Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Roger Pynn
Los Alamos
National Laboratory
Neutron advantages:
Wavelength comparable with interatomic spacings
Kinetic energy comparable with that of atoms in a solid
Penetrating => bulk properties are measured & sample can be contained
Weak interaction with matter aids interpretation of scattering data
Isotopic sensitivity allows contrast variation
Neutron magnetic moment couples to B => neutron sees unpaired electron spins
Neutron Disadvantages
Neutron sources are weak => low signals, need for large samples etc
Some elements (e.g. Cd, B, Gd) absorb strongly
Kinematic restrictions (cant access all energy & momentum transfers)
The 1994 Nobel Prize in Physics Shull & Brockhouse
Neutrons show where the atoms are.
Neutrons interact with atomic nuclei via very short range (~fm) forces.
Neutrons also interact with unpaired electrons via a magnetic dipole
interaction.
Brightness & Fluxes for Neutron &
X-Ray Sources
16 10
Rotating 10 3 0.5 x 10 5 x 10
Anode
24 17
Bending 10 0.01 0.1 x 5 5 x 10
Magnet
26 19
Wiggler 10 0.01 0.1 x 1 10
If v is the velocity of the neutron (same before and after scattering), the number of neutrons
passing through an area dS per second after scattering is :
2
v dS scat = v dS b 2 /r 2 = v b 2 d
Since the number of incident neutrons passing through unit areas is : = v incident = v
2
d v b 2 d
= = b2 so total = 4b 2
d d
Adding up Neutrons Scattered by Many Nuclei
r r r
i k 0 .R i
At a nucleus located at R i the incident wave is e
r r -b r r r
so the scattered wave is scat = e i k0 .Ri
r ri e ik '.(r Ri )
r - Ri
2
d vdS scat
2
r r r r r
dS 1
= = bi e ik '.r r r e 0 k ') .Ri
i ( k
d vd d r - Ri
If we measure far enough away so that r >> R i we can use d = dS/r 2 to get
d r r r r r r r
= bi b j e = bi b j e
i ( k 0 k ') .( Ri R j ) iQ.( Ri R j )
d i , j i, j
r r r
where the wavevector transfer Q is defined by Q = k ' k0
Coherent and Incoherent Scattering
The scattering length, bi , depends on the nuclear isotope, spin relative to the
neutron & nuclear eigenstate. For a single nucleus:
d r r r
e
iQ .( Ri R j )
= b + ( b2 b ) N
2 2
d i, j
Difference between H and D used in experiments with soft matter (contrast variation)
Al used for windows
V used for sample containers in diffraction experiments and as calibration for energy
resolution
Fe and Co have nuclear cross sections similar to the values of their magnetic cross sections
Find scattering cross sections at the NIST web site at:
http://webster.ncnr.nist.gov/resources/n-lengths/
Coherent Elastic Scattering measures the Structure
Factor S(Q) I.e. correlations of atomic positions
d r r 1 r r r
e
2 iQ.( Ri R j )
= b N.S (Q) for an assemblyof similar atoms where S (Q) =
d N i, j ensemble
r r
r iQr .rr r r r iQr .rr r
Now e iQ.Ri
= dr .e (r Ri ) = dr .e N (r ) where N is the nuclear number density
i i
r 1 r iQr .rr r 2
so S (Q) =
N dr .e N (r )
r 1 r r iQr .(rr rr ') r r 1 r r iQr .Rr r r r
or S(Q) = dr ' dr .e N (r ) N (r ' ) = dR dr e N (r ) N (r R)
N N
r r r iQr .Rr
ie S (Q) = 1 + dR.g (R).e
r r r r r
where g(R) = (R Ri + R0 ) is a function of R only.
i0
g(R) is known as the static pair correlation function. It gives the probability that there is an
atom, i, at distance R from the origin of a coordinate system at time t, given that there is also a
(different) atom at the origin of the coordinate system
S(Q) and g(r) for Simple Liquids
Note that S(Q) and g(r)/ both tend to unity at large values of their arguments
The peaks in g(r) represent atoms in coordination shells
g(r) is expected to be zero for r < particle diameter ripples are truncation
errors from Fourier transform of S(Q)
Neutrons can also gain or lose energy in the scattering process: this is
called inelastic scattering
Inelastic neutron scattering measures atomic motions
2h 2h
S (Q, ) = G (r , t )e dr dt and S i (Q , ) = Gs ( r , t ) e dr dt
SSPSS - Chopper
pa lla tio n - Ch oppSpec
er tro meter N eutron
ILL - w itho u t s pin -ec ho Induced
Itine rant Excit ations
ILL - w ith s p in -e ch o Hyd rog en
Magnets
10 0 Modes
Cryst al Momentum
Elastic Scattering Fields Dist ribut ions
Molecular
Coherent Spin Vibrations
M odes in Wa ves
Glasses La tt ice
and Liquids Vibra tions
Ene rgy Trans fe r (me V)
Surface
Eff ects ?
10 -6
0 .0 01 0.01 0 .1 1 10 100
-1
Q ( )
Neutron scattering experiments measure the number of neutrons scattered at different values of
the wavevector and energy transfered to the neutron, denoted Q and E. The phenomena probed
depend on the values of Q and E accessed.
