheating will cause the material to
ultimately degrade, but not melt.

Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the following general attributes.

Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Consider all the cleaning fluids in your home that are packaged in
plastic. Reading the warning labels that describe what happens when the chemical comes in contact with skin or
eyes or is ingested will emphasize the need for chemical resistance in the plastic packaging. While solvents easily
dissolve some plastics, other plastics provide safe, non-breakable packages for aggressive solvents.

Polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators. A walk through your house will reinforce this concept, as
you consider all the appliances, cords, electrical outlets and wiring that are made or covered with polymeric
materials. Thermal resistance is evident in the kitchen with pot and pan handles made of polymers, the coffee pot
handles, the foam core of refrigerators and freezers, insulated cups, coolers, and microwave cookware. The thermal
underwear that many skiers wear is made of polypropylene and the fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester.

Generally, polymers are very light in weight with significant degrees of strength. Consider the range of applications,
from toys to the frame structure of space stations, or from delicate nylon fiber in pantyhose to Kevlar, which is used
in bulletproof vests. Some polymers float in water while others sink. But, compared to the density of stone,
concrete, steel, copper, or aluminum, all plastics are lightweight materials.

Polymers can be processed in various ways. Extrusion produces thin fibers or heavy pipes or films or food
bottles. Injection molding can produce very intricate parts or large car body panels. Plastics can be molded into
drums or be mixed with solvents to become adhesives or paints. Elastomers and some plastics stretch and are very
flexible. Some plastics are stretched in processing to hold their shape, such as soft drink bottles. Other polymers can
be foamed like polystyrene (Styrofoam), polyurethane and polyethylene.

Polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of characteristics and colors. Polymers have many inherent
properties that can be further enhanced by a wide range of additives to broaden their uses and applications. Polymers
can be made to mimic cotton, silk, and wool fibers; porcelain and marble; and aluminum and zinc. Polymers can
also make possible products that do not readily come from the natural world, such as clear sheets and flexible films.

Polymers are usually made of petroleum, but not always. Many polymers are made of repeat units derived from
natural gas or coal or crude oil. But building block repeat units can sometimes be made from renewable materials
such as polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters. Some plastics have always been made from
renewable materials such as cellulose acetate used for screwdriver handles and gift ribbon. When the building

20
blocks can be made more economically from renewable materials than from fossil fuels, either old plastics find new
raw materials or new plastics are introduced.

Polymers can be used to make items that have no alternatives from other materials. Polymers can be made into
clear, waterproof films. PVC is used to make medical tubing and blood bags that extend the shelf life of blood and
blood products. PVC safely delivers flammable oxygen in non-burning flexible tubing. And anti-thrombogenic
material, such as heparin, can be incorporated into flexible PVC catheters for open heart surgery, dialysis, and blood
collection. Many medical devices rely on polymers to permit effective functioning

5.3.4 Applications

For each polymer application, understanding which materials are optimal for their purpose allows accurate
prediction of behaviour and performance over their lifecycle in real world conditions.

Each industry has standards relevant to polymer applications, and in some cases, compliance and certification are
mandatory. Examples include Nadcap for aerospace or ISO 17025 for automotive industry polymers. Different
industries have different needs, and we use the latest equipment and techniques to determine the behaviour and
characteristics of polymers and composites materials.

When considering a polymer application, understanding how a material behaves over time allows us to assess its
potential application and use. We can provide failure analysis of polymers and plastics and identify design faults or
moulding issues. Our expertise can be applied to simple packaging films all the way through to advanced aerospace
materials, and can be used as part of complex litigation cases. Polymeric materials tested include raw materials,
polymer compounds, foams, structural adhesives and composites, fillers, fibres, films, membranes, emulsions,
coatings, rubbers, sealing materials, adhesive resins, solvents, inks and pigments.

Our polymer application engineers and scientists possess the specialist industry knowledge which can bring you the
insight you need to solve problems, progress product development, ensure compliance and achieve a successful
market launch for these industries:

Automotive

Aerospace

Medical

Building

Consumer Goods

Packaging

Whichever industry in which you work, Intertek offers extensive expertise in product analysis - or reverse
engineering and competitor product analysis - through to integrated polymer testing and consultancy expertise for all
types of plastic materials through our network of polymer laboratories located in Netherlands, UK, Switzerland and
the USA.

5.3.5 Future Breakthrough

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Polymer breakthrough could revolutionize water purification

Weve all seen the Febreze air fresheners, which employ a derivative of corn starch to trap invisible air pollutants in
the home and remove unwanted odors.

A team of Cornell researchers has used the same material found in Febreze, cyclodextrin, to develop a technique that
could revolutionize the water-purification industry.

The team is led by Will Dichtel, associate professor of chemistry and chemical biology and a 2015 MacArthur
Foundation Fellowship winner. His group invented a porous form of cyclodextrin that has displayed uptake of
pollutants through adsorption at rates vastly superior to traditional activated carbon 200 times greater in some
cases.

Activated carbons have the advantage of larger surface area than previous polymers made from cyclodextrin
more sites for pollutants to stick to, Dichtel said but they dont bind pollutants as strongly as cyclodextrin.

What we did is make the first high-surface-area material made of cyclodextrin, Dichtel said, combining some of
the advantages of the activated carbon with the inherent advantages of the cyclodextrin. When you combine the best
features of those two materials, you get a material thats even better than either class.

These materials will remove pollutants in seconds, as the water flows by, he said, so theres a potential for really
low-energy, flow-through water purification, which is a big deal.Whats more, the cyclodextrin-containing polymer
features easier, cheaper regeneration, so it can be reused many times with no observed loss in performance.The
results of approximately 18 months of work are published online in Nature on Dec. 21.

Support for the work came from the National Science Foundation through the Center for Sustainable Polymers,
which brings together a diverse team of researchers from Cornell, the University of Minnesota and the University of
California, Berkeley, to discover high-performance materials from sustainable, non-petroleum-based
sources.Following the discovery of the cyclodextrin polymer, additional support to scale up and build prototype
filtration systems has been provided by Cornells Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future.Research began shortly
after the NSF grant was awarded. It wasnt long before Dichtels team identified the cyclodextrin polymer as
showing promise in water purification. After spending a few more months analyzing the material, Dichtel reached
out to Damian Helbling, assistant professor of civil and environmental engineering. Helblings areas of study include
water quality as it relates to human and ecosystem health.

My role at that initial stage, last January or February, was a consultant, said Helbling, a co-author of the paper.
They said, We have this polymer that can do this; what are the water quality issues to which this could be
applied?

