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1. Safety instructions
Do not switch on the apparatus until its use has been explained to you.
Note the limitations of the electronic differential pressure measuring device.
If the reading exceeds +1.5 bar or -1.0 bar then switch off the pump.
Do not start the experiment until you have read the appropriate parts of the
lab sheet.
Make yourself aware of the general hazards in the laboratory - which include
slippery, wet floors and the use of electricity and water. Wash your hands
after being in contact with water in the laboratory, and before you handle
food.
2. Basic theory
The experiment involves studying the head loss due to friction ( ) as water flows
through pipes of different diameter ( ) and relative roughness ( ). This is
achieved by recording the value of , or its equivalent pressure difference,
Fig 1 The
friction head Valve to
loss, control
flow rate
To volumetric
measuring tank or
measuring
cylinder
The flow rate through the pipe, and hence the mean velocity ( ) and the Reynolds
number ( ), is controlled by the valve at the downstream end of the pipe. The flow
rate can be determined volumetrically by collecting a known volume of water in either
the hydraulic bench's tank or a measuring cylinder (for very small flow rates).
For water flowing along a pipe the type of flow is determined by Reynolds number:
where and at .
Approximately:
Laminar flow
Unsteady flow (short of fully-developed turbulence) (transitional)
Fully-developed turbulent flow
where is a roughness-dependent critical value that is not less than .
In laminar flow
Transitional flow is unstable and will plot randomly on a graph
In turbulent flow
(a) To study the variation of with velocity and to confirm the validity of graphs
such as that below by plotting the laboratory values obtained from pipe 1 and
Appendix A.
Turbulent flow
Fig 2
Head loss
against Transitional flow
velocity
graph Laminar flow
Velocity
(b) To verify the existence of the smooth turbulent flow pipe curve (ie the smooth
pipe curve) by plotting the laboratory values of (lambda) obtained from pipes 1 and
2 against . These can be compared with the theoretical smooth turbulent flow pipe
curve obtained from the Prandtl equation (not to be confused with the Prandtl
number, which you might encounter in next year's thermo-fluids module)
(Hint: you'll find you can't make the subject of the Prandtl equation so you'll have
to do something a bit unusual to plot it. There are a couple of options for what that
something unusual might be.)
(c) To verify the existence of one rough turbulent flow pipe curve (ie rough pipe
curve) by plotting the laboratory values of obtained from pipe 3 against and to
estimate the value of by comparing the results with a Moody diagram (Fig 6.10,
Understanding Hydraulics).
Fig 3
against
graph.
V10 V11
Fig 4 Diagram
of the apparatus.
Ignore the manometers at each end, they are disconnected. The pressure
difference is obtained from the electronic display unit at the top left. DO NOT
TOUCH THIS UNIT. The pressure difference is measured using the flexible
plastic manometer tubes with the white plugs and sockets: these can be
connected where needed.
You are only using the top three horizontal grey pipes for your readings. These
have diameters of (top), and (the artificially roughened pipe,
third from the top).
Basically water comes out of the orange bench and flows vertically up the grey
pipework on the left. It then flows through one or more of the horizontal grey
pipes, depending upon which valves (V4) are open.
The water finally flows horizontally along the clear perspex pipe at the bottom and
discharges into the volumetric measuring tank in the orange bench.
The volumetric measuring tank has a step in it. The narrow bottom part is used to
collect small volumes of water (e.g. ) and the larger upper part to collect large
volumes (eg ). The narrow and wide parts of the tank have their own scales
on the water level gauge the sight tube located at the bottom left of the bench
as you look at it. Use only one of the two scales in any given flow rate
measurement.
To measure the flow rate, the rubber ball is lowered into the tanks outlet and the
time required to collect a known volume of water (eg to on the sight tube
gauge) is measured using the stop watch. For reasonable precision, the time
( ) needs to be several tens of seconds. Record the time to one tenth of a
second (and have a think about why).
Very small flow rates can be measured using a measuring cylinder instead of the
volumetric tank in the bench. To do this, shut the large valve (V6) at the end of
the discharge pipe and open the small silver valve (V5) that discharges through
the small flexible plastic tube.
4 Experimental procedure
The apparatus should already be set up and running ready for you to start. If
the pump isnt running, do not switch on. Go to find a member of staff who is
qualified to operate it.
1. At the start of the experiment with each pipe, make a note of the zero error
on the electronic display unit (top left of the apparatus). You need to add or
subtract this error from the pressure difference readings you take. You might
like to record this zero error again at the end of the experiment with the pipe in
question, to check whether it has been varying over the course of the
experiment.