Next Lecture
Roger Pynn
Los Alamos
National Laboratory
Expressions for the scattered neutron intensity involve the positions and
motions of atomic nuclei or unpaired electron spins in the scattering sample
Sometimes the change in the spin state of the neutron during scattering is
also measured to give information about the locations and orientations of
unpaired electron spins in the sample
What Do We Need to Do a Basic Neutron Scattering Experiment?
A source of neutrons
A method to prescribe the wavevector of the neutrons incident on the sample
(An interesting sample)
A method to determine the wavevector of the scattered neutrons
Not needed for elastic scattering
A neutron detector
Detector
Both reactors and spallation sources are expensive to build and require
sophisticated operation.
SNS at ORNL will cost about $1.5B to construct & ~$140M per year to operate
Either type of source can provide neutrons for 30-50 neutron spectrometers
Small science at large facilities
About 1.5 Useful Neutrons Are Produced by Each Fission Event in
a Nuclear Reactor Whereas About 25 Neutrons Are Produced by
spallation for Each 1-GeV Proton Incident on a Tungsten Target
Spallation
Nuclear Fission
Neutrons From Reactors and Spallation Sources Must Be
Moderated Before Being Used for Scattering Experiments
Reactor spectra are Maxwellian
Intensity and peak-width ~ 1/(E)1/2 at
high neutron energies at spallation
sources
Cold sources are usually liquid
hydrogen (though deuterium is also
used at reactors & methane is some-
times used at spallation sources)
Hot source at ILL (only one in the
world) is graphite, radiation heated.
The ESRF* & ILL* With Grenoble & the Beldonne Mountains
Proton
Radiography Proton Storage
Ring
Weapons
800-MeV Linear Neutron Research
Accelerator
LANSCE
Visitors Center
Neutron Production at LANSCE
Linac produces 20 H- (a proton + 2 electrons) pulses per second
800 MeV, ~800 sec long pulses, average current ~100 A
Each pulse consists of repetitions of 270 nsec on, 90 nsec off
Pulses are injected into a Proton Storage Ring with a period of 360 nsec
Thin carbon foil strips electrons to convert H- to H+ (I.e. a proton)
~3 x 1013 protons/pulse ejected onto neutron production target
Components of a Spallation Source
A half-mile long proton linac
10
17 peak flux 17
10 average flux
poisoned m. poisoned m.
10
16 decoupled m. 16
10 decoupled m.
coupled m. coupled m.
15
10 long pulse 15
10 and long pulse
Flux [n/cm /s/str/]
2
13 13
10 10
12 12
10 10
10
11 ILL hot source 11 ILL hot source
10
ILL thermal source ILL thermal source
10
10 ILL cold source 10
ILL cold source
10
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Wavelength [] Wavelength []
14
2.0x10
=4
poisoned moderator
decoupled moderator
coupled moderator
long pulse
1.0x10
14
I Neutron
ki Source Spectrum
kf res = bw I
bw T
ki I
kf
res T
T
Detector
res = 3956 Tp / L
bw = 3956 T / L
Distance
T p
T
Moderator
Time
kf
ki
I
ki
kf
large dynamic range may result in intensity
changes across the spectrum
ki I
kf
A Comparison of Reactors & Spallation Sources
Short Pulse Spallation Source Reactor
Energy deposited per useful neutron is Energy deposited per useful neutron is
~20 MeV ~ 180 MeV
Mononchromatic
Detector
incident beam
Elastic Scattering detect all
scattered neutrons
16 10
Rotating 10 3 0.5 x 10 5 x 10
Anode
24 17
Bending 10 0.01 0.1 x 5 5 x 10
Magnet
26 19
Wiggler 10 0.01 0.1 x 1 10
L = H / 2 = 2916.4 H Hz
where is the neutrons gyromagnetic
ratio & H is in Oesteds
This effect can be used to manipulate
the neutron spin
A spin flipper which turns the spin
through 180 degrees is illustrated
The spin is usually referred to as up
when the spin (not the magnetic
moment) is parallel to a (weak ~ 10
50 Oe) magnetic guide field
Next Lecture
3. Diffraction
1. Diffraction by a lattice
2. Single-crystal diffraction and powder diffraction
3. Use of monochromatic beams and time-of-flight to measure powder
diffraction
4. Rietveld refinement of powder patterns
5. Examples of science with powder diffraction
Refinement of structures of new materials
Materials texture
Strain measurements
Structures at high pressure
Microstrain peak broadening
Pair distribution functions (PDF)
by
Roger Pynn
Los Alamos
National Laboratory
LECTURE 3: Diffraction
This Lecture
2. Diffraction
1. Diffraction by a lattice
2. Single-crystal compared with powder diffraction
3. Use of monochromatic beams and time-of-flight to measure powder
diffraction
4. Rietveld refinement of powder patterns
5. Examples of science with powder diffraction
Refinement of structures of new materials
Materials texture
Strain measurements
Pair distribution functions (PDF)
From Lecture 1:
d number of neutrons scattered through angle 2 per second into d
=
d number of incident neutrons per square cm per second
d
r r r r r r r
i R j )
= =
i ( k k ' ) .( R R ) i Q .( R
coh coh coh coh
b b e 0 i j
b b e
d coh i , j
i j i j
i, j
r r r r
where the wavevector transfer Q is defined by Q = k 'k 0
k0
For elastic scattering k0=k=k:
Q 2 Q = 2k sin
k Q = 4 sin / Detector
Scattered neutrons of
Incident neutrons of wavevector k0 wavevector, k
2
Sample
Neutron Diffraction
Neutron diffraction is used to measure the differential cross section, d/d
and hence the static structure of materials
Crystalline solids
Liquids and amorphous materials
Large scale structures
2 / Q = d = / 2 sin( )
a1
So scattering from a (frozen) lattice only
occurs when the scattering wavevector, Q,
is equal to a reciprocal lattice vector, G hkl .