Helbling noted that his group challenged the polymer in a way that Dichtels group hadnt, to see if it would adsorb
various pollutant mixtures at lower concentrations relevant for real-world water purification.

[Our contribution was] proving that even under environmentally relevant conditions, the phenomena that they were
observing were repeatable. And they were, Helbling said.

Recyclability is another advantage of the cyclodextrin polymer, Dichtel said. Whereas activated carbon filters must
undergo intense heat-treating for regeneration, cyclodextrin filters could be washed at room temperature with
methanol or ethanol. And a drop-off in performance following regeneration wasnt observed, Dichtel said.

Dichtel, whose MacArthur Foundation Genius Award will total $625,000 over five years, said part of that award
will go to further research into cyclodextrin water purification, ultimately setting the stage for a product that can be
manufactured on large scales.

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Traditionally, that gap between the laboratory discovery and getting something out in the world where it can help
people is difficult to bridge, he said. So to have support that is totally unrestricted, that can be used pragmatically
in that space, is really valuable.

Dichtel is excited about the potential his groups results show in terms of the water-purification industry.

There are a lot of things going for it, he said. There are still some unknowns, but everything looks pretty
promising.

Other co-authors of the paper, Instant Removal of Organic Micropollutants From Water by a Porous beta-
Cyclodextrin Polymer, are postdoctoral scholars Alaaeddin Alsbaiee and Brian Smith and graduate students Leilei
Xiao in chemistry and chemical biology and Yuhan Ling in civil and environmental engineering.

The research made use of Cornells Center for Materials Research User Facilities, which are supported by the NSF.
Dichtels group has filed a provisional patent application related to the cyclodextrin polymers reported in the Nature
article.

5.4. Composites
5.4.1 Historical Account

Ancient Times

Throughout history, humans have used composite type materials. One of the earliest uses of composite material was
by the ancient Mesopotamians around 3400 B.C., when they glued wood strips at different angles to create plywood.

Egyptians used of Cartonnage, layers of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster, for death masks dates to the 2181-2055
BC. Archeologists have found that nnatural composite building materials were in used in Egypt and Mesopotamia,
since ancient builders and artisans used straw to reinforce mud bricks, pottery, and boats around 1500 BC.

Around 25 BC, The Ten Books on Architecture described concrete and distinguished various types of lime and
mortars. Researchers have demonstrated that the cement described in the books is similar, and in some ways
superior to the Portand cement used today.

1200s

In about 1200 AD, the Mongols invented the first composite bows made from a combination of wood, bamboo,
bone, cattle tendons, horns, bamboo and silk bonded with natural pine resin. The bows were small, very powerful,
and extremely accurate. Composite Mongolian bows were the most feared weapons on earth until the invention
effective firearms in the 14th century.

1800s

From the 1870s through the 1890s, a revolution was occurring in chemistry. Polymerization allowed new synthetic
resins to be transformed from a liquid to solid state in a cross-linked molecular structure. Early synthetic resins
included celluloid, melamine and Bakelite.

1900s

In the early 1900s, plastics such as vinyl, polystyrene, phenolic and polyester were developed. As important as
these innovations were, reinforcement was needed to provide the strength and rigidity.

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Bakelite, or polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride, is an early innovative plastic. It is a thermosetting phenol
formaldehyde resin, formed from an elimination reaction of phenol with formaldehyde. It was developed by
Belgian-born chemist Leo Baekeland in New York in 1907.

One of the first plastics made from synthetic components, Bakelite was used for its electrical nonconductivity and
heat-resistant properties in electrical insulators, radio and telephone casings, and such diverse products as
kitchenware, jewelry, pipe stems, and childrens toys. Bakelite was designated a National Historic Chemical
Landmark in 1993 by the American Chemical Society in recognition of its significance as the worlds first synthetic
plastic. The retro appeal of old Bakelite products has made them collectible.

1930s

The thirties were perhaps the most important decade for the composites industry. In 1935, Owens Corning launched
the fiber reinforce polymer (FRP) industry by introducing the first glass fiber. In 1936, unsaturated polyester resins
were patented. Because of their curing properties, they would become the dominant choice for resins in
manufacturing today. In 1938, other higher performance resin systems like epoxies also became available.

1940s

World War II brought the FRP industry from research into actual production. In addition to high strength to weight
properties, fiberglass composites were found to be transparent to radio frequencies and were adopted for radar
domes and used with other electronic equipment. In addition, the war effort developed first commercial grade boat
hulls. While they were not deployed in the war effort, the technology was rapidly commercialized after the war.

By 1947 a fully composite body automobile had been made and tested. This car was reasonably successful and led
to the development of the 1953 Corvette, which was made using fiberglass preforms impregnated with resin and
molded in matched metal dies. During this period, several methods for molding were developed. Eventually two
methods, compression molding of sheet molding compound (SMC) and bulk molding compound (BMC), would
emerge as the dominant forms of molding for the automotive and other industries.

1950s

In early 1950s, manufacturing methods such included pultrusion, vacuum bag molding, and large-scale filament
winding were developed. Filament winding became the basis for the large-scale rocket motors that propelled
exploration of space in the 1960s and beyond. Pultrusion is used today in the manufacture of linear components
such as ladders and moldings.

1960s

In 1961, first carbon fiber was patented, but it was several years before carbon fiber composites were commercially
available. Carbon fibers improved thermoset part stiffness to weight ratios, thereby opening even more applications
in aerospace, automotive, sporting goods, and consumer goods. The marine market was the largest consumer of
composite materials in the 1960s.

1970s and 1980s

Fiber development in the late 1960s led to fibers made from ultra high molecular weight polyethylene in the early
1970s. Progress in advanced fibers led to breakthroughs in aerospace components, structural and personal armor,
sporting equipment, medical devices, and many other applications. New and improved resins continued to expand
composites market, especially into higher temperature ranges and corrosive applications. In the 1970s, the
automotive market surpassed marine as the number one market a position it retains today.

Mar-Bal, Inc. was formed in 1970 and began their journey of becoming the most integrated Thermoset Composites
Solution Provider of today. Mar-Bal began small and custom molded components for the Electrical (e.g. breakers),
Motor Assembly (e.g. housings) and Small Appliance (e.g. waffle makers) industries.

24
1990s and 2000s

By the mid 1990s, composites hit mainstream manufacturing and construction. As a cost effective replacement to
traditional materials like metal and engineered thermoplastics, Industrial Designers and Engineers began specifying
thermoset composites for various components within the Appliance, Construction, Electrical and Transportation
industries.

