Analisi Pragmatiki Gianopoulos

Eisagwg sthn Anlush I
Panepisthmio Krhth
Tmhma Majhmatikwn
Fjinopwro 2001
Mro tou parnto daktulografjhke ap tou Sofa Patrwndou
kai Iwnnh Toulpoulo sta plasia tou rgou E.P.E.A.E.K {Majh-
matik gia to 2001: Anamrfwsh kai anabjmish twn Majhmatikn
spoudn sthn Ellda}.
2
Perieqmena
1 Oi pragmatiko arijmo 5
1.1 Diatetagmna smata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 To axwma th plhrthta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Orism twn fusikn kai twn rhtn arijmn . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Arqimdeia idithta twn pragmatikn arijmn . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Parrthma: Tom Dedekind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 Akolouje 23
2.1 Orism tou orou - idithte sugklinousn akoloujin . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Sgklish montonwn akoloujin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Kibwtismo diasthmtwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4 Upakolouje - Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5 Akolouje Cau hy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 Shmea sussreush - antero kai kattero rio akolouja . . . . 32
2.7 Parrthma: ap thn Arqimdeia idithta kai thn idithta Cau hy

petai to axwma th plhrthta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.8 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3 Sunqeia sunartsewn 45
3.1 'Oria sunartsewn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Sunqeia sunartsewn: orismo - basik idithte . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3 Qarakthrism th sunqeia me qrsh akoloujin . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4 Basik jewrmata gia suneqe sunartsei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4.1 To jerhma endimesh tim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4.2 To jerhma elqisth kai mgisth tim . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4.3 Paradegmata kai efarmog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.5 Sunqeia snjeth kai antstrofh sunrthsh . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4 Omoimorfh sunqeia 63
4.1 Arqik paradegmata - orism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2 Qarakthrism th omoimorfh sunqeia msw akoloujin . . . . 64
3
4.3 Omoimorfh sunqeia suneqn sunartsewn se kleist diastmata . 66
4.4 Paradegmata kai efarmog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Riemann
Darboux
5 To oloklrwma 73
5.1 O orism tou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 To kritrio oloklhrwsimthta tou Riemann . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.3 Do klsei Riemann oloklhrsimwn sunartsewn . . . . . . . . . 80
5.4 Idithte tou oloklhrmato Riemann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.5 Parrthma: o orism tou Riemann gia to oloklrwma - isodunama
me ton orism tou Darboux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.6 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6 Pargwgo 97
6.1 Pargwgo snjeth kai antstrofh sunrthsh . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.1.1 O kanna th alusda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.1.2 Pargwgo antstrofh sunrthsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.2 Jerhma tou Rolle kai jerhma msh tim - kritria monotona . 100
6.3 Idithta Darboux gia thn pargwgo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.4 Aprosdiriste morf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.5 Melth sunartsewn msw paraggwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.6 To jemelide jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo . . . . . . . . . 112
6.7 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7 Ekjetik kai logarijmik sunrthsh 119
7.1 Orism msw tou oloklhrmato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2 O {fusiologik } orism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.3 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
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Keflaio 1
Oi pragmatiko arijmo
Gia mia austhr jemelwsh twn ennoin tou Apeirostiko Logismo (sgkli-
sh, sunqeia, paraggish kai oloklrwsh) qreizetai na qoume sth dijes ma
exsou austhr jemeliwmno to ssthma twn arijmn me tou opoou ja doul-
youme: to snolo R twn pragmatikn arijmn san na plrw diatetagmno sma.

Ja akoloujsoume thn axiwmatik mjodo: ja deqtome thn parxh en ttoiou
sustmato arijmn kai ja perigryoume ta shmantik uposnola twn fusikn,
twn akerawn kai twn rhtn arijmn msa se aut. H pio fusiologik porea
th diadoqik jemelwsh twn fusikn, twn akerawn, twn rhtn kai katpin twn
pragmatikn arijmn enai kti pou ja prepe na dei kane toulqiston mia fo-
r. Xefegei mw ap tou skopo auto tou majmato (prte kpoio mjhma
Jewra Sunlwn). Gia na prete mia gesh, sto parrthma auto tou kefalaou
suzhtme ti tom tou Dedekind .
1.1 Diatetagmna smata
'Ena mh ken snolo lgetai diatetagmno sma an ikanopoie ta ex :
prsjesh . x; y stoiqewn tou uprqei

Gia kje zeugri
x + y kai lgetai
(a) Aximata th
akrib na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me twn
x; y. H prxh pou stlnei to zeugri (x; y) sto x + y lgetai

jroisma
kai qei
prsjesh
ti aklouje idithte :
Prosetairistikthta: gia kje x; y; z 2 , (x + y) + z = x + (y + z ).

Antimetajetikthta: gia kje x; y 2 , x + y = y + x.
Uprqei na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me 0 , ttoio ste gia kje
x 2 ,
x + 0 = 0 + x = x:
5
Gia kje x 2 uprqei na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me x, ttoio
ste
x + ( x) = ( x) + x = 0:
Lme oti to me thn prxh th prsjesh enai Abelian omda. Apodexte oti
to 0 kai to x (dojnto tou x) orzontai monosmanta. O x enai o

antjeto
tou x. H afaresh sto orzetai ap thn
x y = x + ( y); x; y; 2 :
pollaplasiasmo. Gia kje zeugri x; y 2 uprqei

(b) Aximata tou
akrib na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me xy kai lgetai twn x; y.

(x; y)
ginmeno
H prxh pou stlnei to zeugri sto xy lgetai pollaplasiasm kai qei
ti aklouje idithte :
Prosetairistikthta: gia kje x; y; z 2 , (xy)z = x(yz ).

Antimetajetikthta: gia kje x; y 2 , xy = yx.
Uprqei na stoiqeo tou diaforetik ap to 0 pou sumbolzetai me 1 ,
ttoio ste gia kje x 2 ,

x1 = 1x = x:
Gia kje x 2 me x 6= 0 uprqei na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me
x 1
, ttoio ste
xx 1
=x 1
x = 1:
Apodexte oti to 1 kai to x 1 (dojnto tou x 6= 0) orzontai monosmanta. O
x tou x 6= 0. H sto orzetai ap thn

1
enai o antstrofo diaresh
x
y
= xy 1; x; y 2 ; y 6= 0:
H sundei ton pollaplasiasm me thn prsjesh: gia
x; y; z 2 , qoume
(g) epimeristik idithta
kje
x(y + z ) = xy + xz:
ditaxh . Uprqei na uposnolo tou , pou lgetai to

(d) Idithte th
snolo twn jetikn stoiqewn tou , ttoio ste:
gia kje x 2 isqei akrib na ap ta aklouja:

x 2 ; x 2 ; x = 0:
an x; y 2 tte x + y 2 kai xy 2 :
6
To snolo orzei mia sto sma w ex : lme oti x<y an kai
2 =y
ditaxh
mno an y x . Grfonta x y ennoome: ete x<y x . Ap ton
orism,
x 2 () x > 0:
Ap ti idithte tou pontai oi ex idithte th ditaxh <:
gia kje x; y 2 isqei akrib na ap ta aklouja:
x < y; x > y; x = y:
an x < y kai y < z , tte x < z .
an x < y tte gia kje z , x + z < y + z .
an x < y kai z > 0, tte xz < yz .
To snolo Q twn rhtn arijmn me ti fusiologik prxei prsjesh kai
pollaplapasiasmo enai to tupik pardeigma diatetagmnou smato . 'Ole oi
algebrik idithte tou Q pontai ap ton katlogo twn idiottwn pou dsame
pio pnw. Ta snola N kai Z twn fusikn kai twn akerawn den ikanopoion la
ta aximata tou diatetagmnou smato (perimnete prta na orsoume aut ta
snola kai katpin elgxte tou parapnw isqurismo ).
1.2 To axwma th plhrthta
Ap th stigm pou se na diatetagmno sma qoume orismnh th ditaxh
<, mporome na milme gia uposnola tou pou enai nw ktw fragmna.
Orism . 'Estw na diatetagmno sma. 'Ena uposnolo A tou lgetai
nw fragmno, an uprqei 2 me thn idithta: x gia kje x 2 A.

ktw fragmno , an uprqei 2 me thn idithta: x gia kje x 2 A.
fragmno, an enai nw kai ktw fragmno.
Kje 2 pou ikanopoie ton parapnw orism lgetai nw frgma (antstoiqa,

ktw frgma) tou A.
: 'Estw A kai na nw frgma tou A, dhlad x gia kje
x 2 A. Kje stoiqeo 1 tou pou enai megaltero tou enai epsh nw frgma
Paratrhsh
tou A: an x 2 A tte x 1 . Telew anloga, an A kai na ktw
frgma tou A, tte kje stoiqeo 1 tou pou enai mikrtero ap to enai
epsh ktw frgma tou A.
Fusiologik, prospaje kane na dei an uprqei kpoio elqisto nw frgma
(antstoiqa, mgisto ktw frgma) tou A sto .

Orism . A na nw fragmno uposnolo tou diatetagmnou smato
(a) 'Estw
. Lme oti to 2 enai elqistotou A an

nw frgma
7
to enai nw frgma tou A kai
an 1 enai llo nw frgma tou A tte 1 .
(b) 'Estw A na ktw fragmno uposnolo tou diatetagmnou smato . Lme
oti to 2 enai mgisto ktw frgma tou A an

to enai ktw frgma tou A kai
an 1 enai llo ktw frgma tou A tte 1 .
To elqisto nw frgma tou A (an uprqei) enai monadik. Ap ton orism
; 1 enai do elqista nw frgmata tou A tte 1 kai
enai faner oti an
1 , dhlad = 1 . Omow , to mgisto ktw frgma tou A (an uprqei) enai

monadik.
Sthn perptwsh pou uprqoun, ja sumbolzoume to elqisto nw frgma tou
A me sup A (to supremum tou A) kai to mgisto ktw frgma tou A me inf A (to
inmum tou A). Ta inf A, sup A mpore na ankoun na mhn ankoun sto snolo
A.
Prtash 1.2.1 'Estw A uposnolo tou kai 2 . Tte, = sup A an kai mno
an isqoun ta ex :
(a) To enai nw frgma A

tou ,
(b) Gia kje ">0 uprqei x2A ttoio ste x> " .
= sup A. Ap ton orism tou supremum,

Upojtoume prta oti
" > 0. An gia kje x 2 A sque h x ",

Apdeixh:
ikanopoietai to (a). Gia to (b), stw
tte to " ja tan nw frgma tou A. Ap ton orism tou supremum ja prepe
na qoume
" ! " 0;
" > 0 uprqei x 2 A (to x exarttai bbaia
to opoo enai topo. 'Ara, gia to tuqn
ap to ") pou ikanopoie thn x > ".

Antstrofa, stw 2 pou ikanopoie ta (a) kai (b). Eidiktera, to A enai
nw fragmno. A upojsoume oti to den enai to supremum tou A. Tte, uprqei
< to opoo enai nw frgma tou A. Jtoume " = > 0. Tte,

x= "
gia kje x 2 A. Aut rqetai se antfash me to (b). 2
Orism . Lme oti na diatetagmno sma ikanopoie to axwma th plhr-
thta an
Kje mh ken kai nw fragmno uposnolo A tou qei elqisto nw

frgma 2 .
8
'Ena diatetagmno sma pou ikanopoie to axwma th plhrthta lgetai plrw
diatetagmno sma.
'Askhsh. 'Estw na plrw diatetagmno sma. Dexte oti kje mh ken ktw
fragmno uposnolo A tou qei mgisto ktw frgma.

'Olh h doulei pou ja knoume se aut to mjhma baszetai sthn ex paradoq:
To snolo R twn pragmatikn arijmn enai na plrw diatetagmno

sma.
Mpore kane na dexei oti uprqei {mno na} plrw diatetagmno sma. Do
plrw diatetagmna smata enai ismorfa (blpe M. Spivak , Keflaio 29).
1.3 Orism twn fusikn kai twn rhtn arijmn
Deqtkame to R san na plrw diatetagmno sma. Ja orsoume tra san
uposnol tou to snolo N twn fusikn, to snolo Z twn akerawn, kai to snolo
Q twn rhtn arijmn.
Orism . 'Ena uposnolo A tou R lgetai epagwgik an ikanopoie ta ex :
12A
x2A
an tte kai x + 1 2 A.
Uprqoun epagwgik uposnola tou R: gia pardeigma, to dio to R, to snolo
fx 2 R : x 1g , to snolo f1g [ fx 2 R : x 1 + 1g . Ap thn llh pleur, oi
do idithte tou orismo ma lne oti an to AR enai epagwgik tte 1 2 A,
2 := 1 + 1 2 A 3 := 2 + 1 2 A
, k.o.k., dhlad to A periqei tou {gnwsto ma }
fusiko arijmo . Aut oi parathrsei ma odhgon ston akloujo orism.
Orism . 'Ena pragmatik arijm x lgetai fusik an ankei se la ta
epagwgik uposnola tou R. Dhlad, to snolo N twn fusikn arijmn enai to
\
N = f A R; A epagwgik g:
Prtash 1.3.1 To N enai epagwgik snolo kai periqetai se kje epagwgik
uposnolo tou R (enai to mikrtero epagwgik uposnolo tou R ).
Apdeixh: Deqnoume prta oti to N enai epagwgik:
(a) Gia kje epagwgikA R qoume 1 2 A. 'Ara, 1 2 N .

x 2 N , dhlad x 2 A gia kje epagwgik A 2 R. Ap ton orism tou
(b) 'Estw
epagwgiko sunlou, x + 1 2 A gia kje epagwgik A R, ra x + 1 2 N . Ap
ta (a) kai (b), to N ikanopoie kai ti do idithte tou epagwgiko sunlou.
Gia ton detero isqurism, stw A na epagwgik uposnolo tou R. Ap ton
orism tou fusiko arijmo, kje fusik ankei sto A, dhlad N A. 2

9
Prtash 1.3.2 O fusik arijm 1 enai to elqisto stoiqeo tou N .
Apdeixh: To snolo A = fx 2 R : x 1g enai epagwgik: Profan 1 2 A kai
an x 1 tte x + 1 > 1 (diti 1 > 0). 'Omw N A, ra gia kje x 2 N isqei

x 1. 2
To gegon oti to N enai to mikrtero epagwgik uposnolo tou R diatup-
netai suqn sthn ex morf.
(Arq epagwg ): (n)

(1)
Jerhma 1.3.1 'Estw mia (majhmatik) prtash pou
exarttai ap ton fusik n . An h alhjeei kai gia kje n2N qoume
(n) alhj ) (n + 1) alhj ;

tte h (n) alhjeei gia kje fusik n .
Apdeixh: Jewrome to snolo A = fx 2 N : (x) g

alhjeei . To A enai
epagwgik:
(a) 12A diti, ap thn upjesh, h (1) alhjeei.
(b) Anx 2 A tte x 2 N kai h (x) alhjeei opte, pli ap thn upjesh, h
(x + 1) alhjeei kai x + 1 2 N, dhlad x + 1 2 A.
'Epetai oti N A, diti to N enai to mikrtero epagwgik uposnolo tou R.
Isqei mlista oti N = A, afo ap ton orism tou to A enai uposnolo tou N .
Afo kje fusik ankei sto A, h (n) alhjeei gia kje fusik n. 2
Prtash 1.3.3 An n2N kai n 6= 1 , tte n 12N .
Apdeixh: Jtoume A = fx 2 N : x = 1 x 1 2 Ng . Ja dexoume oti to A enai

epagwgik:
(a) 12A ap ton orism tou A.

(b) An2A x tte uprqoun do endeqmena: x = 1 opte x + 1 2A (afo
(x +1) 1 = 1 2 N x 2 N x 1 2 N
) kai , opte x +1 2 N kai (x +1) 1=x2N
dhladx+12A .
AN
'Epetai oti A=N (dhlad ). 2
Prtash n2N
1.3.4 'Estw . Anmesa ston n kai ston n +1 den uprqei kanna
fusik arijm .
Apdeixh: Jtoume
A = fn 2 N : an x 2 R kai n < x < n + 1 tte x 2= N g:

Ja dexoume oti to A enai epagwgik:
(a) 1 2 A : to snolo B = 1 [ fx 2 R : x 2g enai epagwgik, ra an
1 < x < 2 qoume x 2= B ap pou petai oti x 2= N (giat?).

(b) 'Estw n 2 A. Upojtoume oti n + 1 < x < n + 2. An x 2 N qoume: x > 2
opte x 1 2 N ap thn Prtash 1.3.3. 'Omw n < x 1 < n + 1 dhlad n 2= A,

topo. 'Ara x 2= N , pou shmanei oti n + 1 2 A.
'Epetai oti A = N , to opoo apodeiknei to zhtomeno. 2
10
Jerhma 1.3.2 (Arq tou elaqstou) Kje mh ken uposnolo tou N qei elqi-
sto stoiqeo.
Apdeixh: 'Estw A N , A 6= ;. Orzoume

B = fx 2 N : o x kai loi oi mikrtero tou fusiko den ankoun sto Ag:
To B den enai epagwgik (alli ja eqame A = ;). 'Ara, do prgmata mpore na
sumbanoun:
(a) 1 2= B . Tte 12A kai ap thn Prtash 1.3.2 to A qei elqisto stoiqeo.
(b) Uprqeix 2 B me x + 1 2= B . Aut shmanei oti loi oi fusiko pou enai
mikrteroi tou x + 1 den ankoun sto A kai x + 1 2= B , dhlad x + 1 2 A.
O x + 1 enai to elqisto stoiqeo tou A. An y 2 N kai y < x + 1 tte y x
(giat ap thn Prtash 1.3.4 den uprqei fusik anmesa ston x kai ston x + 1).
'Omw x 2 B ra y 2 = A. 2
Qrsime enai kai oi paraktw morf th arq th epagwg (apodexte ti
mnoi/mne sa ):
(n) n
(n)
Prtash 1.3.5 'Estw mia prtash pou exarttai ap ton fusik . An h
alhjeei gia kpoion n0 2 N kai
(n) alhjeei ) (n + 1) alhjeei,
gia kje n2N , tte h (n) alhjeei gia kje fusik n n0 .
Prtash 1.3.6 'Estw (n) mia prtash pou exarttai ap to fusik n. An h (1)
alhjeei kai isqei oti
(k) alhjeei gia kje k n ) (n + 1) alhjeei,
tte h (n) alhjeei gia kje fusik n.
Orism . 'Ena pragmatik arijm lgetai akraio an enai o 0 an enai
fusik an o antjet tou enai fusik . To snolo twn akerawn sumbolzetai
me Z. Dhlad,
Z = fx 2 R : x = 0 x 2 N x 2 N g:
Prtash 1.3.7 An x2Z tte x 12Z kai x+12 Z .
Apdeixh: Diakrnoume periptsei :
(a) x 2 N , x 6= 1. Tte x+1 2 N Z kai x 12N Z ap thn Prtash
1.3.3.
x = 1. Tte x + 1 = 2 2 N Z kai x 1 = 0 2 Z.
(b)
x = 0. Tte x + 1 = 1 2 N Z kai x 1 = 1 2 Z giat ( 1) = 1 2 N .

(g)
(d) x 2 N . Tte x + 1 2 N dhlad (x 1) 2 N , dhlad x 1 2 Z. An

x = 1 tte x + 1 = 0 2 Z en an x 6= 1 qoume x 2 N , x 6= 1 opte
x 1 2 N ) (x + 1) 2 N ) x + 1 2 Z: 2
11
x2Z x
x+1
Prtash 1.3.8 An tte den uprqei kanna akraio anmesa ston kai
ston .
Apdeixh: 'Askhsh: diakrnete periptsei pw sthn Prtash 1.3.7. 2

Orism . 'Ena pragmatik arijm onomzetai rht an enai phlko akerawn.
To snolo twn rhtn sumbolzetai me Q. Dhlad,

m
Q = x2R:x=
n
; m 2 Z; n 2 Z; n 6= 0 :
Mporome pnta na upojtoume oti o x2Q grfetai sth morf
m
x= ; m 2 Z; n 2 N :
n
Ekola elgqoume oti to Q enai diatetagmno sma me ti prxei kai thn ditaxh
pou epgontai ap to R. Enai mlista pukn diatetagmno sma, me thn ex
nnoia: an p; q 2 Q kai p < q, tte uprqei s 2 Q ttoio ste p < s < q (anmesa
se do rhto uprqei llo rht : sugkrnete me ti Protsei 1.3.4 kai 1.3.8).
Gia thn apdeixh th {puknthta }, prte s = (p + q)=2.
1.4 Arqimdeia idithta twn pragmatikn arijmn
H Arqimdeia idithta ousiastik ma lei oti to N den enai nw fragmno upos-
nolo tou R:
Arqimdeia idithta twn pragmatikn: 'Estw " kai a2R me ">0
. Uprqei
fusik arijm n2N ttoio ste n" > a .
A = fn" : n 2 N g enai nw fragmno ap to

An qi, tte to snolo
= sup A
Apdeixh:
a. 'Estw .
" < , ra to " den enai nw frgma tou A.
Tte
Epomnw , mporome na brome n0 2 N me n0 " > ". 'Epetai oti (n0 + 1)" > ,
topo afo to enai nw frgma tou A. 2
Prtash 1.4.1 Kje mh ken uposnolo tou Z pou enai ktw fragmno qei el-
qisto stoiqeo.
Apdeixh: 'Estw A 6= ; ktw fragmno uposnolo tou Z. Uprqei x 2 R ttoio
ste x a gia kje a 2 A. Ap thn Arqimdeia idithta twn pragmatikn petai

oti uprqei n 2 N me n > x, dhlad n < x a gia kje a 2 A. Uprqei dhlad
m 2 Z pou enai ktw frgma tou A (prte m = n), kai mlista {gnsio} me thn
nnoia oti
m 2 Z kai m < a gia kje a 2 A:
12
Jewrome to snolo B = fa m : a 2 Ag N . To B qei elqisto stoiqeo, to
opoo onomzoume . Dhlad,
= a0 m gia kpoio a0 2 A kai a m gia kje a 2 A:
Tte, o a0 enai to elqisto stoiqeo tou A: profan a0 2 A, kai gia kje a 2 A
qoume a0 m a m ) a0 a. 2
Jerhma 1.4.1 (Akraio mro ) Gia kje x2R uprqei monadik akraio m2
Z
m x < m + 1:
ttoio ste
Apdeixh: To snolo A = fn 2 Z : n > xg enai mh ken (giat?) kai ktw

fragmno ap to x. Ap thn Prtash 1.4.1, to A qei elqisto stoiqeo : a to
pome n0 . Afo n0 1 2= A, qoume n0 1 x. Jtoume m = n0 1. Edame oti
m x. Epsh n0 2 A, dhlad m + 1 > x. 'Ara,
m x < m + 1:
Gia th monadikthta a upojsoume oti
m x < m + 1 kai m1 x < m1 + 1

pou m; m1 2 Z. 'Eqoume m < m1 + 1 ) m m1 (giat?) kai m1 < m + 1 )
m1 m. 'Ara m = m1 . 2
Orism . O akraio m pou ma dnei to prohgomeno jerhma (kai o opoo
exarttai kje for ap ton x) lgetai tou x, kai sumbolzetai
me [x. Dhlad, o [x prosdiorzetai ap ti

akraio mro
[x 2 Z kai [x x < [x + 1:
Gia pardeigma, [2:7 = 2, [ 2:7 = 3.
H parxh tou akeraou mrou kai h Arqimdeia idithta twn pragmatikn arij-
mn ma exasfalzoun thn puknthta tou Q sto R: anmesa se opoiousdpote
do pragmatiko arijmo mporome na brome nan rht.
Jerhma 1.4.2 An x; y 2 R, tte uprqei rht p me thn idithta
x 0 kai ap thn Arqimdeia idithta uprqei fusik
n(y x) > 1, dhlad

Apdeixh:
n2N ttoio ste
nx + 1 < ny:
Tte,
nx < [nx + 1 nx + 1 < ny;

dhlad
x<
[nx + 1 < y:
n
Afo o p = [nxn+1 enai rht , h apdeixh enai plrh . 2
13
('Uparxh n-ost rza ) x2R x>0 n2N
y>0 yn = x
Jerhma 1.4.3 'Estw , kai . Uprqei
monadik ttoio ste .
[O y sumbolzetai me
pn x x1=n . Profan ma endiafrei mno h perptwsh
n 2.
Apdeixh: H monadikthta enai apl: an 0<y 1 < y2 tte y1n < y2n gia kje
n 2 N. Gia thn parxh jewrome to snolo
E = ft 2 R : t > 0 kai tn < xg:

To E enai mh ken kai nw fragmno: 'Eqoume
n
x x
<
1+x 1+x < x
(giat?), ra E 6= ;, kai
(1 + x)n > 1 + x > x;
ra kje t2E 1+x
frssetai ap pnw ap ton .
Ap to axwma th plhrthta , uprqei to y = sup E yn = x . Ja dexoume oti .
(a) 'Estw oti

n
y <x h>0
. Ja brome y+h 2 E ttoion ste (topo, giat o y
qei upoteje nw frgma tou E h>0
). Gia kje qoume
(y + h)n yn = h (y + h)n + (y + h)n y + : : : + yn nh(y + h)n :

1 2 1 1
Ja epilxoume h<1 opte mporome ap tra na upojsoume oti
(y + h)n yn nh(y + 1)n : 1
Jloume h>0 (y + h)n < x

ttoion ste (y + h)n yn < x yn
. Dhlad . Arke
na isqei
x yn
nh(y + 1)n 1
< x yn h< :
n(y + 1)n 1
, isodnama,
Ap ta parapnw enai faner oti an

n
0 < h < min 1; n(yx+ 1)y n ; 1
tte (y + h)n < x , dhlad y+h2E , topo.
(b) 'Estw oti y

n
> x. Ja brome h>0 (y h)n > x
ttoion ste (topo, giat tte
o y h ja tan nw frgma tou E sup E

mikrtero ap to ). Gia kje 0<h<y ,
qoume

yn (y h)n = h yn 1
+ yn (y 2
h) + : : : + (y h)n 1
< nhyn 1;
ra
yn x
(y h)n x > yn x nhyn 1
> 0 an h <
nyn 1
:
Epomnw , an 0 < h < (yn x)=(nyn ) 1
(elgxte oti aut o arijm enai mikr-
tero ap ton y), qoume(y h)n > x , topo.
Anagkastik y =x
n , kai aut oloklhrnei thn apdeixh. 2
14
Jerhma 1.4.4 To Q enai gnsio uposnolo tou R.
y > 0 ttoio ste y2 = 2. Ja dexoume oti y 2= Q . 'Estw

'Estw
oti y = m=n, pou m; n 2 N kai o mgisto koin diairth twn m kai n enai
Apdeixh:
1. Eidiktera oi m; n den enai kai oi do rtioi. 'Eqoume m2 = 2n2, ra o m

enai rtio (to tetrgwno peritto enai peritt ). 'Estw m = 2k; k 2 N . Tte
n2 = 2k2, ra kai o n enai rtio (topo). 2

Orism . Kje pragmatik arijm pou den enai rht lgetai rrhto .
Jerhma 1.4.5 Oi rrhtoi enai pukno sto R : an x; y 2 R kai x<y , tte uprqei
q rrhto me x<q<y .
p p
Apdeixh: 'Eqoume x < y kai 2>0 , ra x= 2 < y=p2 . Ap to Jerhma 1.4.2,
uprqei rht p me
px < p < py :
2 2
p
Mporome na upojsoume oti p 6= 0 p
(alli ja parname llon rht p0 anmesa
ston x= 2 kai ston p = 0). 'Epetai oti o q := p 2 enai rrhto (giat?) kai
p
x<q=p 2 < y: 2
Orism (apluth tim): 'Estw x 2 R. H apluth tim jxj tou x enai o prag-
x0
matik arijm
(
x , an
jxj =
x , an x < 0.
Ekola elgqoume oti ikanopoiontai ta ex :
jxj 0 x2R
gia kje , me isthta an kai mno an x = 0.
jx + yj jxj + jyj gia kje x; y 2 R.
1.5 Parrthma: Tom Dedekind
Upojtoume ed oti to snolo Q twn rhtn arijmn qei oriste, kai le
tou oi idithte jewrontai gnwst . Ja perigryoume thn kataskeu tou R msw
twn tomn Dedekind . Ta stoiqea tou R ja enai kpoia uposnola tou Q, oi
legmene tom . H ida psw ap ton orism tou enai oti kje pragmatik
arijm prosdiorzetai ap to snolo twn rhtn pou enai mikrtero tou:
'Askhsh: Gia kje x2R orzoume Ax = fq 2 Q : q < xg. Qrhsimopointa sa
edame sti paragrfou x1.1 - x1.4, dexte oti
x = y () Ax = Ay :
15
p
Gia pardeigma, o 2 kajorzetai plrw ap to snolo fq 2 Q : q < 2g
2
. Genik-
tera, x = sup Ax gia kje x 2 R.

Orism . 'Ena uposnolo tou Q lgetai tom an ikanopoie ta ex :
6= ; 6= Q
, .
p2 q2Q q<p
an , kai , tte q 2 .
p2 an q2
, uprqei ttoio ste p < q .
H trth idithta ma lei oti mia tom a den qei mgisto stoiqeo. H deterh qei
ti ex mese sunpeie pou ja fanon qrsime :
an p 2 kai q 2= , tte p < q.

an r 2
= kai r < s, tte s 2= .
Se lh autn thn pargrafo qrhsimopoiome ta ellhnik grmmata
=
Shmewsh:
; ; gia tom ( mellontiko pragmatiko arijmo ) kai ta latinik p; q; r; s

gia rhto arijmo .
Bma 1: Orzoume R = f Q : to enai tomg. Aut ja enai telik to snolo
twn pragmatikn arijmn.
Bma 2: Prta orzoume thn ditaxh sto R. An ; enai do tom , tte
< () to enai gnsio uposnolo tou :
'Askhsh: Dexte oti an ; enai tom , tte akrib mia ap ti < , = ,

< isqei.
Bma 3: To (R; <) ikanopoie to axwma th plhrthta . Dhlad, an A enai mh
ken uposnolo tou R kai uprqei tom 2R ttoia ste gia kje 2 A,
tte to A qei elqisto nw frgma.
Apdeixh : Orzoume thn nwsh lwn twn stoiqewn tou A. Dhlad
= fq 2 Q : 9 2 A me q 2 g:
Ja dexoume oti = sup A.
(a) To enai tom: Prton, 6= ;: afo A 6= ;, uprqei 0 2 A. Afo 0 6= ;,
uprqei q 2 0 . Tte, q 2 . Prpei epsh na dexoume oti 6= Q : Uprqei q 2 Q
me q 2 = . An 2 A, tte , ra q 2= . Epomnw , q 2= [f : 2 Ag dhlad
q 2= . 'Ara, to ikanopoie thn prth sunjkh tou orismo th tom .
Gia thn deterh, stw p 2 kai q 2 Q me q < p. Uprqei 2 A me p 2 kai
q < p, ra q 2 . Afo , petai oti q 2 .

Gia thn trth, stw p 2 . Uprqei 2 A me p 2 . Afo to enai tom,
uprqei q 2 me p < q . Tte, q 2 kai p < q .
(b) To enai nw frgma tou A: An 2 A, tte dhlad .
16
(g) To enai to elqisto nw frgma tou A: 'Estw 1 2 R nw frgma tou A.
Tte 1 gia kje 2 A, dhlad 1 gia kje 2 A, dhlad
[
1 f : 2 Ag = ;
dhlad 1 . 2
Bma 4: Orzoume mia prxh + (prsjesh) sto R w ex : an ; 2 R, tte
+ = fp + q : p 2 ; q 2 g:
(a) Deqnoume oti to + enai tom, kai ekola epalhjeoume oti + = +
kai + ( + ) = ( + ) + gia kje ; ; 2 R.
(b) Orzoume 0 = fq 2 Q : q < 0g kai deqnoume oti to 0 2 R kai enai to oudtero

stoiqeo th prsjesh : + 0 = 0 + = gia kje 2 R.

(g) An 2 R, to orzetai w ex :
= fq 2 Q : r 2 Q; r > 0
uprqei me q r 2= g:
Dexte oti to 2R kai + ( ) = ( ) + = 0 .
'Epetai oti h prxh + sto R ikanopoie ta aximata th prsjesh . 2

Bma 5: To snolo twn jetikn stoiqewn tou R orzetai tra me fusiologik
trpo:
2 () 0 < :
Dexte oti an 2 R, tte isqei mia akrib ap ti 2 , = 0 , 2 .
prxh pollaplasiasmo, prta gia ; 2 : An > 0
6: Orzoume mia

> 0 , jtoume
Bma
kai
= fq 2 Q : uprqoun r 2 ; s 2 ; r > 0; s > 0 me q rsg:

(a) Deqnoume oti to enai tom kai = , ( ) = ( ) an ; ; 2 .
(b) Orzoume 1 = fq 2 Q : q < 1g . Tte,1 = 1 = gia kje 2 .
(g) An 2 , o antstrofo 1
tou orzetai ap thn:
1
= fq 2 Q : q 0 q > 0 kai uprqei r 2 Q ; r > 1 me (qr) 1
2= g:
Dexte oti 2
1
kai = = 1
1 1
.
Oloklhrnoume ton orism tou pollaplasiasmo jtonta
( )( )
8
>
>
, an ; < 0
>
<
= [( ) , an < 0 ; > 0
>
>
>
:
[( ) , an > 0 ; < 0
17
kai
0 = 0 = 0 :
Mporome tra na dome oti ikanopoiontai la ta aximata tou pollaplasiasmo,
kaj kai h epimeristik idithta tou pollaplasiasmo w pro thn prsjesh. Den
ja mpome se perisstere leptomreie (an jlete sumbouleutete ton Spivak

,
Keflaio 28).
{To R me bsh thn parapnw kataskeu enai na plrw diatetagmno

sma.}
Bma 7: An q 2Q orzoume q = fr 2 Q : r < qg . Kje q enai tom, dhlad
q 2 R. Ekola deqnoume oti:
(a) an p; q 2 Q , tte p + q = (p + q) .