For Periodic Arrays of Nuclei, Coherent Scattering Is Reinforced Only in
Specific Directions Corresponding to the Bragg Condition:
= 2 dhkl sin() or 2 k sin() = Ghkl
Bragg Scattering from Crystals
Working through the math (see, for example, Squires' book), we find :
d (2 )3 r r r 2
d Bragg
=N
V0 hkl
(Q Ghkl ) Fhkl (Q)
and Wd is the Debye - Waller factor tha t accounts for thermal motions of atoms
Using either single crystals or powders, neutron diffraction can be used to
measure F2 (which is proportional to the intensity of a Bragg peak) for
various values of (hkl).
Direct Fourier inversion of diffraction data to yield crystal structures is not
possible because we only measure the magnitude of F, and not its phase =>
models must be fit to the data
Neutron powder diffraction has been particularly successful at determining
structures of new materials, e.g. high Tc materials
We would be better off
if diffraction measured
phase of scattering
rather than amplitude!
Unfortunately, nature
did not oblige us.
k k
0
Ghkl
a*
O
b* Ghkl = 2/dhkl
(hkl)=(260)
a* = 2(b x c)/V0, etc.
All orientations of
crystallites possible
Lo= 9-100m
Sample
2 - fixed
Pulsed
source L1 ~ 1-2m
= 2dsin
Detector Measure scattering as
bank a function of time-of-
flight t = const*
Time-of-Flight Powder Diffraction
1.5
X10E 4
Higher resolution
Intensity fall-off at small d
1.0
spacings
Better at resolving small
.5
lattice distortions
Counts
.0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
10.0 0.05 155.9 CPD RRRR PbSO4 1.909A neutron data 8.8
D-spacing, A
Scan no. = 1 Lambda = 1.9090 Observed Profile
2.5
=1.909
2.0
Lower resolution
Much higher intensity at small
1.5
d-spacings
1.0
Io
Intensity
Ic
Ib
Yp
TOF
*Discussion of Rietveld method adapted from viewgraphs by R. Vondreele (LANSCE)
The Rietveld Model for Refining Powder Patterns
Ic = Io{khF2hmhLhP(h) + Ib}
Loose powder
(220)
Non-random crystallite
orientations in sample
(200)
Incident beam Sample
x-rays or neutrons (111)
Debye-Scherrer cones
uneven intensity due to texture
different pattern of unevenness for different hkls
intensity pattern changes as sample is turned
Texture Determination of Titanium Wire Plate
(Wright-Patterson AFB/LANSCE Collaboration)
ND TD
RD
TD
Bulk measurement
Neutron time-of-flight data
ND
Rietveld refinement of texture
Spherical harmonics to Lmax = 16
Very strong wire texture in plate
Incident neutrons
+90 Detector
measures
to loading direction
Text box -90 Detector
measures parallel
to loading direction
The Neutron Powder
Diffractometer at LANSCE
Neutron measurements :-
Non destructive, bulk, phase sensitive
Time consuming, Limited spatial resolution
Rotors
Fan Blades
Structural Rods
Impellers
Landing Gears
W-Fe :- Fabrication, Microstructure & Composition
200 m diameter continuous Tungsten fibers,
Hot pressed at 1338 K for 1 hour into Kanthal
( 73 Fe, 21 Cr, 6 Al wt%) leads to residual strains after cooling
Specimens :- 200 * 25 * 2.5 mm3
Normalized Intensity
K
10 vol.% 30 vol.% K W
W
d spacing (A)
20 vol.% 70 vol.%
Neutron Diffraction Measures Mean Residual Phase
Strains when Results for a MMC are compared to an
Undeformed Standard
4000
Kanthal
3000 10 vol.% W
20 vol.% W
Residual strain (e)
2000 30 vol.% W
Residual Strain (e)
70 vol.% W
1000
-1000
-2000 Tungsten
10 vol.% W
20 vol.% W
-3000 30 vol.% W
70 vol.% W
-4000
0 20 40 60 80 100
400
further load 50
Tungsten fibers reinforce and 0
strengthen the composite -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Elastic lattice strain []
Deformation Mechanism in U/Nb Alloys
Atypical Double Plateau Stress Strain Curve. Diffraction Results
500
Applied Stress (MPa)
400
300
200
U-6 wt% Nb
100
Typical Metal
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06
Macroscopic Strain
Tensile Axis
+ 90 Detector
Q||
Q
-90 Detector
Structure function
2
G(r) = Q[S (Q) 1] sin QrdQ
0
Raw data
* See http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/billinge-group/
Structure and PDF of a High Temperature
Superconductor
Roger Pynn
Los Alamos
National Laboratory
Reflectivity measurements
Neutron wavevector inside a medium
Reflection by a smooth surface
Reflection by a film
The kinematic approximation
Graded interface
Science examples
Polymers & vesicles on a surface
Lipids at the liquid air interface
Boron self-diffusion
Iron on MgO
Rough surfaces
Shear aligned worm-like micelles
What Is the Neutron Wavevector Inside a Medium?