Consumers came into contact with composite materials every day from Handles and Knobs on their gas driven
ranges to beautifully stained entry doors of their homes and utilized within electrical infrastructure for the safe and
effective delivery of electricity.

Composites began to impact the electrical transmission market with products such as pole line hardware, cross-arms
and insulators.

In the mid-2000s, the development of the 787 Dreamliner validated composites for high-strength and rigid
applications.

Continued development of finish technology, like PVD and THERMTIAL, grew the number of applications in
automotive, appliances and consumer products industries. Composites were just beginning to find their way into
nanotechnologies.

5.4.2 Structure of Composites

Structure of a composite material determines its properties to a significant extent.

Structure factors affecting properties of composites are as follows:

Bonding strength on the interface between the dispersed phase and matrix;

Shape of the dispersed phase inclusions (particles, flakes, fibers, laminates);

Orientation of the dispersed phase inclusions (random or preferred).

Interfacial bonding

Good bonding (adhesion) between matrix phase and dispersed phase provides transfer of load, applied to the
material to the dispersed phase via the interface. Adhesion is necessary for achieving high level of mechanical
properties of the composite.

There are three forms of interface between the two phases:

1. Direct bonding with no intermediate layer. In this case adhesion (wetting) is provided by either covalent
bonding or van der Waals force.

2. Intermediate layer in form of solid solution of the matrix and dispersed phases constituents.

3. Intermediate layer (interphase) in form of a third bonding phase (adhesive).

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Shape and orientation of dispersed phase

Importance of these structure parameters is confirmed by the fact, that one of the systems of Classification of
composites is based on them.

Particulate Composites

Fibrous Composites

Laminate Composites

Particulate Composites

Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced with a dispersed phase in form of particles.

Effect of the dispersed particles on the composite properties depends on the particles dimensions.

Very small particles (less than 0.25 micron in diameter) finely distributed in the matrix impede movement
of dislocations and deformationof the material. Such strengthening effect is similar to the precipitation hardening. In
contrast to the precipitation hardening, which disappears at elevated temperatures when the precipitated particles
dissolve in the matrix, dispersed phase of particulate composites (ceramic particles) is usually stable at high
temperatures, so the strengthening effect is retained. Many of composite materials are designed to work in high
temperature applications.

Large dispersed phase particles have low strengthening effect but they are capable to share load applied to the
material, resulting in increase of stiffness and decrease of ductility.

Hard particles dispersed in a softer matrix increase wear and abrasion resistance.

Soft dispersed particles in a harder matrix improve machinability (lead particles in steel or copper matrix) and
reduce coefficient of friction (tin in aluminum matrix or lead in copper matrix).

Composites with high electrical conductivity matrices (copper, silver) and with refractory dispersed phase (tungsten,
molybdenum) work in high temperature electrical applications.

When dispersed phase of these materials consists of two-dimensional flat platelets (flakes) which are laid parallel to
each other, material exhibits anisotropy (dependence of the properties on the axis or plane along which they were
measured). In the case of flakes oriented parallel to a particular plane, material demonstrates equal properties in all
directions parallel to the plane and different properties in the direction normal to the plane.

Fibrous Composites

Dispersed phase in form of fibers (Fibrous Composites) improves strength, stiffness and Fracture Toughness of the
material, impeding crack growth in the directions normal to the fiber.

26
Effect of the strength increase becomes much more significant when the fibers are arranged in a particular direction
(preferred orientation) and a stress is applied along the same direction.

The strengthening effect is higher in long-fiber (continuous-fiber) reinforced composites than in short-fiber
(discontinuous-fiber) reinforced composites.

Short-fiber reinforced composites, consisting of a matrix reinforced with a dispersed phase in form discontinuous
fibers (length < 100*diameter), has a limited ability to share load.

Load, applied to a long-fiber reinforced composite, is carried mostly by the dispersed phase - fibers. Matrix in such
materials serves only as a binder of the fibers keeping them in a desired shape and protecting them from mechanical
or chemical damages.

Laminate Composites

Laminate composites consist of layers with different anisotropic orientations or of a matrix reinforced with a
dispersed phase in form of sheets.

When a fiber reinforced composite consists of several layers with different fiber orientations, it is called multilayer
(angle-ply) composite.

Laminate composites provide increased mechanical strength in two directions and only in one direction,
perpendicular to the preferred orientations of the fibers or sheet, mechanical properties of the material are low.

5.4.3 Properties of Composites

Composites are extremely versatile products - their benefits being:

HIGH STRENGTH TO WEIGHT RATIO

Fibre composites are extremely strong for their weight. By refining the laminate many characteristics can be
enhanced. A common laminate of say 3mm Chopped strand mat, is quite flexible compared to say a 3 mm ply.
However it will bend a long way more than the ply before yielding. Stiffness should not be confused with
Strength. A carbon fibre laminate on the other hand, will have a stiffness of many times that of mild steel of the
same thickness, increased ultimate strength, yet only be less than 1/4 of it's weight.

LIGHTWEIGHT

A standard Fibreglass laminate has a specific gravity in the region of 1.5, compared to Alloy of 2.7 or steel of 7.8.
When you then start looking at Carbon laminates, strengths can be many times that of steel, but only a fraction of the
weight.

A DVD case lid was produced using carbon fibre to reduce the case's overall weight so that it could be carried as
cabin baggage whilst travelling, and for improved security. It was used by support crew for the All Blacks during
their 1999 Rugby World Cup campaign.

FIRE RESISTANCE

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The ability for composites to withstand fire has been steadily improving over the years. There is two types of
systems to be considered:

Fire Retardent - Are self extinguishing laminates, usually made with chlorinated resins and additives such as
Antimony trioxide. These release CO2 when burning so when the flame source is removed, the self extinguish.

Fire Resistant - More difficult and made with the likes of Phenolic Resins. These are difficult to use, are cured with
formaldehyde, and require a hi degree of post curing to achieve true fire resistance.

Other materials are also becoming more readily available to be used as intumescent layers, which expand and
blanket the surface, preventing spread of flame. There is a paint on coating usually applied to the back of the product
laminate, plus a thin fibre film to go under the Gelcoat giving the outer surface a blanketing coat as well.

Fibreglass Developments Ltd produces a Fire Door as part of our SteridorTM range. Use of special Phenolic resin
has allowed us to create the only fully tested Composite door in Australasia. Fire rated by BRANZ to 4 hours, this
door is also approved by MAF as meeting all their Hygiene requirements.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

Fibreglass Developments Ltd produced the Insulator Support straps for the Tranz Rail main trunk electrification.
The straps, although only 4mm thick, meet the required loads of 22kN, as well as easily meeting insulation
requirements.