(b) an p; q 2 Q , tte p q = (pq ) .

(g) an p; q 2 Q , tte p < q
an kai mno an p < q .
Epomnw , h apeiknish I : Q ! R me I (q ) = q diathre ti prxei th
prsjesh kai tou pollaplasiasmo, kaj kai thn ditaxh. Mporome loipn na
blpoume to Q san na diatetagmno uposma tou R msw th tatish Q ! Q

(pou Q
= fq : q 2 Q g R).
1.6 Asksei
1. Apodexte oti ta paraktw isqoun sto R:

(a) An x < y + " gia kje " > 0, tte x y.
(b) An x y + " gia kje " > 0, tte x y .
(g) An jx yj " gia kje " > 0, tte x = y.

(d) An a < x < b kai a < y < b, tte jx yj < b a.
2. (a) An ja bj < ", tte uprqei x ttoio ste
ja xj < " kai jb xj < " :
2 2
(b) Isqei to antstrofo?
(g) 'Estw oti a < b < a + ". Brete lou tou x 2 R pou ikanopoion ti ja xj < 2"
kai jb xj < ".
2
3. 'Estw a; b 2 R kai n 2 N. Dexte oti
nX1
an bn = (a b) ak bn 1 k:
k=0
18
An 0<a 0, dexte oti

(1 + a ) : : : (1 + an) 1 + a + : : : + an:
1 1
(b) An0 < a ; : : : ; an < 1

1 , tte
1 (a +: : :+an) (1 a ) : : : (1 an) 1 (a +: : :+an)+(a a +a a +: : :+an

1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 an ):
x 1, tte (1 + x)n 1 + nx.
(a) An
(b) An 0 < x < 1=n, tte (1 + x)

n < 1=(1 nx).
5.
(g) An 0 x 1, tte
1 nx (1 x)n
1
1 + nx :
(d) Isqoun oi anisthte
n n n n
1
1+ n < 1+ n+1 1 +1
1+ n 1 > 1+
1+1 +2
:
n+1
kai
6. (a) An sin(x=2) 6= 0 , tte

1 +X n sin ( n + )x 1
2 k os(kx) = 2 sin(x=2) :
2
=1
(b) An sin x 6= 0
, tte
os((2k 1)x) = sin(2 nx)

X n
:
k =1
2 sin x
(g) An sin(x=2n) 6= 0 , tte
os 2xk = 21n sin(sinx=x2n) :

Y n
k =1
7. (Anisthta arijmhtiko-gewmetriko msou) An x1 ; : : : ; xn > 0, tte

x1 + : : : + x n n
x1 x2 : : : xn :
n
Isthta isqei an kai mno an x 1 = x2 = : : : = x n .
19
Epsh , an x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn > 0, tte
!n
n
x1 x2 : : : x n :
1
x1 + : : : + x1n
8. (a) Anisthta Cau hy-S hwarz :
!2 ! !
n
X n
X n
X
ak bk ak
2
bk :
2
k=1 k=1 k=1

(b) Anisthta tou Minkowski :
!1=2 !1=2 !1=2

n
X n
X n
X
(ak + bk ) 2
ak
2
+ bk
2
:
k=1 k=1 k=1
9. An a1 a2 : : : a1 > 0 kai b1 b2 : : : bn > 0, tte

a1 bn + a2 bn 1 + : : : + anb a + : : : + an b + : : : + bn a b + : : : + anbn :
1 1 1 1 1
n n n n
'Estw na plrw diatetagmno sma. Dexte oti kje mh ken ktw frag-
A tou qei mgisto ktw frgma.

10.
mno uposnolo
11. Brete to supremum kai to inmum twn sunlwn

1 + ( 1)n + ( 1)n : n 2 N
n +1
A=

1 1
kai
B = n + m : n; m 2 N :
2 3
12. 'Estw A; B mh ken fragmna uposnola tou R me A B. Dexte oti
inf B inf A sup A sup B:

13. 'Estw A mh ken fragmno uposnolo tou R me inf A = sup A. Ti sumperanete
gia to A?
14. Swst ljo ? An x = sup A kai " > 0, tte uprqei a 2 A me x " < a < x.
15. Enai to ken snolo nw ktw fragmno? P ja orzate to sup ; to inf ;
?
16. 'Estw A; B mh ken, fragmna uposnola tou R. Dexte oti to A[B enai
fragmno kai
sup(A [ B) = maxfsup A; sup Bg ; inf(A [ B) = minfinf A; inf Bg:

20
17. 'Estw A; B mh ken, fragmna uposnola tou R. Orzoume A + B = fa + b :
a 2 A; b 2 B g. Dexte oti
sup(A + B) = sup A + sup B ; inf(A + B) = inf A + inf B:
'Estw A; B mh ken, fragmna snola jetikn pragmatikn arijmn. Orzou-
A B = fab : a 2 A; b 2 B g. Dexte oti

18.
me
sup(A B) = sup A sup B ; inf(A B) = inf A inf B:

19. 'Estw A mh ken, fragmno uposnolo tou R. An t 2 R, orzoume tA = fta :
a 2 Ag. Dexte oti
t 0 tte sup(tA) = t sup A kai inf(tA) = t inf A.

(a) an
t < 0 tte sup(tA) = t inf A kai inf(tA) = t sup A.

(a) an
'Estw A mh ken uposnolo tou R kai a0 2 A me thn idithta: gia kje a 2 A,
a a0 . Dexte oti a0 = sup A.

20.
21. 'Estw A; B mh ken uposnola tou R me thn ex idithta: gia kje a 2 A kai
gia kje b 2 B ,
a b:
Dexte oti sup A inf B .
22. 'Estw A; B pw sthn prohgomenh skhsh. An epiplon A [ B = R, dexte
oti uprqei a 2 R ttoio ste
ete A = fx 2 R : x < ag A = fx 2 R : x ag:

23. 'Estw A; B mh ken, fragmna uposnola tou R me thn ex idithta: gia kje
a 2 A uprqei b 2 B ttoio ste

a b:
Dexte oti sup A sup B .
24. 'Estw A snolo jetikn pragmatikn arijmn me sup A < 1. Upojtoume
oti to A qei thn ex idithta: an a; b 2 A kai a < b, tte a=b 2 A. Dexte oti
sup A 2 A.
25. 'Estw N 2 N , N 2 kai x 2 R. Dexte oti uprqoun m; n 2 Z me 0 < n N
jnx mj < N1 :
ttoioi ste
26. 'Estw x rrhto . Dexte oti uprqoun peiroi to pljo rhto m=n me m 2 Z,
n 2 N,
m 1
ttoioi ste

x < 2:
n n
'Estw n 2 N pou den enai tetrgwno fusiko arijmo. Dexte oti uprqei
M > 0 ttoio ste

27.

pn m 1
k Mk 2
21
gia kje m; n 2 N .
28. Gia kje x 2 R orzoume Ax = fq 2 Q : q < xg. Dexte oti
x = y () Ax = Ay :
'Estw a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an ; : : : jetiko pragmatiko arijmo me thn idithta an+1 <
an =2 gia kje n 2 N . Dexte oti
29.
inf fan : n 2 Ng = 0:
30. 'Estw a1 ; : : : ; an jetiko pragmatiko arijmo. Dexte oti uprqei 1mn 1
me thn idithta
m n
X X

ak ak maxfa1 ; : : : ; an g:
k=1 k=m+1
Updeixh: Jewrste tou arijmo
m
X n
X
bm = ak ak ; m = 1; : : : ; n 1
k=1 k=m+1
kai
n
X n
X
b0 = ak ; b n = ak :
k=1 k=1
Dexte oti do diadoqiko ap auto enai etershmoi.
31. 'Estw n 2 N.
(a) Dexte oti h sunrthsh
f (x) = [x + x +
1 + + x + n 1 [nx
n n

enai periodik me perodo 1=n . Dhlad, f x + n1 = f (x) gia kje x 2 R.
(b) Upologste thn tim f (x) tan 0 x < 1=n.
(g) Dexte thn tautthta
[nx = [x + x + n1 + + x + n n 1
gia kje x2R kai kje n 2 N.
22
Keflaio 2
Akolouje
2.1 Orism tou orou - idithte sugklinousn
akoloujin
Mia sunrthsh a:N !R (me pedo orismo to snolo twn fusikn arijmn)
lgetai akolouja. Ant na sumbolzoume ti tim th me a(1); a(2); : : :, grfoume

a1 ; a 2 ; a 3 ; : : :
kai lme oti o arijm an enai o n-ost th akolouja . H dia h akolouja
fangn2N fan g (an )

ro
sumbolzetai me , , akma pi apl me an qwr aut na prokale

sgqush.
Lme oti h akolouja an ston pragmatik arijm a (kai
lim an = a limn an = a an ! a
Orism sugklnei
grfoume an isqei to ex :
Se osodpote mikr perioq (a "; a + ") a tou brskontai telik loi
oi roi th (an ).
Parathrnta oti x 2 (a "; a + ") jx aj < "

an kai mno an , mporome na dsoume
ton ex austhr orism: h (an) a

sugklnei ston an:
Gia kje ">0 uprqei fusik n = n (") 0 0 me thn idithta: an n2N

kai n n (")
0 , ttejan aj < " .
(a) Ston parapnw orism, o dekth n0 exarttai kje for ap
n0 (") ttoion ste

Parathrsei
to ". 'Oso mw mikr ki an enai to ", mporome na brome
loi oi roi pou pontai tou an0 na brskontai{"-kont} ston a. Skeftete thn
prospjeia epilog tou n0 (") san na ep peiron paiqndi me nan antpalo o
opoo epilgei olona kai mikrtero " > 0.
(b) Lme oti an ! +1 (h akolouja tenei sto +1) an gia kje M > 0 (osodpote
meglo) uprqei fusik n0 = n0 (M ) ttoio ste
an n n0 ; tte an > M:
23
Antstoiqa, lme oti an ! 1 (h akolouja tenei sto 1 ) an gia kje M >0
(osodpote meglo) uprqei fusik n0 = n0 (M ) ttoio ste
an n n0 ; tte an < M:
Qrhsimopoisame th lxh {tenei} sto 1 : sumfwnome pw mia akolouja (an )
mno an sugklnei se kpoion pragmatik arijm a (o opoo lgetai kai
(an)
sugklnei
rio th ). Se le ti lle periptsei ja lme oti h akolouja apoklnei.
Gia na exoikeiwjome me ton orism dnoume austhr apodexei merikn basikn
idiottwn twn sugklinousn akoloujin.
Jerhma 2.1.1 (Monadikthta tou orou) An an ! a kai an ! b , tte a=b .
Apdeixh: Jewrome tuqn " > 0. Afo an ! a, uprqei fusik n1 (") ttoio
ste
n n1 ; jan bj < ":

gia kje
Omow , afo an ! b uprqei fusik n2 (") ttoio ste
gia kje n n2 ; jan bj < ":

Prte kpoion fusik n pou na enai megaltero ap ton n1 kai ap ton n2 (giat
aut enai dunat?). Tte,
ja bj = j(a an ) + (an b)j ja an j + jan bj < 2":

H anisthta ja bj < 2" ">0
isqei loipn gia kje . Aut shmanei oti a=b
(giat?).
Upojtoume oti a 6= b. Qwr periorism th genikthta , mporome
" = (b a)=4, tte a + " 0, pw parapnw, mporome na brome n 2 N to opoo na ikanopoie
tautqrona ti
jan aj < " kai jan bj < ":

'Omw tte,
an 2 (a "; a + ") \ (b "; b + ");

to opoo enai topo. 2
Jerhma 2.1.2 Jewrome tre akolouje a n ; bn ; n pou ikanopoion ta ex :
(a) an b n n gia kje n2N .
(b) lim an = lim n = L

Tte, lim bn = L .
24
Apdeixh: 'Estw " > 0. Afo an ! L kai n ! L, uprqoun n1 ("); n2 (") fusiko
ttoioi ste
jan Lj < " an n n1 kai j n Lj < " an n n2 :

Isodnama,
L " < an < L + " an n n1 kai L " < n < L + " an n n2 :

Epilgoume n0 (") = maxfn1("); n2 (")g. An n n0 , tte
L " < a n bn n < L + "
dhlad, an n n0 qoume jbn Lj < " . Me bsh ton orism, bn ! L. 2
Bebaiwjete oti qete katalbei thn diadikasa apdeixh : an jloume na dexoume
otitn ! t, prpei gia aujareto (mikr) " > 0 - h apdeixh xekinei me thn frsh
{stw " > 0} - na brome fusik n0 (pou exarttai ap to ") me thn idithta:
n n0 (") ) jtn tj < ".
Ja qete parathrsei oti oi prtoi m roi (m = 2; 10 1010 -to dio knei-) den
ephrezoun th sgklish mh mia akolouja . Dhlad, gia kje k 2 N h akolouja
(an) sugklnei an kai mno an h akolouja (bn) = (an+k ) sugklnei, kai mlista
limn an = limn an+k .
H akolouja (an ) lgetai an mporome na brome kpoion
M > 0 me thn idithta

Orism fragmnh
jan j M gia kje n 2 N :

Jerhma 2.1.3 Kje sugklnousa akolouja enai fragmnh.
'Estw oti an !a2R . Parnoume " = 1 > 0. Mporome na brome
jan aj < 1
Apdeixh:
n0 2 N ste gia kje n n0 . Dhlad,
an n n0 ; tte jan j < 1 + jaj:

Jtoume
M = maxfja1 j; : : : ; jan0 j; 1 + jajg

kai ekola elgqoume oti jan j M gia kje n 2 N (diakrnete periptsei : n n0
kai n > n0 ). 'Ara, h (an ) enai fragmnh. 2

Jerhma 2.1.4 An an ! a kai bn ! b , tte an bn ! ab .
Apdeixh: Jloume na dexoume oti h diafor jan bn abj enai mikr tan to n
enai meglo. Grfoume :
jan bn abj = jan (bn b) + b(an a)j jan jjbn bj + jbjjan aj:
25
H an mnei fragmnh ap to Jerhma 2.1.3, en mporome na knoume ti jbn bj
kaijan aj so mikr jloume (gia megla n).
Tupik: 'Estw M nw frgma th jan j kai stw " > 0. Uprqei n0 2 N t.w. an
n n0 na qoume
"
jbn bj < 2M kai jan aj < 2(1 +" jbj) :
[H monda sto
" ; "
1+jbj enai gia prolhptiko lgou - gia thn perptwsh pou b = 0. Oi
2M 2(1+jbj)
enai kpoioi jetiko arijmo kai pnw tou efarmzoume thn upjesh
oti an ! a; bn ! b.
'Estw n n0 . Tte,
jan b abj jan jjbn bj + jbjjan aj

" "
< M
2M + jbj
2(1 + jbj) < ":
Afo to " tan tuqn, petai oti an bn ! ab. 2
Jerhma 2.1.5 An an ! a kai bn ! b 6= 0 , tte
an
bn ! ab .
Apdeixh: Arke na dexoume oti

1
bn !b 1
. (giat?) Siwphr upojtoume oti bn 6= 0
h upjesh oti b 6= 0
1
(ste o
bn na enai kal orismno ). 'Opw mw ja dome,
ma lei oti telik bn 6= 0 (kai aut qei shmasa gia th sgklish).

Isqurism Ap kpoion dekth kai pra
jbn j > j2bj :

[Efarmzoume to oti bn ! b me " = j2bj > 0. Uprqei n1 2 N t.w. an n n1 tte
jbn bj < j2bj ) jbn j > j2bj .

A dome ti jloume na knoume mikr:

()
1 1 = jb bn j 2jb bnj
jbn jjbj < jbj

b b 2
n
an n n1 .
2
Tupik: 'Estw "> 0. Uprqei n2 2N jb bn j < "jbj
t.w.
2
gia kje n n 2.
Epsh , edame oti uprqei n1 2 N t.w. jbn j > jbj nn

gia kje 1. Epilgoume
n0 = maxfn1 ; n2 g. n n0 , h () dnei

2
An

1 1 < 2jb bn j
< ":
b
n b jbj 2
1
!b 1 an ! a = a 1
2
Me bsh ton orism,
bn (ra kai
bn b b ).
26
Jerhma 2.1.6 'Estw (an ) fragmnh akolouja, kai bn ! 0 . Tte an bn ! 0 .
'Eqoume kpoion M > 0 t.w. jan j M gia kje n 2 N. 'Estw ">0

bn ! 0, uprqei n0 2 N
Apdeixh:
Afo t.w.
jbn j = jbn 0j < M"

gia kje n n0 . 'Epetai oti, an n n0 tte
jan bn j = jan jjbn j < M M" = ": 2

Afnoume san skhsh thn apdeixh kpoiwn llwn basikn protsewn gia th sg-
klish akoloujin.
'Askhsh. Apodexte ta ex :
1. An an ! a kai bn ! b, tte an + bn ! a + b.
2. An an bn gia kje n 2 N kai an ! a; bn ! b, tte a b.
3. An an M gia kje n 2 N kai an ! a, tte a M .
2.2 Sgklish montonwn akoloujin
Orism Mia akolouja (an) lgetai:
axousa, an an+1 an gia kje n 2 N .

fjnousa, an an+1 an gia kje n 2 N .
gnhsw axousa, an an+1 > an gia kje n 2 N .
gnhsw fjnousa, an an+1 < an gia kje n 2 N .
Se kje mia ap ti parapnw periptsei lme oti h (an) enai montonh.
Paratrhsh Ekola elgqoume oti an h (an) enai axousa tte
() n m =) an am :
(stajeropoiste to n kai dexte oti an an am tte an am +1 ). Antstoiqo
sumprasma isqei gia lou tou llou tpou monotona ston parapnw orism.
H diasjhsh upodeiknei oti an mia akolouja enai montonh kai fragmnh, tte
prpei na sugklnei. Gia pardeigma, an h (an ) enai axousa kai nw fragmnh, tte
oi roi th susswreontai sto elqisto nw frgma tou sunlou A = fan : n 2 N g.

Ja dsoume austhr apdeixh gi aut:
27
Jerhma 2.2.1 (Sgklish montonwn akoloujin) Kje montonh kai fragmnh
akolouja sugklnei.
Qwr blbh th genikthta upojtoume oti h an enai axousa. Ap
= fan : n 2 Ng
Apdeixh:
thn upjesh, to snolo A enai nw fragmno (kai bbaia m
ken). Ap to axwma th plhrthta , uprqei to elqisto nw frgma tou. 'Estw
a = sup A. an ! a.
Ja dexoume oti
'Estw " > 0. Afo a

" < a, o a " den enai nw frgma tou A. Dhlad,
uprqei n0 2 N t.w. a " < an0 . Epeid h an enai axousa, gia kje n n0
qoume an0 an kai epeid o a enai nw frgma tou A, an a. Dhlad, an n n0
tte
a " < a n0 a n a < a + "

'Epetai oti jan aj < " . 2
Me parmoio trpo apodeiknontai ta ex :
An h (an) enai fjnousa kai ktw fragmnh, tte an ! inf fan : n 2 N g.

An h (an) enai axousa kai den enai nw fragmnh, tte tenei sto +1 .
An h (an) enai fjnousa kai den enai ktw fragmnh, tte tenei sto 1 .
A dome gia pardeigma thn apdeixh tou deterou isqurismo: 'Estw M > 0. O
M den enai nw frgma tou sunlou fan : n 2 N g , ra uprqei n0 2N ttoio
ste an0 > M . Afo h (an) enai axousa, gia kje n n0 qoume
an an0 > M:
Afo o M > 0 tan tuqn, an ! +1.
2.3 Kibwtismo diasthmtwn
Mia efarmog tou Jewrmato 2.2.1 enai h {arq tou kibwtismo}:
Jerhma 2.3.1 An R [a1 ; b1 : : : [an ; bn [an+1 ; bn+1 : : : , tte
1
\
[an; bn 6= ;:
n=1
T1
An epiplon b n an ! 0 , tte to snolo [
n=1 an ; bn periqei akrib nan prag-
matik arijm (enai monosnolo).
28
[an; bn [an+1; bn+1 petai oti an an+1 kai
Ap thn upjesh
n 2 N . 'Ara, h (an ) enai axousa kai h (bn ) fjnousa.

Apdeixh:
bn bn+1 gia kje
Ja dexoume oti oi (an ), (bn ) enai fragmne akolouje : An m > n, tte
bn bm am en an m < n tte am an bn . Dhlad,

a1 a m b n b 1
gia kje m; n 2N . H (an ) enai nw fragmnh p.q. ap ton b1 , kai h (bn) enai
ktw fragmnh p.q. ap ton a1 .

Ap to jerhma sgklish montonwn akoloujin, uprqoun a; b 2 R t.w.
an ! a kai bn ! b:
Afo an bn gia kje n 2 N, ekola blpoume oti a b. Epsh , h monotona
twn (an); (bn) dnei
an a kai b bn
gia kje n 2 N, dhlad
1
\
() [a; b [an; bn:
n=1
(pou sumfwnome oti [a; b = fag = fbg an a = b). Eidiktera,
1
\
[an; bn 6= ;:
n=1
Ja dexoume oti
1
\
[a; b = [an; bn:
n=1
x2 1
T
'Estw
n=1 [an ; bn . Tte, an x bn gia kje n 2 N , ra
a = lim a x lim
n n
b = b ) x 2 [a; b:
n n
'Ara,
1
\
[a; b [an; bn:
n=1
kai h isthta petai ap thn () .
An upojsoume oti bn an ! 0, qoume

b a = lim b
n n
lim a = lim
n n
(b
n n
an ) = 0:
T1
Dhlad, a =b . 'Ara to snolo [
n=1 an ; bn periqei akrib nan pragmatik
arijm: ton a(= b) . 2
29
2.4 Upakolouje - Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass
Orism H akolouja (bk ) lgetai upakolouja th (an ) an uprqei mia gnsia
axousa akolouja fusikn arijmn n1 < n2 < : : : < nk < : : : ttoia ste
bk = ank gia kje k 2 N:
(Me lla lgia, oi roi th (bk ) enai oi an1 ; an2 ; : : : ; ank ; : : : pou n1 < n2 < : : : <
nk < : : : ). Fusik, kje akolouja qei poll upakolouje .
Jerhma 2.4.1 Kje akolouja qei toulqiston mia montonh upakolouja.
Apdeixh: 'Estw (an ) tuqosa akolouja. Lme oti h (an) qei shmeo koruf
ton ro ak ak am gia kje m k. Diakrnoume do periptsei :

an
(a) h (an ) qei peira shmea koruf : Uprqoun dhlad n1 < n2 < : : : < nk < : : :
t.w. oi roi an1 ; : : : ; ank ; : : : na enai shmea koruf . Ap ton orism tou shmeou
koruf
an1 an2 : : : ank :::;

dhlad h upakolouja (ank ) enai fjnousa.
(b) h (an) Uprqei dhlad n1 2 N

qei peperasmna to pljo shmea koruf :
(to teleutao shmeo koruf o n1 = 1 an den uprqoun shmea koruf ) me thn

0
idithta: an n n1 , uprqei n > n t.w. an0 > an .
Brskoume n2 > n1 t.w. an1 > an2 , katpin brskoume n3 > n2 t.w. an3 > an2
kai otw kajex . Uprqoun dhlad n1 < n2 < : : : < nk < : : : t.w.
an1 < an2 < : : : < ank < : : : :

'Ara, h (an) qei toulqiston mia axousa upakolouja. 2
'Amesh sunpeia enai to Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass :
Jerhma 2.4.2 Bolzano-Weierstrass

( ) Kje fragmnh akolouja qei sugklnou-
sa upakolouja.
'Estw (an) fragmnh akolouja. Ap to Jerhma 2.4.1 h (an ) qei
(ank ) (ank )
Apdeixh:
montonh upakolouja . H enai montonh kai fragmnh, ra sugklnei.
2.5 Akolouje Cau hy
Mia akolouja (an ) lgetai Cau hy an gia kje "> 0

n0 = n0 (") 2 N
Orism akolouja
uprqei t.w.
an m; n n0 ("); tte jan am j < ":

30
Dhlad, an ap kpoio dekth kai pra loi oi roi th akolouja (an) enai an
"
do { -kont}.
An h (an) enai akolouja Cau hy , tte gia kje "> 0 uprqei
n0 = n0 (") 2 N
Paratrhsh
t.w.
an n n0 ("); tte jan an j < ":

+1
To antstrofo den isqei: an, ap kpoion dekth kai pra, diadoqiko roi enai
kont, den petai oti h akolouja enai Cau hy . Gia pardeigma, jewrste thn
1 1
an = 1 + p + : : : + p :
2 n
pn1+ 1 ! 0
Tte,
jan+1 an j =
tan n ! 1, mw
p
ja n an j = pn1+ 1 + : : : + p1 > pn ! +1
2
2n 2
tan n ! 1, ap pou blpoume oti h (an ) den enai akolouja Cau hy (giat?).
Prtash 2.5.1 Kje akolouja Cau hy enai fragmnh.
'Estw (an ) akolouja Cau hy. Prte " = 1 > 0 ston orism: uprqei
n0 2 N t.w. jan am j < 1 gia kje n; m n0 . Eidiktera, jan an0 j < 1 gia kje
Apdeixh:
n n0 . Dhlad,
jan j < 1 + jan0 j gia kje n n0 :
Jtoume M = maxfja1 j; : : : ; jan0 1 j; 1 + jan0 jg kai ekola epalhjeoume oti
jan j M
gia kje n 2 N. 2
Cau hy (an )
(an)
Prtash 2.5.2 An mia akolouja qei sugklnousa upakolouja, tte
h sugklnei.
Upojtoume oti h(an ) enai akolouja Cau hy kai oti h upakolouja

(ank )
Apdeixh:
sugklnei sto a 2 R. Ja dexoume oti an ! a.

'Estw " > 0. Uprqei k0 2 N t.w. gia kje k k0
jank aj < " : 2

Epsh , uprqei k1 2 N t.w. gia kje n; m k1
jan am j < " : 2
31
Jtoume k2 = maxfk0 ; k1 g. 'Estw k k2 . Tte nk k2 k0 , ra
jank aj < 2" :
Epsh nk ; k k2 k1 ra
jank ak j < 2" :
jak aj jak ank j + jank aj < 2" + 2" = ":

'Epetai oti
Dhlad, jak aj < "gia kjekk an ! a

2 . Aut shmanei oti . 2
Jerhma 2.5.1 Mia akolouja (an) sugklnei an kai mno an enai akolouja
Cau hy .
Apdeixh: Upojtoume prta oti an ! a 2 R. 'Estw " > 0. Uprqei n0 2 N t.w.
"
jan aj < 2 gia kje n n0 :
'Estw n; m n0 . Tte,
jan am j jan aj + ja am j < 2" + 2" = ":

'Ara, h (an) enai akolouja Cau hy .
Gia thn antstrofh katejunsh: stw (an) akolouja Cau hy . Ap thn Prtash
2.5.1, h (an) enai fragmnh. Ap to Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass (an) ,h qei sug-
klnousa upakolouja. Tlo , ap thn Prtash 2.5.2 petai oti h (an ) sugklnei.
2
Aut to kritrio sgklish enai pol qrsimo. Poll for jloume na exa-
sfalsoume thn parxh orou gia mia akolouja qwr na ma endiafrei h tim tou
orou. Arke na dexoume oti h akolouja enai Cau hy , dhlad oti oi roi th enai
{kont} gia meglou dekte , kti pou den apaite na mantyoume ek twn protrwn
poi enai to rio. Antjeta, gia na xekinsoume kai mno na douleoume me ton
orism tou orou, prpei dh na xroume poi enai to upoyfio rio (Sugkrnete
tou do orismo : { an ! a} kai {(an ) akolouja Cau hy}.)
2.6 Shmea sussreush - antero kai kattero
rio akolouja
Skop ma se autn thn pargrafo enai na meletsoume pio prosektik ti upa-
kolouje mia fragmnh akolouja . An h akolouja sugklnei se kpoion prag-
matik arijm, tte h katstash enai pol apl.
32
(an ) an !a (ank )
(an)
Jerhma 2.6.1 'Estw mia akolouja. Upojtoume oti . An
enai tuqosa upakolouja th , tte ank !a .
Apdeixh: 'Estw " > 0. Afo an ! a, uprqei k0 = k0 (") 2 N t.w. jak aj < "
gia kje k k0 . 'Eqoume nk k gia kje k 2 N , ra nk k0 an k k0 . 'Epetai
oti gia kje n k0 qoume
jank aj < ":

Aut shmanei oti ank ! a. 2
Dhlad, le oi upakolouje mia sugklnousa akolouja sugklnoun kai
mlista sto dio rio: to rio th akolouja . Me lla lgia: an mia akolouja
qei do upakolouje pou sugklnoun se diaforetik ria, tte apoklnei.
'Estw (an ) mia akolouja. Lme oti o x 2 R enai

(an) (ank ) (an)
Orism shmeo sussreush
th an uprqei upakolouja th me ank ! x.
x (an )
">0
Lmma 2.6.1 O enai shmeo sussreush th an kai mno an gia kje
kai kje m2N uprqei nm t.w. jan xj < " .
x
Upojtoume prta oti o (an)
enai shmeo sussreush th . Uprqei
(ank ) (an) ank ! x

Apdeixh:
loipn upakolouja th me .
'Estw ">0 m2N kai k 2N . jank xj < "

Uprqei 0 kk t.w. gia kje 0.
Jewrome ton k = maxfm; k g
1 nk1 k m k k
0 . Tte jank1 xj < " 1 kai 1 0 , ra .
"=1
parnoume m=1 n 1
kai jan1 xj < 1
. Uprqei 1 t.w. .
"= m = n +1 n n +1 > n
Antstrofa:
1
Sth sunqeia prnoume kai 1 . Uprqei 2 1 1 t.w.
jan2 xj <
2
1
.
2
Epagwgik brskoume n1 < n2 < : : : < nk < : : : t.w.
jank xj < k1
(knete mnoi sa to epagwgik bma). Enai faner oti ank !x . 2
A proume tra mia fragmnh akolouja (an ) . Uprqei M > 0 t.w. jan j M
gia kje n 2 N. Jewrome to snolo
K = fx 2 R : x enai shmeo sussreush th (an )g:

K enai mh ken: Ap to Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass uprqei toulqiston
(ank ) (an) (ank )

To
mia upakolouja th pou sugklnei. To rio th enai ex orismo
stoiqeo tou K.
To K enai fragmno: An x 2 K , uprqei ank !x kai afo M ank M
gia kje k, petai oti M x M .
Ap to axwma th plhrthta prokptei oti uprqoun ta: sup K kai inf K .
Lmma 2.6.2 'Estw (an) fragmnh akolouja kai
K = fx 2 R : x enai shmeo sussreush th (an)g:

Tte, sup K 2 K kai inf K 2 K .
33
'Estw a = sup K . Jloume na dexoume oti o a enai shmeo sussreu-
(an) ">0
Apdeixh:
sh th , kai smfwna me to Lmma 2.6.1 arke na dome oti gia kje
kai m2N uprqei n m t.w. jan aj < ".