Comparing our expression for S(Q) with that given by Fermi' s Golden Rule, the
r 2h 2 r
nucleus - neutron potential is given by : V (r ) = b ( r ) for a single nucleus.
m
2h 2 1
So the average potential inside the medium is : V =
m
where =
volume i
bi
r r
[ 2
]
+ 2m ( E V ) / h 2 (r ) = 0
in vacuo (r ) = e iko .r
so k 02 = 2mE / h 2 . Simlarly k 2 = 2m( E V ) / h 2 = k02 4
where k0 is neutron wavevector in vacuo and k is the wavevecto r in a material
Since k/k 0 = n = refractive index (by definition ), and is very small (~ 10- 6 A - 2 ) we get :
n = 1-2 / 2
Since generally n < 1, neutrons are externally reflected from most materials.
Typical Values
continuity
of & & at z = 0
a I + a R = aT (1) n = 1- 2/2
r r r
a I k I + a R k R = aT kT
2
1
1.5
0.5
1
0.5
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
-1 -1
Real (red) & imaginary (green) parts of aR Real (red) and imaginary (green) parts
plotted against k0. The modulus of aR is of aT. The modulus of a T is plotted in
plotted in blue. The critical edge is at blue. Note that aT tends to unity at
k0 ~ 0.009 A-1 . Note that the reflected wave is large values of k0 as one would expect
completely out of phase with the incident wave
at k0 = 0
One can also think about Neutron Reflection from a Surface as a
1-d Problem
k2=k02 - 4 (z)
substrate Where V(z) is the potential seen by
the neutron & (z) is the scattering
length density
z Film Vacuum
Fresnels Law for a Thin Film
k0z
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
r=(k1z-k0z)/(k1z+k0z) is Fresnels law
-1
r01 + r12 e i 2 k1 z t
r= 0
1+ r01 r12 e i 2 k1 z t 1 Film thickness = t
and we measure the reflectivity R = r.r* 2 substrate
If the film has a higher scattering length density than the substrate we get the
green curve (if the film scattering is weaker than the substance, the green curve is
below the red one)
The fringe spacing at large k0z is ~ /t (a 250 A film was used for the figure)
Kinematic (Born) Approximation
We defined the scattering cross section in terms of an incident plane wave & a
weakly scattered spherical wave (called the Born Approximation)
This picture is not correct for surface reflection, except at large values of Qz
For large Qz, one may use the definition of the scattering cross section to
calculate R for a flat surface (in the Born Approximation) as follows:
If we replace the prefactor by the Fresnel reflectivi ty R F , we get the right answer
for a smooth interface, as well as the correct form at large Q z
d ( z ) iQz z
2
R = RF e dz
dz
This can be solved analytically for several convenient forms of d/dz such
as 1/cosh 2 (z). This approximate equation illustrates an important point :
reflectivi ty data cannot be inverted uniquely to obtain (z), because
we generally lack important phase informatio n. This means that models
refined to fit refelctivi ty data must have good physical justificat ion.
The Goal of Reflectivity Measurements Is to Infer a
Density Profile Perpendicular to a Flat Interface
Si or Al2O3 substrate
SiO2
Unknown film
H2O or D2O
* Majkrzak et al Biophys Journal, 79,3330 (2000)
Vesicles composed of DMPC molecules fuse creating almost a perfect
lipid bilayer when deposited on the pure, uncoated quartz block*
(blue curves)
When PEI polymer was added only after quartz was covered by the lipid
bilayer, the PEI appeared to diffuse under the bilayer (red curves)
Scattering Length Density
Neutron Reflectivities Profiles
O
Quartz
4
2
Reflectivity, R*Qz
-2 10 -6
Lipid Bilayer on Quartz
-4 10 -6
D O
Hydrogenated Quartz
2
Tails
Head
Head
-6 10 -6
Lipid Bilayer on Polymer
on Quartz -8 10 -6 = 4.3
-9
10
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
Qz [-1 ] Length, z []
-6
6 10
SLD [ ]
-2
4 10
-6 Black - pure lipid
Blue - 1.3% PEG
Green - 4.5% PEG
-6
2 10 Red - 9.0% PEG
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Length []
R/RF
R*Q
-8 -1
10 10
-2
10
Lipid + 9% PEG x-rays see heads (0.65), but all Lipid + 9% PEG
10
-9
else has same electron density 10
-3
10
-5
Unnanealed sample 10
2.4 Hours
5.4 Hours
0.1 9.7 Hours -6
10
22.3 Hours