2. Experience indicates that there are fewer problems with trapped air when working
from the larger to smaller pipe, so the experiment starts with pipe 3.
0.410 20 99.54
0.295 15 86.63
0.177 15 116.34
5 Calculations
1. You need to subtract (or add) any transducer zero error, then calculate the head
loss due to friction ( ) by multiplying the corrected recorded values by
( = atmospheric pressure = of water).
eg zero error = 0.004 bar and , so corrected reading
. Then .
e.g. .
e.g. .
The following series of steps will start us on the way to achieving objective (b):
1. Calculate the head loss due to friction ( ), the flow rate, velocity, Reynolds
number and using the same procedure as for pipe 3.
2. When Re > 4000, plot your values on your against graph. It should start to
look like Fig 3. The results from pipe 1 will be added next. Add additional points to
the graph by using the data in Appendix A.
The following series of steps will complete the achievement of objective (b), and will
also achieve objective (a):
1. Calculate the head loss due to friction ( ), the flow rate, velocity, Reynolds
number and using the same procedure as for pipes 2 and 3. Add additional
points to the graph by using the data in Appendix A.
Note 1: you can use a regular or random selection of specific values over the domain
to calculate the position of the Prandtl line. If using computer plotting software, to
avoid confusion, dont plot the points, just the trend line itself (the theory, unlike the
experimental data, is defined over a continuous domain).
Note 2: dont draw a line through the pipe 1 and 2 data points, just leave them as
experimental points plotted around the Prandtl line (which should be the only line in
the smooth turbulent flow part of your against graph). The degree of scatter from
the line shows the experimental errors and deficiencies in the theoretical equations
(does it match what we already know about the experimental errors?).
4. If your combined turbulent flow experimental points from pipes 1 and 2 dont lie on
the Prandtl smooth pipe curve (thinking carefully about what's meant by lie on),
discuss in your conclusion why not. Have you introduced significant error into the
experiment? If you were doing it again, what would you do to obtain more accurate
results? Or are the experimental data accurate whereas the equations are only
simple approximations?
You will need to use the experimental data in Appendix A to add more detail to
your against graph. This may help you to identify
the two gradients and the unstable transition zone between laminar and
turbulent flow. These data have already been corrected for any zero error.
6. Discuss in your conclusion the value of the exponents obtained above. If they are
not exactly and , is this due to experimental error? Or have the equations
widely used in practice been simplified? Or are they incorrect?
All for the 4 mm diameter pipe 1 (already corrected for zero error).
All for the 7.2 mm diameter pipe 2 (already corrected for zero error).
0.031 3 64.37
0.128 13 118.00
0.146 5 45.38
0.252 18 118.00
0.255 5 30.53
0.356 22 120.00
0.329 5 26.20
0.448 40 188.00
0.433 5 22.90
All for the 16 mm diameter pipe 3 (already corrected for zero error)
0.076 10 28.00
0.081 10 27.44
0.139 40 81.90
0.151 40 79.90
0.191 40 70.00
0.200 40 69.48
0.206 40 67.70
0.257 40 61.80
0.262 40 60.60
Appendix B
Note that late submission without extenuating circumstances will result in a mark of
zero being awarded.
This assignment constitutes an individual piece of work. You should carry out ALL
aspects of this assignment entirely on your own. You should fully reference the work
(both in the text and at the end), as described in the School guidelines on academic writing
and plagiarism on the student portal. For referencing, you should use either the Harvard
system, or another standard system that makes it at least as clear what the sources were.
(I'm a particular enthusiast for the referencing style exemplified at
<https://www.sharelatex.com/learn-scripts/images/4/4b/NatbibEx2.png> DCH.)
Regardless of whether the offence was intentional or unintentional, all of the following
constitute plagiarism:
using quotations or close paraphrasing without the use of quotation marks and
referencing, both in the text and at the end. This includes copying text/pictures from
the internet;
using intellectual data or ideas without acknowledgement;
copying, summarising or paraphrasing the work of another student or graduate, and
the use of essay writing services.
You must submit your coursework electronically, via the DLE site.
The weightings placed on various tasks/skills in the mark scheme are as follows:
Producing correct numerical results from calculations 30%
Giving clear references to published literature for fundamental
equations/definitions/principles/tools used 26%
Plotting graphs clearly and according to correct conventions 18%
Producing sensible estimates of theoretical parameters from experimental results
10.5%
Algebraic derivations 5%
Assessing whether precision of data is sufficient to make differences between theory
and experiment, or between different theories, (statistically) significant, and if so,
hypothesizing as to the reasons for those differences 10.5%
L. Hamill 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011; Plymouth University 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016