" > 0 kai m 2 N. Afo a = sup K , uprqei x 2 K t.w. a 2" < x a. O
'Estw
x enai shmeo sussreush th (an ), ra uprqei n m t.w. jan xj < 2" . Tte,
jan aj jan xj + jx aj < " + " = ": 2 2

Me anlogo trpo deqnoume oti inf K 2 K . 2
Orism 'Estw (an ) mia fragmnh akolouja. An
K = fx 2 R : x enai shmeo sussreush th (an)g;

orzoume
lim sup an = sup K , to antero rio th (an)

,
lim inf an = inf K to kattero rio th (an).
Me bsh to Lmma 2.6.2, to lim sup an enai to mgisto stoiqeo kai to lim inf an
enai to elqisto stoiqeo tou K antstoiqa:
(an ) lim sup an

(ank ) (an )
Jerhma 2.6.2 'Estw fragmnh akolouja. To enai o megal-
x
lim inf an
tero pragmatik arijm gia ton opoo uprqei upakolouja th me
ank !x y
(an0k ) (an )
. To enai o mikrtero pragmatik arijm gia ton opoo
uprqei upakolouja th me an0k !y . 2

To antero kai to kattero rio mia fragmnh akolouja perigrfontai
msw twn perioqn tou w ex :
Jerhma 2.6.3 'Estw (an) fragmnh akolouja pragmatikn arijmn kai stw
x2R . Tte,
x lim sup an
(1) an kai mno an: gia kje ">0 to fn 2 N : x " < an g enai
peiro.
(2) x lim sup an an kai mno an: gia kje ">0 to fn 2 N : x + " < an g enai
peperasmno.
(3) x lim inf an an kai mno an: gia kje ">0 to fn 2 N : an < x + "g enai
peiro.
(4) x lim inf an an kai mno an: gia kje ">0 to fn 2 N : an < x "g enai
peperasmno.
x = lim sup an ">0 fn 2 N : x " < an g

fn 2 N : x + " < an g
(5) an kai mno an: gia kje to enai
peiro kai to enai peperasmno.
x = lim inf an ">0 fn 2 N : an < x + "g

fn 2 N : an < x "g
(6) an kai mno an: gia kje to enai
peiro kai to enai peperasmno.
34
(1: )) 'Estw "> 0
. Uprqei upakolouja (ank ) th (an ) me ank !
lim sup an
Apdeixh:
, ra uprqei k0 t.w. gia kje k k0

ank > lim sup an " x ":
'Epetai oti to fn : an > x "g enai peiro.
(2: ) ) 'Estw "> 0. An uprqan n1 < n2 < : : : < nk < : : : me ank > x + ",
tte h (ank ) ja eqe sugklnousa upakolouja (anks ) (ap to Jerhma Bolzano-
Weierstrass ) me anks !y x+" . 'Omw tte ja eqame
lim sup an y x + " lim sup an + "

to opoo enai topo. 'Ara, to fn : an > x + "g enai peperasmno.
(1: ( x > lim sup an . Tte uprqei " > 0 ttoio ste an y = x " na
) 'Estw oti
qoume x > y > lim sup an . Ap thn upjes ma , to fn 2 N : y < an g enai peiro.
'Omw y > lim sup an opte ap thn (2: )) to snolo fn 2 N : y < an g enai
peperasmno (gryte y = lim sup an + "1 gia kpoio "1 > 0). Oi do isqurismo
rqontai se antfash.
(2: ( x < lim sup an kai brskoume y ttoion ste x <

) 'Omoia, upojtoume oti
y < lim sup an . y > x, sumperanoume oti to fn 2 N : y < an g enai

Afo
peperasmno (aut enai h upjes ma ) kai afo y < lim sup an sumperanoume oti
to fn 2 N : y < an g enai peiro (ap thn (1: ) ).) 'Etsi katalgoume se topo.
H (5) enai mesh sunpeia twn (1) kai (2).
Gia ti (3), (4) kai (6) ergazmaste moia. 2

Mia enallaktik perigraf twn lim sup an kai lim inf an dnetai ap to epmeno
jerhma:
Jerhma 2.6.4 (an )

'Estw fragmnh akolouja.
(a) Jtoume bn = supfak : k ng . Tte, lim sup an = inf fbn : n 2 Ng .
(b) Jtoume n = inf fak : k ng . Tte, lim inf an = supf n : n 2 Ng .
Apdeixh: Deqnoume prta oti oi arijmo inf fbn : n 2 Ng kai supf n : n 2 Ng

orzontai kal:
Gia kje n 2 N, isqei n an bn (giat?). Epsh , h (bn) enai fjnousa,
en h (an) enai axousa (giat?). Afo h (an) enai fragmnh, petai oti h (bn)
enai fjnousa kai ktw fragmnh, en h ( n) enai axousa kai nw fragmnh.
'Ara, bn ! inf fbn : n 2 N g := b kai n ! supf n : n 2 N g :=

(Jerhma 2.2.1).
Ja dexoume oti lim sup an = b. Ap to Lmma 2.6.2, uprqei (ank ) upakolouja
th (an ) me ank ! lim sup an . 'Omw , ank bnk kai bnk ! b (giat?). 'Ara,
lim sup an = lim ank lim bnk = b.

Gia thn antstrofh anisthta deqnoume oti o b enai shmeo sussreush th
(an). 'Estw " > 0 kai m 2 N. Uprqei n m t.w. jb bnj < 2" . All,
35
bn = supfak : k ng, ra uprqei k nm t.w. bn ak > bn " dhlad
jbn ak j < 2" . 'Epetai oti

2
jb ak j jb bn j + jbn ak j < 2" + 2" = ":

Ap to Lmma 2.6.1, o b enai shmeo sussreush th (an ), kai ap to Jerhma
2.6.2 parnoume b lim sup an .
Me anlogo trpo deqnoume oti lim inf an = . 2
Teleinoume me nan qarakthrism th sgklish gia fragmne akolouje
(o opoo sumplhrnei to Jerhma 2.6.1).
(an) (an)
lim sup an = lim inf an
Jerhma 2.6.5 'Estw fragmnh akolouja. H sugklnei an kai mno an
an ! a. Ap to Jerhma 2.6.1, gia kje upakolouja (ank )

'Estw oti
(an)
Apdeixh:
th qoumeank ! a. Epomnw , o a enai to monadik shmeo sussreush

th (an )
. 'Eqoume K = fag, ra
lim sup an = lim inf an = a:

stw "> 0 . Ap to Jerhma 2.6.3, o arijm a = lim sup an =
lim inf an
Antstrofa:
qei thn idithta:
Ta snola fn 2 N : an <a "g kai fn 2 N : an > a + "g enai
peperasmna.
Dhlad, to snolo
fn 2 N : jan aj > "g

enai peperasmno. Isodnama, uprqei n 2N0 me thn idithta: gia kje n n0 ,
jan aj ":
Afo to " > 0 tan tuqn, petai oti an ! a . 2
2.7 Parrthma: ap thn Arqimdeia idithta kai
thn idithta Cau hy petai to axwma th plh-
rthta
Sto Keflaio 1 deqtkame oti to R enai na diatetagmno sma pou ikanopoie
to axwma th plhrthta : kje mh ken, nw fragmno uposnol tou qei elqi-
sto nw frgma. Qrhsimopointa thn parxh supremum dexame thn Arqimdeia
idithta:
36
() An a2R kai " > 0, uprqei n 2 N ttoio ste n" > a.
Qrhsimopointa kai pli to axwma th plhrthta , dexame oti kje montonh
kai fragmnh akolouja sugklnei. San sunpeia prame to Jerhma Bolzano-

Weierstrass : kje fragmnh akolouja qei sugklnousa upakolouja. Aut me
th seir tou ma eptreye na dexoume thn {idithta Cau hy } twn pragmatikn
arijmn:
() Kje akolouja Cau hy pragmatikn arijmn sugklnei se prag-
matik arijm.
Se autn thn pargrafo ja dexoume oti to axwma th plhrthta enai logik
sunpeia twn () kai () . An dhlad deqtome to R san na diatetagmno sma pou
qei thn Arqimdeia idithta kai thn idithta Cau hy , tte mporome na apodexoume
to {axwma th plhrthta } san jerhma:
Jerhma 2.7.1 'Estw R na diatetagmno sma me ti aklouje idithte :
1. An a 2 R kai " 2 R " > 0

, , tte uprqei n2N ttoio ste n" > a .
2. Kje akolouja Cau hy stoiqewn tou R sugklnei se stoiqeo tou R .
Tte, kje mh ken kai nw fragmno A R qei elqisto nw frgma.
Shmewsh: To snolo N, oi akolouje Cau hy , to elqisto nw frgma en
sunlou klp. orzontai akrib pw kai sto R: N enai to mikrtero epagwgik
uposnolo tou R , h akolouja (an ) enai akolouja Cau hy an gia kje " > 0
uprqei n0 (") 2 N ttoio ste jan am j < " an n; m n0 ("), kai otw kajex .
Apdeixh: 'Estw A mh ken kai nw fragmno uposnolo tou R .

Xekinme me tuqn stoiqeo a0 2 A (uprqei afo A 6= ;). 'Estw b nw frgma tou
A. Ap thn sunjkh 1, uprqei k 2 N gia ton opoo a0 + k > b. Dhlad, uprqei
fusik k me thn idithta
gia kje a 2 A; a < a0 + k:
Ap thn arq tou elaqstou (pou enai sunpeia th 1) petai oti uprqei elqisto
ttoio fusik . A ton pome k1 . Tte,
Gia kjea 2 A isqei a < a0 + k1 .

Uprqei a1 2 A ttoio ste a0 + (k1 1) a 1.
Epagwgik ja brome a0 a : : : an : : :
1 sto A kai kn 2 N pou
ikanopoion ta ex :
a2A
Gia kje isqei a < an 1 + kn
2n 1.
an + knn 1 an
1 2
1
.
37
Apdeixh tou epagwgiko bmato : an 2 A kai ap thn sunjkh 1 uprqei
'Eqoume
elqisto fusik kn+1 me thn idithta: gia kje a 2 A,

k
a < an + n+1
n : 2
Aut shmanei oti uprqei an+1 me
k
an + n+1n
1 an :
2 +1
Isqurism 1: H (an) enai akolouja Cau hy .
+ k2nn 1 an < an + 2knn

Prgmati, qoume
an 1 1 1 1
;
jan an j < 2n1 :

ra
1 1
An loipn n; m 2 N kai n < m, tte

jam an j jam am 1 j + jam
am j + + jan
1 2 +1 an j
<
1 + 1 +:::+ 1 < 1 :
2m 2m1 2n 2n2 1
An tan; m enai arket megla, aut gnetai so jloume mikr. Pio sugkekrimna,
an ma dsoun " > 0, uprqei n0 2 N t.w 1=2n0 1 < ", opte gia kje n; m n0
qoume jam an j < ". 2
Afo to R
qei thn idithta Cau hy, uprqei o a = lim an .
Isqurism 2:

O a enai to elqisto nw frgma tou A.
(a) O a
enai nw frgma tou A: a upojsoume oti uprqei a 2 A me a > a .

Mporome na brome " > 0 t.w a > a + ". 'Omw ,

k 1
a < a n 1 + n n 1 an + n 1
2 2
gia kje n 2 N. 'Ara,
a + " < a n + n 1
1
2
=) a + " lim an +
1
2n 1
=) a + " a ;
to opoo enai topo.
(b) An a enai nw frgma tou A, tte a a : qoume a an gia kje n 2 N
(giat?), ra
a lim an = a :
Ap ta (a) kai (b) enai saf oti a = sup A.
2
38
2.8 Asksei
1. Apodexte me ton orism oti oi paraktw akolouje sugklnoun sto 0:
n p p n sin(n!)
an = ; bn = n2 + 2 n2 + 1; n = 2
n +n +1
3 2 n +1
8 1
n = 1; 4; 7; 10; 13; : : :
kai
< 2n , an
dn =
: 1
n2 +1 , alli .
2. Apodexte me ton orism oti
n2 n
! 1; 1 + 2 + + n n 1 1 Xn 2
2 ! 2 ; pn + 1 k ( 1) k! 1:
k 1
n2 + n n+2 2
=1
3. 'Estw (an ) (bn)

, do akolouje me an ! a kai bn ! b.
(a) Dexte oti an + bn ! a + b .
(b) An an bn gia kje n 2 N , dexte oti a b.

(g) An m an M gia kje n 2 N , dexte oti m a M .
(d) Dexte oti jan j ! jaj.

p p
k ja j ! k jaj (k 2).
(e) Dexte oti n
4. 'Estw a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; ak > 0. Dexte oti
p
bn := n an1 + an2 + + ank ! maxfa1; a2 ; : : : ; ak g:
a > 0. Dexte oti n a ! 1.

p
pn n ! 1.
5. (a) 'Estw
(b) Dexte oti
(a) 'Estw a 2 R me jaj < 1. Dexte ti h akolouja bn = a

6.
n sugklnei sto 0.
n
1 x2
(b) Gia poi tim tou x 2 R sugklnei h akolouja
1+x2
?
7. Upojtoume oti an ! a. Orzoume mia deterh akolouja jtonta
a1 + : : : + a n
bn = :
n
Dexte oti bn ! a.
8. 'Estw (an ) akolouja jetikn rwn me an ! a > 0. Dexte oti
bn = 1
n
! p
a kai n = n a1 : : : an ! a:
a1 + : : : + an
1
39
9. 'Estw (an) akolouja me limn(an +1 an ) = a. Dexte oti
an
n
! a:
10. 'Estw (an ) axousa akolouja me thn idithta
a1 + : : : + a n
bn := ! a:
n
Dexte oti an ! a.
'Estw A mh ken kai nw fragmno uposnolo tou R. An a = sup A, dexte
oti uprqei akolouja (an ) stoiqewn tou A me limn an = a.

11.
12. 'Estw a; b 2 R. Orzoume thn akolouja
xn = an [bn:
Exetste an uprqei to limn xn .
(a) 'Estw k > 1 kai an > 0

gia kje n 2 N . An an+1 kan gia kje n, dexte
an ! +1.
13.
oti
(b) 'Estw 0 < k < 1 kai (an ) akolouja me thn idithta jan+1 j k jan j gia kje n.
Dexte oti an ! 0.
(g) 'Estw an > 0 gia kje n, kai

an+1 ! l > 1. Dexte oti a ! +1.
an n

an+1
(d) 'Estw an 6= 0 gia kje n, kai
an
!l<1 . Dexte oti an ! 0.
14. 'Estw an > 0 gia kje n 2 N , kai an ! a > 0. Dexte oti
inf fan : n 2 Ng > 0:

p p2a n 2 N
15. Orzoume mia akolouja (an ) me a1 = 2 kai an+1 = n , . Dexte oti
enai axousa kai nw fragmnh, kai brete to ri th .
16. 'Estw a > 0. Jtoume x1 = x > 0 kai

xn+1
1 a
= 2 xn + x :
n
Dexte oti h (xn ) pa
, toulqiston ap ton detero ro th kai pra, enai fjnousa
kai ktw fragmnh ap ton . Brete to limn xn .
17. 'Estw x1 = 1 kai xn+1 = xn + x2n . 1

Dexte oti h (xn ) enai axousa kai brete
to ri th .
'Estw 0<x< 1 kai xn+1 = 1 1 xn . p Dexte oti h (xn ) enai fjnousa.

18. 1
Brete to rio th xn kai to rio th xn+1 =xn .
40
'Estw (an ) akolouja jetikn pragmatikn arijmn. Dexte oti an !0 an
an ! +1
19.
1
kai mno an .
'Estw (an) akolouja jetikn pragmatikn arijmn me an ! 0. Dexte oti to

A = fan : n 2 N g qei mgisto stoiqeo.
20.
snolo
21. 'Estw 0 < a1 < b1 . Orzoume anadromik do akolouje jtonta
p a +b
an+1 = an bn bn+1 = n n :
kai
2
(a) Dexte oti h (an ) enai axousa kai h (bn) fjnousa.
(b) Dexte oti oi (an ) (bn)

, sugklnoun kai qoun to dio rio.
22. 'Estw (an) mia axousa akolouja. Dexte oti kje upakolouja th (an) enai
epsh axousa.
'Estw (an) akolouja jetikn arijmn. Upojtoume oti gia to snolo A=

fan : n 2 N g inf A = 0 (an)
23.
isqei . Dexte oti h qei fjnousa upakolouja pou
sugklnei sto 0.
24. Upologste ta ria twn akoloujin:
(a) an = pn12 +1 + pn12 +2 + + pn12 +n .

(b) bn =
an , pou a > 1.
n
1+22 +33 ++nn
(g) n =
nn .
pn a+ pnb n
(d) n = , pou a; b > 0.
2
25. Qrhsimopointa thn anisthta
1 + 1 + : : : + 1 1;
n+1 n+2 2n 2
dexte oti h akolouja an = 1+ + : : : + n
1 1
den enai akolouja Cau hy . Sumpernete
an ! +1.
2
oti
26. Jewrome thn akolouja
an = 1
1 + 1 1 + : : : + ( 1)n 1
:
2 3 4 n
Dexte oti h (an ) enai akolouja Cau hy (ra, sugklnei).
27. (a) 'Estw 0<k<1 kai akolouja (an) gia thn opoa isqei
jan +1 an j kjan an 1 j; n 2:
Dexte oti h (an ) enai akolouja Cau hy .
(b) Orzoume a =a 1 , a2 = b kai an+1 = an+2an 1 , n 2. Exetste an h (an) enai
akolouja Cau hy .
41
(g) 'Estw x1 = x kai xn+1 = q sin(xn ) + a, pou 0 < q < 1 kai a 2 R. Exetste an
h (xn ) enai akolouja Cau hy .
28. 'Estw (an ) mia akolouja. Orzoume
bn = supfjan+k an j : k 2 N g:
Dexte oti h (an) bn ! 0.
sugklnei an kai mno an
'Estw (an)
mia akolouja. Dexte oti an ! a an kai mno an oi upakolouje
(a2k ) kai 2 1 sugklnoun ston a.

(a k )
29.
30. Orzoume mia akolouja (an ) me a1 > 0 kai
an+1 = 1 +
2
1 + an :
Dexte oti oi upakolouje (a k )
2 kai (a k2 1 )enai montone kai fragmne . Brete,
an uprqei, to limn an .
31. Dexte oti an mia montonh akolouja qei sugklnousa upakolouja, tte
sugklnei.
32. Brete to antero kai to kattero rio twn akoloujin

1 + n1 ; 1 n2 (( 1)n + 1) + 2n + 1 :
n
an = ( 1)n bn = os
3 + n + 1; n =
+1
n+1
33. 'Estw (an ) (bn)
, fragmne akolouje . Dexte oti
lim inf an + lim inf bn lim inf(an + bn)

lim sup(an + bn ) lim sup an + lim sup bn :
34. 'Estw an > 0, n 2 N .
(a) Dexte oti
lim inf aan lim inf pn an lim sup pn an lim sup aan
+1 +1
:
n n
(b) An lim aann+1 = x pn an ! x
, tte .
35. 'Estw (an ) fragmnh akolouja. Dexte oti
lim sup( an) = liminf an kai lim inf( an ) = lim sup an:
'Estw (an) mia akolouja kai stw (xk ) akolouja shmewn sussreush th
(an ) x enai shmeo sussreush th (an ).

36.
. Upojtoume oti xk ! x. Dexte oti o
37*. 'Estw x1 = a, x2 = b kai
x
xn+2 = n + 2xn +1
:
3 3
42
Dexte oti h (xn ) sugklnei kai brete to ri th . [Updeixh: Jewrste thn yn =
xn+1 xn kai brete anadromik tpo gia thn (yn) .
38*. 'Estw (an) akolouja me thn idithta
an
an+1
2 ! 0:
Dexte oti an ! 0. yn = an+1 a2n , dexte oti
[Updeixh: an
y y a
an = yn 1 + n 2 + : : : + n 1 2 + n 1 1 :
2 2 2
39*. 'Estw (an) akolouja mea >0 1 , h opoa ikanopoie thn
an > a + a + : : : + a n ;
1 2 1 n 2:
Dexte oti: gia kje 0<q<2 an ! +1
qn isqei .
40*. 'Estw (an) fragmnh akolouja pou ikanopoie thn
2an an + an 1 +1 ; n 2:
Dexte oti bn := an +1 an ! 0 . [Updeixh: Dexte oti h (bn) enai montonh kai
fragmnh.
41*. Orzoume mia akolouja w ex :
a0 = 0; a2n+1 =
1 + a n; a2n =
a2n 1
:
2 2
2
Brete la ta shmea sussreush th (an) . [Updeixh: Gryte tou dka prtou
rou th akolouja .
'Estw (xn ) akolouja me thn idithta xn+1 xn ! 0. An a < b enai do

(xn ) y 2 [a; b enai shmeo sussreush
42*.
shmea sussreush th , dexte ti kje
th (xn )
. [Updeixh: Apagwg se topo.
43
44
Keflaio 3
Sunqeia sunartsewn
3.1 'Oria sunartsewn
Se autn thn pargrafo apl upenjumzoume ton orism kai ti basik idith-
te tou orou sunrthsh (to jma aut qei kalufje sto mjhma {Apeirostik
Logism I}.)
'Estw A R kai x0 2 R. Lme oti o x0 enai

mh ken uposnolo tou
A an gia kje > 0 mporome na brome x 2 A t.w.

Orism
tou
0 < jx x0 j < (isodnama: x 2 (x0 ; x0 + ) kai x 6= x0 ).

shmeo sussreush
Dhlad, o x0 enai shmeo sussreush tou A an osodpote kont ston x0
mporome na brome stoiqea tou A diaforetik ap ton x0 . Parathrste oti den
apaitome ap ton x0 na enai stoiqeo tou A.
Paradegmata:
An A = [0; 1 [ f2g, tte 2 2 A all o 2 den enai shmeo sussreush tou

A.
An A = (0; 1), tte 1 62 A all o 1 enai shmeo sussreush tou A.
Orism (rio sunrthsh ) 'Estw f:A!R mia pragmatik sunrthsh kai x0
shmeo sussreush tou A. Lme oti to rio th f kaj to x tenei sto x0 uprqei
kai isotai meL 2 R an:
Gia kje " > 0 uprqei > 0 t.w.: an x 2 A kai 0 < jx x0 j < , tte
jf (x) Lj < ".
An na ttoio arijm L uprqei, tte enai monadik (dexte to) kai grfoume
L = limx!x0 f (x) f (x) ! L kaj x ! x0 .

Dste orismo gia ta: limx!x0 f (x) = +1, limx!x0 f (x) = 1,
limx!+1 f (x) = L, limx!+1 f (x) = +1 klp. (o +1 enai shmeo sussreush
'Askhsh
45
tou A an se kje disthma th morf (a; +1) uprqei stoiqeo tou A, anloga
gia to 1 ).
(pleurik ria sunrthsh ) 'Estw f : A ! R pragmatik sunrthsh, kai

> 0 na uprqoun stoiqea tou A sto
Orism
x0 shmeo sussreush tou A t.w. gia kje
(x0 ; x0). Lme oti:

limx!x0 f (x) = L (o L enai to pleurik rio th f kaj to x tenei sto
x0 ap arister) an: gia kje "> 0 uprqei > 0 t.w. an x 2 A kai
x0 < x < x0 tte jf (x) Lj < ".
'Estw x0 shmeo sussreush tou A t.w. gia kje > 0 na uprqoun stoiqea tou
A sto (x0 ; x0 + ). Lme oti:
limx!x+0 f (x) = L L (o enai to pleurik rio th f kaj to x tenei sto x0
ap dexi) an: gia kje " > 0 uprqei > 0 t.w. anx 2 A kai x0 < x < x0 +
tte jf (x) Lj < " .
Me bsh ton orism mpore kane na apodexei ti aklouje basik idithte twn
orwn (oi apodexei enai anloge me ti apodexei pou dsame gia ti antstoiqe
idithte twn orwn akoloujin):
f; g : A ! R x0
f (x) g(x)
Jerhma 3.1.1 'Estw do pragmatik sunartsei kai shmeo
sussreush tou A . Upojtoume oti !a2 R kai !b2 R kaj
x ! x0 . Tte:
1. An f (x) ! a1 tan x ! x0 , tte a1 = a (monadikthta tou orou).
2. f (x) + g(x) ! a + b tan x ! x0 .
3. f (x)g(x) ! ab tan x ! x0 .
4. an b 6= 0 , tte
f (x)
g(x) ! ab tan x ! x0 .
H parxh tou orou sqetzetai me thn parxh twn pleurikn orwn w ex :
f :A!R x0
>0 (x ; x0 )
Jerhma 3.1.2 'Estw pragmatik sunrthsh, kai shmeo suss-
A A 0
(x0 ; x0 + )
reush tou t.w. gia kje na uprqoun stoiqea tou tso sto
so kai sto . Tte,
lim f (x) = L ,
x!x0
ta
x!x0
lim f (x) kai lim (x)
x!x+
f uprqoun kai isontai me L:
0
Bebaiwjete oti la ta parapnw sa enai oikea. Anatrxte sto biblo tou S.
Phqwrdh (sel. 27 38 ) kai sto biblo tou M. Spivak (keflaio 5) gia perisstere
leptomreie .
46
3.2 Sunqeia sunartsewn: orismo - basik idi-
thte
1. H sunqeia mia sunrthsh orzetai prta topik: orzoume dhlad pte mia
sunrthsh f ja lgetai suneq se na shmeo x0 tou pedou orismo th .
'Estw f : A ! R mia pragmatik sunrthsh, kai x0 2 A. Lme oti f

x0 an: gia kje " > 0 uprqei > 0 t.w.
Orism h
enai suneq sto
an x 2 A kai jx x0 j < ; tte jf (x) f (x )j < ":

0
(a) Ston orism th sunqeia apaitome to x0 na ankei sto
f (x0 )
Parathrsei :
pedo orismo th f. H tim propotjetai otw llw ap ton dio ton
orism.
(b) Den zhtme ap to x na ikanopoie thn 0 < jx x0 j < , na enai dhlad to x

diaforetik ap to An x = x0 , h anisthta jf (x)
x0 . f (x0 )j < " ikanopoietai
kat tetrimmno trpo so mikr ki an enai to ": jf (x0 ) f (x0 )j = 0 < " gia kje
" > 0.
(g) Den zhtme ap to x0 na enai shmeo sussreush tou A. An x0 2 A kai to x0
den enai shmeo sussreush tou A (enai pw lme shmeo tou A),
memonwmno
tte h f enai automtw suneq sto x0 . O lgo enai apl : afo to x0 den enai
shmeo sussreush tou A, uprqei > 0 t.w. (x0 0; x0 + 0) \ A = fx0 g (giat?).

Prte tra tuqn " > 0. Epilgoume = 0 > 0. An x 2 A kai jx x 0 j < = 0 ,
tte x = x0 , ra jf (x) f (x0 )j = 0 < ". Me bsh ton orism ma , h f enai suneq
sto x0 .
(d) An to x0 2 A kai to x0 enai kai shmeo sussreush tou A, tte qei nhma na
exetsoume tso thn sunqeia th f sto x0 so kai thn parxh orou th f kaj
to x tenei sto x0 . Se autn thn perptwsh, h paratrhsh (b) deqnei oti {h f enai
suneq sto x0 , limx!x0 f (x) = f (x0 )}.
Kat analoga pro ton orism twn pleurikn orwn, orzoume sunqeia ap
f : A ! R sto x0 2 A:
2.
dexi kai sunqeia ap arister mia sunrthsh
Orism (pleurik sunqeia) 'Estw f : A ! R kai x0 2 A. Lme oti:
H f enai suneq ap dexi sto x0 an gia kje " > 0 uprqei > 0 t.w.
x 2 A kai x0 x < x0 + =) jf (x) f (x0 )j < ".

H f enai suneq ap arister sto x0 an gia kje " > 0 uprqei > 0 t.w.
x 2 A kai x0 < x x0 =) jf (x) f (x0 )j < ".

Paratrhsh Enai ekolo na dete oti mia sunrthsh f : A ! R enai suneq
sto x0 2 A an kai mno an enai suneq ap dexi kai ap arister sto x0 .

3. Ap ton orism th sunqeia se na shmeo mporome tra na persoume ston
orism th suneqo sunrthsh :
47
Orism 'Estw f :A!R mia pragmatik sunrthsh, kai B na uposnolo tou
A. Lme oti h f enai suneq sto B an enai suneq se kje shmeo x0 2 B .
Ta peda orismo sunartsewn enai ti perisstere for diast-
f enai suneq sto disthma [a; b ennoome

Paratrhsh:
mata. Sumfwnome pw tan lme oti h
oti h f enai suneq se kje x0 2 (a; b), suneq ap dexi sto a kai suneq ap
arister sto b.
4. To jerhma pou akolouje dnei th sqsh th sunqeia me ti sunjei alge-
brik prxei anmesa se sunartsei . H apdeix tou enai mesh, an qrhsimo-
poisete ti idithte twn orwn sunartsewn:
Jerhma 3.2.1 'Estw f; g : A !R kai x0 2A . Upojtoume oti oi f; g enai
suneqe sto x0 . Tte,
1. Oi f + g; fg enai suneqe sto x0 .
2. H
f
g enai suneq sto x0 an g(x0 ) 6= 0 .
H stajer sunrthsh f (x) = 0, x 2 R kai h tautotik sunrthsh g(x) = x enai

suneqe sto R. Ap to Jerhma 3.2.1 petai oti oi poluwnumik sunartsei enai
suneqe sto R kai oti kje rht sunrthsh enai suneq se la ta shmea tou
pedou orismo th .
5. A exetsoume pio prosektik ti shmanei h frsh:
h f den enai suneq sto x0

pou x0 enai shmeo sto pedo orismo th f. Uprqoun tra endeqmena:
Ta pleurik oria th f kaj x ! uprqoun kai limx!x0 f (x) = L

x0 =
limx!x+0 f (x) , mw h tim th f sto x0 den enai o L: dhlad, f (x0 ) =6
L. Tte lme oti sto x0 parousizetai rsimh asunqeia ( {epousidh }
asunqeia). H f sumperifretai rista grw ap to x0 , all h tim th sto

x0 enai {lanjasmnh}.
Ta pleurik ria th f kaj x ! x0 uprqoun all enai diaforetik:
lim f (x) 6= xlim

x!x0 !x+
f (x):
0
Tte lme oti stox0 parousizetai {asunqeia a' edou } ( lma). H diafor
limx!x+0 f (x) limx!x0 f (x) enai to {lma} th f sto x0 .
Kpoio ap ta pleurik ria th f kaj x ! x0 den uprqei. Tte, lme
oti sto x0 parousizetai asunqeia b' edou ( {ousidh asunqeia}.)
Bebaiwjete oti la ta parapnw sa enai oikea. Anatrxte sto biblo tou S.
Phqwrdh (sel. 38 48 ) kai sto biblo tou M. Spivak (Keflaio 6

) gia perisstere
leptomreie kai paradegmata.
48
3.3 Qarakthrism th sunqeia me qrsh ako-
loujin
'Estw f :A!R kai x0 2 A. Ja dsoume nan qarakthrism th sunqeia th f

sto x0 msw akoloujin (apoddetai ston German majhmatik Heine ).
f :A!R x0 2 A
(xn ) (f (xn ))
Jerhma 3.3.1 H enai suneq sto an kai mno an: gia kje
A xn !x 0
f (x0 )
akolouja shmewn tou me , h akolouja sugklnei sto
f enai suneq sto x0 . 'Estw xn 2 A me

Upojtoume prta oti h
f (xn ) ! f (x0 ): 'Estw " > 0. Afo h f enai suneq

Apdeixh:
xn !x 0 . Ja dexoume oti
sto x0 , uprqei > 0 ttoio ste: an x 2 A kai jx x0 j < , tte jf (x) f (x0 )j < "
(aut enai akrib o orism th sunqeia th f sto x0 ).
'Eqoume upojsei oti xn ! x0 . 'Ara, gi aut to > 0 mporome na brome
n0 () 2 N t.w.: an n n0 () tte jxn x0 j < (aut enai akrib o orism th

sgklish th (xn ) sto x0 ).
Sunduzonta ta parapnw qoume: an n n0 ( ), tte jxn x0 j < ra

jf (xn ) f (x )j < ":
0
Afo to " > 0 tan tuqn, f (xn ) ! f (x )

0 .
[
Shmewsh: To n0 pou brkame exarttai ap to , mw to sto prto bma th
apdeixh exarttai ap to ", ra to n0 exarttai ap to " pou ma djhke.
Gia thn antstrofh katejunsh ja doulyoume me apagwg se topo. Upoj-
toume oti gia kje akolouja (xn ) shmewn tou A me xn ! x0 , h akolouja (f (xn ))
sugklnei sto f (x0 ). Upojtoume epsh oti h f den enai suneq sto x0 kai ja
katalxoume se topo.
Afo h f den enai suneq sto x0 , uprqei kpoio " me thn ex idithta:
() Gia kje > 0 uprqei x 2 A me jx x0 j < kai jf (x) f (x0 )j ".
[Me lgh skyh ja peistete oti aut enai h rnhsh th prtash {h f enai suneq
sto x0 }: osodpote kont sto x0 uprqei x2A t.w. oi tim f (x) kai f (x0 ) na
apqoun arket.
Qrhsimopoiome thn () = 1; 21 ; : : : ; n1 ; : : :. Gia kje n 2 N

diadoqik me
qoume 1=n > 0 kai ap thn () brskoume xn 2 A me jxn x0 j < 1=n kai jf (xn )
f (x0 )j ". Enai faner oti xn ! x0 kai ap thn upjesh pou kname prpei h
akolouja (f (xn )) na sugklnei sto f (x0 ). Aut mw enai adnato afo jf (xn )
f (x0 )j " gia kje n 2 N . 2

Paratrhsh: To Jerhma 3.3.1 mpore na qrhsimopoihje me do diaforetiko
trpou :
gia na dexoume oti h f enai suneq sto x0 arke na dexoume oti { xn !

x0 =) f (xn ) ! f (x0 )}.
49
gia na dexoume oti h f den enai suneq sto x0 arke na brome do ako-
louje xn ! x0 , yn ! x0 t.w. limn f (xn ) 6= limn f (yn).