35.4 Hours
-7
10
0.001
-8
10
Reflectivity
-5
10
-9
10
-7 -10
10 10
-11
10
-9 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065 0.07 0.075 0.08
10
10
-11 Data requires density Fickian diffusion
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
step at interface doesnt fit the data
-1
Q ( )
)
)
-2
-2
-6 -6
6 10
10 6 10
B
-6 -6
5 10 5 10
-6 -6
4 10 4 10
Si 3 10
-6
3 10
-6
-6 -6
2 10 2 10
-6 -6
1 10 1 10
0 0
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
Non-Spin-Flip Spin-Flip
++ measures b + Mz +- measures Mx + i My
- - measures b - Mz -+ measures Mx i My
Structure, Chemistry & Magnetism of Fe(001) on MgO(001)*
X-Ray Neutron
0.20(1)nm
0
10
= 3.9(3) 1.9(2)nm -FeOOH = 4.4(8)
-1 0.44(2)nm
10
-2
X-Ray Reflectivity
10
-3
= 5.2(3) 10.7(2)nm
Fe = 8.6(4)
10
X-Ray
10
-4 0.07(1)nm
= 4.4(2) 2.1(2)nm interface = 6.9(4)
-5
10 0.03(1)nm
-6
10
0 0.1 0.2
-1
Q [ ]
0.3 0.4 0.5
= 3.1(3) MgO = 6.2(5)
Co-Refinement
H
0
10
R ++(obs)
R (fit)
-1 ++
10 R --(obs)
R --(fit)
Polarized Neutron Reflectivity
R SF (obs)
R SF (fit)
10 -2
Neutron TEM
-3
10
-FeOOH (1.8
B)
10 -4 H
10 -5
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Fe(001) (2.2
fcc Fe (4
B)
Q [ -1] B)
z
1 2
z=0
kt1
Rayleigh criterion
where g = 4 h sin / = Qz h
Qx-Qz
Time-of-Flight, Energy-Dispersive Neutron Reflectometry
Transformation
Q x =2*(cos f -cos i )
Q =kf -ki where
2
Q z = *(sin f +sin i )
4 sin( )
Qz= =2k
z
In some cases (e.g. faceted surfaces) one would also expect the approximation of a
using an " average surface" wavefunct ion for perturbation theory to break down.
2 k 0 k1t s 2
Rmicro rough = Rsmooth e
2 k 20 s 2
R facet = Rsmooth e
Observation of Hexagonal Packing of Thread-like Micelles
Under Shear: Scattering From Lateral Inhomogeneities
NEUTRON
BEAM
QUARTZ or SILICON
INLET
HOLES
TEST SECTION
RESERVOIRS
TEFLON
Specularly reflected beam
gle
Sin x
uartz
Q tal
s
Cry
Scattering pattern
Up to implies hexagonal
46
Microns
Flow
direction
symmetry
H2O
Thread-like micelle
by
Roger Pynn
Los Alamos
National Laboratory
Note: The NIST web site at www.ncnr.nist.gov has several good resources
for SANS calculations of scattering length densities & form factors as well
as tutorials
Small Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS) Is Used to
Measure Large Objects (~1 nm to ~1 m)
Complex fluids, alloys, precipitates,
biological assemblies, glasses,
ceramics, flux lattices, long-wave-
length CDWs and SDWs, critical
scattering, porous media, fractal
structures, etc
Angular divergence of the neutron beam and its lack of monochromaticity contribute to finite
transverse & longitudinal coherence lengths that limit the size of an object that can be seen
by SANS
The coherence length is the maximum distance between points in a scatterer for which
interference effects will be observable
Instrumental Resolution for SANS
Traditionally, neutron scatterers tend to think in terms of Q and E resolution
4 Q 2 cos 2 . 2
2
Q= sin = +
Q2 2
sin 2
Q 2
2
For SANS, ( / ) rms ~ 5% and is small, so = 0.0025 +
Q2 2
For equal source - sample & sample - detector distances of L and equal
apertures at source and sample of h, rms = 5 / 12 h/L.
The smallest v alue of is determined by the direct beam size : min ~ 1.5h / L
At this value of , angular resolution dominates and
Q rms ~ ( rms / min )Q min ~ rms 4 / ~ ( 2 / )h / L
The largest observable object is ~ 2/Q rms ~ h / L .
This is equal to the transvers e coherence length for the neutron and achieves
a maximum of about 5 m at the ILL 40 m SANS instrument using 15 neutrons.
Note that at the largest va lues of , set by the detector size and distance from the
sample, wavelengt h resolution dominates.
The Scattering Cross Section for SANS
ds r r 1 r iQr. rr r 2
= b NS (Q ) where S (Q ) = dr .e nnuc (r )
2
recall that
dO N
2 r
where b is the coherent nuclear scattering length and nnuc(r ) is the
nuclear density
Since the length scale probed at small Q is >> inter-atomic spacing we may use the
scattering length density (SLD), , introduced for surface reflection and note that
nnuc(r)b is the local SLD at position r.