CHEMICAL & WEATHERING RESISTANCE

Composite products have good weathering properties and resist the attack of a wide range of chemicals. This
depends almost entirely on the resin used in manufacture, but by careful selection resistance to all but the most
extreme conditions can be achieved. Because of this, composites are used in the manufacture of chemical storage
tanks, pipes, chimneys and ducts, boat hulls and vehicle bodies.

FDL manufactured architectural panels for the construction of the Auckland Marine Rescue Centre. Composite
panels were chosen because of their ability to withstand salty sea side conditions without corrosion.

COLOUR

Almost any shade of any colour can be incorporated into the product during manufacture by pigmenting the gelcoat
used. Costs are therefore reduced by no further finishing or painting. Soluble dyes can be used if a translucent
product is desired.

We do not however, recommend dark colours. These produce excessive heat on the surface which can lead to the
surface deteriorating and showing print through, where the Resin matrix cures more and shrinks, bringing the fibres
to the surface. In extreme cases delamination can occur.

TRANSLUCENCY

Polyester resins are widely used to manufacture translucent mouldings and sheets. Light transmission of up to 85%
can be achieved.

DESIGN FLEXIBILITY

Because of the versatility of composites, product design is only limited by your imagination.

LOW THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

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Fibreglass Developments has been involved in the development and production of specialised meat containers which
maintain prime cuts of chilled meat at the correct temperature for Export markets. They are manufactured using the
RTM process, with special reinforcing and foam inserts.

MANUFACTURING ECONOMY

Fibreglass Developments produces several models of fuel pump covers for Fuel quip. Fibreglass is an ideal material
for producing items of this type for many reasons, including being very economical.

Because of its versatile properties, fibreglass can be used in many varied applications.

5.4.4 Applications

FRP composites are no longer considered "space-age" materials utilized only for stealth bombers and space shuttles.
This versatile material system has become a part of everyday life.

AIRCRAFT/MILITARY

Commercial, pleasure and military aircrafts, including components for aerospace and related applications.

APPLIANCE/BUSINESS

Composite applications for the household and office including appliances, power tools, business equipment, etc.

AUTOMOTIVE/TRANSPORTATION

The largest of the markets, products include parts for automobiles, trucks, rail and farm applications.

CIVIL INFRASTRUCTURE

A relatively new market for composites, these applications include the repair and replacement of civil infrastructure
including buildings, roads, bridges, piling, etc.

CONSTRUCTION

Includes materials for the building of homes, offices, and architectural components. Products include swimming
pools, bathroom fixtures, wall panels, roofing, architectural cladding.

CONSUMER

Products include sports and recreational equipment such as golf clubs, tennis rackets, snowmobiles, mobile campers,
furniture, microwave cookware.

CORROSION-RESISTANT EQUIPMENT

Products for chemical-resistant service such as tanks, ducts and hoods, pumps, fans, grating, chemical processing,
pulp and paper, oil and gas, and water/wastewater treatment markets.

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ELECTRICAL

This encompassing market includes components for both electrical and electronic applications such as pole line
hardware, substation equipment, microwave antennas, printed wiring boards, etc.

MARINE

Products for commercial, pleasure and naval boats and ships.

5.4.5 Future Breakthrough

FUTURE COMPOSITES MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

A major new breakthrough in composites manufacturing technology is not likely to occur in the foreseeable future.
Most likely, there will be a series of improvements to existing manufacturing technologies, and manufacturing
concepts already generated will be proven. For composites to become competitive with metals, cost reduction has to
occur in three areas: nonrecurring costs, recurring costs, and direct operating costs (DOC) (e.g., durability,
maintainability, reliability, and repairability). IPD will continue to infiltrate all the disciplines for improved
efficiency in design and manufacturing. It is expected that DOC will become a much bigger issue as many aircraft
with composite components enter revenue service. There will be doubts as to whether composites will ever become
cost-effective for commercial use; however, these doubts can be assuaged by the facts. The reduction in
manufacturing cost realized by improved technology will lose its value if it is offset by an increase in nonrecurring
costs and DOC. Thus, life cycle cost analyses should be conducted along with the traditional trade-off studies of
weight vs. strength and stiffness vs. cost.

Some of the manufacturing technology developments expected to occur in the foreseeable future are described
below.

Stitched/RTM

Small to medium size stitched/RTM parts have been fabricated with some success; however, the fabrication of
complete wing skins and box by this method is a long way off (Note: this method is not cost-effective for small to
medium size thin parts; to take full advantage of this method, the parts must be thick and large). For this technology
to be incorporated into wing design, an appropriate automatic stitching machine has to be developed. This machine
must have the capacity to handle various skin thicknesses, ranging from less than 1/4" to more than 1", and with
many different shape and thickness stiffeners attached to it. Concurrently, a new cost-effective resin system
specifically for RTM application must be developed. Along with stitched/RTM manufacturing technology, other
issues (e.g., repair method, certification, and joints) must be addressed and resolved.

Filament Winding

This is a mature manufacturing technique which has been in existence for a long time. Improvements in automation,
speed, variable thickness, pad-up insertion, consistent quality, flexibility in fiber orientation, control of resin and
void content, and shapes other than cylinders will be seen before more versatility appears in application. A
combination of robotic and traditional filament winding (with seven to 10-axis) system is already available in crude
form. If this system is perfected, it will be able to wind complex non-axisymmetric shapes, such as T and elbow

30
shapes. One of the most critical requirements for a successful implementation of this method is controlling the
tension of the deploying filament during the winding processes. This critical problem may be quickly solved with
the aid of powerful computers.

Pultrusion

This method has the potential for cost reduction, but current technology is limited to constant cross sections and is
restricted in fiber orientation. Pultrusion is not as popular as metal extrusions. Metal extrusions are attached to other
structural members, such as skins and webs, by hundreds and thousands of fasteners and rivets. This method of
assembly is not acceptable for composites, where the strong trend is to eliminate fasteners. Consequently, for
pultrusion to become an acceptable and popular composites manufacturing technology, it must be possible to
pultrude complex multi-element cross sections, such as J-stiffened panels and constant airfoil sections. It is expected
that a new technique for making tapered sections with variable thickness and even variable shapes will be available
within this decade; significant progress has already been made toward that end in the last few years. Another new
development is curved pultrusion.

Preforming and braided pultrusion are variations of pultrusion for special applications. New developments can be
expected in these areas.