Apl pardeigma: H sunrthsh tou Diri hlet
(
1 x2Q ,
f (x) =
0 x 2= Q
,
den enai suneq se kanna x0 2 R. Prgmati: uprqei akolouja (qn ) rhtn

arijmn me qn ! x0 kai akolouja (an ) arrtwn arijmn me an ! x0 (tso oi rhto
so kai oi rrhtoi enai pukno sto R). 'Omw , f (qn ) = 1 ! 1 kai f (an ) = 0 ! 0.
Ap to Jerhma 3.3.1 blpoume oti h f den enai suneq sto x0 .
3.4 Basik jewrmata gia suneqe sunartsei
Se autn thn pargrafo ja apodexoume do jemelidh kai diaisjhtik anamenme-
na jewrmata gia suneqe sunartsei pou enai orismne se na kleist disthma:
to jerhma endimesh tim kai to jerhma parxh mgisth - elqisth tim .
H apdeix tou apaite ousiastik qrsh tou aximato th plhrthta .
3.4.1 To jerhma endimesh tim
Ja exetsoume prta thn ex perptwsh: Dnetai mia suneq sunrthsh f :
[a; b ! R me thn idithtaf (a) < 0 kai f (b) > 0. Tte, aut pou perimnei kane
ap thn grafik parstash th f enai oti gia kpoio shmeo 2 (a; b) ja isqei
f ( ) = 0 (h kamplh y = f (x) ja tmsei ton orizntio xona).
f : [a; b ! R f (a) <

0 f (b) > 0 2 (a; b) f ( ) = 0
Jerhma 3.4.1 'Estw suneq sunrthsh. Upojtoume oti
kai . Tte, uprqei ttoio ste .
Ja prospajsoume na {brome} thn mikrterh lsh th exswsh
f (x) = 0 sto (a; b). Yqnoume dhlad gia kpoio 2 (a; b) gia to opoo f ( ) = 0
Apdeixh:
kai f (x) < 0 gia kje x me a x < .
H ida enai oti aut to prpei na enai to supremum tou sunlou lwn twn
y 2 (a; b) pou ikanopoion to ex :

gia kje x me a x < y isqei f (x) < 0:
Orzoume loipn
A = fy 2 (a; b : a x < y =) f (x) < 0g:

Isqurism 1 To A enai mh ken kai nw fragmno.
50
Enai saf oti o b enai nw frgma gia to A. Gia na dexoume oti to A
f enai suneq ap dexi sto a kai f (a) < 0.
Apdeixh:
enai mh ken, skeftmaste w ex : h
Parnoume " = jf (2a)j > 0. Uprqei > 0 t.w. an a y < a + na isqei
jf (y) f (a)j < jf (2a)j =) f (y) f (a) + jf (2a)j = f (2a) < 0:

Dhlad, h f parnei arnhtik tim sto [a; a + ) . An loipn a < y < a + , tte
gia kje x me a x < y isqei f (x) < 0;
to opoo shmanei oti y 2 A. 'Ara, (a; a + ) A (to A enai mh ken). 2
Ap to axwma th plhrthta uprqei o = sup A . Epsh , a < diti (a; a + )
A.
Isqurism 2 = sup A isqoun oi a < 0 kai h f enai suneq ap
arister sto b. Gia " = > 0 brskoume 1 > 0 t.w.
f (b)
2
f (b) f (b)
b 1 < x b =) jf (x) f (b)j <
2 =) f (x) > 2 > 0:
Tte, kje x 2 (b 1 ; b enai nw frgma tou A. Prgmati, an y 2 A tte
f (x) < 0 gia kje x 2 [a; y) kai afo f (x) > 0 sto (b 1 ; b qoume y b 1 .
Epomnw , gia kje x 2 (b 1 ; b isqei
= sup A b 1 < x:
Eidiktera, < b. Ap thn (a; a + ) A qoume a + > a, ra a < < b.
Mnei na dexoume oti f ( ) = 0. Ja apoklesoume ta endeqmena f ( ) < 0 kai
f ( ) > 0.
'Estw oti f ( ) < 0. Ap thn sunqeia th f sto , uprqei 2 > 0 t.w.
f (x) < f (2 ) < 0 sto ( 2; +2) (giat?). 'Omw tte, f (x) < 0 sto [a; +2)
(giat uprqei y 2 A me y > 2 , opte f (x) < 0 sto [a; y) [ ( 2 ; + 2 ) =
[a; + 2)). Epomnw , + 2 2 A. Aut enai topo afo = sup A.
'Estw oti f ( ) > 0. Tte, uprqei 3 > 0 t.w. f (x) >
f ( ) > 0 sto (
3 ; + 3 ). An proume y 2 A me y > 3 kai z me y > z > 3 , tte
2
y 2 A =) f (z ) < 0
en
z 2 ( 3 ; + 3 ) =) f (z ) > 0
dhlad odhgomaste se topo. 2
Me thn apdeixh tou deterou isqurismo oloklhrnetai kai h apdeixh tou Jew-
rmato . 2
San prisma parnoume to jerhma endimesh tim :
51
f : [a; b ! R f (a) < f (b)
2 (f (a); f (b)) 2 (a; b) f ( ) = f (b) < f (a)
Jerhma 3.4.2 'Estw suneq sunrthsh. An kai
2 (f (b); f (a)) 2 (a; b) f ( ) =

, tte uprqei me . 'Omoia, an kai
, tte uprqei me .
Jewrome thn g(x) = f (x) . H g enai suneq sto [a; b kai g(a) =
f (a) < 0, g(b) = f (b) > 0. Ap to Jerhma 3.4.1 uprqei 2 (a; b) me
Apdeixh:
g( ) = 0, dhlad f ( ) = .
Gia thn llh perptwsh, qrhsimopoiste thn suneq sunrthsh h(x) = f (x).
2
3.4.2 To jerhma elqisth kai mgisth tim
To detero basik jerhma ma lei oti an f enai mia suneq sunrthsh sto
[a; b , tte h f enai nw fragmnh kai ktw fragmnh, kai mlista parnei mgisth
kai elqisth tim. Gia thn apdeixh ja qrhsimopoisoume ton qarakthrism th
sunqeia msw akoloujin.
Jerhma 3.4.3 'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh. Uprqoun m; M 2R

x 2 [a; b; m f (x) M:
t.w.
gia kje
Dhlad, h f enai nw kai ktw fragmnh.
f den enai nw fragmnh. Tte, gia kje M > 0

A upojsoume oti h
x 2 [a; b me f (x) > M .

Apdeixh:
mporome na brome
Epilgoume diadoqik M = 1; 2; 3; : : : ; n; : : : kai brskoume xn 2 [a; b me
f (xn ) > n; n 2 N:
Jewrome thn akolouja (xn ) . Afo a xn b (xn )
, h enai fragmnh. Ap to
Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass th (xn )

, uprqei upakolouja (xnk ) me xnk !x 0.
Afo a xnk b gia kje k, petai oti x0 2 [a; b.
H f enai suneq sto x0 kai xnk ! x0 . Ap to Jerhma 3.3.1,
f (xnk ) ! f (x0 ):
'Ara, h (f (xnk )) enai fragmnh akolouja. 'Omw , f (xnk ) > nk k ap ton trpo
epilog twn xnk , dhlad f (xnk ) ! +1. Aut enai topo.
'Omoia deqnoume thn parxh ktw frgmato ( pio apl, jewrste thn f:
aut enai suneq , ra nw fragmnh sto [a; b klp). 2
Knonta na akma bma, deqnoume oti kje suneq sunrthsh f : [a; b ! R
parnei mgisth kai elqisth tim sto [a; b :
f : [a; b ! R y1 ; y2 2 [a; b
f (y1 ) f (x) f (y2 ) x 2 [a; b
Jerhma 3.4.4 'Estw suneq sunrthsh. Uprqoun
ttoia ste gia kje .
52
Apdeixh: Ap to Jerhma 3.4.3 xroume oti to snolo
A = ff (x) : x 2 [a; bg
enai nw fragmno. 'Estw = sup A. Jloume na dexoume oti uprqei y2 2 [a; b
me f (y2 ) = .
Ap ton orism tou supremum , gia kje n 2 N mporome na brome stoiqeo
tou A sto ( 1=n; . Dhlad, uprqei xn 2 [a; b gia to opoo
()
1 < f (xn) :
n
H akolouja (xn ) (xnk ). Grfoume y2 gia to lim xnk .
qei sugklnousa upakolouja
Afo a xnk b k, petai oti y2 2 [a; b. Afo h f enai suneq sto y2 ,

gia kje
sumperanoume oti f (xnk ) ! f (y2 ). 'Omw , f (xn ) ! ap thn (). 'Ara,
f (y2 ) = = sup A:
Aut shmanei oti f (x) f (y2 ) gia kje x 2 [a; b (ap ton orism tou A).
Gia thn elqisth tim ergazmaste anloga. 2
3.4.3 Paradegmata kai efarmog
Paradegmata: H sunqeia th f all kai h upjesh oti to pedo orismo enai
kleist disthma enai aparathte sta prohgomena jewrmata.
(a) Jewrome thn sunrthsh
8
>
>
x +1
1x<0 ,
>
<
f (x) = 0 x=0 ,
>
>
>
:
1 x 0<x1 , .
H f den parnei mgisth tim sto [ 1; 1 1 = supff (x) : x 2 [ 1; 1g

. 'Eqoume , all
o 1 den enai tim th f: parathrste oti0 f (x) < 1 x 2 [ 1; 1

gia kje . H f
enai asuneq sto 0.
(b) Jewrome thn sunrthsh
(
1 , an 0x1
f (x) =
1 , 1<x2 .
Tte, f (0) < 0 kai f (2) > 0, all den uprqei lsh th f (x) = 0 sto [0; 2. H f
enai asuneq sto 1 .
(g) Jewrome thn f (x) = 1=x sto (0; 1 . H f enai suneq sto (0; 1
, all den
enai nw fragmnh. To pedo orismo th f den enai kleist disthma .
Jerhma 3.4.5 Kje polunumo peritto bajmo qei toulqiston mia pragmati-
k rza.
53
Apdeixh: 'Estw P (x) = am xm + am 1 xm 1
+ ::: + a x + a
1 0 , pou am 6= 0 kai
m peritt . Grfoume

P (x) = am xm 1 + aammx + : : : + amxam + amaxm
1 1
1
0
= am xm g(x):
Enai ekolo na dete oti
lim g(x) = x!lim1 g(x) = 1:

x!+1
'Ara, uprqoun M1 ; M2 > 0 ttoioi ste: an x < M1 x > M2, tte g(x) > 0.
Epilgoume tuqn a < M1 kai tuqn b > M2 . Tte, g(a) > 0 kai g(b) > 0.
Epomnw ,
P (a)P (b) = a2m g(a)g(b)ambm < 0

diti am > 0, a
2 m < 0 kai bm > 0 (se aut to shmeo qrhsimopoietai h upjesh
oti o m enai peritt ). Ap to jerhma endimesh tim , uprqei x 2 (a; b) t.w.
P (x) = 0. 2
P (x) = am xm + : : : + a1 x + a0
am > 0
Jerhma 3.4.6 'Estw polunumo rtiou bajmo
me . Uprqei x0 2 R t.w.
P (x0 ) P (x)
gia kje x2R (dhlad, h P parnei elqisth tim).
Apdeixh: 'Eqoume upojsei oti o m enai rtio kai oti am > 0. 'Epetai oti
lim P (x) = x!lim1 P (x) = +1

x!+1
(giat?). Jewrome thn tim P (0) = a0 . Uprqoun M1 ; M2 > 0 t.w. an x < M1
x > M2 tte P (x) > P (0).
Jewrome ton periorism th P sto [ M1; M2 . H P enai suneq sto klei-
st disthma [ M1; M2 , epomnw mporome na efarmsoume to Jerhma 3.4.4:
Uprqei x0 2[ M1 ; M2 me thn idithta
() P (x0 ) P (x) gia kje x 2 [ M1 ; M2 :
Afo 02[ M1; M2 , parnoume P (x0 ) P (0). 'Ara,
() P (x0 ) P (0) < P (x) gia kje x 2= [ M1 ; M2:

Ap ti () kai () sumperanoume oti P (x0 ) P (x) gia kje x 2 R. 2
(Jerhma stajero shmeou, Bana h ) f : [0; 1 ! [0; 1
x0 2 [0; 1 f (x0 ) = x0
Jerhma 3.4.7 'Estw
suneq sunrthsh. Uprqei t.w. .
54
h(x) = f (x) x mhde-
Jloume na dexoume oti h suneq sunrthsh
[0; 1 y = x).
Apdeixh:
nzetai kpou sto (dhlad, oti to grfhm th tmnei thn diagnio
An f (0) = 0 f (1) = 1
qoume to zhtomeno gia x0 = 0 x0 = 1 antstoiqa.
Upojtoume loipn oti f (0) > 0kai f (1) < 1. Tte, h(0) = f (0) > 0 kai
h(1) = f (1) 1 < 0 . Ap to jerhma endimesh tim , uprqei x0 2 (0; 1) t.w.
h(x ) = 0
0 f (x ) = x
. Dhlad, 0 0. 2
3.5 Sunqeia snjeth kai antstrofh sunrth-
sh
Ja asqolhjome me mia apl perptwsh snjesh sunartsewn: f enai mia sunr-
thsh orismnh sto anoikt disthma (a; b) kai g mia deterh sunrthsh orismnh
sto anoikt disthma ( ; ) . Upojtoume akma oti
ff (x) : x 2 (a; b)g ( ; )

(dhlad, to pedo orismo th g periqei thn th f ). Tte, h snjeth sunr-
(a; b)
eikna
thsh gf orzetai sto msw th
(g f )(x) = g(f (x)); a < x < b:

Jerhma 3.5.1 An f kai g enai do sunartsei pw parapnw kai an
(a) h f enai suneq sto x0 2 (a; b) ,
(b) h g enai suneq sto f (x0 ) 2 ( ; ) ,
tte h gf enai suneq sto x0 .
Apl, me dipl efarmog tou orismo. 'Estw " > 0. Afo h g enai
f (x0 ), uprqei 1 > 0 t.w.

Apdeixh:
suneq sto
() An y 2 ( ; ) kai jy f (x0)j < 1, tte jg(y) g(f (x0))j < ".
H f enai suneq sto x0 . 'Ara, gi aut to 1 > 0 mporome na brome 2 > 0 t.w.
() An x 2 (a; b) kai jx x0 j < 2, tte jf (x) f (x0 )j < 1.

'Estw x 2 (a; b) me jx x0 j < 2 . Tte, y = f (x) 2 ( ; ) kai jy f (x0 )j =
jf (x) f (x0 )j < 1 , ap thn (). Mporome tra na qrhsimopoisoume thn () me
y = f (x). 'Epetai oti
jg(f (x)) g(f (x0 ))j < "
dhlad,
j(g f )(x) (g f )(x )j < ": 0
Afo to " > 0 tan tuqn, h gf x

enai suneq sto 0. 2
Pernme tra ston orism kai th sunqeia th antstrofh sunrthsh .
55
'Estwf :I !R I
mia sunrthsh, pou enai na disthma (opoiasdpote
[a; b (a; b) [a; b) [a; +1) ( 1; a)

Orism
morf : , , , , klp). Lme oti h f enai na pro na
(1-1) an gia kje x; y 2 I x 6= y me qoume
f (x) 6= f (y):
Mia 1-1 sunrthsh den enai upoqrewtik montonh. Prte gia
: (0; 2) ! R
Paratrhsh:
pardeigma thn f pou orzetai ap thn
8
>
>
4 x ,0<x<1
>
<
f (x) = 2 ,x=1
>
>
>
:
x 1 1<x<2
, .
H f enai 1-1, mw enai fjnousa sto (0; 1) kai axousa sto (1; 2) . An pntw
mia 1-1 sunrthsh enai montonh se kpoio disthma, tte enai gnhsw montonh
(giat?).
To jerhma pou akolouje deqnei an mia suneq sunrthsh f :I !R enai
na pro na, tte enai gnhsw montonh.
Jerhma 3.5.2 'Estw f :I! R suneq kai 1-1. Tte, h f enai gnhsw
axousa gnhsw fjnousa sto I .
Epilgoume tuqaa do shmea x0 < y0 sto I . 'Eqoume f (x0 ) 6= f (y0 ),
f (x0 ) < f (y0 ) f (x0 ) > f (y0 ). Upojtoume oti f (x0 ) < f (y0) kai ja dexoume
Apdeixh:
ra
oti h f enai gnhsw axousa (moia deqnoume oti an f (x0 ) > f (y0 ) tte h f enai
gnhsw fjnousa).
'Estw x 1 ; y1 2 I me x1 < y1 . Jloume na dexoume oti f (x1 ) < f (y1 ).

Jewrome ti sunartsei h; g : [0; 1 ! I me
h(t) = (1 t)x0 + tx1 ; g(t) = (1 t)y0 + ty1 :
Parathrste oti h(t); g(t) 2 I gia kje t 2 [0; 1 (kaj to t diatrqei to [0; 1, to
h(t) kinetai ap to x0 pro to x1 kai to g(t) kinetai ap to y0 pro to y1 - afo
to I enai disthma, ta h(t), g (t) mnoun msa s aut).
Parathrste epsh oti, lgw twn x0 < y0 kai x1 < y1 qoume
h(t) = (1 t)x0 + tx1 < (1 t)y0 + ty1 = g(t)

gia kje t 2 [0; 1. Orzoume H (t) = f (h(t)) f (g(t)). H H enai suneq sunrthsh
ap to Jerhma 3.5.1. Afo h(t) 6= g(t) kai h f enai 1-1, parnoume
H (t) 6= 0
gia kje t 2 [0; 1. 'Omw , H (0) = f (h(0)) f (g(0)) = f (x0 ) f (y0 ) < 0 ap thn
upjes ma . 'Epetai oti H (t) < 0 gia kje t 2 [0; 1: an h H pairne kpou jetik
56
tim, tte ja pairne kai thn tim 0 ap to jerhma endimesh tim (topo).
'Eqoume loipn
f (h(t)) < f (g(t)) gia kje t 2 [0; 1:

Eidiktera, f (h(1)) < f (g(1)), dhlad f (x1 ) < f (y1 ). 2
Den enai dskolo na perigryei kane thn eikna f (I ) mia suneqo kai 1-1
sunrthsh f : I ! R. A upojsoume gia pardeigma oti to I enai na kleist
disthma [a; b kai oti h f enai gnhsw axousa (ap to Jerhma 3.5.2 h f enai
gnhsw montonh). Tte, h eikna th f enai to kleist disthma [f (a); f (b).
Prgmati, an a < x < b tte f (a) < f (x) < f (b), dhlad f (x) 2 [f (a); f (b).
Antstrofa, an f (a) < < f (b), ap to jerhma endimesh tim uprqei x 2
(a; b) me f (x) = .
An to I enai disthma anoikt se kpoio kai sta do ap ta kra tou (
disthma me kro kpoio ap ta 1 ), tte qreizetai perissterh prosoq. Pli
mw , h eikna f (I ) th f enai kpoio disthma I 0 . Orzoume tte thn

: I 0 ! I th f w ex : an y 2 I 0, uprqei monadik x12 I t.w.
antstrofh
sunrthsh f
1
f (x) = y (h monadikthta ofeletai sto oti h f enai 1-1). Jtoume f (y) = x.

Dhlad,
f 1
(y) = x () f (x) = y:
Paratrhsh: H f 1
qei thn dia monotona me thn f. Gia pardeigma, a upo-
jsoume oti h f enai gnhsw axousa. 'Estw y 1 ; y2 2 I0 me y1 < y2 . An tan
f 1(y1 ) f 1(y2 ), tte ja eqame

f (f 1
(y )) f (f (y ));
1
1
2 dhlad y 1 y2 :
Aut enai topo, ra f 1
(y ) < f (y )
1
1
2 , to opoo shmanei oti h f 1
enai gnhsw
axousa.
Skop ma enai na dexoume oti h antstrofh suneqo kai 1-1 sunrthsh enai
epsh suneq .
Jerhma 3.5.3 'Estw f :I !R suneq kai 1-1 sunrthsh. Tte, h f 1

enai
suneq .
Apdeixh: Mporome na upojsoume oti h f enai gnhsw axousa. 'Estw y0 2 I 0 .

0
Upojtoume oti to y0 den enai kro tou I (oi lle periptsei elgqontai moia).
Tte, y0 = f (x0 ) gia kpoio eswterik shmeo tou I .
'Estw " > 0. Mporome na upojsoume oti x0 "; x0 + " 2 I (otw llw ,
gia na elgxoume th sunqeia ma endiafroun ta mikr " > 0). Jloume na brome
> 0 t.w.
jy y0 j < kai y 2 I 0 =) jf 1 (y) x0 j < ":
Gia thn epilog tou douleoume w ex : afo f (x0 ") < y = f (x0 ) < f (x0 + "),
uprqoun 1 ; 2 > 0 t.w. f (x0 ") = y0 1 kai f (x0 + ") = y0 + 2 . Epilgoume
= minf1 ; 2 g > 0.
57
An jy y j <
0 , tte f (x0 ") < y < f (x0 + "). Ap to jerhma endimesh
tim , uprqei x2I t.w. f (x) = y. To x enai monadik giat h f enai 1-1, kai
x0 " < x < x 0 + "
(giat?). 'Ara, jf (y) f (y )j = jx x j < "
1 1
0 0 . Dhlad, h f 1
enai suneq sto
y0 . 2
3.6 Asksei
1. Qrhsimopointa ton orism, dexte oti
p1 + x p1 x px px + a px = a ;
lim
x! 0 x
=1 kai lim
x! 1 + 2 a 2 R:
Brete to pedo orismo th sunrthsh se kje mia ap ti parapnw periptsei .
Bebaiwjete oti to x0 ( 0 +1 antstoiqa) enai shmeo sussreush tou pedou
orismo.
2. Dexte oti an a; b > 0 tte

hxi
lim x b
x!0+ a x
= ab kai lim b
x! + x
0 a
= 0:
Ti gnetai tan x!0 ?
3. Jewrome thn sunrthsh
(
1 , x2Q
h(x) =
x , x 2= Q .
Meletste to limx!x0 h(x) , x0 2 R.
4. Meletste w pro th sunqeia th sunrthsh f : [0; 1 ! R me
8
< 0 , x 2= Q x=0
f (x) =
: 1
q , x = pq ; p; q 2 N , MKD (p; q) = 1 .
5. 'Estw f :A!R kai x0 2 A. An h f enai suneq sto x0 kai f (x0 ) 6= 0, dexte

oti
1. an f (x0 ) > 0 , uprqei > 0 t.w. an jx x j < 0 kai x 2A tte f (x) >
f (x0 )
2
> 0.
2. an f (x0 ) < 0 , uprqei > 0 t.w. an jx x j < 0 kai x 2A tte f (x) <
f (x0 ) < 0.
2
58
'Estw f suneq sto [a; b kai f (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 Q \ [a; b. Dexte oti
f (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 [a; b.

6.
7. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq . Orzoume mia sunrthsh g w ex :
8
<f (a) , x=a
g(x) =
:
maxff (t) : a t xg , a < x b.
Dexte oti h g enai suneq sto [a; b
.
'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq . Upojtoume oti h f den qei topik mgisto
elqisto se kanna shmeo tou (a; b). Dexte oti h f enai montonh sto (a; b).
8.
'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh. An h f qei topik mgisto se do
diaforetik shmea x1 ; x2 tou [a; b, tte uprqei x3 anmesa sta x1 ; x2 sto opoo
9.
h f qei topik elqisto.
10. 'Estw a < b. Dexte oti h exswsh
x2 + 1 x6 + 1
x a
+ x b =0
qei toulqiston mia lsh sto (a; b).
'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq . Upojtoume oti gia kje x 2 [a; b uprqei
y 2 [a; b ttoio ste

11.
jf (y)j jf (x)j : 2
Dexte oti uprqei z 2 [a; b ttoio ste f (z ) = 0
.
'Estw P (x) = am x + : : : + a1x + a0 polunumo me thn idithta a0am < 0.

m
Dexte oti h exswsh P (x) = 0 qei jetik pragmatik rza.
12.
'Estw f : [0; 1 ! R suneq sunrthsh me thn idithta f (x) 2 Q gia kje
x 2 [0; 1. Dexte oti h f enai stajer sunrthsh.

13.
'Estw f; g : [a; b ! R suneqe sunartsei pou ikanopoion thn f (x) = g (x)

2 2
gia kje x 2 [a; b. Upojtoume epsh oti f (x) 6= 0 gia kje x 2 [a; b. Dexte oti
14.
g f g f sto [a; b.
'Estw f : [0; 2 ! R suneq sunrthsh me f (0) = f (2). Dexte oti uprqoun
x; y 2 [0; 2 me jx yj = 1 kai f (x) = f (y).

15.
'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh, kai x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn 2 [a; b. Dexte oti
uprqei y 2 [a; b ttoio ste

16.
f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + + f (xn )

f (y) = :
n

17. f : R ! R suneq sunrthsh me thn idithta f (x) = f x + n1
'Estw gia kje
x 2 R kai kje n 2 N . Dexte oti h f enai stajer.
59
18. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R axousa sunrthsh. Dexte oti h f enai suneq sto a an
kai mno an
f (a) = inf ff (x) : a < x bg:

'Estw f; g : [a; b ! R f (x) > g(x) gia kje
suneqe sunartsei ttoie ste
x 2 [a; b. > 0 t.w. f (x) > g(x) + gia kje x 2 [a; b.

19.
Dexte oti uprqei
20. 'Estw f : R ! R suneq sunrthsh t.w. f (x) > 0 gia kje x 2 R kai
x!
lim1 f (x) = x!lim1 f (x) = 0:
+
Dexte oti h f parnei mgisth tim: uprqei y 2R t.w. f (y) f (x) gia kje
x 2 R.
21. 'Estw f : R ! R suneq kai fjnousa sunrthsh. Dexte oti h f qei
monadik stajer shmeo: uprqei akrib na pragmatik arijm x0 gia ton
opoo
f (x0 ) = x0 :
sto [0; 1 kai f (0) = f (1). 'Estw n 2 N .
Upojtoume oti h
f enai suneq

x 2 0; 1 n1 t.w. f (x) = f x + n1 .
22.
Dexte oti uprqei
'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh kai x1 ; x2 2 [a; b. Dexte oti gia kje
t 2 [0; 1 uprqei yt 2 [a; b t.w.

23.
f (yt ) = tf (x1 ) + (1 t)f (x2 ):
'Estw f: [ 1; 1 ! R p x + f (x) = 1
suneq sunrthsh pou ikanopoie thn
2 2
[ 1 1 ( ) = 1 x 2 [ 1; 1
24.
gia kje
px 2 ; . f x
Dexte oti ete x 2 gia kje
f (x) = 1 x x 2 [ 1; 1
2 gia kje .
'Estw f : [a; b ! R x 2 (a; b) kai 0 f x

. Dexte oti h enai suneq sto 0 an kai
(xn ) [a; b xn ! x
25.
mno an gia kje akolouja shmewn tou me 0 isqei

f (xn ) ! f (x )
montonh
0 .
'Estw f; g : R ! R limx! 1 f (x) = a limx! 1 g(x) = a

ttoie ste + kai + .
limx! 1(g f )(x) = a

26.
Dexte oti + .
'Estw f :R !R T >0
periodik sunrthsh me perodo . Upojtoume oti
limx! 1 f (x) = b
27.
uprqei to + f
. Dexte oti h enai stajer.
'Estw f :A!R ">0

. Upojtoume oti gia kje uprqei suneq sunrthsh
g" : A ! R jf (x) g" (x)j < "

28.
me thn idithta: x2A fgia kje . Dexte oti h enai
suneq .
'Estwf; g : [0; 1 ! [0; 1 suneqe sunartsei . Upojtoume oti h f enai

g f = f g. Dexte oti oi f kai g qoun koin stajer shmeo:
29.
axousa kai
uprqei y 2 [0; 1 ttoio ste f (y ) = y kai g (y ) = y . [ Xroume oti
uprqei x1 2 [0; 1 me g (x1 ) = x1 . An isqei kai h f (x1 ) = x1 , qoume teleisei.

Updeixh:
60
An qi, jewrste thn akolouja xn+1 = f (xn) , dexte oti enai montonh kai oti
loi oi roi th enai stajer shmea th g. To ri th ja enai koin stajer
shmeo twn f kai g (giat?).

(To Lmma tou anatllonto hlou) 'Estw f : R ! R suneq sunrthsh.
x an mporome na brome y > x me f (y) > f (x)
30.
Lme oti h f qei shmeo ski sto
(sqediste mia sunrthsh me pollo {lfou } kai {koilde } kai brete ta shmea
ski th gia na exoikeiwjete me ton orism).
Upojtoume oti uprqei na disthma (a; b) t.w. kje x 2 (a; b) na enai shmeo
ski th f a kai b na mhn enai shmea ski th f .
all ta kra
(a) Dexte oti an x 2 (a; b) tte f (x) f (b). [ 'Estw Ax = fy 2 [x; b :
f (x) f (y)g. Dexte oti sup Ax = b.

Updeixh:
(b) Dexte oti f (a) f (b). [ H f enai suneq sto a.

Updeixh:
(g) Dexte oti f (a) = f (b). [ To a den enai shmeo ski th f .

Updeixh:
61
62
Keflaio 4
Omoimorfh sunqeia
4.1 Arqik paradegmata - orism
A jewrsoume thn sunrthsh f (x) = x, x 2 R. Gnwrzoume oti h f enai suneq

sto R, kti pou ekola epibebainoume austhr qrhsimopointa ton {eyilontik}
orism:
'Estw x0 2 R kai " > 0. Zhtme > 0 ttoio ste

jx x j < =) jf (x) f (x )j < "
0 0 dhlad jx x j < ":
0
H epilog tou enai profan : arke na proume = ". Parathrste oti to pou
brkame exarttai mno ap to " pou djhke kai qi ap to sugkekrimno shmeo

x0 . H sunrthsh f metablletai me ton {dio rujm} se olklhro to pedo orismo
th : an x; y 2 R kai jx yj < " , tte jf (x) f (y)j < " .
A dome tra ti gnetai me thn sunrthsh g(x) = x2 . Enai pli gnwst oti h
g enai suneq sto R (afo g = f f ). An jelsoume na to epibebaisoume me ton

eyilontik orism, jewrome x0 2 R kai " > 0, kai zhtme > 0 me thn idithta
jx x j < =) jx
0
2
x20 j < ":
An 0<1 , qoume
jx 2
x20 j = jx x0 j jx + x0 j (jxj + jx0 j) jx x0 j (2jx0 j + 1)jx x0 j:

An loipn epilxoume = min 1; 2jx0"j+1 , tte
jx x j < =) jx
0
2
x20 j < (2jx0 j + 1) ":
'Ara, h g enai suneq sto x0 . Parathrste mw oti to pou epilxame den
exarttai mno ap to " pou ma djhke, all kai ap to shmeo x0 sto opoo
63
elgqoume thn sunqeia th g. 'Oso pio makri brsketai to x0 ap to 0, tso pio
mikr prpei na epilxoume to . Den uprqei kpoia omoimorfh epilog tou
pou na douleei gia dojn " kai x0 2 R.

x0 > 0, tte
kje
Aut fanetai ap ton ex apl upologism: an
j(x0 + )2 x20 j = j2 + 2x0 j 2x0 :

'Oso mikr ki an gnei to , h posthta 2x0 den mpore na paramnei mikrterh ap
" gia kjex0 > 0.

Jewrste thn g (x) = x periorismnh sto kleist disthma [ M; M ,
2
" exasfalzei thn
pou M > 0. Dnetai " > 0. Dexte oti o (") = min 1;
'Askhsh
2M +1
jx x j < =) jx
0
2
x20 j < "
gia kje x0 2 [ M; M .
Ta paradegmata pou dsame deqnoun mia {parleiy} ma ston orism th
sunqeia . 'Ena pio prosektik orism ja tan o ex :
f enai suneq sto x0 an gia kje " > 0 uprqei ("; x0 ) > 0 ttoio
H
jx x0 j < tte jf (x) f (x0 )j < ".

ste: an
O sumbolism (x0 ; ") ja deiqne oti to exarttai tso ap to " so kai ap to
shmeo x0 . Sunartsei pw h f (x) = x pou ma epitrpoun na epilgoume to
anexrthta ap to x0 dikaiontai xeqwrist melth:
'Estw f : A ! R mia sunrthsh. Lme oti h f enai
sto A an gia kje " > 0 mporome na brome = (") > 0 t.w.
Orism omoimorfa
suneq
an x; y 2 A kai jx yj < ; tte jf (x) f (y)j < ":

Paradegmata (a) H f (x) = x enai omoimorfa suneq sto R.
(b) H g(x) = x enai omoimorfa suneq se kje kleist disthma [ M; M ,
2
M > 0, qi mw sto R (giat?).