A uniform scattering length density only gives forward scattering (Q=0), thus SANS
measures deviations from average scattering length density.
d r r iQr .( rr rr ' )
d r d r ' n N (r ) nN ( r ' ).e
2
= b 3 3
d space space
2
r r r r r r v
d r 2 r iQr .Rr
= ( 0 ) F (Q ) N P d R.GP ( R).e
2 3
d space
where G P is the particle - particle correlatio n function (the probabilit y that the re
r v 2
is a particle at R if there' s one at the origin) and F(Q) is the particle form factor :
2
v 2 r v
F ( Q) = d
3 iQ . x
x.e
particle
These expressions are the same as those for nuclear scattering except for the addition
of a form factor that arises because the scattering is no longer from point-like particles
Scattering for Spherical Particles
2
r 2 r iQr .rr
The particle form factor F (Q) = dr e is determined by the particle shape.
V
R
H
Fo rm Fa c t o r f o r a Ve s ic le
r
R j1 (QR) r j1 (Qr )
2 2
F (Q, R, r ) = 3V0
Q2 (R3 r3 ) t = R - r
Determining Particle Size From Dilute Suspensions
Particle size is usually deduced from dilute suspensions in which inter-particle
correlations are absent
In practice, instrumental resolution (finite beam coherence) will smear out
minima in the form factor
This effect can be accounted for if the spheres are mono-disperse
For poly-disperse particles, maximum entropy techniques have been used
successfully to obtain the distribution of particles sizes
Correlations Can Be Measured in Concentrated Systems
A series of experiments in the late 1980s by Hayter et al and Chen et al
produced accurate measurements of S(Q) for colloidal and micellar systems
To a large extent these data could be fit by S(Q) calculated from the mean
spherical model using a Yukawa potential to yield surface charge and screening
length
Size Distributions Have Been Measured
for Helium Bubbles in Steel
The growth of He bubbles under neutron irradiation is a key factor limiting
the lifetime of steel for fusion reactor walls
Simulate by bombarding steel with alpha particles
TEM is difficult to use because bubble are small
SANS shows that larger bubbles grow as the steel is
annealed, as a result of coalescence of small bubbles
and incorporation of individual He atoms
SANS gives bubble volume (arbitrary units on the plots) as a function of bubble size
at different temperatures. Red shading is 80% confidence interval.
Radius of Gyration Is the Particle Size Usually
Deduced From SANS Measurements
r
If we measure r from the centroid of the particle and expand the exponential
in the definition of the form factor at small Q :
r iQr .rr rr 3 1 rr 2 3
F (Q ) = dr e V0 + i Q.r d r (Q.r ) d r + ....
V V 2V
sin .d V r d r Q 2 rg2
2 2 3
2
cos
Q 2 rg2
= V0 1
Q 0
+ ... = V0 1 + ... V0e 6
V d r 6
3
2
sin .d
0
to SANS data at low Q (in the so - called Guinier region) or by plotting ln(Intensity) v Q 2 .
The slope of the data at the lowest values of Q is rg2 /3. It is easily verified that the
expression for the form factor of a sphere is a special case of this general result.
Guinier Approximations: Analysis Road Map
Generalized Guinier approximation
1; =0 R 2Q 2
P(Q) = 0
M exp
Q ; = 1,2 3
Derivative-log analysis
d ln P(Q) Q d P(Q)
= = 2 R2Q 2
d ln(Q) P(Q) dQ 3
DO2O
Water
(QR )
9V 2 cos2 QR as Q
= 9V 2 / 2 on average (the oscillations will be smeared out by resolution)
9V 2 2A
Thus F(Q) = 4 where A is the area of the sphere' s surface.
2
4
2(QR) Q
This is Porod's law and holds as Q for any particle shape provided the particle
surface is smooth.
Another way to obtain it is to expand G(r) = 1 - ar + br 2 + .. [with a = A/(2V)] at small r
and to evaluate the form factor with this (Debye) form for the correlation function.
Scattering From Fractal Systems
Fractals are systems that are self-similar under a change of scale I.e. R -> CR
For a mass fractal the number of particles within a sphere of radius R is
proportional to RD where D is the fractal dimension
Thus
4pR2 dR.G( R) = number of particles between distance R and R + dR = cR D 1dR
G( R) = (c / 4 ) R D 3
r r i Qr .Rr 2
and S (Q) = dR.e G ( R) =
Q
D 3
dR . R. sin QR .( c / 4 ) R
c 1 const
2 QD
D 2
= dx . x . sin x =
QD
const
For a surface fractal, one can prove that S (Q) 6 Ds which reduces to the Porod
Q
form for smooth surfaces of dimension 2.
Typical Intensity Plot for SANS From Disordered
Systems
Zero Q intercept - gives particle volume if
concentration is known
ln(Q)
Sedimentary Rocks Are One of the Most
Extensive Fractal Systems*
Roger Pynn
Los Alamos
National Laboratory
= 5.2(3) 10.7(2)nm
Fe = 8.6(4)
0.07(1)nm
= 4.4(2) 2.1(2)nm interface = 6.9(4)
0.03(1)nm
crystals
surfaces & interfaces disordered/fractals biomachines
d 2 2 k'
r d 2 2 k'
r
Recall that
= bcoh k NS (Q, ) and d.dE = binc k NS i (Q, )
d .dE coh inc
r 1 r i ( Q. r t ) r
r r r 1 r i (Q . r t ) r
r r
where S (Q, ) =
2h G (r , t )e dr dt and S i (Q, ) =
2h Gs (r , t )e dr dt
and the correlation functions that are intuitively similar to those for the elastic scattering case :
r 1 r r r r r 1 r r r r r r
G( r , t ) = N (r ,0) N ( r + R, t ) dr and Gs (r , t ) = ( r R j (0)) ( r + R R j (t )) dr
N N j
The evaluation of the correlatio n functions (in which the ' s and - functions have to be treated
as non - commuting quantum mechanical operators) is mathematic ally tedious. Details can be
found, for example, in the books by Squires or Marshal and Lovesey.