Continuous Sandwich Panel

This method is already used in production. However, it is limited to making flat constant sandwich panels. Future
improvements will increase speed of fabrication and quality. Floor panels, galleys, and partitions are the major uses
of flat sandwich panels. Therefore, there is no need for a technology which produces a continuous sandwich panel of
complex shapes and variable thickness.

3-D Weaving

The advantages of 3-D weaving are widely known, but the cost has been prohibitively high. A few automated and
semi-automated systems have been created or are under development to reduce cost. Although 3-D weaving is still
in its infancy, it has the potential to replace expensive titanium fittings, hinges, engine blades, etc. In addition to
reduced costs of weaving, improvements in curing will be seen.

Mechatronics

Aircraft components in general and composite parts in particular have been known as hand-made custom products as
opposed to automotive and electronic products. Full automation is probably not cost-effective for aircraft
applications because of relatively low production rates. However, a semi-automated method using mechatronics may
be a viable option for aircraft manufacturing. Currently, mechatronics is not a fully developed manufacturing
technology, but its development should be followed with keen interest.

Automatic Tape Layup Machine

Significant progress has been observed in ATL technology. Both speed and accuracy have increased tremendously
when compared to early ATL. Advancements in computer technology (hardware and software) have influenced ATL.
Along with improvements in speed and accuracy, the capability in size of layup area has also increased. Although a
new breakthrough is not expected to occur in ATL technology, improvements will be incremental but continuous.

31
Automatic Ply Cutting Machine

This technology has made significant progress in recent years. Three different methods of cutting are used for an
APC machine: mechanical, laser, and water. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. No new breakthroughs
are expected in APC technology.

Tow Placement

Tow placement is relatively new and has received considerable attention in recent years. It combines the advantages
of ATL and filament winding. Tow placement can fabricate complex-shaped structures without limitations on fiber
angles. It has the potential to reduce production costs significantly. Under the Air Force MANTECH and NASA
ACT programs, this technology has proven its worth; however, its use at high production rates still remains to be
seen. Future developments include optimized control systems, head position feedback, and in-process inspection for
fast, accurate and high quality parts production.

Co-Curing Technology

The advantages of co-curing technology are numerous, but complex tooling, high risk, and the difficulty of adapting
it to high production rates inhibit widespread usage. Continuous improvements in prepreg materials, tooling
concepts, quick turnaround, and quality consistency may result in the elimination of those hurdles.

Forming, Stamping, Injection Molding, Rolling

These manufacturing methods have great potential for high volume production applications, especially when
combined with the use of thermoplastics. Application is limited to small to medium size parts. Sporting goods and
industrial products will benefit from this group of technologies.

Repair Technology

Repair technology is gaining more attention. Operators of aircraft are discovering that composites are showing a
better service record than are metals, mainly due to their better fatigue and corrosion resistance properties. But at the
same time composites are more prone to impact damages, which increases the importance of repair. As new
generations of aircraft with tremendous amounts of composites enter flight service, both commercial and military
operators will demand improved repair technology. Both the cost of repairs and the down-time resulting from the
complexity and special facility and equipment requirements are putting severe demands on repair technology.
Current repair technology is not satisfactory, and improvements are necessary.

Material Technology

Several years ago, the most popular topic in material technology was the "tough resin" system, followed by
"thermoplastics." Today's popular materials are "stitched preforms," "tow placement," and "woven textile." Contrary
to the original belief that thermoplastics greatly reduce manufacturing cost and time, the observation is now being
made that thermoplastic parts cost more and are difficult to produce. In fact, some of the material suppliers are
considering discontinuing thermoplastic production. It is still early to predict whether stitched preforms, tow
placement, and textile will replace prepregs by the end of this decade. The next three years will be crucial for these
so-called new advanced material systems to become dominant. It all depends upon how well these new materials can
be adapted to a production mode where cost, quality and manufacturability play important roles.

32
Operating temperatures of the High Speed Civil Transport will be 250F to 450F, depending upon the location of
the structure within the aircraft. Epoxy systems alone cannot handle this temperature range. The race for a new
material system has already begun, and it is still too early to predict what will happen in an intensely competitive
market. Candidate materials are polyimides, bismaleimides, metal matrix, ceramic matrix, etc.

5.5 Semi-Conductors

5.5.1 Historical Account

he history of the understanding of semiconductors begins with experiments on the electrical properties of materials.
The properties of negative temperature coefficient of resistance, rectification, and light-sensitivity were observed
starting in the early 19th century.

Thomas Johann Seebeck was the first to notice an effect due to semiconductors, in 1821. In 1833, Michael
Faraday reported that the resistance of specimens of silver sulfide decreases when they are heated. This is contrary
to the behavior of metallic substances such as copper. In 1839, A. E. Becquerel reported observation of a voltage
between a solid and a liquid electrolyte when struck by light, the photovoltaic effect. In 1873 Willoughby
Smith observed that selenium resistors exhibit decreasing resistance when light falls on them. In 1874 Karl
Ferdinand Braun observed conduction and rectification in metallic sulphides, although this effect had been
discovered much earlier by M.A. Rosenschold writing for the Annalen der Physik und Chemie in 1835, and Arthur
Schuster found that a copper oxide layer on wires has rectification properties that ceases when the wires are cleaned.
Adams and Day observed the photovoltaic effect in selenium in 1876.

A unified explanation of these phenomena required a theory of solid-state physics which developed greatly in the
first half of the 20th Century. In 1878 Edwin Herbert Halldemonstrated the deflection of flowing charge carriers by
an applied magnetic field, the Hall effect. The discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson in 1897 prompted theories
of electron-based conduction in solids. Karl Baedeker, by observing a Hall effect with the reverse sign to that in
metals, theorized that copper iodide had positive charge carriers.Johan Koenigsberger classified solid materials as
metals, insulators and "variable conductors" in 1914, although his student Josef Weiss introduced
term Halbleiter(semiconductor) in modern meaning in PhD thesis already in 1910. Felix Bloch published a theory of
the movement of electrons through atomic lattices in 1928. In 1930, B. Gudden stated that conductivity in
semiconductors was due to minor concentrations of impurities. By 1931, the band theory of conduction had been
established by Alan Herries Wilson and the concept of band gaps had been developed. Walter H.
Schottky and Nevill Francis Mott developed models of the potential barrier and of the characteristics of ametal-
semiconductor junction. By 1938, Boris Davydov had developed a theory of the copper-oxide rectifier, identifying
the effect of the pn junction and the importance of minority carriers and surface states.