An h f : A ! R enai omoimorfa suneq , tte enai suneq .
Prgmati: stw x0 2 A kai " > 0. Ap ton orism th omoimorfh sunqeia ,

Paratrhsh
uprqei > 0 t.w. an x; y 2 A kai jx yj < tte jf (x) f (y)j < ".
Epilgoume aut to . An x 2 A kai jx x0 j < , tte jf (x) f (x0 )j < " (prte
y = x0 ). Afo to " > 0 tan tuqn, h f enai suneq sto x0 .
4.2 Qarakthrism th omoimorfh sunqeia m-
sw akoloujin
Jumhjete ton qarakthrism th sunqeia msw akoloujin: an f : A ! R, tte

h f x0 2 A an kai mno an gia kje akolouja (xn ) me xn 2 A
enai suneq sto
kai xn ! x0 , isqei f (xn ) ! f (x0 ).
O antstoiqo qarakthrism th omoimorfh sunqeia qei w ex :
64
f :A!R f
(xn ) (yn ) x n yn ! 0
Jerhma 4.2.1 'Estw mia sunrthsh. H enai omoimorfa suneq
sto A an kai mno an gia kje zeugri akoloujin , sto A me
f (xn ) f (yn ) ! 0:
isqei
Upojtoume prta oti h f enai omoimorfa suneq sto A. 'Estw

(xn ) (yn) A me xn yn ! 0. Ja dexoume oti f (xn ) f (yn ) ! 0:
Apdeixh:
, do akolouje sto
'Estw " > 0. Ap ton orism th omoimorfh sunqeia , uprqei > 0 t.w.
() x; y 2 A kai jx yj < =) jf (x) f (y)j < ":

Afo xn yn ! 0, uprqei n0 () 2 N ttoio ste: an n n0 tte jxn yn j < .
'Estw n n0 . Tte, jxn yn j < kai xn ; yn 2 A, opte h () dnei
jf (xn ) f (yn )j < ":
Afo to " > 0 tan tuqn, sumperanoume oti f (xn ) f (yn ) ! 0.
Antstrofa: a upojsoume oti
xn ; yn 2 A kai xn yn ! 0 =) f (xn ) f (yn ) ! 0:

Ja dexoume oti h f enai omoimorfa suneq sto A. 'Estw oti den enai. Tte,
uprqei " > 0 me thn ex idithta:
Gia kje > 0 uprqoun x ; y 2 A me jx y j < all jf (x )
f (y )j ".
Epilgonta diadoqik = 1; 1=2; : : : ; 1=n; : : :, brskoume zeugria xn ; yn 2 A t.w.
jxn yn j < n1 all jf (xn ) f (yn )j ". Jewrome ti akolouje (xn ), (yn ). Ap
thn kataskeu qoume xn yn ! 0, all den mpore na isqei h f (xn ) f (yn ) ! 0
(giat?). Aut enai topo, ra h f enai omoimorfa suneq sto A. 2
(a) Jewrome thn sunrthsh f (x) =
x sto (0; 1. H f enai su-
1
Paradegmata
neq all enai omoimorfa suneq . Gia na to dome, arke na brome do
(xn ) (yn) (0; 1 yn ! 0 all na mhn

den
akolouje , sto pou na ikanopoion thn xn

ikanopoion thn
x n yn
1
! 0 1
.
Parnoume xn = n yn =
1
kai
2
1
n . Tte, xn ; yn 2 (0; 1 kai
xn yn =
1 1 = 1 !0
n 2n 2n
all
f (xn ) f (yn ) =
1 1 = n 2n = n! 1:
xn yn
(b) Jewrome thn sunrthsh g(x) = x2 sto R. Orzoume xn = n + n1 kai yn = n.
1 !0
Tte,
xn y n =
n
65
all

g(xn ) g(yn ) = n +
1 2
n2 = 2 +
1 ! 2 6= 0:
n n2
'Ara, h g den enai omoimorfa suneq sto R.
To Jerhma 4.2.1 deqnei ki aut oti kje omoimorfa suneq
:A!R
Paratrhsh
sunrthsh enai suneq : stw f omoimorfa suneq sunrthsh kai
stw x0 2A . 'Estw (xn ) akolouja sto A me xn !x 0. Jewrome thn stajer
akolouja yn = x0 , n 2 N . Tte,
xn yn = xn x0 ! 0;
opte to Jerhma 4.2.1 ma dnei
f (xn ) f (x0 ) = f (xn ) f (yn) ! 0;

dhlad f (xn ) ! f (x0 ). Ap to Jerhma 3.3.1 h f enai suneq sto x0 .
4.3 Omoimorfh sunqeia suneqn sunartsewn se
kleist diastmata
Sti prohgomene paragrfou edame oti h sunrthsh g(x) = x2 den enai omoi-
morfa suneq sto I = R all enai omoimorfa suneq se kje disthma th
morf I =[ M; M , M > 0 (osodpote meglo ki an enai to M ). Aut pou
isqei genik enai oti kje sunrthsh f : [a; b ! R pou enai suneq enai kai
omoimorfa suneq :
f : [a; b ! R f
[a; b
Jerhma 4.3.1 'Estw suneq sunrthsh. Tte, h enai omoi-
morfa suneq sto .
A upojsoume oti h f den enai omoimorfa suneq . Tte, pw sthn

" > 0 kai do akolouje (xn ),
Apdeixh:
apdeixh tou Jewrmato 4.2.1, mporome na brome
(yn) [a; b xn
sto me yn ! 0 kai jf (xn ) f (yn )j " gia kje n 2 N.
Oi(xn ) (yn) kai enai fragmne akolouje (giat?). Ap to Jerhma Bolzano-
Weierstrass , uprqoun upakolouja (xnk ) th (xn) kai x 2 [a; b me
xnk ! x:
Tte,
ynk = xnk (xnk ynk ) ! x 0 = x:

Ap thn sunqeia th f sto x petai oti
f (xnk ) ! f (x) kai f (ynk ) ! f (x):
66
Dhlad,
f (xnk ) f (ynk ) ! 0:
Aut enai topo afo eqame jf (xn ) f (yn )j " gia kje n 2 N . 'Ara, h f enai
omoimorfa suneq sto [a; b. 2

Paratrhsh To gegon oti h f tan orismnh sto kleist disthma [a; b
qrhsimopoijhke me do trpou . Prton, mporsame na brome sugklnouse
upakolouje twn (xn ) (yn )

, (jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass ). Deteron, mporosa-
me na pome oti to koin rio x autn twn upakoloujin exakolouje na brsketai
sto pedo orismo [a; b f

th . Qrhsimopoisame dhlad to ex :
an a zn b kai zn ! z; tte a z b:
Apodexte to Jerhma 4.3.1 qrhsimopointa ton eyilontik orism. Ta
f : [a; b ! R enai mia suneq sunrthsh kai

'Askhsh
bmata enai ta ex (upojtoume oti
oti ma qoun dsei kpoio " > 0).

(a) Orzoume
A = fz 2 [a; b : 9 > 0 t.w. an x; y 2 [a; z kai jx yj < tte jf (x) f (y)j < "g:
Dexte oti to A enai mh ken kai nw fragmno.
(b) 'Estw = sup A. Dexte oti = b. [ An < b, brete h> 0 t.w.
+ h 2 A.
Updeixh:
(g) Dexte oti tob = sup A ankei sto A.

'Ara, uprqei > 0 t.w. an x; y 2 [a; b kai jx yj < , tte jf (x) f (y)j <
". Aut shmanei oti h f enai omoimorfa suneq sto [a; b. H apdeixh pou
dsame enai pol pio apl, o lgo mw enai oti qrhsimopoisame pol shmantik
apotelsmata pw to jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass .
4.4 Paradegmata kai efarmog
'Ola ta paradegmata suneqn all qi omoimorfa suneqn sunartsewn pou
sunantsame w tra tan paradegmata mh fragmnwn sunartsewn.
Orzoume f (x) = os(x2 ), x 2 R. H f enai suneq sto R kai jf (x)j 1 gia

kje x 2 R. 'Omw h f enai omoimorfa suneq : gia na to dete, jewrste
den
ti akolouje
xn =
p
(n + 1) kai yn = n:
p
Tte,
(n + 1) pn = p((nn ++ 1)1) + n

p
xn y n = pn = p(n + 1) + pn ! 0;
67
all
jf (xn ) f (yn )j = j os((n + 1)) os(n)j = 2

gia kje n 2 N. Ap to Jerhma 4.2.1 petai to sumprasma. Uprqoun loipn
fragmne suneqe sunartsei pou den enai omoimorfa suneqe (sqediste thn
grafik parstash th os(x )

2
gia na dete to lgo: gia megla x, h f anebanei
ap thn tim 1 sthn tim 1 kai katebanei ap thn tim 1 sthn tim 1 lo kai pio
grgora - se kpoia diastmata, o rujm metabol th gnetai pol meglo ).
f:A!R (xn )
(f (xn ))
Jerhma 4.4.1 'Estw omoimorfa suneq sunrthsh kai ako-
louja Cau hy sto A . Tte, h enai akolouja Cau hy .
'Estw " > 0. Uprqei > 0 t.w. an x; y 2 A kai jx yj < tte
jf (x) f (y)j < " (xn ) enai akolouja Cau hy, ra uprqei n0 () t.w.
Apdeixh:
. H
m; n n0 () =) jxn xm j < :
'Omw tte,
m; n n0 () =) jxn xm j < =) jf (xn ) f (xm )j < ":

Afo to " > 0 tan tuqn, h (f (xn )) enai akolouja Cau hy. 2
To prohgomeno jerhma deqnei oti kje omoimorfa suneq sunrthsh stl-
nei akolouje Cau hy se akolouje Cau hy . Aut den enai genik swst gia
suneqe sunartsei : jewrste thnf (x) = x1 sto (0; 1. H xn = n1 enai akolouja

Cau hy sto , mw h f (xn ) = n den enai akolouja Cau hy.
(0; 1
Edame oti kje suneq sunrthsh f orismnh se kleist disthma enai omoi-
morfa suneq . Ja exetsoume to ex erthma:
'Estw f : (a; b) ! R suneq sunrthsh. P mporome na elgxoume an h f

enai omoimorfa suneq sto (a; b) ?
f : (a; b) ! R f
(a; b) limx!a+ f (x) limx!b f (x)
Jerhma 4.4.2 'Estw suneq sunrthsh. H enai omoimorfa
suneq sto an kai mno an uprqoun ta kai .
Upojtoume prta oti uprqoun ta limx!a+ f (x) limx!b f (x)kai .
[a; b
Apdeixh:
Orzoume mia {epktash} g th f sto , jtonta
limy!a+ f (y)
8
>
>
, x=a
>
<
g(x) = f (x) , a<x
>
>
:
limy!b f (y) , x = b.
H g enai suneq sto kleist disthma [a; b
(giat?), ra omoimorfa suneq . Ja
dexoume oti h f enai ki aut omoimorfa suneq sto (a; b). 'Estw " > 0. Afo h
g enai omoimorfa suneq , uprqei >0
t.w. an x; y 2 [a; b kai jx yj < tte
jg(x) g(y)j < ".
68
Jewrome x; y 2 (a; b) me jx yj < . Tte, ap ton orism th g qoume
jf (x) f (y)j = jg(x) g(y)j < ":
Antstrofa, upojtoume oti h f enai omoimorfa suneq sto (a; b) kai deqnoume
oti uprqei to limx!a+ f (x) (h parxh tou llou pleuriko orou apodeiknetai me
ton dio trpo).
Ja dexoume oti an (xn ) enai akolouja sto (a; b) xn ! a me (f (xn ))

, tte h
sugklnei. Aut enai meso ap to Jerhma 4.4.2: h (xn ) (xn )

sugklnei, ra h
enai akolouja Cau hy , ra h (f (xn )) Cau hy

enai akolouja (f (xn ))
, ra h sug-
klnei se kpoion pragmatik arijm L .
Epsh , to rio th (f (xn )) enai anexrthto ap thn epilog th (xn ) : stw
(yn) mia llh akolouja sto (a; b) yn ! a

me x n yn ! 0
. Tte, . Ap to Jerhma
4.2.1,
f (xn ) f (yn ) ! 0:
Xroume dh oti lim f (xn) = L , ra
f (yn ) = f (xn ) (f (xn ) f (yn )) ! L + 0 = L:

Mporome tra na dexoume oti limx!a+ f (x) = L (skhsh: mimhjete thn apdeixh
tou qarakthrismo th sunqeia msw akoloujin). 2

Orism 'Estw f :A!R mia sunrthsh. Lme oti
f h enai Lips hitz suneq an uprqei M > 0 t.w. gia kje x; y 2 A

jf (x) f (y)j M jx yj:
f h enai sustol an uprqei 0<M <1 t.w. gia kje x; y 2 A
jf (x) f (y)j M jx yj:
Profan , kje sustol enai Lips hitz suneq .
Jerhma 4.4.3 Kje Lips hitz suneq sunrthsh enai omoimorfa suneq .
'Estw f : A ! R kai M > 0 t.w. jf (x) f (y)j M jx yj gia kje

x; y 2 A. An ma dsoun " > 0, epilgoume = M" . Tte, gia kje x; y 2 A me
Apdeixh:
jx yj < qoume
jf (x) f (y)j M jx yj M = ":
'Epetai oti h f enai omoimorfa suneq sto A. 2
(Jerhma stajero shmeou, Bana h ) f :R!R
f (y) = y
Jerhma 4.4.4 'Estw sustol.
Uprqei monadik y2R t.w. .
69
Ap thn upjesh uprqei 0 < M < 1 t.w. jf (x) f (y)j M jx yj gia
x; y 2 R. H f enai Lips hitz suneq , ra omoimorfa suneq . Epilgoume
Apdeixh:
kje
tuqnta x1 2 R. Orzoume mia akolouja (xn ) msw th
xn+1 = f (xn ); n 2 N :
Tte,
jxn +1 xn j = jf (xn ) f (xn 1 )j M jxn xn 1 j

gia kje n 2. Epagwgik apodeiknoume oti
jxn
xn j M n 1 jx2 x1 j
+1
gia kje n 2. 'Epetai oti an n > m sto N , tte
jxn xm j jxn xn 1 j + + jxm+1 xm j

(M n 2 + : : : + M m 1 )jx2 x1 j
= 1 1 MM M m 1jx2 x1 j
n m
m 1
M 1 M jx2 x1 j:
Afo 0 < M < 1, qoume M
m ! 0. 'Ara, gia dojn " > 0 mporome ekola na
brome n0 (") t.w. an n > m n0 na isqei jxn xm j < ".
Epomnw , h (xn ) enai akolouja Cau hy kai aut shmanei oti sugklnei: upr-
qei y 2 R t.w. xn ! y . Ja dexoume oti f (y ) = y : ap thn xn ! y kai thn sunqeia
th f blpoume oti f (xn ) ! f (y ). 'Omw xn+1 = f (xn ) kai xn+1 ! y , ra
f (xn ) ! y. Ap thn monadikthta tou orou akolouja prokptei h f (y) = y.

To y enai to monadik stajer shmeo th f . 'Estw z 6= y me f (z ) = z . Tte,
0 < jz yj = jf (z) f (y)j M jz yj;

dhlad 1 M , to opoo enai topo. 2
= px
(a) Mia omoimorfa suneq sunrthsh den enai kat angkhn
Lips hitz f (x) [0; 1

Paradegmata
suneq . Jewrste thn sto . H f enai suneq sto
[0; 1
, epomnw enai omoimorfa suneq . 'Omw ,
jf (1=n ) f (0)j = n1 = n n1 0
2

gia kje n2N . M >0

An uprqe jf (x) f (y)j M jx yj
t.w. gia kje
x; y 2 [0; 1 M n
, ja prepe na isqei n2N gia kje (giat?), to opoo enai
p
topo.
(b) H sunrthsh f (x) = x [1; +1)

enai sustol sto , ra omoimorfa suneq .
Prgmati, an x; y 1 tte
jf (x) f (y)j = jpx pyj = pjxx + ypjy 21 jx yj:
70
4.5 Asksei
1. 'Estw f : I ! R kai g : J ! R omoimorfa suneqe sunartsei t.w. ff (x) :
x 2 I g J . Dexte oti h g f enai omoimorfa suneq .

'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh kai stw " > 0. Dexte oti mporome na
qwrsoume to [a; b se peperasmna to pljo diadoqik upodiastmata tou idou

2.
mkou tsi ste: an ta x; y ankoun sto dio upodisthma, tte jf (x) f (y)j < ".
'Estw f : R ! R suneq kai periodik sunrthsh. Dhlad, uprqei T > 0 t.w.
f (x + T ) = f (x) gia kje x 2 R. Dexte oti h f enai omoimorfa suneq .

3.
'Estw f : R ! R suneq sunrthsh me thn ex idithta: gia kje " > 0
uprqei M = M (") > 0 t.w. an jxj M tte jf (x)j < ". Dexte oti h f enai
4.
omoimorfa suneq .
'Estw f :R!R omoimorfa suneq sunrthsh. Dexte oti uprqoun A; B > 0

jf (x)j Ajxj + B
5.
t.w. gia kje x 2 R.

6. 'Estw f :R!R suneq , fragmnh kai montonh sunrthsh. Dexte oti h f
enai omoimorfa suneq .
7. 'Estw A mh ken uposnolo tou R. Orzoume f :R!R me
f (x) = inf fjx aj : a 2 Ag

(f (x) enai h {apstash} tou x ap to A). Dexte oti
(a) jf (x) f (y)j jx yj gia kje x; y 2 R.
(b) h f enai omoimorfa suneq .
8. Exetste an oi paraktw sunartsei enai omoimorfa suneqe .
1. f : R ! R me f (x) = 3x + 1.
2. f : [2; +1) ! R me f (x) = x1 .
3. f : (0; ! R me f (x) = x1 sin2 x.
4. f : R ! R me f (x) = x21+4 .
5. f : R ! R me f (x) = 1+xjxj .
6. f : [ 2; 0 ! R me f (x) = x2x+1 .
7. f : R ! R me f (x) = x sin x.
2
8. f : [0; +1) ! R me f (x) = os(x)
x+1 .
9. 'Estw f; g : I ! R omoimorfa suneqe sunartsei . Dexte oti
(a) h f +g
enai omoimorfa suneq sto I .
(b) hf g den enai anagkastik omoimorfa suneq sto I , an mw oi f; g upote-

jon kai fragmne tte h f g enai omoimorfa suneq sto I .
71
'Estw : (a; b) ! R
f omoimorfa suneq sunrthsh. Dexte oti h f enai
M >0 jf (x)j M x 2 (a; b)

10.
fragmnh: uprqei t.w. gia kje .
f : [0; +1) ! R
(a) 'Estw suneq sunrthsh. Upojtoume oti uprqei a>0
[a; +1)
11.
t.w. h f na enai omoimorfa suneq sto f

. Dexte oti h enai omoimorfa
[0; +1) p
suneq sto .
f (x) = x
(b) Dexte oti h enai omoimorfa suneq sto[0; +1) .
f : (0; 1) [ (1; 2) ! R f (x) = 0

Apodexte oti h sunrthsh me an x 2 (0; 1) kai
f (x) = 1 x 2 (1; 2)
12.
an enai suneq all den enai omoimorfa suneq .
72
Keflaio 5
To oloklrwma Riemann
5.1 O orism tou Darboux
Se autn thn pargrafo dnoume ton orism tou oloklhrmato Riemann gia
fragmne sunartsei pou orzontai se na kleist disthma. Gia mh arnhtik
sunartsei to oloklrwma dnei to embadn tou qwrou pou perikleetai anmesa
sto grfhma th sunrthsh , ton orizntio xona y = 0 kai ti katakrufe eujee

x = a kai x = b.
Orism [a; b
'Estw na kleist disthma.
(a) [a; b
tou = fx ; x ; : : : ; xn g
ja lme kje peperasmno uposnolo 0 1
[a; b x = a xn = b xk 2
Diamrish
tou me 0 , . Ja upojtoume pnta oti ta enai diatetagmna
w ex :
a = x < x < : : : < xk < xk < : : : < xn = b:

0 1 +1
Ja grfoume = fa = x < x < : : : < xn = bg

0 1 gia na tonsoume autn akrib
thn ditaxh. Parathrste oti ap ton orism, kje diamrish [a; b tou periqei
toulqiston do shmea: to a b [a; b

kai to (ta kra tou ).
(b) Kje diamrish = fa = x < x < : : : < xn = bg

0 1 [a; b n qwrzei to se
upodiastmata [xk ; xk k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1
+1 , . Onomzoume th diamrish

plto
to megaltero ap ta mkh autn twn upodiasthmtwn. Dhlad, to plto th
diamrish isotai me
maxfx 1 x0 ; x2 x1 ; : : : ; x n xn 1 g:
Parathrste oti den apaitome aut ta n upodiastmata na qoun to dio mko
(ta xk den enai upoqrewtik na isapqoun).
(g) H diamrish 1 lgetai th an 1 , dhlad an prokptei

eklptunsh
ap thn me thn prosjkh ki llwn (peperasmnwn to pljo ) shmewn. Tte
lme oti h 1 enai leptterh ap thn .
73
(d) 'Estw ; 1 2 do diamersei tou [a; b . H twn ;
1 2 enai
= [ [a; b
koin eklptunsh
h diamrish 1 2 . Ekola blpoume oti h enai diamrish tou kai
oti an0 enai mia diamrish leptterh tso ap thn 1 so kai ap thn 2 tte
0 = [
(dhlad, h 1 2 enai h mikrterh dunat diamrish pou ekleptnei
tso thn 1 so kai thn 2 ).
Jewrome tra mia sunrthsh f : [a; b ! R kai mia diamrish =

fa = x < x < : : : < xn = bg [a; b [a; b sta upodiastmata
fragmnh
0 1 tou . H diamerzei to
[x ; x [x ; x ; : : : ; [xk ; xk
0 1 , 1 2 +1 ; : : : ; [xn 1 ; xn
. Gia kje k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1 orzoume
tou pragmatiko arijmo
mk (f; ) = mk = inf ff (x) : xk x xk+1 g

kai
Mk (f; ) = Mk = supff (x) : xk x xk+1 g:

'Oloi auto oi arijmo orzontai kal: h f enai fragmnh sto [a; b, epomnw kai
se kje upodisthma [xk ; xk+1 . Gia kje k , to snolo ff (x) : xk x xk+1 g
enai mh ken kai fragmno uposnolo tou R, ra qei supremum kai inmum .
Gia kje diamrish tou [a; b orzoume tra to nw kai to ktw jroisma th
f w pro thn me ton ex trpo:
X nX1
(f; ) = Mk (xk+1 xk )
k=0
enai to nw jroisma th f w pro kai
X nX1
(f; ) = mk (xk+1 xk )
k=0
enai to ktw jroisma th f w pro .
Paratrhsh: Enai faner oti gia kje diamrish isqei
X X
() (f; ) (f; )
afo mk Mk kai xk+1 xk > 0 k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1
, . Se sqsh me to {embadn}
P
pou prospajome na orsoume, prpei na skeftmaste to ktw jroisma
P
(f; )
san mia prosggish ap ktw kai to nw jroisma (f; ) san mia prosggish
ap pnw .
Isqei mw mia pol pio isqur anisthta ap thn () :
f : [a; b ! R ;
1 2
[a; b
Lmma 5.1.1 'Estw fragmnh sunrthsh kai do diamersei
tou . Tte,
X X
() (f; )
1 (f; ):
2
74
Parathrste oti h () enai eidik perptwsh th () : arke na proume = = 1
2 sto Lmma.
Apdeixh: H apdeixh th () ja basiste ston akloujo isqurism:
'Estw = fa = x0 < x1 < : : : < xk < xk+1 < : : : < xn = bg kai

xk < y < xk+1 gia kpoio k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1. An 1 = [ fyg =
fa = x0 < x1 < : : : < xk < y < xk+1 < : : : < xn = bg, tte
X X X X
(f; ) (f; )
1 (f; )
1 (f; ):
Dhlad, me thn prosjkh en shmeou y sthn diamrish , to nw jroisma th
f {mikranei} en to ktw jroisma th f {megalnei}.
k = inf ff (x) : xk x y g kai mk =
m(1) (2)
Apdeixh tou isqurismo: Jtoume
inf ff (x) : y x xk g +1 . Tte, mk mk kai mk mk (diti A B =)

(1) (2)
inf B inf A ). Grfoume
X
(f; ) = [m (x x ) + : : : + mk (y
1 0 1 0
(1)
xk ) + m(2)
k (xk+1 y) + : : :
+mn (xn xn ) 1 1
[X
m (x x ) + : : : + mk (xk
0 1 0 +1 xk ) + : : : + m n 1 (xn xn 1 )
= (f; ):
'Omoia deqnoume oti
X X
(f; ) (f; ): 1 2
()
Gia na apodexoume thn jewrome thn koin eklptunsh = [ 1 2 twn

1 kai 2. H
prokptei ap thn 1 me diadoqik prosjkh peperasmnwn to
pljo shmewn. An efarmsoume ton isqurism peperasmne to pljo for ,
P
parnoume (f; ) PP
(f; ) P
1 .
P
P
(f; ) (f; )
'Omoia blpoume oti 2 . Ap thn llh pleur, (f; )
(f; ) . Sunduzonta ta parapnw, qoume
X X X X
(f; ) 1 (f; ) (f; ) (f; ): 2
2
Jewrome tra ta uposnola tou R

X
A= (f; ) : diamrish tou [a; b
kai
X
B= (f; ) : diamrish tou [a; b :
75
Ap to Lmma 5.1.1 qoume: gia kje a2A kai kje b2B isqei a b. 'Ara,
sup A inf B ('Askhsh 1.6.17). An loipn orsoume san th
[a; b
ktw oloklrwma
f sto to
Z b X
f (x)dx = sup (f; ) : diamrish tou [a; b
a
kai san nw oloklrwma th f sto [a; b to
Z b
X
f (x)dx = inf (f; ) : diamrish tou [a; b
a
qoume
Z b Z b
f (x)dx f (x)dx:
a a
Orism Mia fragmnh sunrthsh f : [a; b ! R lgetai Riemann oloklhr-
simh an
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx:
a a
H koin aut tim lgetai oloklrwma Riemann th f sto [a; b kai sumbolzetai
me
Z b Z b
f (x)dx f:
a a
5.2 To kritrio oloklhrwsimthta tou Riemann
O orism tou oloklhrmato pou dsame sthn prohgomenh pargrafo enai d-
sqrhsto : den enai ekolo na ton qrhsimopoisei kane gia na apofanje an mia
fragmnh sunrthsh enai oloklhrsimh qi. To kritrio oloklhrwsimthta
pou akolouje enai pol pi eqrhsto:
f : [a; b ! R f Riemann
">0
Jerhma 5.2.1 'Estw fragmnh sunrthsh. H enai
[a; b
oloklhrsimh an kai mno an gia kje mporome na brome diamrish tou
ttoia ste
X X
(f; ) (f; ) < ":
Apdeixh: Upojtoume prta oti h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. Dhlad,
Z b Z b Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx = f (x)dx:
a a a
76
'Estw " > 0. Ap ton orism tou ktw oloklhrmato , uprqei diamrish 1 tou
[a; b ttoia ste
Z b
(f; ) + 2" :
X
f (x)dx < 1
a
Ap ton orism tou nw oloklhrmato , uprqei diamrish 2 tou [a; b ttoia
ste
Z b
(f; ) 2" :
X
f (x)dx > 2
a
Jewrome thn koin eklptunsh = [ 1 2 . Tte,
(f; ) 2" (f; ) 2"

X X
2
Z b Z b
< f (x)dx = f (x)dx
a a
"
(f; ) + 2" ;
X X
< (f; ) + 2
1
ap pou petai oti

X X
0 (f; ) (f; ) < ":
Antstrofa: upojtoume oti gia kje " > 0 uprqei diamrish " tou [a; b ttoia
ste
X X
(f; " ) < (f; " ) + ":
Tte, gia kje " > 0 qoume
Z b Z b X
f (x)dx f (x)dx (f; " )
a a
X Z b
< (f; " ) + " f (x)dx + ":
a
Epeid to " > 0 tan tuqn, petai oti
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx;
a a
dhlad h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. 2
Ja qrhsimopoisoume to Jerhma 5.2.1 gia na exetsoume an oi
Riemann
Paradegmata:
paraktw sunartsei enai oloklhrsime :
(a) H sunrthsh f : [0; 1 ! R f (x) = x

me
2
.
Gia kje n 2 N jewrome thn diamrish n tou [0; 1 se n sa upodiastmata
mkou 1=n :

n = 0 < n1 < n2 < : : : < n n 1 < nn = 1 :
77
H sunrthsh f (x) = x2 [0; 1
enai axousa sto , epomnw

(f; n) = f (0) n1 + f n1 n1 + : : : + f n n 1 n1
X

= 1 0 + 1 + 2 + : : : + (n 1)
2 2 2
n n 2 n 2 n 2
= 1 + 2 + :n: : + (n 1) = 1)n(2n 1) (n
2 2 2
6n 3 3
= 2n 3n + 1 1 1
2
1
= 3 2n + 6n
6n 2 2
kai

1
(f; n) = f n n + f n2 n1 + : : : + f nn n1
1
X

1 1 2
= n n + n +:::+ n n 2 2 2
2 2 2
= 1 + 2 +n : : : + n = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2 2 2
6n 3 3
= 2n + 3n + 1 1 1 2
1
= 3 + 2n + 6n :
6n 2 2
(f; n ) = n1 :
'Epetai oti
X X
(f; n )
'Ara, gia kje " > 0 mporome na brome diamrish [a; b tou ttoia ste
X X
(f; ) (f; ) < ":
Arke na proume n2N me 1=n < " kai = n .
Ap to Jerhma 5.2.1 sumperanoume oti h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh.
Mporome mlista na brome thn tim tou oloklhrmato . Gia kje n 2 N,

1 1 1 X
3 2n + 6n = 2
(f; n)
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
x2 dx = x2 dx = x2 dx
0 0 0
X
(f; n)
= 31 + 21n + 6n1 2
:
1 1 + 1 !1 1 + 1 + 1 ! 1;
Afo
3 2n 6n 3 2
kai
3 2n 6n 3 2
78
1 Z 1
petai oti
1
x2 dx :
3 0 3
Dhlad,
Z 1
x2 dx = :
1
0 3
(b) H sunrthsh tou Diri hlet f : [0; 1 ! R me
(
1 x2Q ,
f (x) =
0 x 2= Q , .
Ja dexoume oti h f Riemann

enai oloklhrsimh. 'Estw tuqosa diamrish
[0; 1
den
tou . Dhlad,
= f0 = x 0 < x1 < : : : < xk < xk+1 < : : : < xn = 1g:

Upologzoume to ktw kai to nw jroisma th f w pro thn . Gia kje k=
0; 1; : : : ; n 1 uprqoun rht qk kai rrhto k sto (xk ; xk )+1 . Afo f (qk ) = 1,
f (k ) = 0 0 f (x) 1
kai sto [xk ; xk +1 , sumperanoume oti mk = 0 kai Mk = 1.
Sunep ,
X nX1 nX1
(f; ) = mk (xk+1 xk ) = 0 (xk +1 xk ) = 0
k=0 k=0
kai
X nX1 nX1
(f; ) = Mk (xk+1 xk ) = 1 (xk +1 xk ) = 1:
k=0 k=0
Afo h tan tuqosa diamrish tou [0; 1 , parnoume
Z 1 Z 1
f (x)dx = 0 kai f (x)dx = 1:
0 0
'Ara, h f den enai Riemann oloklhrsimh.
(g) H sunrthsh f : [0; 1 ! R me
8
3 < , x= 1
f (x) =
2
:
0 , x 6= 1
2
.
Ja dexoume oti h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, kai
Z 1
f (x)dx = 0:
0
79
'Estw " > 0. Ja brome diamrish tou [0; 1 ttoia ste
X X
0 (f; ) (f; ) < ":
H diamrish ja enai th morf

= 0 < 12 <
1 + < 1;
2
pou to ja epilege katllhla (kai ja exarttai ap to dojn ").
Ekola blpoume oti

(f; ) = 0 21 + 0 (2) + 0 1 21
X
=0

(f; ) = 0 12 + 3 (2) + 0 1 21
kai
X
= 6;
ra
X X
0 (f; ) (f; ) = 6 < "
an, gia pardeigma, epilxoume = "=12 . Ap to kritrio oloklhrwsimthta tou
Riemann (Jerhma 5.2.1) h f enaiRiemann oloklhrsimh.
Epiplon, gia kje diamrish

P = f0 = x < x < : : : < xn = 1g
0 1 tou [0; 1
qoume (f; ) = 0 , epomnw
Z 1 Z 1 X
f (x)dx = f (x)dx = sup (f; ) : diamrish tou [0; 1 = 0:
0 0
5.3 Do klsei Riemann oloklhrsimwn sunar-
tsewn
Qrhsimopointa to kritrio oloklhrwsimthta tou Riemann (Jerhma 5.2.1) ja
dexoume oti oi montone kai oi suneqe sunartsei f : [a; b ! R enai Riemann

oloklhrsime .
Jerhma 5.3.1 An h f : [a; b ! R enai montonh sunrthsh, tte h f enai
Riemann oloklhrsimh.
Qwr periorism th genikthta upojtoume oti h f enai axousa.
x 2 [a; b qoume
Apdeixh:
H f enai profan fragmnh: gia kje
f (a) f (x) f (b):
80
'Ara, qei nhma na exetsoume thn parxh oloklhrmato gia thn f.
'Estw " > 0. Ja brome n2N arket meglo ste an

n = a; a +
b a
;a+
2(b a) ; : : : ; a + n(b a) =b
n n n
enai h diamrish tou [a; b se n sa upodiastmata, na isqei
X X
(f; n ) (f; n) < ":
Jtoume
k(b a)
xk = a + ; k = 0; 1; : : : ; n:
n
Tte, afo h f enai axousa qoume
nX1 nX1
X b a
(f; n ) = Mk (xk+1 xk ) = f (xk+1 )
n
k=0 k=0
b a
= n
(f (x1 ) + + f (xn )) ;
en
nX1 nX1
X b a
(f; n ) = mk (xk+1 xk ) = f (xk )
n
k=0 k=0
b a
= n
(f (x0 ) + + f (xn 1 )) :
'Ara,
(f; n) = [f (xn ) f (x0 )(b a)

f (a)(b a)
= [f (b)
X X
(f; n) n n
;
to opoo gnetai mikrtero ap to " > 0 pou ma djhke, arke to n na enai arket
meglo. Ap to Jerhma 5.2.1, h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. 2