Examples of S(Q,) and Ss(Q,)
Expressions for S(Q,) and Ss(Q,) can be worked out for a
number of cases e.g:
Excitation or absorption of one quantum of lattice vibrational
energy (phonon)
Various models for atomic motions in liquids and glasses
Various models of atomic & molecular translational & rotational
diffusion
Rotational tunneling of molecules
Single particle motions at high momentum transfers
Transitions between crystal field levels
Magnons and other magnetic excitations such as spinons
Inelastic neutron scattering reveals details of the shapes of
interaction potentials in materials
A Phonon is a Quantized Lattice Vibration
1
u 0.8
a 0.6
0.4
0.2
Phonon Dispersion Relation:
qa/2
Measurable by inelastic neutron scattering -1 -0.5 0.5 1
Inelastic Magnetic Scattering of Neutrons
with
r iqr.lr
h q = 2S ( J 0 J q ) where J q = J (l )e
l Fluctuating spin is
h q = Dq 2 is the dispersion relation for a ferromagnet perpendicular to mean spin
direction => spin-flip
neutron scattering
Polymers Proteins
Atomic Motions for Longitudinal & Transverse Phonons
r 2
Q= (0.1,0,0)
a
a
Q Q
Transverse phonon Longitudinal phonon
r r
eT = (0,0.1,0) a eL = (0.1,0,0) a
r r r i (Qr . Rrl t )
Rl = Rl 0 + es e
Transverse Optic and Acoustic Phonons
Acoustic Optic
r r
ered = (0,0.1,0) a ered = (0,0.1,0)a
r r
eblue = ( 0,0.14,0) a eblue = (0,0.14,0) a
r r 0 r i (Qr .Rr t )
Rlk = Rlk + es e l
Phonons the Classical Use for Inelastic Neutron Scattering
Coherent scattering measures scattering from single phonons
rr 2
d 2 k' 2
(Q .e s ) 1 1 r r r
= coh e 2W
(ns + ) ( m s ) ( Q q G )
d dE coh 1 k MV 0 s G s 2
kF kI
scattering triangle
The Accessible Energy and Wavevector
Transfers Are Limited by Conservation Laws
Neutron cannot lose more than its initial kinetic energy &
momentum must be conserved
Triple Axis Spectrometers Have Mapped Phonons
Dispersion Relations in Many Materials
Point by point measurement in (Q,E)
space
Usually keep either kI or kF fixed
Choose Brillouin zone (I.e. G) to maximize
scattering cross section for phonons
Scan usually either at constant-Q
(Brockhouse invention) or constant-E
Kohn anomalies
in 110Cd
Phonons in 110Cd
Time-of-flight Methods Can Give Complete Dispersion Curves at a
Single Instrument Setting in Favorable Circumstances
CuGeO3 is a 1-d magnet. With the unique axis parallel to the incident
neutron beam, the complete magnon dispersion can be obtained
Much of the Scientific Impact of Neutron Scattering Has Involved
the Measurement of Inelastic Scattering
Ne utrons in Condens ed Matter Res e arch
10000
SPSS - Chopper
Spallation Spectrometer
- Chopper Neutron
ILL - without s pin-echo Induced
Itinerant Excitations
ILL - with s pin-e cho Hydrogen
Mag nets Mo des
100
Crystal Momentum
Elastic Scattering Fields Distribut ions
Molecular
Coherent Spin Vibrations
Modes in Waves
Glasses Lattice
and Liquids Vibrations
Ene rgy Trans fe r (me V)
Electron- and
1 Molecular phonon Anharmonicity
Motions Int eractio ns
[Larger Objects Resolved] Metallurgical Crystal and Accurate Liquid Structures
Membranes
Micelles Polymers Syst ems Magnetic Amorphous Precision Crystallography
Proteins Systems
Prot eins in Solution Colloids Structures Anharmonicity
Viruses Crit ical
Scattering Slower
0.01 Motions
Resolved
Dif fusive
Aggregate Modes
Motion
Polymers Molecular
and Reo rientation
10-4 Biological Tunneling
Systems Spectroscopy
Surface
Effects?
10-6
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
-1
Q ( )
By
Roger Pynn*
A source of neutrons
A method to prescribe the wavevector of the neutrons incident on the sample
(An interesting sample)
A method to determine the wavevector of the scattered neutrons
A neutron detector
Detector
= L t = Bd / v
Neutron velocity, v
1
Number of turns = .B[Gauss ].d [cm].[ Angstroms ]
135.65
How does a Neutron Spin Behave when the
Magnetic Field Changes Direction?