Agreement between theoretical predictions (based on developing quantum mechanics) and experimental results was
sometimes poor. This was later explained by John Bardeenas due to the extreme "structure sensitive" behavior of
semiconductors, whose properties change dramatically based on tiny amounts of impurities. Commercially pure
materials of the 1920s containing varying proportions of trace contaminants produced differing experimental results.
This spurred the development of improved material refining techniques, culminating in modern semiconductor
refineries producing materials with parts-per-trillion purity.

Devices using semiconductors were at first constructed based on empirical knowledge, before semiconductor theory
provided a guide to construction of more capable and reliable devices.

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Alexander Graham Bell used the light-sensitive property of selenium to transmit sound over a beam of light in 1880.
A working solar cell, of low efficiency, was constructed byCharles Fritts in 1883 using a metal plate coated with
selenium and a thin layer of gold; the device became commercially useful in photographic light meters in the 1930s.
Point-contact microwave detector rectifiers made of lead sulfide were used by Jagadish Chandra Bose in 1904;
the cat's-whisker detector using natural galena or other materials became a common device in the development of
radio. However, it was somewhat unpredictable in operation and required manual adjustment for best performance.
In 1906 H.J. Round observed light emission when electric current passed through silicon carbide crystals, the
principle behind the light emitting diode. Oleg Losev observed similar light emission in 1922 but at the time the
effect had no practical use. Power rectifiers, using copper oxide and selenium, were developed in the 1920s and
became commercially important as an alternative to vacuum tube rectifiers.

In the years preceding World War II, infra-red detection and communications devices prompted research into lead-
sulfide and lead-selenide materials. These devices were used for detecting ships and aircraft, for infrared
rangefinders, and for voice communication systems. The point-contact crystal detector became vital for microwave
radio systems, since available vacuum tube devices could not serve as detectors above about 4000 MHz; advanced
radar systems relied on the fast response of crystal detectors. Considerable research and development of silicon
materials occurred during the war to develop detectors of consistent quality.

Detector and power rectifiers could not amplify a signal. Many efforts were made to develop a solid-state amplifier,
but these were unsuccessful because of limited theoretical understanding of semiconductor materials. In 1922 Oleg
Losev developed two-terminal, negative resistance amplifiers for radio; however, he perished in the Siege of
Leningrad. In 1926 Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented a device resembling a modern field-effect transistor, but it was
not practical. R. Hilsch and R. W. Pohl in 1938 demonstrated a solid-state amplifier using a structure resembling the
control grid of a vacuum tube; although the device displayed power gain, it had a cut-off frequency of one cycle per
second, too low for any practical applications, but an effective application of the available theory. At Bell
Labs, William Shockley and A. Holden started investigating solid-state amplifiers in 1938. The first pn junction in
silicon was observed by Russell Ohl about 1941, when a specimen was found to be light-sensitive, with a sharp
boundary between p-type impurity at one end and n-type at the other. A slice cut from the specimen at the pn
boundary developed a voltage when exposed to light.

In France, during the war, Herbert Matar had observed amplification between adjacent point contacts on a
germanium base. After the war, Matar's group announced their "Transistron" amplifier only shortly after Bell Labs
announced the "transistor".

There are two basic groups or classifications that can be used to define the different semiconductor types:

Intrinsic material: An intrinsic type of semiconductor material made to be very pure chemically. As a
result it possesses a very low conductivity level having very few number of charge carriers, namely holes
and electrons, which it possesses in equal quantities.

Extrinsic material: Extrinsic types of semiconductor are those where a small amount of impurity has been
added to the basic intrinsic material. This 'doping' uses an element from a different periodic table group and
in this way it will either have more or less electrons in the valence band than the semiconductor itself. This
creates either an excess or shortage of electrons. In this way two types of semiconductor are available:
Electrons are negatively charged carriers.

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 o N-type: An N-type semiconductor material has an excess of electrons. In this way, free electrons
are available within the lattices and their overall movement in one direction under the influence of
a potential difference results in an electric current flow. This in an N-type semiconductor, the
charge carriers are electrons.

o P-type: In a P-type semiconductor material there is a shortage of electrons, i.e. there are 'holes' in
the crystal lattice. Electrons may move from one empty position to another and in this case it can
be considered that the holes are moving. This can happen under the influence of a potential
difference and the holes can be seen to flow in one direction resulting in an electric current flow. It
is actually harder for holes to move than for free electrons to move and therefore the mobility of
holes is less than that of free electrons. Holes are positively charged carriers.

5.5.2 Structure of Semiconductors

Semiconductors are made up of individual atoms bonded together in a regular, periodic structure to form
an arrangement whereby each atom is surrounded by 8 electrons. An individual atom consists of a nucleus
made up of a core of protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons (particles having no charge)
surrounded by electrons. The number of electrons and protons is equal, such that the atom is overall
electrically neutral. The electrons occupy certain energy levels, based on the number of electrons in the
atom, which is different for each element in the periodic table. The structure of a semiconductor is shown
in the figure below.

Schematic representation of covalent bonds in a silicon crystal

lattice.

The atoms in a semiconductor are materials from either group IV of the periodic table, or from a
combination of group III and group V (called III-V semiconductors), or of combinations from group II and
group VI (called II-VI semiconductors). Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor material as it
forms the basis for integrated circuit (IC) chips and is the most mature technology and most solar cells are

35
also silicon based. A full periodic table is given in the page Periodic Table. Several of the material
properties of silicon are given in the page Silicon Material Parameters.

Section from the periodic table. More common semiconductor

materials are shown in blue. A semiconductor can be either of a
single element, such as Si or Ge, a compound, such as GaAs, InP
or CdTe, or an alloy, such as Si xGe(1-x) or AlxGa(1-x)As, where x is
the fraction of the particular element and ranges from 0 to 1.

The bond structure of a semiconductor determines the material properties of a semiconductor. One key
effect is limit the energy levels which the electrons can occupy and how they move about the crystal
lattice. The electrons surrounding each atom in a semiconductor are part of a covalent bond. A covalent
bond consists of two atoms "sharing" a single electron, such that each atom is surrounded by 8 electrons.
The electrons in the covalent bond are held in place by this bond and hence they are localised to region
surrounding the atom. Since they cannot move or change their energy, electrons in a bond are not
considered "free" and cannot participate in current flow, absorption or other physical processes of interest
in solar cells. However, only at absolute zero are all electrons in a bonded arrangement. At elevated
temperatures, the electron can gain enough energy to escape from its bond, and if this happens, the
electron is free to move about the crystal lattice and participate in conduction. At room temperature, a
semiconductor has enough free electrons to allow it to conduct current, while at, or close to absolute
temperatures, a semiconductor behaves like an insulator.