Jerhma 5.3.2 An h f : [a; b ! R enai suneq sunrthsh, tte h f enai
Riemann oloklhrsimh.
'Estw " > 0 . H f enai suneq sto kleist disthma [a; b, ra
> 0 me thn ex idithta:

Apdeixh:
omoimorfa suneq . Mporome loipn na brome
x; y 2 [a; b kai jx yj < , tte jf (x)

An f (y)j < b " a .
Mporome epsh na brome n 2 N ttoio ste
b a
< :
n
81
Qwrzoume to [a; b se n upodiastmata tou idou mkou
b a.
n Jewrome dhlad
thn diamrish

n = a; a +
b a
;a+
2(b a) ; : : : ; a + n(b a) =b :
n n n
Orzoume
k(b a)
xk = a + ; k = 0; 1; : : : ; n:
n
'Estw k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1 . H f enai suneq sto kleist disthma [xk ; xk+1 , ra
parnei mgisth kai elqisth tim se aut. Uprqoun dhlad yk0 ; yk00 2 [xk ; xk+1
t.w.
Mk = f (yk0 ) kai mk = f (yk00 ):

Epiplon, to mko tou [xk ; xk+1 enai so me
b a < , ra
n
0 00
jy y j < : k k
Ap thn epilog tou parnoume
"
Mk mk = f (yk0 ) f (yk00 ) = jf (yk0 ) f (yk00 )j < :
b a
'Epetai oti
X X nX1
(f; n) (f; n ) = (Mk mk )(xk+1 xk )
k=0
nX1
"
<
b
(x
a k+1 k
x)
k=0
"
= b a
(b a) = ":
Ap to Jerhma 5.2.1, h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh. 2
5.4 Idithte tou oloklhrmato Riemann
Se autn thn pargrafo apodeiknoume austhr merik ap ti pio basik idi-
thte tou oloklhrmato Riemann . Oi apodexei twn upolopwn enai mia kal
skhsh pou ja sa bohjsei na exoikeiwjete me ti diamersei , ta nw kai ktw
ajrosmata klp.
Jerhma 5.4.1 An f (x) = gia kje x 2 [a; b , tte
Z b
f (x)dx = (b a):
a
82
'Estw = fa = x < x < : : : < xn = bg
0 1 diamrish tou [a; b . Gia
k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1 m k = Mk =
Apdeixh:
kje qoume . 'Ara,
X X nX1
(f; ) = (f; ) = (xk+1 xk ) = (b a):
k=0
'Epetai oti
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = (b a) = f (x)dx:
a a
'Ara,
Z b
f (x)dx = (b a): 2
a
Jerhma 5.4.2 'Estw f; g : [a; b ! R oloklhrsime sunartsei . Tte, h f +g
enai oloklhrsimh kai
Z b Z b Z b
[f (x) + g(x)dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx:
a a a
= fa = x < x < : : : < xn = bg
'Estw 0 1 [a; b diamrish tou . Gia
k = 0; 1; : : : ; n
1
Apdeixh:
kje orzoume
mk = inf f(f + g)(x) : xk x xk g ; Mk = supf(f + g)(x) : xk x xk g

+1 +1
m0k = inf ff (x) : xk x xk g ; Mk0 = supff (x) : xk x xk g

+1 +1
m00k = inf fg(x) : xk x xk g ; Mk00 = supfg(x) : xk x xk g:

+1 +1
Gia kje x 2 [xk ; xk +1 m0k + m00k f (x) + g(x)

qoume . 'Ara,
m0k + m00k mk :
Omow , gia kje x 2 [xk ; xk Mk0 + Mk00 f (x) + g(x)
+1 qoume . 'Ara,
Mk0 + Mk00 Mk :
'Epetai oti
X X X X X X
(f; ) + (g; ) (f + g; ) (f + g; ) (f; ) + (g; ):
Parathrome oti
Z b
X
(f + g)(x)dx = sup (f + g; ) : diamrish tou [a; b
a

X X
sup (f; ) + (g; ) : diamrish tou [a; b
83
X X
= sup (f; ) + (g; ) : ;
1 2 1 2 diamersei tou [a; b

X
= sup (f; ) :
1 1 diamrish tou [a; b
X
+ sup (g; ) :
2 2 diamrish tou [a; b
Z b Z b
= f (x)dx + g(x)dx:
a a
(h mesaa isthta afnetai san skhsh). 'Omoia,
Z b Z b Z b
(f + g)(x)dx f (x)dx + g(x)dx:
a a a
'Ara,
Z b Z b Z b Z b Z b
f (x)dx + g(x)dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx (f + g)(x)dx
a a a a a
Z b Z b Z b
(f + g)(x)dx f (x)dx + g(x)dx
a a a
Z b Z b
= f (x)dx + g(x)dx:
a a
Aut shmanei oti
Z b Z b
(f + g)(x)dx = (f + g)(x)dx;
a a
dhlad h f + g enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, kai mlista
Z b Z b Z b
[f (x) + g(x)dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx: 2
a a a
f : [a; b ! R t2R tf
[a; b
Jerhma 5.4.3 'Estw oloklhrsimh kai stw . Tte, h
enai oloklhrsimh sto kai
Z b Z b
(tf )(x)dx = t f (x)dx:
a a
A upojsoume prta oti t > 0. 'Estw = fa = x0 < x1 < : : : <
xn = bg diamrish tou [a; b. k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1 orsoume
Apdeixh:
An gia
mk = inf f(tf )(x) : xk x xk+1 g ; Mk = supf(tf )(x) : xk x xk+1 g

kai
m0k = inf ff (x) : xk x xk+1 g ; Mk0 = supff (x) : xk x xk+1 g;
84
enai faner oti
mk = tm0k kai Mk = tMk0 :

'Ara,
X X X X
(tf; ) = t (f; ) kai (tf; ) = t (f; ):
'Epetai oti
Z b Z b Z b Z b
(tf )(x)dx = t f (x)dx kai (tf )(x)dx = t f (x)dx:
a a a a
Afo h f enai oloklhrsimh, qoume
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx:
a a
'Epetai oti h tf enai Riemann oloklhrsimh, kai
Z b Z b
(tf )(x)dx = t f (x)dx:
a a
An t < 0, h mnh allag sto prohgomeno epiqerhma enai oti tra mk = tMk0 kai
Mk = tm0k . Sumplhrste thn apdeixh mnoi sa .
Tlo , an t = 0 qoume tf 0. 'Ara,
Z b Z b
tf =0=0 f: 2
a a
f; g : [a; b ! R
tf + sg [a; b
Prisma 5.4.1 An enai do oloklhrsime sunartsei kai
t; s 2 R , tte h enai oloklhrsimh sto kai
Z b Z b Z b
(tf + sg)(x)dx = t f (x)dx + s g(x)dx: 2
a a a
f : [a; b ! R 2 (a; b)
[a; b [a;
Jerhma 5.4.4 'Estw fragmnh sunrthsh kai stw . H
f
[ ; b
enai oloklhrsimh sto an kai mno an enai oloklhrsimh sta kai
. Tte, isqei
Z b Z Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx:
a a
Upojtoume prta oti h f enai oloklhrsimh sta [a; kai [ ; b. 'Estw
" > 0. [a; kai 2 tou [ ; b ttoie ste

Apdeixh:
Uprqoun diamersei 1 tou
Z
(f; ) < 2"
X X X X
(f; ) 1 f (x)dx (f; ) 1 kai (f; )1 1
a
85
kai
Z b
(f; ) < 2" :
X X X X
(f; )
2 f (x)dx (f; ) 2 kai (f; )2 2

To snolo = [ 1 2 enai diamrish tou [a; b kai isqoun oi
X X X X X X
(f; ) = (f; ) +
1 (f; ) 2 ; (f; ) = (f; ) +
1 (f; ):
2
Ap ti parapnw sqsei parnoume
X X X X
(f; ) (f; ) = (f; ) 1 (f; )1
X X

+ (f; ) 2 (f; )2
" "
<
2 + 2 = ":
Afo to " > 0 tan tuqn, h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a; b (kritrio oloklhrwsi-
mthta tou Riemann ). Epiplon qoume
X Z b X
(f; ) f (x)dx (f; )
a
kai
X Z Z b X
(f; ) f (x)dx + f (x)dx (f; )
a
(giat?). Epomnw ,
Z b Z Z b !
X X

f (x)dx f (x)dx + f (x) dx (f; ) (f; ) < "
a a
kai afo to " > 0 tan tuqn,

Z b Z Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx:
a a
Antstrofa: upojtoume oti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a; b kai jewrome " > 0.
Uprqei diamrish tou [a; b t.w.
X X
(f; ) (f; ) < ":
An 2= jtoume 0 = [ f g, opte pli qoume
X X X X
(f; 0) (f; 0 ) (f; ) (f; ) < "
86
(giat?). Mporome loipn na upojsoume oti 2 . Orzoume 1 = \ [a; kai
= \ [ ; b
2 . Oi ;1 2 enai diamersei twn [a; kai [ ; b antstoiqa, kai
X X X X X X
(f; ) = (f; ) +1 (f; ) 2 ; (f; ) = (f; ) +1 (f; ):2
Afo
X X X X
(f; )1 (f; ) 1 + (f; ) 2 (f; ) 2
X X
= (f; ) (f; )
< ";
petai oti
X X X X
(f; ) 1 (f; ) < "
1 ; (f; ) 2 (f; ) < ":
2
Afo to ">0 tan tuqn, to kritrio oloklhrwsimthta tou Riemann ma exa-
sfalzei oti h f enai oloklhrsimh sta [a; kai [ ; b. Tra, ap to prto mro
th apdeixh parnoume thn isthta
Z b Z Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx: 2
a a
f : [a; b ! R
m f (x) M x 2 [a; b
Jerhma 5.4.5 'Estw oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Upojtoume oti
gia kje . Tte,
Z b
m(b a) f (x)dx M (b a):
a
O arijm
1 Z b
f (x)dx
b a a
enai h msh tim th f sto [a; b.
Apdeixh: Arke na diapistsete oti gia kje diamrish tou [a; b isqei
X X
m(b a) (f; ) (f; ) M (b a)
(to opoo enai pol ekolo). 2
'Askhsh 'Estw f; g : [a; b ! R oloklhrsime sunartsei . Dexte oti:
(a) h jf j enai oloklhrsimh kai
Z b Z b

f (x)dx jf (x)jdx:
a a
87
(b) h f 2 enai oloklhrsimh.
(g) h f g enai oloklhrsimh.
Rb
a f (x)dx mno sthn perptwsh
W tra orsame to
a b kai h f : [b; a ! R enai oloklhrsimh, orzoume
Z b Z a
f (x)dx = f (x)dx:
a b
'Ole oi idithte pou apodexame se autn thn pargrafo, ekt ap thn
Z b Z b

f (x) dx jf (x)jdx;
a a
exakoloujon na isqoun.
5.5 Parrthma: o orism tou Riemann gia to
oloklrwma - isodunama me ton orism tou
Darboux
O orism pou dsame gia to poi fragmne sunartsei f : [a; b ! R enai
Riemann oloklhrsime ofeletai ston Darboux . O prto austhr orism th
oloklhrwsimthta djhke ap ton Riemann kai enai o ex :
'Estw f : [a; b ! R fragmnh sunrthsh. Lme oti h f enai
[a; b
Orism oloklh-
rsimh sto an uprqei na pragmatik arijm I me thn ex idithta:
Gia kje " > 0 mporome na brome > 0 ttoio ste: an = fa =
x0 < x1 < : : : < xn = bg enai diamrish tou [a; b me plto mikrtero

ap kai an k 2 [xk ; xk+1 , k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1 enai tuqosa epilog
shmewn ap ta upodiastmata pou orzei h , tte
n 1
X

f (k )(xk +1 xk ) I < ":
k=0
Se autn thn perptwsh lme oti o I enai to
Z b
f (x)dx
a
(o I enai to oloklrwma th f sto [a; b ).
88
Sumbolism :
P
Sunjw grfoume gia thn epilog shmewn f ; ; : : : ; n g
0 1 1
kai (f; ; ) gia to jroisma
nX1
f (k )(xk+1 xk ):
k=0
P
Parathrste oti tra to {eisrqetai} upoqrewtik ston sumbolism (f; ; )
afo gia thn dia diamrish mporome na qoume poll diaforetik epilog
f ; ; : : : ; n g
0 1 1 me k 2 [xk ; xk+1 .
H basik ida psw ap ton orism enai oti
Z b X
f (x)dx = lim (f; ; )
a
tan to plto th tenei sto mhdn kai ta k epilgontai aujareta sta upodia-
stmata pou orzei h . Epeid den qoume sunantsei ttoiou edou {ria} w
tra, katafegoume sthn {eyilontik mjodo}.
Skop aut th paragrfou enai h apdeixh th isodunama twn do orismn
oloklhrwsimthta :
Jerhma 5.5.1 'Estw f : [a; b ! R fragmnh sunrthsh. H f enai oloklhr-
simh kat Darboux an kai mno an enai oloklhrsimh kat Riemann .
Upojtoume prta oti h f enai oloklhrsimh kat Riemann . Gr-
Riemann
Apdeixh:
foume I gia to oloklrwma th f me ton orism tou .
'Estw " > 0. Mporome na brome mia diamrish = fa = x < 0 x1 <

: : : < xn = bg (me arket mikr plto ) ttoia ste gia kje epilog shmewn
= f0 ; 1 ; : : : ; n 1 g me k 2 [xk ; xk+1 na isqei

n 1
X "

f (k )(xk +1 xk ) I <
4:
k=0
Gia kje k = 0; 1; : : : ; n 1 mporome na brome k0 ; k00 2 [xk ; xk+1 t.w.
" "
mk > f (k0 ) ; Mk < f (k00 ) +
4(b a) 4(b a) :
'Ara,
nX1
X " "
(f; ) > f (k0 )(xk+1 xk )
k=0 4 >I 2
kai
nX1
X " "
(f; ) < f (k00 )(xk+1 xk ) + 0 tan tuqn,
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx = I:
a a
Dhlad,
Z b
f (x)dx = I:
a
Antstrofa: upojtoume oti h f enai oloklhrsimh me ton orism tou Darboux .
'Estw " > 0. Uprqei diamrish = fa = x 0 < x1 < : : : < xn = bg tou [a; b t.w.
(f; ) < 4" :

X X
(f; )
H f enai fragmnh, dhlad uprqei M > 0 ttoio ste jf (x)j M gia kje
x 2 [a; b. Epilgoume
"
=
6nM > 0:
'Estw 0 diamrish tou [a; b me plto mikrtero ap ,

h opoa enai kai ekl-
. Tte, gia kje epilog shmewn ap ta upodiastmata pou orzei

0
ptunsh th
h qoume
Z b
" X X
f (x)dx
4 (f; ) (f; 0 )
<
a X
(f; 0 ; )
X X
(f; 0 ) (f; )
Z b
"
< f (x)dx + :
a 4
Dhlad,
Z b
X "

(f; 0 ; ) f (x)dx < :
2
a
Zhtme na dexoume to dio prgma gia diamrish 1 me plto mikrtero
(mia ttoia diamrish den qei kanna lgo na enai eklptunsh th ).
tuqosa
ap
90
'Estw = fa = y
1 0 < y1 < : : : < ym = bg mia ttoia diamrish tou [a; b. Ja
{prosjsoume} sthn 1 na-na la ta shmea xk th ta opoa den ankoun sthn
1 (aut enai to pol n 1 ).
A pome oti na ttoio xk yl < yl+1

brsketai anmesa sta diadoqik shmea
th 1 . Jewrome thn
2 1 = [fxk g (1)
= f ; ; : : : ; m 1 g
kai tuqosa epilog
0 1
me l 2 [yl ; yl+1 , l = 0; 1; : : : ; m 1
. Epilgoume do shmea 2 [yl ; xk kai
0 00
l l 2
[xk ; yl+1 kai jewrome thn epilog shmewn = f0; 1; : : : ; l 1 ; l ; l ; : : : ; m 1g
(2) 0 00
pou antistoiqe sthn 2 . 'Eqoume

X X

(f; ; )
1
(1)
(f; ; ) = jf (l )(yl
2
(2)
+1 yl ) f (l0 )(xk yl )
f (l00 )(yl +1 xk )j
3M max l
jyl +1 yl j < 3M
= 2"n :
Antikajistnta thn dosmnh ( ; )1
(1)
me lo kai lepttere diamersei (k ; k ) ( )
pou prokptoun me thn prosjkh shmewn th , met ap n to pol bmata ft-

noume se mia diamrish 0 kai mia epilog shmewn (0) me ti ex idithte :
(a) h 0 enai koin eklptunsh twn kai 1 , kai qei plto mikrtero ap .
(b) afo h 0 enai eklptunsh th , qoume
Z b
X "

(f; ; )
0
(0)
f (x) dx < :
2
a
(g) afo kname to pol n bmata gia na ftsoume sthn

",
0 kai afo se kje bma
2n
ta ajrosmata apeqan to pol qoume

X X " "

(f; ; )
1
(1)
(f; ; )
0
(0)
<n
2n = 2 :
Dhlad, gia thn tuqosa diamrish 1 pltou < kai gia thn tuqosa epilog
(1) shmewn ap ta upodiastmata th 1 , qoume
Z b
X X X

(f; ; )
1
(1)
f (x) dx <
(
f; 1 ; (1) f; ) ( ;
0
(0)

a
Z b
X
+
(
f; 0 ; (0)
f ) (x)dx
a
" "
<
2 + 2 = ":
'Epetai oti h f enai oloklhrsimh me ton orism tou Riemann , kaj kai oti ta
do oloklhrmata enai sa. 2
91
5.6 Asksei
1. Qrhsimopointa to kritrio oloklhrwsimthta tou Riemann apodexte oti oi
paraktw sunartsei enai oloklhrsime :
(a) f : [0; 1 ! R me f (x) = x.

(b) f : [0; =2 ! R me f (x) = sin x.
2. Exetste an oi paraktw sunartsei enai oloklhrsime sto [0; 2 kai upolo-
gste to oloklrwm tou (an uprqei):
(a) f (x) = x + [x.

(b) f (x) = 1 an x = k1 gia kpoio k 2 N , kai f (x) = 0 alli .
(g) f (x) = x + [x an x 2 Q kai f (x) = 0 alli .
'Estw f : [a; b ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh me thn idithta: f (x) =0 gia
kje x 2 [a; b \ Q . Dexte oti

3.
Z b
f (x)dx = 0:
a
4. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R sunrthsh me thn idithta
X X
(f; ) = (f; )
gia kje diamrish tou [a; b . Dexte oti h f enai stajer. Poi enai to olo-
klrwm th ?
'Estw f; g; h : [a; b ! R tre sunartsei pou ikanopoion thn f (x) g (x)
h(x) gia kje x 2 [a; b. Upojtoume oti oi f; h enai oloklhrsime kai

5.
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = h(x)dx = I:
a a
Dexte oti h g enai oloklhrsimh kai
Z b
g(x)dx = I:
a
6. 'Estw f : [0; 1 ! R Lips hitz suneq sunrthsh t.w.
jf (x) f (y)j M jx yj
gia kje x; y 2 [0; 1. Dexte oti
Z n

1
f (x)dx
1X f
k M

0 nk =1
n 2n
92
gia kje n 2 N.
7. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte oti h jf j enai oloklhr-
simh. Omow , oti h f

2
enai oloklhrsimh.
'Estw f : [a; b ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh kai 2 R. Orzoume g : [a + ; b +
! R me g(x) = f (x ). Dexte oti h g enai oloklhrsimh kai

8.
Z b Z b+
f (x)dx = g(x)dx:
a a+
9. 'Estw f:R!R suneq kai periodik sunrthsh me perodo T > 0. Dexte
oti, gia kje x0 2 R Z x0 +T Z T

f (x)dx = f (x)dx:
x0 0
'Estw > 0 kai f : [ a; b ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte oti h
g : [a; b ! R pou orzetai ap thn g(t) = f ( t) enai oloklhrsimh kai

10.
Z b Z b
f (t)dt = f ( t)dt:
a a
11. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh me f (x) 0 gia kje x 2 [a; b. Dexte
oti
Z b
f (x)dx = 0
a
an kai mno an f (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 [a; b.
12. 'Estw f : [ b; b ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh.
R
(a) An f ( x) = f (x) gia kje x 2 [ b; b, dexte oti b b f (x)dx = 0.
R R
(b) An f ( x) = f (x) gia kje x 2 [ b; b, dexte oti b b f (x)dx = 2 0b f (x)dx.
13. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R gnhsw axousa kai suneq sunrthsh. Dexte oti
Z b Z f (b)
f (x)dx = bf (b) af (a) f 1
(x)dx:
a f (a)
'Estw f : [0; +1) ! [0; +1) gnhsw axousa kai suneq sunrthsh me
f (0) = 0. a; b > 0
14.
Dexte oti gia kje
Z a Z b
ab f (x)dx + f 1
(x)dx
0 0
me isthta an kai mno an f (a) = b.
93
'Estw f : [a; b ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte oti gia kje "> 0
g" : [a; b ! R
15.
mporome na brome suneq sunrthsh me g" f kai
Z b Z b

f (x)dx g" (x) dx < ":
a a
'Estw f : [a; b !R suneq sunrthsh me thn idithta: gia kje suneq
g : [a; b ! R isqei
16.
Z b
f (x)g(x)dx = 0:
a
Dexte oti f (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 [a; b.
'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh me thn idithta: gia kje suneq
g : [a; b ! R pou ikanopoie thn g(a) = g(b) = 0, isqei

17.
Z b
f (x)g(x)dx = 0:
a
Dexte oti f (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 [a; b.
18. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R oloklhrsimh. Dexte oti
Z b Z b

f (x) dx jf (x)jdx:
a a
'Estw f; g : [a; b ! R oloklhrsime sunartsei . Dexte thn anisthta
Cau hy-S hwarz

19.
Z b !2 Z b ! Z b !
f (x)g(x)dx f (x)dx
2
g (x)dx :
2
a a a
20. 'Estw f : [0; 1 ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte oti
Z 1 2 Z 1
f (x)dx f 2(x)dx:
0 0
Isqei to dio an antikatastsoume to [0; 1 me tuqn disthma [a; b ?
21. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh me thn ex idithta: uprqei M >0

t.w. Z x
jf (x)j M jf (t)jdt
a
gia kje x 2 [a; b. Dexte oti f (x) = 0 gia kje . x 2 [a; b
22. 'Estw f : [0; 1 ! R suneq sunrthsh. Orzoume mia akolouja (an ) jtonta
Z 1
an = f (xn )dx:
0
94
Dexte oti an ! f (0).
23. Dexte oti h akolouja
n = 1 +
1 1 1 Z n
1 dx
2 + 3 +:::+ n 1 x
sugklnei.
24. Orzoume mia sunrthsh f : [0; 1 ! R me
8
< 0 , x 2= Q x=0
f (x) =
: 1
q , x = pq ; p; q 2 N , MKD (p; q) = 1 .
Dexte oti h f enai oloklhrsimh kai
Z 1
f (x)dx = 0:
0
25. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Skop aut th skhsh
enai na dexoume oti h f qei poll shmea sunqeia .

P P
(a) Uprqei diamrish tou [a; b ttoia ste (f; ) (f; ) < b a (giat?).
Dexte oti uprqoun a1 < b1 sto [a; b ttoia ste b1 a1 < 1 kai
supff (x) : a x b g inf ff (x) : a x b g < 1:
1 1 1 1
(b) H f enai oloklhrsimh sto [a ; b 1 a <b (a ; b )

1 . Dexte oti uprqoun 2 2 sto 1 1
ttoia ste b a < 1=2
2 2 kai
supff (x) : a x b g inf ff (x) : a x b g < 21 :

2 2 2 2
(g) Epagwgik orste kibwtismna diastmata [an; bn (an ; bn ) 1 1 me mko
mikrtero ap 1=n ttoia ste
supff (x) : an x bng inf ff (x) : an x bng < 1 : n

(d) H tom autn twn kibwtismnwn diasthmtwn periqei akrib na shmeo.
Dexte oti h f enai suneq se aut.
(e) Tra dexte oti h f qei peira shmea sunqeia sto [a; b (den qreizetai
perissterh doulei!).
'Estw f : [a; b ! R oloklhrsimh (qi anagkastik suneq ) sunrthsh me
f (x) > 0 gia kje x 2 [a; b. Dexte oti

26.
Z b
f (x)dx > 0:
a
95
27. 'Estw f : [0; 1 ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte oti h akolouja
n
an =
1 X
f
k
n k=1 n
R1
sugklnei sto
0
f (x)dx. [Updeixh: Qrhsimopoiste ton orism tou Riemann
.
'Estw g : [a; b ! R fragmnh sunrthsh. g enai suneq

Upojtoume oti h
x0 2 (a; b).
28.
panto, ekt ap na shmeo g enai oloklhrsimh.

Dexte oti h
'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh kai g : [a; b ! R oloklhrsimh
sunrthsh me mh-arnhtik tim . Dexte oti uprqei 2 [a; b ttoio ste

29.
Z b Z b
f (x)g(x)dx = f ( ) g(x)dx:
a a
30. 'Estw f : [0; +1) ! R suneq sunrthsh me
lim f (x) = a:
x!0+
Dexte oti
lim 1 Z x f (t)dt = a:
x! + x
0 0
'Estw f : [0; 1 ! R fragmnh sunrthsh me thn idithta: gia kje 0 < b 1
f enai oloklhrsimh sto disthma [b; 1. Dexte oti h f enai oloklhrsimh sto
31.
[0; 1.
Apodexte oti h sunrthsh f : [ 1; 1 ! R me f (x) = sin
x an x 6= 0 kai
1
f (0) = 2 enai oloklhrsimh.

32.
96
Keflaio 6
Pargwgo
Jewrome gnwst ton orism kaj kai ti basik idithte twn paraggwn. Gia
perisstere leptomreie mporete na sumbouleutete ta bibla twn S. Phqwrdh
kai M. Spivak . Paraktw kalptoume mno ta jmata pou perigrfontai ston
odhg spoudn.
6.1 Pargwgo snjeth kai antstrofh sunrth-
sh
6.1.1 O kanna th alusda
'Estw f : A ! R. Lme oti to x0 enai eswterik shmeo tou pedou orismo A th

f an uprqei > 0 ttoio ste (x0 ; x0 + ) A.
g:A!R f :B!R
fg(x) : x 2 Ag B = g(x )
Jerhma 6.1.1 'Estw kai do sunartsei . Upojtoume oti
x0 A y0 0
g0(x0 ) f 0 (y )
. 'Estw eswterik shmeo tou ttoio ste to
na enai eswterik shmeo B

tou . Upojtoume oti oi pargwgoi kai 0
uprqoun. Tte, h f g enai paragwgsimh sto x0 kai
(f g)0 (x ) = f 0(g(x ))g0 (x ):

0 0 0
H f g enai kal orismnh sto A. Akma kai an den eqame thn
fg(x) : x 2 Ag B
Apdeixh:
upjesh oti , oi uploipe upojsei arkon gia na dexoume
oti h f g enai kal orismnh se mia perioq tou x0 : h g enai paragwgsimh, ra

suneq sto x0 . To g(x0 ) enai eswterik shmeo tou B , ra uprqei > 0 ttoio
97
ste (g(x0 ) ; g(x0)+ ) B. Ap th sunqeia th g sto x0 mporome na brome
1 > 0 t.w.
x 2 (x0 1 ; x0 + 1 ) ) g(x) 2 (g(x0 ) ; g(x0 ) + );
ra h f (g(x)) orzetai kal gia jx x0 j < 1 .
Jloume na dexoume oti
lim f (g(x))x
x!x0
f (g(x0 ))
x0
= f 0(g(x ))g0(x );
0 0
dhlad oti
f (g(x)) f (g(x0 ))
f 0 (g(x0 ))g0 (x0 ) ! 0
x x0
tan x ! x0 . Grfoume thn parapnw diafor me ton ex trpo:
f (g(x)) f (g(x0 ))
f 0 (g(x0 ))g0 (x0 )

x x 0

= f (g(x))x fx(g(x0 )) f 0(g(x0)) g(xx) gx(x0 )
0 0

g (x) g (x )
+f 0(g(x0 )) x x0 0 g0(x0 ) :
Afo
g(x) g(x0 )
x x0
! g0 (x )
0
tan x !x 0 , o detero ro tou ajrosmato tenei sto 0. Arke loipn na
dexoume oti
f (g(x)) f (g(x0 )) f 0 (g(x0 ))(g(x) g(x0 ))

x x0
!0
tan x ! x0 .
'Estw " > 0. H g enai paragwgsimh sto x0 , ra uprqei 2 < 1 ttoio ste

0 < jx x0 j < 2 )
g (x)g(x0 )
g0(x0 ) < 1
x x0

(x)
g(x0 )
opte
g
< jg0 (x0 )j + 1 =: M:
x x0

H f enai paragwgsimh sto x0 , ra uprqei 3 < 2 ttoio ste

0 < jy g(x0 )j < 3 )
f (y) f (g(x0 ))
f 0 (g(x0 )) <
"
:
y g(x0 ) M
98
Dhlad, an jy g(x )j < 0 3 tte
jf (y) f (g(x )) f 0 (g(x ))(y g(x ))j M" jy g(x )j:

0 0 0 0
Pli ap thn sunqeia th g sto x0 , uprqei 4 < 3 ttoio ste: an jx x j < 0 4

tte jg(x) g(x )j <
0 3 , opte
jf (g(x)) f (g(x )) f 0 (g(x ))(g(x) g(x ))j M" jg(x) g(x )j;
0 0 0 0
ra, an 0 < jx x j <

0 4 qoume

f (g (x)) f (g (x )) f 0 (g(x0 ))(g(x) g(x0 )) "
g(xx) gx(x ) < ":

M
0 0
x x0 0
Afo to " > 0 tan tuqn, petai to zhtomeno. 2
6.1.2 Pargwgo antstrofh sunrthsh .
f (a; b)
x0 2 (a; b) f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0
Jerhma 6.1.2 . 'Estw gnhsw montonh kai suneq sunrthsh sto .
f
f (x0 )
Upojtoume oti h enai paragwgsimh sto kai oti . Tte, h
f 1
enai paragwgsimh sto kai
(f )0 (f (x )) = f 0(1x ) :
1
0
0
Qwr blbh th genikthta mporome na upojsoume oti h f enai
f 0(x0 ) uprqei, dhlad

Apdeixh:
gnhsw axousa. H
x!x0
lim f (xx) f (x0 )
x0
= f 0(x ):0
Epiplon qoume upojsei oti f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0, ra
lim f (xx)
x!x0
x0
f (x0 )
= f 0(1x ) :
0
'Estw " > 0. Mporome na brome > 0 ttoio ste: an x0 < x < x0 + kai
x 6= x0 , tte

(1)

x x0 1 < ":
f (x) f (x0 ) f 0(x )
0
Jtoume

y1 = f x0 y2 = f x0 + :
2 kai
2
99
Tte, to (y1; y2) enai na anoiqt disthma pou periqei to f (x0 ), ra uprqei
1 > 0 t.w.