= Lt = Bd / v
B Neutron velocity, v
1
Number of turns = .B[Gauss ].d [cm].[ Angstroms ]
135.65
The precession angle is a measure of the neutrons speed v
The Principles of NSE are Very Simple
2000
2000
per 50
counts (( per
1500
1500
The echo amplitude decreases
Neutron counts
1000
1000 when (Bd)1 differs from (Bd)2
Neutron
500
500
because the incident neutron
beam is not monochromatic.
00
00 11 22 33 44 55 66 77
For elastic scattering:
Bd2 (Arbitrary Units)
Current in coil 3
m
P ~ I ( ) cos {( Bd )1 ( Bd ) 2 } .d
h
Because the echo point is the same for all neutron wavelengths,
we can use a broad wavelength band and enhance the signal intensity
What does a NSE Spectrometer Look Like?
IN11 at ILL was the First
Field-Integral Inhomogeneities cause to vary
over the Neutron Beam: They can be Corrected
Solenoids (used as main precession fields) have fields that vary as r2
away from the axis of symmetry because of end effects (div B = 0)
B
solenoid
SSPSS - Chopper
p a lla tio n - Ch o pSpectrometer
p er N eutron
ILL - w ith o u t s p in -ec h o Induced
Itinerant Excitations
ILL - w ith s p in -e ch o Hyd rog en
Mag nets
100 Mo des
Crystal Momentum
Elastic Scattering Fields Distributions
Mo lecu lar
Coherent Spin Vib rations
M odes in Waves
Glasses Lattice
and Liquids Vibrations
Ene rgy Trans fe r (me V)
Electron- and
1 Molecular phonon A nharmonicity
M otions Interactio ns
[Larger Objects Resolved] M etallurgical C rystal and Accurate Liquid Structures
M em branes Amorphous
Micelles Polym ers Systems Proteins Magnetic P recision Crystallography
Colloids Structures Systems Anharmonicity
Proteins in Solution
Viruses C ritical
Scattering Slower
0.01 M otions
R esolved
Diffusive
A ggregate Modes
Motion
Polymers Molecular
and Reo rientation
10-4 Biological Tunneling
Systems Spectroscopy
Surface
Effects?
10 -6
0 .0 01 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 10 0
-1
Q ( )
Neutron Spin Echo has significantly extended the (Q,E) range to which
neutron scattering can be applied
Neutron Spin Echo study of Deformations
of Spherical Droplets*
* Courtesy of B. Farago
The Principle of Neutron Resonant Spin Echo
Within a coil, the neutron is subjected to a B0
steady, strong field, B0, and a weak rf field
B1cos(t) with a frequency = 0 = B0
Typically, B0 ~ 100 G and B1 ~ 1 G B1(t)
In a frame rotating with frequency 0, the neutron spin sees a constant field
of magnitude B1
The length of the coil region is chosen so that the neutron spin precesses
around B1 thru an angle . exit
S
S rotated
The neutron precession phase is:
B1exit
exit exit entry entry
neutron = RF + ( RF neutron )
entry entry B1entry
= 2 RF neutron + 0d / v
S entry
Neutron Spin Phases in an NRSE Spectrometer*
NRSE spectrometer
A B C D
Sample
B= B=0 B=0
n B0 B0
B0 B0
B=0
+ + + + + + + +
d lAB d d lCD d
tA tA t tB tC tC t tD
* Courtesy of S. Longeville
H=0
m2
where the " spin echo time" NRSE = 2B0 (l + d ) 3
2h 2
Note the additional factor of 2 in the echo time compared with classical NSE
(a factor of 4 is obtained with bootstrap rf coils)
L = B
d KBd
= L t = B = B
v sin k
Stop precession here
with K = 0.291 (Gauss.cm.)-1 Start precession here
Phonon Focusing
For a single incident neutron wavevector, kI, neutrons are
scattered to kF by a phonon of frequency o and to kf by
neighboring phonons lying on the scattering surface.
The topology of the scattering surface is related to that of the phonon dispersion
surface and it is locally flat
Provided the edges of the NSE precession field region are
parallel to the scattering surface, all neutrons with scattering
wavevectors on the scattering surface will have equal spin-echo
phase
Q0 scattering surface
kF kf
kI Precession field region
kf
Tilted Fields
Tilted fields can also be used can also be used for elastic
scattering and may be used in future to:
Increase the length scale accessible to SANS
Separate diffuse scattering from specular scattering in reflectometry
Measure in-plane order in thin films
Improve Q resolution for diffraction
An NRSE Triple Axis Spectrometer at HMI:
Note the Tilted Coils
Nanoscience & Biology Need Structural
Probes for 1-100 nm
CdSe nanoparticles
Peptide-amphiphile nanofiber
10 nm holes in PMMA
1 2 10
Actin Si colloidal crystal Structures over many length Thin copolymer films
scales in self-assembly of
ZnS and cloned viruses
Tilted Fields for Diffraction: SANS
d
B B
/2 /2
1 2
Bd/sin r
(Gauss.cm) (Angstroms) (degrees) (Angstroms)
3,000 4 20 1,000
5,000 4 20 1,500
5,000 6 20 3,500
5,000 6 10 7,500