The presence of the bond introduces two distinct energy states for the electrons. The lowest energy
position for the electron is to be in its bound state. However, if the electron has enough thermal energy to
break free of its bond, then it becomes free. The electron cannot attain energy values intermediate to these
two levels; it is either at a low energy position in the bond, or it has gained enough energy to break free

36
and therefore has a certain minimum energy. This minimum energy is called the "band gap" of a
semiconductor. The number and energy of the free electrons is basic to the operation of electronic devices.

The space left behind by the electrons allows a covalent bond to move from one electron to another, thus
appearing to be a positive charge moving through the crystal lattice. This empty space is commonly called
a "hole", and is similar to an electron, but with a positive charge.

The most important parameters of a semiconductor material for solar cell operation are:

the band gap;

the number of free carriers available for conduction; and

the "generation" and recombination of free carriers in response to light shining on the material.

5.5.3 Properties of Semiconductors

Variable conductivity

Semiconductors in their natural state are poor conductors because a current requires the flow of electrons,
and semiconductors have their valence bands filled, preventing the entry flow of new electrons. There are
several developed techniques that allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting materials,
such as doping or gating. These modifications have two outcomes: n-type and p-type. These refer to the
excess or shortage of electrons, respectively. An unbalanced number of electrons would cause a current to
flow through the material.

Heterojunctions

Heterojunctions occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are joined together. For
example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-doped germanium. This results in an exchange of
electrons and holes between the differently doped semiconducting materials. The n-doped germanium
would have an excess of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The transfer
occurs until equilibrium is reached by a process called recombination, which causes the migrating electrons
from the n-type to come in contact with the migrating holes from the p-type. A product of this process is
charged ions, which result in an electric field.

Excited Electrons

A difference in electric potential on a semiconducting material would cause it to leave thermal equilibrium
and create a non-equilibrium situation. This introduces electrons and holes to the system, which interact via
a process called ambipolar diffusion. Whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting
material, the amount of holes and electrons changes. Such disruptions can occur as a result of a temperature
difference or photons, which can enter the system and create electrons and holes. The process that creates
and annihilates electrons and holes are called generation and recombination.

Light emission

In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of producing heat. These
semiconductors are used in the construction of light emitting diodes and fluorescent quantum dots.

Thermal energy conversion

37
 Semiconductors have large thermoelectric power factors making them useful in thermoelectric generators,
as well as high thermoelectric figures of merit making them useful in thermoelectric coolers.

5.5.4
Applications
All transistor types can be used as the building blocks of logic gates, which are fundamental in the design of digital
circuits. In digital circuits like microprocessors, transistors act as on-off switches; in the MOSFET, for instance,
the voltage applied to the gate determines whether the switch is on or off.

Transistors used for analog circuits do not act as on-off switches; rather, they respond to a continuous range of inputs
with a continuous range of outputs. Common analog circuits include amplifiers and oscillators.

Circuits that interface or translate between digital circuits and analog circuits are known as mixed-signal circuits.

Power semiconductor devices are discrete devices or integrated circuits intended for high current or high voltage
applications. Power integrated circuits combine IC technology with power semiconductor technology, these are
sometimes referred to as "smart" power devices. Several companies specialize in manufacturing power
semiconductors.

5.5.5 Future Breakthrough

Breakthrough paves way for post-silicon future with carbon nanotube electronics

IBM Research today announced a major engineering breakthrough that could accelerate carbon nanotubes replacing
silicon transistors to power future computing technologies.

IBM scientists demonstrated a new way to shrink transistor contacts without reducing performance of carbon
nanotube devices, opening a pathway to dramatically faster, smaller and more powerful computer chips beyond the
capabilities of traditional semiconductors. The results will be reported in the October 2 issue of Science.

IBM's breakthrough overcomes a major hurdle that silicon and any semiconductor transistor technologies face when
scaling down. In any transistor, two things scale: the channel and its two contacts. As devices become smaller,
increased contact resistance for carbon nanotubes has hindered performance gains until now. These results could
overcome contact resistance challenges all the way to the 1.8 nanometer node four technology generations away.

Carbon nanotube chips could greatly improve the capabilities of high performance computers, enabling Big Data to
be analyzed faster, increasing the power and battery life of mobile devices and the Internet of Things, and allowing
cloud data centers to deliver services more efficiently and economically.

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Silicon transistors, tiny switches that carry information on a chip, have been made smaller year after year, but they
are approaching a point of physical limitation. With Moore's Law running out of steam, shrinking the size of the
transistor including the channels and contacts without compromising performance has been a vexing challenge
troubling researchers for decades.

IBM has previously shown that carbon nanotube transistors can operate as excellent switches at channel dimensions
of less than ten nanometers the equivalent to 10,000 times thinner than a strand of human hair and less than half
the size of today's leading silicon technology. IBM's new contact approach overcomes the other major hurdle in
incorporating carbon nanotubes into semiconductor devices, which could result in smaller chips with greater
performance and lower power consumption.

Earlier this summer, IBM unveiled the first 7 nanometer node silicon test chip, pushing the limits of silicon
technologies and ensuring further innovations for IBM Systems and the IT industry. By advancing research of
carbon nanotubes to replace traditional silicon devices, IBM is paving the way for a post-silicon future and
delivering on its $3 billion chip R&D investment announced in July 2014.

"These chip innovations are necessary to meet the emerging demands of cloud computing, Internet of Things and
Big Data systems," said Dario Gil, vice president of Science & Technology at IBM Research. "As silicon technology
nears its physical limits, new materials, devices and circuit architectures must be ready to deliver the advanced
technologies that will be required by the Cognitive Computing era. This breakthrough shows that computer chips
made of carbon nanotubes will be able to power systems of the future sooner than the industry expected."

A new contact for carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes represent a new class of semiconductor materials that consist of single atomic sheets of carbon
rolled up into a tube. The carbon nanotubes form the core of a transistor device whose superior electrical properties
promise several generations of technology scaling beyond the physical limits of silicon.

Electrons in carbon transistors can move more easily than in silicon-based devices, and the ultra-thin body of carbon
nanotubes provide additional advantages at the atomic scale. Inside a chip, contacts are the valves that control the
flow of electrons from metal into the channels of a semiconductor. As transistors shrink in size, electrical resistance
increases within the contacts, which impedes performance. Until now, decreasing the size of the contacts on a device
caused a commensurate drop in performance a challenge facing both silicon and carbon nanotube transistor
technologies.