(f (x )0 1 ; f (x0 ) + 1 ) (y1 ; y2 ) = f x0
2 ; f x0 +
2 :
'Estw y 6= f (x ) pou ikanopoie thn jy f (x )j < 1 . Tte, y = f (x) gia kpoio
+
0 0
x 6= x0 me x2 x 0 2
;x
0 2
. 'Ara,
f 1
(y) f (f (x )) = x
1
0 x0
0 < jx
x0 j < ;
y f (x ) f (x) f (x0 ) 2
kai
0
opte h (1) dnei

f

1
(y) f 1(f (x0 )) 1 < ":
y f (x0 ) f 0 (x ) 0
Afou to " > 0 tan tuqn, petai oti

f 1(y) f 1 (f (x0 ))
lim
y!f (x0 ) y f (x0 )
= f 0(1x ) :
0
Dhlad, h f 1
enai paragwgsimh sto f (x0 ) kai
(f )0 (f (x )) = f 0(1x ) :
1
0
0
2
6.2 Jerhma tou Rolle kai jerhma msh tim -
kritria monotona
'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh. Upojtoume oti h f enai paragwgsimh
sto (a; b) x 2 (a; b)

: dhlad, gia kje orzetai kal h efaptomnh th grafik pa-
rstash th f (x; f (x)) sto . Jewrome thn qord AB me kra ta shmea (a; f (a))
kai (b; f (b)) . An thn metakinsoume parllhla pro ton eaut th , kpoia stig-
m ja gnei efaptomnh tou grafmato th f se kpoio shmeo (x ; f (x ))

0 0 , pou
x0 2 (a; b) . H klsh th efaptomnh ja prpei na isotai me thn klsh th qord
AB . Dhlad,
f (b) f (a)
f 0 (x0 ) = :
b a
Sto prto mro aut th paragrfou dnoume austhr apdeixh auto tou isqu-
rismo (Jerhma Msh Tim ). Apodeiknoume prta mia eidik perptws tou:
to jerhma tou Rolle .
f : [a; b ! R [a; b
(a; b) f (a) = f (b) = 0 2 (a; b)
Jerhma 6.2.1 'Estw suneq sto kai paragwgsimh sto
. Upojtoume epiplon oti . Tte, uprqei x0 ttoio
f 0 (x ) = 0:
ste
100
A upojsoume prta oti h f enai stajer sto [a; b, dhlad f (x) =
x 2 [a; b. f 0 (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 (a; b) kai opoiodpote ap aut
Apdeixh:
gia kje Tte,
ta x mpore na paxei to rlo tou x0 .
'Estw loipn oti h f den enai stajer sto [a; b. Tte, uprqei x1 2 (a; b) t.w.
f (x1 ) 6= 0 kai qwr blbh th genikthta mporome na upojsoume oti f (x1 ) > 0.
H f enai suneq sto [a; b, ra parnei mgisth tim: uprqei x0 2 [a; b t.w
f (x0 ) = maxff (x) : x 2 [a; bg f (x1 ) > 0:

Eidiktera, to x0 brsketai sto anoikt disthma (a; b). Ap thn upjes ma h f
enai paragwgsimh sto x0 .
An x < x0 , tte f (x) f (x0 ) ra f (xx) xf 0(x0 ) 0 . Epomnw ,
f 0(x0 ) = lim f (xx) f (x0 )

x0
0:
x!x0
An x > x0 , tte f (x) f (x0 ) ra f (xx) xf 0(x0 ) 0 . Epomnw ,
f 0 (x0 ) = lim f (xx)

x!x+
f (x0 )
x0
0:
0
'Epetai oti f 0 (x0 ) = 0. 2

To Jerhma Msh Tim enai mesh sunpeia tou jewrmato tou Rolle
.
f : [a; b ! R [a; b
(a; b) x0 2 (a; b)
Jerhma 6.2.2 'Estw suneq sto kai paragwgsimh sto
. Tte, uprqei ttoio ste
f (b) f (a)
f 0(x0 ) = :
b a
Apdeixh: Orzoume mia sunrthsh g : [a; b ! R me
f (b) f (a)
g(x) = f (x) f (a) (x a):
b a
H g enai suneq sto [a; b, paragwgsimh sto (a; b) kai ekola elgqoume oti
g(a) = g(b) = 0. Smfwna me to jerhma tou Rolle, uprqei x0 2 (a; b) t.w
g0 (x0 ) = 0. Dhlad,
f (b) f (a)
f 0 (x0 ) = 0: 2
b a
Mia parallag (kai genkeush) tou Jewrmato Msh Tim enai to jerhma
msh tim tou Cau hy :
101
f; g : [a; b ! R [a; b
(a; b)
Jerhma 6.2.3 'Estw suneqe sto kai paragwgsime sto
. Upojtoume epiplon oti
(a) oi f0 kaig0 den qoun koin rza sto (a; b) .
(b) g(b) g(a) 6= 0:

Tte uprqei x0 2 (a; b) ttoio ste
f (b) f (a)
= fg0((xx )) :
0 0
g(b) g(a) 0
Apdeixh: Orzoume mia sunrthsh h : [a; b ! R me
h(x) = (f (b) f (a))g(x) (g(b) g(a))f (x):

H h enai suneq sto [a; b
kai paragwgsimh sto (a; b) . Epsh ,
h(a) = f (b)g(a) g(b)f (a) = h(b)

Ap to Jerhma 6.2.2 uprqei x 2 (a; b)
0 ttoio ste
h(b) h(a)
h0 (x ) = = 0;
0
b a
dhlad
(f (b) f (a))g0(x ) = (g(b) g(a))f 0 (x ):

0 0
Parathrome oti g0 (x ) 6= 0
0 : an eqameg0 (x ) = 0 0 (g(b) g(a))f 0(x ) =
, tte ja tan 0
0 kai afo ap thn upjes ma g(b) g(a) 6= 0 f 0 (x ) = 0
ja prepe na qoume 0 .
Dhlad oi f 0 kai g0 ja eqan koin rza. Mporome loipn na diairsoume kai qoume
f (b) f (a)
= fg0((xx )) : 2
0 0
g(b) g(a) 0
g(x) = x sto Jerhma 6.2.3, parnoume san eidik

(a) Parnonta
g0 (x) = 1, oi f 0 kai g0 den qoun

Parathrsei :
perptws tou to Jerhma Msh Tim : afo
koin rza sto (a; b) (h g den qei kamma rza sto (a; b)). Epsh , g (b) g(a) =
0
b a 6= 0. Apo to Jerhma 6.2.3 uprqei x0 2 (a; b):
f (b) f (a) f 0(x0 )
b a
= 1 = f 0(x0 ):
(b) H upjesh oti oi f
0 kai g0 den qoun koin rza sto (a; b) enai aparathth.
Prte gia pardeigma f; g : [ 1; 1 ! R me f (x) = x kai g (x) = x . Tte,
2 3
f (1) f ( 1) 1 1
g(1) g( 1) = 1 ( 1) = 0:
'Omw
f 0(x)
g0(x)
= 32xx = 32x ;
2
x 6= 0:
102
'Ara den uprqei x2( 1; 1) ttoio ste
f 0 (x)
g0(x)
= 0:
To prblhma enai oti f 0 (0) = g0 (0) = 0.
To Jerhma Msh Tim ma epitrpei na apodexoume to ex kritrio monotona :
Jerhma 6.2.4 'Estwf : [a; b ! R paragwgsimh sunrthsh.
f f 0(x) 0 x 2 (a; b) f
f (x) 0
0 x 2 (a; b)
(a) An h enai axousa, tte gia kje . Anloga, an h
enai fjnousa tte gia kje .
f (x) 0
0 x 2 (a; b) f [a; b
f 0 (x) 0 x 2 (a; b) [a; b
(b) An gia kje , tte h enai axousa sto . Anloga,
an gia kje f
, tte h enai fjnousa sto .
Apdeixh: (a) 'Estw x 2 (a; b). Afo h f enai axousa, ekola blpoume oti
f (y) f (x)
y x
0
gia kje y 2 (a; b) me y 6= x. Epomnw ,
f (y) f (x)
f 0(x) = ylim
!x 0:
y x
H apdeixh th f 0 (x) 0 gia fjnousa f enai entel anlogh.
(b) Me thn upjesh oti f (x) 0 sto (a; b), deqnoume oti an a < x < y < b
0
tte f (x) f (y ). Jewrome ton periorism th f sto [x; y . H f enai suneq sto
[x; y kai paragwgsimh sto (x; y), opte efarmzonta to Jerhma Msh Tim
brskoume 2 (x; y ) t.w.
f (y) f (x)
f 0 ( ) = :
y x
Afo f ( ) 0, petai to zhtomeno. Entel anloga deqnoume oti an f (x) 0
0 0
sto (a; b), tte h f enai fjnousa. 2
6.3 Idithta Darboux gia thn pargwgo
Lme oti mia sunrthsh f : I ! R qei thn idithta Darboux (idithta th endi-
mesh tim ) an: gia kje x < y sto I me f (x) 6= f (y) kai kje pragmatik arijm
anmesa stou f (x) kai f (y) mporome na brome z 2 (x; y) t.w. f (z ) = . Ap
to Jerhma Endimesh Tim petai oti kje suneq sunrthsh f : I ! R qei
thn idithta Darboux .
Ja dexoume oti h pargwgo mia paragwgsimh sunrthsh qei pnta thn
idithta Darboux (an kai den enai pnta suneq sunrthsh).
103
Jerhma 6.3.1 'Estw f : (a; b) ! R paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Tte, h f0 qei
thn idithta Darboux .
me f (x) 6= f (y ).
'Estw x<y 0
2I 0 Qwr blbh th genikthta
mporome na upojsoume oti f (x) < f (y ). Upojtoume oti f (x) < < f (y ) kai
Apdeixh:
0 0 0 0
ja brome z 2 (x; y ) t.w. f (z ) = .
0
H f enai paragwgsimh sto x, dhlad
lim f (x + hh)
h!0+
f (x)
= f 0(x) < :
'Ara uprqei h1 > 0 ttoio ste
f (x + h) f (x)
<
h
gia kje 0<h<h 1.
'Omoia h f enai paragwgsimh sto y, dhlad
lim f (y + hh)
h!0
f (y)
= f 0(y) > :
'Ara uprqei h2 > 0 ttoio ste
f (y h) f (y)
h
= f (y) f (y h)
h
>
gia kje 0<h<h 2.
Jewrome ton arijm = 1

2
minfh ; h g > 0
1 2 . Tte,
f (x + ) f (x)
(1)
<
kai
f (y + ) f (y )
(2)
> :
Orzoume tra thn sunrthsh g : [x; y ! R me
f (t + ) f (t)
g (t) = :

g
H enai suneq sto [x; y kai ap ti (1) kai (2) blpoume oti
g (x) < < g (y ):
Ap to jerhma endimesh tim petai oti uprqei t 2 (x; y ) ttoio ste
f (t + ) f (t)
g (t) = ) = :

104
f H enai suneq sto [t; t + kai paragwgsimh sto (t; t + ). Ap to Jerhma
Msh Tim petai oti uprqei z 2 (t; t + ) ttoio ste

f (t + ) f (t)
f 0 (z ) =
t+ t
= f (t + ) f (t)
= : 2
Pardeigma Jewrome thn sunrthsh

f (x) = x sin( x ); x 6= 0
2 1
0; x = 0.
H f qei pargwgo se kje x2R kai

f 0 (x) = 2x sin( x ) os( x ); x 6= 0
1 1
0; x=0 .
H f0 den enai suneq sto x0 =0 2x sin( x0 ) os( x )

: to rio th
1 1
kaj to x!0
den uprqei. Ap to prohgomeno mw jerhma, h f prpei na qei thn idithta
th endimesh tim (epalhjeste to).
f : (a; b) ! R paragwgsimh sunrthsh. An h f 0 enai asuneq se

'Estw
kpoio shmeo x0 2 (a; b), dexte oti h asunqeia th f sto x0 enai ousidh (den
'Askhsh
0
uprqei to rio limx!x0 f (x)).
0
6.4 Aprosdiriste morf
Tupik paradegmata th katstash pou ja ma apasqolsei se autn thn par-
grafo enai ta ex : jloume na exetsoume an uprqei to rio
f (x)
lim
x!x0 g (x)
pou f; g enai do sunartsei paragwgsime dexi kai arister ap to x0 , me
g(x) 6= 0 an to x 6= x0 brsketai kont sto x0 , kai

lim f (x) = xlim
x!x0 !x0 g(x) = 0
p.q.
lim f (x) = xlim

x!x0 !x0 g(x) = +1:
0 1
Tte lme oti qoume aprosdiristh morf
1 antstoiqa.
l'Hospital
0
Oi kanne tou ma epitrpoun suqn na brome ttoia ria (an upr-
qoun) me thn bojeia twn paraggwn twn f kai g. Ja apodexoume austhr meri-
ko ap auto tou kanne .
105
Jerhma 6.4.1 'Estw f; g : (a; x ) [ (x ; b) ! R
0 0 paragwgsime sunartsei me
ti ex idithte :
(a) g(x) 6= 0 g0 (x) 6= 0

kai x 2 (a; x0 ) [ (x0 ; b)
gia kje .
(b) limx!x0 f (x) = limx!x0 g(x) = 0 .
An uprqei to limx!x0 fg00((xx)) , tte uprqei kai tolimx!x0 fg((xx)) kai
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim
x!x0 g (x) x!x0 g 0 (x)
:
Apdeixh: Orzoume ti f kai g sto x0 jtonta f (x0 ) = g(x0 ) = 0. Afo
lim f (x) = xlim

x!x0 !x0 g(x) = 0;
oi f kai g gnontai tra suneqe sto (a; b) . Ja dexoume oti
lim+ fg((xx)) = lim+ fg0((xx)) :

0
x!x0 x!x0
'Eqoume
f (x) f (x) f (x0 )
=
g(x) g(x) g(x0 )
gia kje x 2 (x0 ; b). Oi f ; g den qoun koin rza sto (x0 ; x)
0 0 giat h g0 den
mhdenzetai poujen. Epsh g (x) 6= 0, dhlad g (x) g(x0 ) 6= 0. Efarmzonta
loipn to Jerhma Msh Tim tou Cau hy mporome gia kje x 2 (x ; b)

0 na
brome x 2 (x0 ; x) ttoio ste

f (x)
= fg0((x)) :
0
g(x) x
'Estw tra oti limx!x0 fg00((xx)) =L kai stw "> 0. Mporome na brome > 0
ttoio ste:
An x0 < < x0 + ; tte

0
f
()
L < ":
g0 ()
An x0 < x < x0 + ; tte
0
f
(x)
L = (( ))
f x

L < "
g (x) x g0
(giat x0 < x < x < x0 + ). 'Ara,
lim+ fg((xx)) = L = lim+ fg0((xx)) :

0
x!x0 x!x0
Me anlogo trpo deqnoume oti limx!x0 fg xx = L ( )

( )
. 2
106
Jerhma 6.4.2 'Estw f; g : (a; +1) ! R paragwgsime sunartsei me ti ex
idithte :
(a) g(x) 6= 0 g0 (x) 6= 0

kai x>a gia kje .
(b) limx!+1 f (x) = limx!+1 g(x) = 0 .
An uprqei to limx!+1 fg00((xx)) limx! 1 fg xx

, tte uprqei kai to +
( )
( )
kai
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim
x! 1 g (x) x! 1 g 0 (x)
+
: +

Apdeixh: Orzoume f ; g : 0; a ! R
1 1
1
me

f (x) = f
1 ; g (x) = g
1 :
1
x 1
x
Oi f1 ; g1 enai paragwgsime kai
0
f10 (x) x2 f x
1 1
f 0 x1
g10 (x)
= 1 0 1
= g0 x1
:
x2 g x
'Eqoume limx! + f (x) = limx! 1 f (x) = 0 limx! + g (x) = limx!
0 1 + kai 0 1 +1 g(x) =
0 (giat?). Epsh , g 6= 0 1 g0 6= 0kai (0; 1=a)
1 sto . Tlo ,

f 0 (x) f0 x f 0 (x) 1
lim = lim
1
x! + g (x) x! + g 0 x
0 0
= lim
x! 1 g 0 (x)
0
: 1 +
1
'Ara, efarmzetai to Jerhma 6.4.1 gia ti f1 ; g1 kai qoume

f1 (x) f10 (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim = lim
x!0 g1 (x) x!0 g1 (x) x!+1 g 0 (x)
+ + 0 :
Dhlad,
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim
x! 1 g (x) x! 1 g 0 (x)
+
: 2 +
1.
A dome kai mia tupik perptwsh kanna l'Hospital gia aprosdiristh morf
1
Jerhma 6.4.3 'Estw f; g : (a; b) ! R paragwgsime sunartsei me ti ex
idithte :
(a) g(x) 6= 0 g0 (x) 6= 0

kai x 2 (a; b)
gia kje .
(b) limx!a+ f (x) = limx!a+ g(x) = +1 .
An uprqei to limx!a+ fg00((xx)) limx!a+ fg((xx))

, tte uprqei kai to kai
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim
x!a+ g (x) x!a+ g 0 (x)
:
107
0
Apdeixh: 'EstwL = limx!a+ fg0 ((xx)) kai stw " > 0. Mporome na brome 1 > 0
ttoio ste: an a < < a + 1 tte
0
f ( ) "

g 0 ( ) L < :
2
Epeid limx!a+ f (x) = limx!a+ g(x) = +1 , mporome na brome 2 > 0 ttoio
ste
f (x) > f (a + ) g(x) > g(a + )

1 kai 1
gia kje a < x < a+ 2. Aut shmanei (maz me ti uploipe upojsei tou
jewrmato ) oti gia kje x 2 (a; a + ) 2 mporome na efarmsoume to jerhma
msh tim tou Cau hy (x; a + ) sto x 1 kai na brome t.w.
f (x) f (a + ) f 0 (x )
=
g(x) g(a + ) g0 (x )
1
0
( )
kai
f x "
L <
2;

g0 ( x)
afo a < x < x < a + 1 . 'Eqoume
f 0 (x ) 1
g(a+1 )
f (x)
g(x)
= g0(x ) 1
g(x)
f (a+1 )
f (x)

f 0 (x )

1 g(a+1 ) 1 g(a+1 )
= g0 (x )
L g(x)
+L g(x)
f (a+1 ) ;
1 f (a+1 )
f (x) 1 f (x)
ra
f (x)

f 0 (x )

1 g(a+1 ) f (a+1 ) g(a+1 )
L= L g(x)
+L f (x) g(x)
f (a+1 ) :
g(x) g0(x ) 1 f (a+1 )
f (x) 1 f (x)
Afo f (x) ! +1 kai g(x) ! +1 kaj x ! a+ , qoume thn dunatthta na
brome > 0 me 0 < < 2 ttoio ste gia kje x 2 (a; a + )

1 g(a+1 )
g(x) 4 f (a+1 )
f (x)
g(a+1 )
g(x) "
f (a+1 ) < <
3(jLj + 1) :

1 f (x)
3 kai

1 f (a+1 )
f (x)
Tte, ekola blpoume oti gia kje x 2 (a; a + )
0
f
(x)
L ( ) L 34 + jLj 3(jLj"+ 1)
( )
f x

g (x) g0
x
4 " "
<
3 2 + 3 = ": 2
108
6.5 Melth sunartsewn msw paraggwn
Akrtata. Lme oti h f : (a; b) ! R qei sto x0 2 (a; b)

> 0 ttoio ste (x0 ; x0 + ) (a; b) kai
(a) topik mgisto
an uprqei
f (x) f (x0 )
gia kje x 2 (x0 ; x0 + ). Telew anloga lme oti h f qei
x0 2 (a; b) an uprqei > 0 ttoio ste (x0 ; x0 + ) (a; b) kai
topik elqisto
sto
f (x) f (x0 )
gia kje x 2 (x0 ; x0 + ). An epiplon upojsoume oti h f enai paragwgsimh
sto (a; b) , tte h f 0 ma dnei mia anagaa sunjkh gia na qoume akrtato sto
x0 2 (a; b) :
f : (a; b) ! R x0 2
(a; b)
Jerhma 6.5.1 'Estw paragwgsimh sunrthsh kai stw
. An h f qei topik akrtato sto x0 , tte
f 0 (x0 ) = 0:
A upojsoume oti h f qei topik mgisto sto x0 . Uprqei > 0
(x ; x0 + ) (a; b) kai f (x) f (x0 ) gia kje x 2 (x0 ; x0 + ).
Apdeixh:
ttoio ste 0
An 0<h< tte
f (x + h) f (x0 ) f (x + h) f (x )
0
h
0 ) hlim
!+ 0 h
0 ) f 0(x ) 0:
0 0
0
An < h < 0 tte

f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) f (x + h) f (x )
h
0 ) hlim
!+ 0 h
0 ) f 0(x ) 0:
0 0
0
'Ara, f (x0 ) = 0.
0 2
(b) Gewmetrik shmasa th deutra paraggou. O mhdenism th pa-
raggou se na shmeo x0 den enai kai ikan sunjkh gia thn parxh topiko
akrtatou sto x0 . H sunrthsh f (x) =x 3

den qei akrtato sto x0 =0 , mw
f 0 (x0 ) =0 . Qrhsimopointa thn deterh pargwgo sta shmea mhdenismo th
prth paraggou mporome poll for na bebaiwjome gia to an to upoyfio
shmeo akrtatou enai ntw shmeo akrtatou.
f : (a; b) ! R x0 2
(a; b) f 0 (x0 ) = 0
Jerhma 6.5.2 'Estw paragwgsimh sunrthsh kai stw
me .
(a) An uprqei h f 00 (x0 ) kai f 00 (x0 ) > 0 , tte qoume topik elqisto sto x0 .
(b) An uprqei h f 00 (x0 ) kai f 00 (x0 ) < 0 , tte qoume topik mgisto sto x0 .
An f 00 (x0 ) = 0 an den uprqei h f 00 (x0 )

, tte otidpote mpore na sumbanei.
109
Apdeixh: Ja dexoume mno to (a). 'Eqoume
f (x) 0 f 0 (x0 ) f (x)

0
0 < f 00(x ) = xlim
0
!x0 x x0
= xlim
!x0 x x : 0
Epomnw mporome na brome > 0 ttoio ste:

an x0 < x < x0 + ; tte f 0 (x) > 0.
an x0 < x < x0 tte f 0 (x) < 0.
'Estw y 2 (x0 ; x0 + ).
an x0 < y < x0 + , tte efarmzonta to Jerhma Msh Tim sto [x0 ; y
brskoume x 2 (x0 ; y ) t.w.
f (y) f (x0 ) = f 0 (x)(y x0 ) > 0:
an x0 < y < x0 , tte efarmzonta to Jerhma Msh Tim sto [y; x0

brskoume x 2 (y; x0 ) t.w.
f (y) f (x0 ) = f 0 (x)(y x0 ) > 0:
Dhlad, f (y) f (x0 ) gia kje y 2 (x0 ; x0 + ). 'Ara, h f qei topik elqisto
sto x0 . 2
sunartsei . Jewrome mia sunrthsh f : (a; b) !
2 (a; b)
(g) Kurt kai kole
R kai na shmeo x0 f enai paragwgsimh.

sto opoo h H exswsh th
efaptomnh tou grafmato th f sto (x0 ; f (x0 )) enai h
y = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ):

Lme oti h f strfei ta kola pro ta pnw sto shmeo x0 an uprqei > 0
ttoio ste
f (x) f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 )

gia kjex 2 (x 0 ; x0 + ). Dhlad, an to tmma tou grafmato f(x; f (x)) :
jx x j < g
0 brsketai pnw ap thn efaptomnh.
Lme oti h f strfei ta kola pro ta ktw sto shmeo x0 an uprqei >0
ttoio ste
f (x) f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 )

gia kjex 2 (x 0 ; x0 + ). Dhlad, an to tmma tou grafmato f(x; f (x)) :
jx x j < g
0 brsketai ktw ap thn efaptomnh.
Tlo , lme oti h f qei shmeo kamp sto shmeo x0 an uprqei > 0 ttoio

f (x) f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ); x0 < x < x0 +
ste
f (x) f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ); x0 < x < x0
110

f (x) f (x0 ) + f 0(x0 )(x x0 ); x0 < x < x0
f (x) f (x0 ) + f 0(x0 )(x x0 ); x0 < x < x0 + .
'Estw f : (a; b) ! R paragwgsimh. H f lgetai sto (a; b) an strfei ta
kola pro ta pnw se kje x0 2 (a; b) kai sto (a; b) an strfei ta kola
kurt
pro ta ktw se kje x0 2 (a; b).

kolh
H deterh pargwgo (an uprqei) mpore na ma dsei plhrofora gia to an h f
enai kurt kolh se kpoio x0 2 (a; b) kai se olklhro to (a; b).
f : (a; b) ! R x0 2 (a; b)
f 00 (x0 )
Jerhma 6.5.3 'Estw kai stw gia to opoo upojtoume
oti uprqei h .
(a) An f (x0 ) > 0

00 , tte h f x0
strfei ta kola pro ta pnw sto .
(b) An f 00 (x0 ) < 0 , tte h f x0

strfei ta kola pro ta ktw sto .
(a) Jewrome th sunrthsh g (x) = f (x) f (x0 ) f 0(x0 )(x x0 ). Afo

uprqei h f (x0 ), h f uprqei se mia perioq tou x0 . 'Ara, h g enai paragwgsimh
Apdeixh:
00 0
se mia perioq tou x0 kai
g0 (x) = f 0 (x) f 0 (x0 ):

'Eqoume g0 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) f 0 (x0 ) = 0 kai g00 (x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ) > 0. Ap to Jerhma
6.5.2, h g qei topik elqisto sto x0 . 'Omw , g (x0 ) = 0. 'Ara, g (x) 0 gia kje
x se mia perioq tou x0 . Dhlad uprqei > 0 ttoio ste

f (x) f (x0 ) f 0(x0 )(x x0 ) 0
an jx x j <
0 . Aut shmanei oti h f strfei ta kola pro ta pnw sto x0 .
(b) Me ton dio trpo. 2
Tlo , dnoume mia anagaa sunjkh gia na enai to x0 shmeo kamp th f.
f : (a; b) ! R x0 2 (a; b)
f 00 (x0 ) f 00 (x0 ) = 0
Jerhma 6.5.4 'Estw kai stw gia to opoo upojtoume
oti uprqei h . An h f qei shmeo kamp sto x0 , tte .
Jewrome th sunrthsh g(x) = f (x) f (x0 ) f 0 (x0 )(x x0 ). H g den

qei topik mgisto elqisto sto x0 (qoume g (x0 ) = 0 kai g 0 arister tou
Apdeixh:
x0 , g 0 dexi tou x0 - to antstrofo- opte o mno trpo gia na qei topik

akrtato sto x0 enai na enai stajer sh me mhden se mia perioq arister dexi
tou x0 ).
Epsh , g (x0 ) = 0 kai g (x0 ) = f (x0 ). An tan g (x0 ) > 0 g (x0 ) < 0 tte
0 00 00 00 00
akrtato sto x0 , topo. 'Ara, f (x0 ) = 0.
h g ja eqe gnsio
00 2
H sunjkh tou Jewrmato 6.5.4 den enai ikan. H f (x) = x den
4
qei shmeo kamp sto x0 = 0. Enai kurt kai strfei ta kola pro ta pnw sto
Paratrhsh
x0 = 0. 'Omw f 00 (x) = 12x2 , ra f 00 (0) = 0.
111
6.6 To jemelide jerhma tou Apeirostiko Lo-
gismo
'Estw f : [a; b ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Xroume oti tte h f enai olo-
klhrsimh sto [a; x gia kje x 2 [a; b . Mporome epomnw na orsoume mia
sunrthsh F : [a; b ! R me
Z x
F (x) = f (t)dt:
a
Jerhma 6.6.1 H F enai suneq sto [a; b .
Afo h f enai oloklhrsimh, enai ex orismo fragmnh. Dhlad,
M > 0 t.w. jf (x)j M gia kje x 2 [a; b.

Apdeixh:
uprqei
'Estw x < y sto [a; b. Tte,
Z y Z x Z y

jF (x) F (y)j =
f (t)dt f (t)dt = f (t)dt
a
Z y
a x
jf (t)jdt M (y x)
x
M jy xj:
'Ara, h F enai Lips hitz suneq . 2
Isqei mlista kti isqurtero: sta shmea sunqeia th f h F enai paragwgsimh.
f : [a; b ! R f
x0 2 [a; b
Jerhma 6.6.2 'Estw oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. An h enai
suneq sto , tte h F enai paragwgsimh sto x0 kai
F 0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ):
Upojtoume oti a < x0 < b (oi do periptsei x0 = a x0 =b
1 = minfx0 a; b x0 g. An jhj < 1 , tte
Apdeixh:
elgqontai moia). Jtoume
!
F (x0 + h) F (x) 1 Z x0 +h Z x0
f (x ) = f (t)dt f (t)dt f (x0 )
h 0
h a a
!
= h1
Z x0 +h Z x0 +h
f (t)dt f (x0 )dt
x0 x0
= h1
Z x0 +h
[f (t) f (x0 )dt:
x0
'Estw " > 0. H f enai suneq sto x0 , ra uprqei 0 < < 1 t.w. an jx x j <
0
tte jf (x) f (x )j < "
0 .
'Estw 0 < jhj < .
112
An 0<h< , tte
Z x0 +h
F (x + h) F (x) 1

0
f (x ) = [f (t) f (x0 ) dt
h 0 h
x0
1
Z x0 +h
h x0
jf (t) f (x )jdt 0
<
1 Z x0 + h
"dt =
1 h" = ":
h x0 h
An < h < 0, tte

F
(x0 + h) F (x) f (x0 )

= jhj

1 Z x0
[f (t) f (x )

dt
h
x h
0
Z x00
+
jh1j jf (t) f (x )jdt 0

x h
Z x0 0
+
<
1 1
"dt = ( h)" = ":
jhj x0 +h jhj
lim F (x + hh) F (x0 )

'Epetai oti
h!0
0
= f (x );
0
dhlad F 0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ). 2

To Jerhma 6.6.2 enai to
f : [a; b ! R enai mia suneq sunrthsh.

prto jemelide jerhma tou Apeirostiko
Logismo. A upojsoume tra oti
Mia sunrthsh G : [a; b ! R suneq sto [a; b kai paragwgsimh sto (a; b) lgetai
th f ) an G (x) = f (x) gia kje
th f (
0
x 2 (a; b).
aristo oloklrwma antipargwgo
Smfwna me to Jerhma 6.6.2, h
Z x
F (x) = f (t)dt
a
enai na aristo oloklrwma th f.
An G enai na llo aristo oloklrwma th f , tte F 0 (x) G0 (x) = f (x)
f (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 (a; b), ra h F G enai stajer sto (a; b) (apl sunpeia
tou jewrmato msh tim ). Lgw sunqeia sta kra a kai b petai oti
F (x) G(x) =
gia kje x 2 [a; b. Afo F (a) = 0, parnoume = G(a). Dhlad,
Z x
f (t)dt G(x) = G(a)
a
alli
Z x
G(x) = G(a) + f (t)dt
a
113
gia kje x 2 [a; b. Eidiktera, an jsoume x = b parnoume to detero jemeli-
de jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo:
Jerhma 6.6.3 'Estw f : [a; b ! R enai suneq sunrthsh. An G enai na
aristo oloklrwma th f , tte
Z b
f (x)dx = G(b) G(a): 2
a
6.7 Asksei
1. Exetste an oi sunartsei f; g; h enai paragwgsime sto R. An enai, exetste
an h pargwg tou enai suneq sto R.

(a) f (x) = sin x1 an x 6= 0, kai f (0) = 0.

(b) g (x) = x sin
x an x 6= 0, kai g (0) = 0.
1
(g) h(x) = x sin

x an x 6= 0, kai h(0) = 0.
2 1
'Estw f : (a; b) ! R kai a < x0 < b. Upojtoume oti uprqei > 0 t.w.
jf (x) f (x0 )j M jx x0 j gia kje x 2 (a; b).

2.
(a) Dexte oti h f enai suneq sto x0 .
(b) An > 1, dexte oti h f enai paragwgsimh sto x0 . Poi enai h tim th f (x0 )?
0
(g) Dste pardeigma pou = 1 all h f den enai paragwgsimh sto x0 .
'Estw f : R ! R fragmnh sunrthsh. Upojtoume oti gia kpoio x0 2 R h
sunrthsh g : Rnfx0 g ! R me
3.
f (x) f (x0 )
g(x) =
x x0
den enai fragmnh. Dexte oti h f den enai paragwgsimh sto x0 .
4. 'Estw f :( a; a) !R suneq sto 0. Upojtoume oti gia kpoio t 2 (0; 1)
isqei
f (x) f (tx)
lim
x! 0 x
= b:
Dexte oti uprqei h f 0 (0) kai upologste thn tim th .
'Estw f : R ! R do for paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Upojtoume oti f (0) = 1,
f 0 (0) = 0 kai f 00 (x) + f (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 R. Dexte oti f (x) = os x gia kje
5.
x 2 R. [ Updeixh: Dexte oti h g (x) = f (x) os x enai stajer sunrthsh.

'Estw f : (a; b) ! R, a < x0 0. Dexte oti uprqei > 0 t.w.
6.
0
(a) f (x) > f (x0 ) gia kje x 2 (x0 ; x0 + ) \ (a; b).
114
(b) f (x) < f (x0 ) gia kje x 2 (x0 ; x0 ) \ (a; b).
7. Orzoume f (x) = (x 1)(x 2)(x 3)(x 4) . Dexte oti h exswsh f 0(x) = 0
qei akrib tre diaforetik pragmatik lsei .
8. Dexte oti h exswsh ex = 1 + x qei akrib mia pragmatik lsh. Poi?
(a) Dexte oti h exswshtan

x = x qei akrib mia lsh se kje disthma th
Ik = k 2 ; k + 2 .
9.
morf
(b) 'Estw ak h lsh th parapnw exswsh sto disthma Ik , k 2 N . Brete, an
uprqei, to rio limk!1 (ak+1 ak ) kai dste gewmetrik ermhnea.

Dnontai do paragwgsime sunartsei f; g : (a; b) ! R ttoie ste f (x)g (x)
0
f (x)g(x) 6= 0 gia kje x 2 (a; b). Dexte oti anmesa se do rze th f (x) = 0
10.
0
brsketai mia rza th g (x) = 0, kai antstrofa.
'Estw f paragwgsimh sto (0; 2) me jf (x)j 1 gia kje x 2 (0; 2). Jtoume
0

an = f n . Dexte oti h (an ) sugklnei.
11.
'Estw f : (0; +1) ! R paragwgsimh, me limx!+1 f (x) = 0. Dexte oti

12.
0
lim (f (x + 1)
x!+1
f (x)) = 0:
'Estw f; g do sunartsei suneqe sto [0; a kai paragwgsime sto (0; a).
f (0) = g(0) = 0 kai f 0 (x) > 0, g0 (x) > 0 sto (0; a).
13.
Upojtoume oti
(a) An h f enai axousa sto (0; a), dexte oti h

0 f (x) enai axousa sto (0; a).
x
0
g0 enai axousa sto (0; a), dexte oti h g enai axousa sto (0; a).
(b) An h
f f
'Estw f paragwgsimh sto [0; 1 me f (0) = 0 kai f (x) m > 0 gia kje
0
x 2 [0; 1. Dexte oti uprqei upodisthma J tou [0; 1, me mko megaltero so
14.
tou 1=2, t.w. f (x) m=2 gia kje x 2 J .
'Estw f paragwgsimh sto [a; b, me f (a) = 0 kai jf (x)j Ajf (x)j gia kje
0
x 2 [a; b. Dexte oti f (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 [a; b.
15.
16. 'Estw f : (0; +1) ! R do for paragwgsimh sunrthsh. Jtoume
M0 = supfjf (x)j : x > 0g

M1 = supfjf 0(x)j : x > 0g
M2 = supfjf 00(x)j : x > 0g:
Dexte oti M12 4M0M2 .
17. 'Estw f : [0; a ! R suneq . Dexte oti gia kje x 2 [0; a,
Z x Z x Z u
f (u)(x u)du = f (t)dt du:
0 0 0
115
18. 'Estw f; h : [0; +1) ! [0; +1) . Upojtoume oti h h enai suneq kai h f
enai paragwgsimh. Orzoume
Z f (x)
F (x) = h(t)dt:
0
Dexte oti F 0 (x) = h(f (x)) f 0 (x).

'Estw f : [0; 1 ! R suneq paragwgsimh sunrthsh me f (0) = 0. Dexte oti
gia kje x 2 [0; 1 isqei

19.
Z 1 1=2
jf (x)j jf 0 (t)j dt
2
:
0
'Estw f : [a; b ! R sunrthsh me suneqh pargwgo: dhlad, uprqei M >0

jf 0(x)j M x 2 [a; b.
20.
t.w. gia kje Dexte oti
Z b
lim
k!1
f (x) os(kx)dx = 0:
a
21. f : I ! R paragwgsimh sunrthsh t.w. jf 0 (x)j M gia kje x 2 I .

'Estw
Dexte oti h f enai omoimorfa suneq sto I .
Upojtoume oti h f : [a; b ! R enai paragwgsimh sto (a; b) kai oti h f (x0 )
00
uprqei se kpoio x0 2 (a; b). Dexte oti
22.
f 00 (x0 ) = lim f (x + h) 2fh(x ) + f (x

h!0
0
2
0 0 h)
:
23. Upojtoume oti h f : [0; 1 ! R enai suneq kai oti
Z x Z 1
f (t)dt = f (t)dt
0 x
gia kje x 2 [0; 1. Dexte oti f (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 [0; 1.
24. 'Estw f : R ! R suneq kai stw > 0. Orzoume
Z x+
g(x) = f (t)dt:
x
Dexte oti h g enai paragwgsimh kai brete thn g0 .
25. Upologste ti paraggou twn sunartsewn F; G me
Z x2
F (x) =
1 dt ; G(x) =
Z x
2+
t 1 dt:
x t 2 x t
116
26. 'Estw f : [0; 1 ! R suneqh sunrthsh. Orzoume
Z x
F (x) = xf (t)dt
0
gia x 2 [0; 1. Upologste thn F 0 (x).

27. 'Estw f : [0; +1) ! R suneq sunrthsh me f (x) 6= 0 gia kje x > 0. Dexte
oti an Z x
(f (x)) = 2 2
f (t)dt
0
gia kje x 0, tte f (x) = x [0; +1)

sto .
28. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq , mh arnhtik sunrthsh. Jtoume
M = maxff (x) : x 2 [a; bg:

Dexte oti h akolouja
Z b !1=n
n = [f (x) n dx
a
sugklnei, kai limn!1 n = M .
29. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R oloklhrsimh sunrthsh. Dexte oti uprqei s 2 [a; b

ttoio ste
Z s Z b
f (t)dt = f (t)dt:
a s
Mporome pnta na epilgoume na ttoio s sto anoikt disthma (a; b)?
30. 'Estw f; g : [a; b ! R suneqe sunartsei me
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = g(x)dx:
a a
Dexte oti uprqei x0 2 [a; b ttoio ste f (x0 ) = g(x0 ).
31. 'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sunrthsh. Dexte oti uprqei s 2 [a; b ttoio
ste
Z b
f (x)dx = f (s) (b a):
a
32. 'Estw f : [0; 1 ! R suneq sunrthsh. Dexte oti uprqei s 2 [0; 1 ttoio
f (s)
ste
Z 1
f (x)x2 dx = :
0 3
117
118
Keflaio 7
Ekjetik kai logarijmik

sunrthsh
Skop ma se aut to Keflaio enai na dsoume austhr orism th ekjetik
sunrthsh ax, a > 0 kai th (antstrof th ) logarijmik sunrthsh loga x

,
a> 0, a 6= 1 kai na apodexoume ti basik tou idithte . Ja perigryoume
sunoptik do trpou orismo.
7.1 Orism msw tou oloklhrmato
'Estw a jetik pragmatik arijm . Enai faner o trpo me ton opoo orzei
kane ton ax tan o x enai rht :

an x 2 N, tte ax = a a : : : a (x for ).
an x = 0, tte jtoume a0 = 1.
an x 2 Z kai x < 0, tte orzoume ax = a 1 x (me autn ton trpo diathretai
h gnwst isthta a
x+y = ax ay gia tuqnte x; y 2 Z).
an x = n1 gia kpoion n 2 N, jtoume a1=n = pn a (sto Keflaio 1 apode-
qjhke h parxh kai to monosmanto jetik n-ost rza gia kje jetik
pragmatik arijm).
an x = mn pou m 2 Z kai n 2 N enai tuqn rht , jtoume
m
ax = a1=n :
119
Ekola elgqoume oti an x = mn = mn11 , tte
m m1
a1=n = a1=n1 :
Dhlad, o ax orzetai kal me autn ton trpo.
To prblhma loipn enai me poin trpo ja epektenoume ton orism tou ax gia
rrhtou ekjte x, tsi ste na prokyei mia suneq sunrthsh fa : R !R +
pou na ikanopoie ta ex :
1. fa (x) = ax , x 2 Q .
2. fa (x + y) = fa (x)fa (y), x; y 2 R.
3. fa (1) = a.
Parathrste oti h prth idithta enai sunpeia twn llwn do (giat?).
A upojsoume oti kataframe na orsoume mia ttoia sunrthsh fa kai mli-

sta me ttoion trpo ste h fa na enai paragwgsimh. Tte, gia kje x 2 R prpei
na qoume
fa(x + h) fa (x)
fa0 (x) = hlim
! 0 h
fa(x)fa (h) fa (x)fa (0)
= lim h!0 h
fa (h) fa (0)
= fa (x) lim
h!0 h
= fa0 (0) fa(x):
Dhlad, h pargwgo th fa enai upoqrewmnh na ikanopoie thn
fa0 (x) = fa0 (0) fa (x)

gia kje x 2 R.
H antstrofh sunrthsh (upojtoume ed oti h fa pou prospajome na or-
soume ja enai gnhsw montonh kai ep tou (0; +1) loga := fa )
1
th fa ja enai
ki aut paragwgsimh (arke na isqei fa0 (0) 6= 0 ) kai ja ikanopoie thn
log0a(x) = f 0 (log1 x) = f 0 (0)f 1(log x)

a a a a a
1
= f 0 (0)x
a
gia kje x > 0. Dhlad, h pargwgo th loga x enai {upoqrewmnh} na qei thn
(log )0(x) = 1
pol apl morf
a x
120
pou = fa0 (0) . Morf pou ja enai akma aplosterh gia ekeno to a> 0 (an
uprqei!) pou ikanopoie thn
fa0 (0) = = 1:
Aut h tim tou a enai h pi {fusiologik} kai aut th fa h antstrofh sunrthsh
enai h pi {fusiologik} logarijmik sunrthsh (me pargwgo thn 1=x). Aut
oi parathrsei ma odhgon ston ex {ouranokatbato} orism:
Orism Orzoume mia sunrthsh ln : (0; +1) ! R me
ln x = 1 dt:
Z x
1 t
O orism aut upagoreetai ap to jemelide jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logi-
smo: h
1
t enai suneq sto [1; x an x > 1 sto [x; 1 an x < 1, ra h ln x orzetai
kal gia kje x > 0. Epiplon,
ln0(x) = x1 :
Dhlad, h ln enai h {fusiologik} logarijmik sunrthsh pou yqname.
Mporome ekola na dexoume oti h ln ikanopoie thn basik idithta twn logarj-
mwn:
Jerhma 7.1.1 An x; y > 0 , tte ln(xy) = ln x + ln y .
Apdeixh: Stajeropoiome kpoio x>0 f : (0; +1) ! R

kai orzoume me
f (y) = ln(xy) =
Z xy
1 dt:
t 1
1 d(xy) = 1 x = 1 = ln0 (y):

Tte,
f 0 (y) =
xy dy xy y
'Ara, uprqei stajer 2R t.w.
ln(xy) = ln y +
gia kje y > 0. Gia na upologsoume thn tim th , jtoume y = 1. 'Eqoume
ln x = ln 1 + =
Z 1
1 dt + = 0 + = :
1 t
'Ara, ln(xy) = ln x + ln y . 2
Dexte oti an x; y > 0, tte
ln(xn) = n ln x
'Askhsh
(a) gia kje n 2 N.

(b) ln xy = ln x ln y .
121
Enai faner oti h ln enai suneq kai mlista paragwgsimh sto (0; +1) .
Epsh , h ln enai gnhsw axousa afo h pargwg th enai

x >
1
0 gia kje
x > 0.
To snolo timn th ln enai olklhro to R. Aut fanetai ekola w ex :
qoume
ln 2 =
Z 2
1 dt > 0;
1 t
epomnw
ln(2n) = n ln2 ! +1
kaj n !1 . Dhlad, h ln parnei osodpote megle jetik tim . Afo
ln 1 = 0 , h sunqeia th ln kai to jerhma endimesh tim ma exasfalzoun oti
h ln parnei le [0; +1) x 1

ti tim sto gia . Dhlad,
f ([1; +1)) = [0; +1):

Ap thn ln(1=x) = ln x sumperanoume oti
f ((0; 1) = ( 1; 0:
'Ara, qoume dexei to ex :
Jerhma 7.1.2 H ln : (0; +1) ! R enai paragwgsimh, gnhsw axousa kai ep
ln0(x) = x1 :
sunrthsh, me pargwgo
2
Mporome tra na orsoume thn antstrofh th ln ,
exp : R ! (0; +1)

me exp(x) = ln (x) 1
. Orzoume
e = exp(1)
kai grfoume exp(x) =: ex . H x 7! e
x ikanopoie thn basik idithta mia {ekjeti-
k sunrthsh }:
Jerhma 7.1.3 An x; y 2 R , tte exp(x + y) = exp(x) exp(y) (dhlad, ex+y =

ex ey ).
Apdeixh: 'Estw z = exp(x) kai w = exp(y). Tte, zw = exp(x) exp(y), ra to
Jerhma 7.1.1 dnei
ln(zw) = ln(exp(x) exp(y)) = ln(exp(x)) + ln(exp(y)) = x + y:

'Epetai oti
zw = ln 1 (x + y) =) zw = exp(x + y):
Dhlad, exp(x) exp(y ) = exp(x + y ). 2
122
Jerhma 7.1.4 H exp enai paragwgsimh kai exp0(x) = exp(x) .
Apdeixh: Ap ton tpo th paraggou antstrofh apeiknish ,
exp0(x) = (ln )0 (x) = ln0 (ln1 (x))

1
1
= ln (x) = exp(x): 2
1
Paratrhsh Axzei ton kpo na elgxoume oti, me ton orism tou e pou dsame,
n
e = nlim
!1 1 + n1 :
An an = 1 + n n
1
, qoume

1
ln an = n ln 1 + n = ln 1 + n ln 1 : 1
1
n
'Otan n ! 1 qoume n1 !0 . 'Ara,
ln 1 + n ln 1 ! ln0(1) = 1:
1
1
n
Afo ln an ! 1 , ap th sunqeia th exp parnoume an = exp(ln an ) ! exp(1) = e.
Gia aujareto a > 0 orzoume sunartsei x 7! a , x 2 R kai (an
ti
x
a 6= 1) x 7! loga (x), x > 0 w ex :
Orism
ax = exp(x ln a) = ex ln a .
loga (x) = lnln xa , an a 6= 1.
Qrhsimopointa ti antstoiqe idithte twn exp kai ln elgqoume ekola oti
an x; y 2 R, tte ax+y = ax ay .
an a 6= 1 kai x; y > 0, tte loga (xy ) = loga (x) + loga (y ).
'Askhsh Dexte oti:
1. An 0<a<1 , tte h ax enai gnhsw fjnousa kai
x!
lim1 ax = +1 ; x!lim
+1
ax = 0:
2. An a > 1, tte h ax enai gnhsw axousa kai
x!
lim1 ax = 0 ; x!lim
+1
ax = +1:
123
3. An 0<a<1 , tte h loga (x) enai gnhsw fjnousa kai
lim log (x) = +1

x! + a
0
; x!lim
+1
loga(x) = 1:
4. An a > 1, tte h loga (x) enai gnhsw axousa kai
lim loga(x) = 1
x!0+
; x!lim
+1
loga(x) = +1:
'Askhsh Dexte oti:
1. An 0<a<1 a > 1, tte
(loga)0 (x) = x ln1 a :

2. Gia kje a > 0,
(ax)0 = ax ln a:
Dexte epsh oti h ax enai kurt sto R loga x
kai h enai kolh sto (0; +1) .
Jerhma 7.1.5 Oi sunartsei ln kai exp ikanopoion ta ex : gia kje s>0 ,
e x
(1) lim
x! 1 xs
+
= +1
kai
(2) lim lnxsx = 0:

x!+1
[Dhlad, h exp auxnei sto +1 taqtera ap opoiadpote (meglh) dnamh tou x,

en h ln auxnei sto +1 bradtera ap opoiadpote (mikr) dnamh tou x.
(1) Deqnoume prta oti ex > x an x> 1
. Arke na dexoume oti
ln x < x
Apdeixh:
. 'Omw ,
ln x = 1 dt Z x 1dt = x 1 < x:
Z x
t 1 1
Aut h anisthta dh deqnei oti limx! 1 ex = +1 + (giat?). Tra,
ex 1 ex= x= 1 x= 2
=
x 2 x=2
e > 2e 2 2
an x > 2. Afo limx! +1 ex= = +1

2
, sumperanoume oti
ex
x
! +1:
124
'Estw tra tuqn s > 0. Epilgoume fusik arijm n > s, opte gia kje x > 1
qoume ex =xs > ex=xn . Arke loipn na dexoume oti gia kje n 2 N
ex
xn
! +1
tan x ! +1. Grfoume
x=n n
ex
= n1n ex=n :
x=n : : : ex=n
xn
=e x:::x
'Omw , tanx ! +1 qoume x=n ! +1, opte to prohgomeno bma deqnei oti
ex=n=(x=n) ! +1. 'Epetai oti
lim ex
= 1 lim ex=n n = +1:
x! 1 xn
+ nn x! 1 x=n +
1
(2) Aut enai aplostero. 'Eqoume aprosdiristh morf
1 kai efarmzoume ton
kanna tou l'Hospital . 'Eqoume
(ln x)0 = x = 1 ! 0
1
(xs )0 sxs sxs 1
x ! +1.
ln x = 0: 2
tan 'Ara,
lim
x! 1 xs
+
7.2 O {fusiologik } orism
Se autn thn pargrafo upojtoume oti o ax qei oriste gia kje x 2Q pw
sthn arq th prohgomenh paragrfou, kai dnoume mia sntomh perigraf tou
{fusiologiko} trpou orismo th ekjetik sunrthsh ax : epektenoume ton
orism gia rrhtou ekjte x.

O orism tou ax , x 2= Q ja basiste sto akloujo Lmma:
Lmma 7.2.1 'Estw a>0 kai (qn) akolouja rhtn arijmn me qn ! 0 . Tte,
aqn ! 1:
An a= 1 den qoume tpota na dexoume. H perptwsh 0<a<1
a > 1.
Apdeixh:
angetai sthn
Upojtoume loipn oti

0 a > 1. Ekola blpoume oti an q; q0 2 Q kai q < q0 tte
aq < aq . Afo jqnj qn jqn j, qoume
1
a jqnj = jqn j aqn ajqn j
a
125
gia kje n 2 N. ajqn j ! 1, tte efarmzonta to kritrio
An loipn dexoume oti
isosugklinousn akoloujin ja qoume a n ! 1.

q
Kje jqn j grfetai sth morf
n +sn pou 0 sn < 1 kai n = [1=jqn j, an
1
qn 6= 0. Afo qn = 0 ) aqn = 1, petai oti

1
ajqn j = a n+sn a 1n
an jqn j 6= 0,
ajqn j = 1
an qn = 0, kai n = [1=jqnj 2 N afo telik jqn j < 1.
Grfoume a
1=n
= 1 + n an jqn j 6= 0. Arke na dexoume oti n !0 (giat?).
Ap thn anisthta tou Bernoulli qoume
a = (1 + n )n 1 + n n :
'Ara,
0 n < a = 1
a
1 !0
n jqnj
afo jqn j ! 0 . 2
H ida ma gia na epektenoume ton orism tou ax gia rrhto x enai h ex : oi
rhto arijmo enai pukno sto R, epomnw an ma dsoun x 2= Q uprqoun (poll )
akolouje rhtn qn ! x. Ja dexoume gia mia ap aut oti to
lim
n
aqn
uprqei kai ja orsoume
ax = lim
n
aqn :
Gia na enai kal o orism , ja prpei an proume mia llh akolouja rhtn
0
arijmn qn0 ! x na isqei oti uprqei to limn aqn kai
0
lim
n
aqn = lim
n
aqn :
Aut ja deqnei oti h tim ax pou orsame enai anexrthth ap thn epilog th
akolouja rhtn qn ! x.
Jerhma 7.2.1 'Estw x2R kai qn ; qn0 2 Q me limn qn = limn qn0 = x . An a>0 ,
limn0 aqn0 limn aqn

tte
limn aqn = limn aqn

(a) ta kai uprqoun.
(b) .
Apdeixh: a > 1. Jewrome mia axousa akolouja rhtn

Upojtoume prta oti
rn ! x. q rht me q > x. Tte arn < aq , dhlad h arn enai nw fragmnh.

'Estw
Epsh , rn rn+1 ) a n a n+1 , dhlad h a n

r r r enai axousa. 'Epetai oti h arn
sugklnei.
126
Parnoume tra opoiadpote ap ti (qn) (qn0 )
, . 'Eqoume qn rn ! x x = 0,
opte to Lmma 7.2.1 deqnei oti aqn rn !1 . Tte,
aqn = aqn rn arn ! lim arn :

n
Omow ,
0
aqn ! lim
n
arn :
'Etsi parnoume ta (a) kai (b) tautqrona, afo
0
lim
n
aqn = lim
n
aqn = lim
n
arn :
To jerhma isqei kat profan trpo tan a=1 . H perptwsh 0<a < 1
enai entel anlogh me thn perptwsh a > 1 a rn (h ja enai fjnousa kai ktw
fragmnh). 2
Gia kje a > 0 orzoume tra mia sunrthsh fa : R ! (0; +1) jtonta
ax := fa (x) = lim aqn pou qn ! x; qn 2 Q :
O orism enai kal smfwna me to Jerhma 7.2.1. Mpore kane na apodexei
ta ex :
H fa (x) = ax enai paragwgsimh sto R kai

f 0 (x) = ax lim ah 1 = aax:
a h!0 h
H fa enai gnhsw axousa an a > 1 kai gnhsw fjnousa an 0 < a < 1.
H fa enai ep tou (0; +1).
Katpin orzoume thn loga : (0; +1) ! R w thn antstrofh th fa . Tlo ,
log0 (x) = 1
elgqoume oti
a a x
kai oti a = ln a pou ln = (fa ) 1
. Gia ti leptomreie th parapnw kataskeu ,
blpe S. Phqwrdh (sel. 113-134).
Oi idithte ax+y = ax ay kai loga(xy) = loga(x) + loga(y) elgqontai ekola.
H prth apodeiknetai msw tou orismo: uprqoun akolouje rhtn qn ! x kai

pn ! y. Tte qn + pn ! x + y, ra (ap thn sunqeia th ax )
ax+y = alim(qn +pn ) = lim aqn +pn = lim(aqn apn ) = lim aqn lim apn = axay :
H deterh apodeiknetai me bsh to gegon oti h loga enai h antstrofh th
ax (skhsh: blpe thn apdeixh tou Jewrmato 7.1.3, pou akoloujsame thn
antstrofh porea).
127
7.3 Asksei
1. Jewrome thn akolouja
an = 1 +
1 1 1
1! + 2! + : : : + n! :
Dexte oti an ! e.
2. Dexte oti o arijm e enai rrhto .
'Estw f:R !R paragwgsimh sunrthsh me thn idithta f 0 (x) = f (x) gia
uprqei a 2 R t.w. f (x) = ae

3.
kje x 2 R, pou mia stajer. Dexte oti x gia
kje x 2 R.
4. 'Estw f : R ! R sunrthsh me thn idithta
Z x
f (x) = f (t)dt
0
gia kje x 2 R. Dexte oti f (x) = 0 gia kje x 2 R.

5. 'Estw f; g : [a; b ! R suneqe mh-arnhtik sunartsei kai stw > 0.
Upojtoume oti
Z x
f (x) + f (t)g(t)dt
a
gia kje x 2 [a; b. Dexte oti
Z x
f (x) exp g(t)dt
a
gia kje x 2 [a; b.
6. Sqediste thn grafik parstash th
f (x) =
ln x ; x 2 R:
x
Poi enai megaltero , o e o e ?
7. (a) 'Estw f : [1; +1) ! R axousa sunrthsh. Dexte oti
Z n
f (1) + : : : + f (n 1) f (x)dx f (2) + : : : + f (n):
1
(b) Parnonta san f thn ln sto (a), dexte oti
nn
< n ! <
(n + 1)n+1 :
en 1 en
128
(g) Dexte oti
pn
n!
lim
n!1 n
= 1e :
8. Gia poio arijmo a 2 (1; +1) enai swst oti xa ax gia kje x > 1?
Gia poio a > 1 kai b > 0 h exswsh loga x = x qei jetik lsh w pro x?
9.
b
(a) Dexte oti sin x

x gia kje x 2 [0; =2.
2
10.
(b) Dexte oti an 0 < t < 1, tte
Z =2
lim Rt
R!1
e R sin x dx = 0:
0
1
Orzoume
11.
Z
2 2
f (x) = ex =2 e t =2 dt; x > 0:
x
(a) Dexte oti 0 < f (x) < 1=x .
(b) Dexte oti h f enai gnhsw axousa.

'Estw f : [a; b ! R suneq sto [a; b, paragwgsimh sto (a; b), me f (a) =
f (b) = 0. Dexte oti gia kje t 2 R uprqei 2 (a; b) t.w. f 0 ( ) = tf ( ).
12.
[Updeixh:
Jewrste thn g (x) = f (x)e

tx kai efarmste to Jerhma tou Rolle.
129

Analisi Pragmatiki Gianopoulos

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Eisagwg sthn Anlush I

kai Iwnnh Toulpoulo sta plasia tou rgou E.P.E.A.E.K {Majh-

matik gia to 2001: Anamrfwsh kai anabjmish twn Majhmatikn

spoudn sthn Ellda}.

1.1 Diatetagmna smata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 To axwma th plhrthta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.3 Orism twn fusikn kai twn rhtn arijmn . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.4 Arqimdeia idithta twn pragmatikn arijmn . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.5 Parrthma: Tom Dedekind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1 Orism tou orou - idithte sugklinousn akoloujin . . . . . . . 23

2.2 Sgklish montonwn akoloujin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.3 Kibwtismo diasthmtwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.4 Upakolouje - Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.5 Akolouje Cau hy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.6 Shmea sussreush - antero kai kattero rio akolouja . . . . 32

2.7 Parrthma: ap thn Arqimdeia idithta kai thn idithta Cau hy

3.1 'Oria sunartsewn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.2 Sunqeia sunartsewn: orismo - basik idithte . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.3 Qarakthrism th sunqeia me qrsh akoloujin . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.4 Basik jewrmata gia suneqe sunartsei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.4.1 To jerhma endimesh tim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.4.2 To jerhma elqisth kai mgisth tim . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.4.3 Paradegmata kai efarmog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.5 Sunqeia snjeth kai antstrofh sunrthsh . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4.1 Arqik paradegmata - orism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.2 Qarakthrism th omoimorfh sunqeia msw akoloujin . . . . 64

4.4 Paradegmata kai efarmog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.1 O orism tou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5.2 To kritrio oloklhrwsimthta tou Riemann . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

5.3 Do klsei Riemann oloklhrsimwn sunartsewn . . . . . . . . . 80

5.4 Idithte tou oloklhrmato Riemann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

5.5 Parrthma: o orism tou Riemann gia to oloklrwma - isodunama

me ton orism tou Darboux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

6.1 Pargwgo snjeth kai antstrofh sunrthsh . . . . . . . . . . 97

6.1.1 O kanna th alusda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

6.1.2 Pargwgo antstrofh sunrthsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

6.3 Idithta Darboux gia thn pargwgo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

6.4 Aprosdiriste morf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

6.5 Melth sunartsewn msw paraggwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

6.6 To jemelide jerhma tou Apeirostiko Logismo . . . . . . . . . 112

6.7 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

7 Ekjetik kai logarijmik sunrthsh 119

7.1 Orism msw tou oloklhrmato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

7.2 O {fusiologik } orism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

7.3 Asksei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

sh, sunqeia, paraggish kai oloklrwsh) qreizetai na qoume sth dijes ma

exsou austhr jemeliwmno to ssthma twn arijmn me tou opoou ja doul-

youme: to snolo R twn pragmatikn arijmn san na plrw diatetagmno sma.

sustmato arijmn kai ja perigryoume ta shmantik uposnola twn fusikn,

r. Xefegei mw ap tou skopo auto tou majmato (prte kpoio mjhma

suzhtme ti tom tou Dedekind .

1.1 Diatetagmna smata

'Ena mh ken snolo  lgetai diatetagmno sma an ikanopoie ta ex :

prsjesh . x; y stoiqewn tou  uprqei

akrib na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me twn

x; y. H prxh pou stlnei to zeugri (x; y) sto x + y lgetai

 Prosetairistikthta: gia kje x; y; z 2 , (x + y) + z = x + (y + z ).

 Uprqei na stoiqeo tou  pou sumbolzetai me 0 , ttoio ste gia kje

to 0 kai to x (dojnto tou x) orzontai monosmanta. O x enai o

tou x. H afaresh sto orzetai ap thn

pollaplasiasmo. Gia kje zeugri x; y 2 uprqei

akrib na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me xy kai lgetai twn x; y.

H prxh pou stlnei to zeugri sto xy lgetai pollaplasiasm kai qei

kai Iwnnh Toulpoulo sta plasia tou rgou E.P.E.A.E.K {Majh-

1.2 To axwma th plhrthta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.1 Orism tou orou - idithte sugklinousn akoloujin . . . . . . . 23

2.3 Kibwtismo diasthmtwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.4 Upakolouje - Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.5 Akolouje Cau hy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.6 Shmea sussreush - antero kai kattero rio akolouja . . . . 32

3.2 Sunqeia sunartsewn: orismo - basik idithte . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.4 Basik jewrmata gia suneqe sunartsei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.4.3 Paradegmata kai efarmog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.5 Sunqeia snjeth kai antstrofh sunrthsh . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4.1 Arqik paradegmata - orism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.4 Paradegmata kai efarmog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.5 Parrthma: o orism tou Riemann gia to oloklrwma - isodunama

6.1 Pargwgo snjeth kai antstrofh sunrthsh . . . . . . . . . . 97

6.1.1 O kanna th alusda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

6.1.2 Pargwgo antstrofh sunrthsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

exsou austhr jemeliwmno to ssthma twn arijmn me tou opoou ja doul-

'Ena mh ken snolo lgetai diatetagmno sma an ikanopoie ta ex :

prsjesh . x; y stoiqewn tou uprqei

akrib na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me twn

Prosetairistikthta: gia kje x; y; z 2 , (x + y) + z = x + (y + z ).

Uprqei na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me 0 , ttoio ste gia kje

to 0 kai to x (dojnto tou x) orzontai monosmanta. O x enai o

tou x. H afaresh sto orzetai ap thn

pollaplasiasmo. Gia kje zeugri x; y 2 uprqei

akrib na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me xy kai lgetai twn x; y.

Prosetairistikthta: gia kje x; y; z 2 , (xy)z = x(yz ).

ttoio ste gia kje x 2 ,

Gia kje x 2 me x 6= 0 uprqei na stoiqeo tou pou sumbolzetai me

x tou x 6= 0. H sto orzetai ap thn

snolo twn jetikn stoiqewn tou , ttoio ste:

gia kje x 2 isqei akrib na ap ta aklouja:

mno an y x . Grfonta x y ennoome: ete x<y x . Ap ton

an x < y kai z > 0, tte xz < yz .

pollaplapasiasmo enai to tupik pardeigma diatetagmnou smato . 'Ole oi

ta aximata tou diatetagmnou smato (perimnete prta na orsoume aut ta

1.2 To axwma th plhrthta

Ap th stigm pou se na diatetagmno sma qoume orismnh th ditaxh

nw fragmno, an uprqei 2 me thn idithta: x gia kje x 2 A.

fragmno, an enai nw kai ktw fragmno.

Kje 2 pou ikanopoie ton parapnw orism lgetai nw frgma (antstoiqa,

tou A: an x 2 A tte x 1 . Telew anloga, an A kai na ktw

epsh ktw frgma tou A.

Fusiologik, prospaje kane na dei an uprqei kpoio elqisto nw frgma

(antstoiqa, mgisto ktw frgma) tou A sto .

. Lme oti to 2 enai elqistotou A an

(b) 'Estw A na ktw fragmno uposnolo tou diatetagmnou smato . Lme

oti to 2 enai mgisto ktw frgma tou A an

1 , dhlad = 1 . Omow , to mgisto ktw frgma tou A (an uprqei) enai

Sthn perptwsh pou uprqoun, ja sumbolzoume to elqisto nw frgma tou

(a) To enai nw frgma A

" > 0. An gia kje x 2 A sque h x ",

ikanopoietai to (a). Gia to (b), stw

ap to ") pou ikanopoie thn x > ".

nw fragmno. A upojsoume oti to den enai to supremum tou A. Tte, uprqei

< to opoo enai nw frgma tou A. Jtoume " = > 0. Tte,

Kje mh ken kai nw fragmno uposnolo A tou qei elqisto nw

fragmno uposnolo A tou qei mgisto ktw frgma.

To snolo R twn pragmatikn arijmn enai na plrw diatetagmno

plrw diatetagmna smata enai ismorfa (blpe M. Spivak , Keflaio 29).

Deqtkame to R san na plrw diatetagmno sma. Ja orsoume tra san

Orism . 'Ena uposnolo A tou R lgetai epagwgik an ikanopoie ta ex :

do idithte tou orismo ma lne oti an to AR enai epagwgik tte 1 2 A,

epagwgik uposnola tou R. Dhlad, to snolo N twn fusikn arijmn enai to

uposnolo tou R (enai to mikrtero epagwgik uposnolo tou R ).

Apdeixh: Deqnoume prta oti to N enai epagwgik:

(a) Gia kje epagwgikA R qoume 1 2 A. 'Ara, 1 2 N .

epagwgiko sunlou, x + 1 2 A gia kje epagwgik A R, ra x + 1 2 N . Ap

ta (a) kai (b), to N ikanopoie kai ti do idithte tou epagwgiko sunlou.

orism tou fusiko arijmo, kje fusik ankei sto A, dhlad N A. 2

Apdeixh: To snolo A = fx 2 R : x 1g enai epagwgik: Profan 1 2 A kai

an x 1 tte x + 1 > 1 (diti 1 > 0). 'Omw N A, ra gia kje x 2 N isqei

(Arq epagwg ): (n)

(n) alhj ) (n + 1) alhj ;

Apdeixh: Jewrome to snolo A = fx 2 N : (x) g

(a) 12A diti, ap thn upjesh, h (1) alhjeei.

Apdeixh: Jtoume A = fx 2 N : x = 1 x 1 2 Ng . Ja dexoume oti to A enai

(a) 1 2 A : to snolo B = 1 [ fx 2 R : x 2g enai epagwgik, ra an

1 < x < 2 qoume x 2= B ap pou petai oti x 2= N (giat?).