IBM researchers had to forego traditional contact schemes and invented a metallurgical process akin to microscopic
welding that chemically binds the metal atoms to the carbon atoms at the ends of nanotubes. This 'end-bonded
contact scheme' allows the contacts to be shrunken down to below 10 nanometers without deteriorating performance
of the carbon nanotube devices.

"For any advanced transistor technology, the increase in contact resistance due to the decrease in the size of
transistors becomes a major performance bottleneck," Gil added. "Our novel approach is to make the contact from
the end of the carbon nanotube, which we show does not degrade device performance. This brings us a step closer to
the goal of a carbon nanotube technology within the decade."

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 6. Summary/Conclusion/Recommendation
Overall different types of material are also made of different types of elements, structures, chemical bonding.

Their difference leads to variation of their physical and chemical properties. It also affects their applications on the
different fields.

Knowing these, we can learn more about different materials and its structure so that maybe we can able to make a
new good material that will address the problems of the society and make a good future.

7. Appendices

7.1 Appendix 1
Metallic Bond

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 Figure A. Metallic bonds are found in metals like zinc.

Metallic bonding is the force of attraction between valence electrons and the metal ions. It is the sharing of many
detached electrons between many positive ions, where the electrons act as a "glue" giving the substance a definite
structure. It is unlike covalent or ionic bonding

The electrons and the positive ions in the metal have a strong attractive force between them. Therefore, metals often
have high melting or boiling points. The principle is similar to that of ionic bonds.

The metallic bond causes many of the traits of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, luster, conduction of
heat and electricity.

Because the electrons move freely, the metal has some electrical conductivity. It allows the energy to pass quickly
through the electrons, generating a current. Metals conduct heat for the same reason: the free electrons can transfer
the energy at a faster rate than other substances with electrons that are fixed into position. There also are few non-
metals which conduct electricity: graphite (because, like metals, it has free electrons), and ionic compounds that are
molten or dissolved in water, which have free moving ions.

Metal bonds have at least one valence electron which they do not share with neighboring atoms, and they do not lose
electrons to form ions. Instead the outer energy levels (atomic orbitals) of the metal atoms overlap. They are similar
to covalent bonds. Not all metals exhibit metallic bonding. For example, themercurous ion (Hg2+
2) forms covalent metal-metal bonds.

An alloy is a solution of metals.

7.2 Appendix 2

Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a type of chemical bond that
generates two oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to become a positively charged
cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts those electrons to become a negatively charged anion. Ionic bonds require an
electron donor, often a metal, and an electron acceptor, a nonmetal.

Ionic bonding is observed because metals have few electrons in their outer-most orbitals. By losing those electrons,
these metals can achieve noble gas configuration and satisfy the octet rule. Similarly, nonmetals that have close to 8
electrons in their valence shells tend to readily accept electrons to achieve noble gas configuration. In ionic bonding,
more than 1 electron can be donated or received to satisfy the octet rule. The charges on the anion and cation

41
correspond to the number of electrons donated or received. In ionic bonds, the net charge of the compound must be
zero.

This sodium molecule donates the lone electron in its valence orbital in order to achieve octet configuration. This
creates a positively charged cation due to the loss of electron.

Figure 2.a

This chlorine atom receives one electron to achieve its octet configuration, which creates a negatively charged
anion.

The predicted overall energy of the ionic bonding process, which includes the ionization energy of the metal and
electron affinity of the nonmetal, is usually positive, indicating that the reaction is endothermic and unfavorable.
However, this reaction is highly favorable because of the electrostatic attraction between the particles. At the ideal
interatomic distance, attraction between these particles releases enough energy to facilitate the reaction. Most ionic
compounds tend to dissociate in polar solvents because they are often polar. This phenomenon is due to the opposite
charges on each ion.

Example 1: Chloride Salts

Figure 2.b

42
In this example, the sodium atom is donating its 1 valence electron to the chlorine atom. This creates a
sodium cation and a chlorine anion. Notice that the net charge of the resulting compound is 0.

Figure 2.c

In this example, the magnesium atom is donating both of its valence electrons to chlorine atoms. Each chlorine
atom can only accept 1 electron before it can achieve its noble gas configuration; therefore, 2 atoms of chlorine are
required to accept the 2 electrons donated by the magnesium. Notice that the net charge of the compound is 0.

7.3 Appendix 3
Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons between atoms. This type of bonding occurs between two atoms of the
same element or of elements close to each other in the periodic table. This bonding occurs primarily between
nonmetals; however, it can also be observed between nonmetals and metals.

If atoms have similar electronegativities (the same affinity for electrons), covalent bonds are most likely to occur.
Because both atoms have the same affinity for electrons and neither has a tendency to donate them, they share
electrons in order to achieve octet configuration and become more stable. In addition, the ionization energy of the
atom is too large and the electron affinity of the atom is too small for ionic bonding to occur. For example: carbon
does not form ionic bonds because it has 4 valence electrons, half of an octet. To form ionic bonds, Carbon
molecules must either gain or lose 4 electrons. This is highly unfavorable; therefore, carbon molecules share their 4
valence electrons through single, double, and triple bonds so that each atom can achieve noble gas configurations.
Covalent bonds include interactions of the sigma and pi orbitals; therefore, covalent bonds lead to formation of
single, double, triple, and quadruple bonds.

Example 2: PCl3PCl3

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 Figure 3

In this example, a phosphorous atom is sharing its 3 unpaired electrons with 3 chlorine atoms. In the end product, all
four of these molecules have 8 valence electrons and satisfy the octet rule.

8. Bibliography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa_pre_2011/atomic/differentsubrev5.shtml

http://www.digit.in/science-and-technology/liquid-metal-breakthrough-hints-at-shape-shifting-terminator-t-
1000-robot-future-31264.html

http://ceramics.org/learn-about-ceramics/history-of-ceramics

http://www.explainthatstuff.com/ceramics.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic#Applications

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http://phys.org/news/2016-01-breakthrough-ceramics-3d-technology.html

http://www.polymerexpert.fr/en/presentation/histoire-des-polymeres/

https://plastics.americanchemistry.com/plastics/The-Basics/

http://www.intertek.com/polymers/applications/

http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/2015/12/polymer-breakthrough-could-revolutionize-water-purification

http://www.mar-bal.com/language/en/applications/history-of-composites/

http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=structure_of_composites

http://www.composites.co.nz/properties-of-composites.html

http://www.acmanet.org/composites/where-are-composites-used

http://www.wtec.org/loyola/polymers/c1_s6.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor#Early_history_of_semiconductors

http://pvcdrom.pveducation.org/SEMICON/SEMICON.HTM

http://phys.org/news/2015-10-breakthrough-paves-post-silicon-future-carbon.html

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