Measurement of variables

and
data types
 The nature of measurement
Measurement in research consists of assigning numbers to
empirical events in compliance with a set of rules. The three
part rules are:

1. Selecting observable empirical events.

2. Developing a set of mapping rules - a scheme for assigning
numbers or symbols to represent aspects of the event being
measured.
3. Applying the mapping rules to each observation of that event.

The goal of measurement is indeed to assign numbers to

empirical events incompliance with a set of rules is to
provide the highest quality, lowest error data for testing
hypotheses.
 What is measured?
Variables being studied in research may be
classified as objects or as properties. Objects
include the things of ordinary experience such as
tables, people, books and automobiles etc.,
Properties are the characteristics of the objects.
A persons physical properties may be stated in
terms of weight, height, and posture.
Psychological properties include attitudes and
intelligence. Social properties include leadership
ability, class affiliation and status.
 Data types

In measuring, one devises some mapping rule

and then translates the observation of property
indicants using this rule.
For each concept several types of data are
possible and the appropriate choice depends on
what you assume about the mapping rules. (Has
its own assumptions.)
Quantitative versus Qualitative
Categorical versus Quantitative
Mapping rules have four characteristics
1. Classification: numbers are used to group or sort
responses. No order exists.
2. Order : numbers are ordered. One number is greater
than , less than, or equal to another number.
3. Distance : differences between numbers are ordered.
The difference between any pair of numbers is greater
than or less than or equal to the difference between
any other pairs of numbers.
4. Origin: the number series has a unique origin
indicated by the number zero.
Data type classification
 Types of data and their measurement
characteristics
Type of data - Nominal
Characteristics of data - classification but no
order, distance or origin
Basic empirical assumption - determination of equality
Example - gender ( Male, Female)

Type of data - Ordinal

Characteristics of data - classification and order,
but no distance or unique
origin
Basic empirical assumption - determination of greater or
lesser value
Example - A is greater than B.
 Type of data - Interval
Characteristics of data - classification, order and
distance but no unique
origin
Basic empirical assumption - determination of equality
of intervals or differences
Example - temperature in degrees

Type of data - Ratio

Characteristics of data - classification, order,
distance and unique origin
Basic empirical assumption - determination of equality
of ratios
Example - age in years.
Data preparation
 Scales
A tool used to distinguish individuals
from one another on the variables under
study.
4 types of scales used to measure the
operationally defined dimensions and
elements of a variable.
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
4. Ratio
 Nominal Scale
Helps the researcher to categorize or
assign the subject in to groups.
Categorize objects into mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive
groups.
One can calculate percentage or
frequencies using this scale.
Provides some basic, categorical, gross
information.
Nominal scale
always used for obtaining personal data
such as Gender, grouping of individuals
male Finance
female Marketing
HR
Systems
 Ordinal Scale
It categorizes and ranks the categories in
some meaningful way.
Ex. Respondents may asked to rank the
preferences to the characteristics under
study.
This helps the manager to take decisions
accordingly.
However, it does not give the magnitude
of difference among the ranks.
Ordinal scale
used to rank the preferences or usage of
various brands of a product by individuals
and to rank order individuals, objects, or
events etc

Sports
Music
Soap Opera
 Interval Scale
It lets us to measure the distance between any
two points on the scale.
Permits to perform certain arithmetical
operations like computing means, standard
deviation of the responses on the variables.
Thus, it groups the individuals and measures
the difference between the preferences among the
individuals.
It establishes the equality of the magnitude of
differences in the scale points. i.e. the difference
between 1 and 2 = 2 and 3 or between any other
two points.
 The origin is arbitrary number.
Ex. Clinical thermometer.

This scale taps the differences, the order,

and the equality of the magnitude of the
differences in the variable.
Interval Scale
used when responses to various items
that measure a variable can be tapped on a
five-point scale, which can be thereafter be
summated across items.
Mastering this job meant
a lot to me
1 2 3 4 5
 Ratio Scale
It has absolute zero point.
It measures the magnitude and
proportions in the differences.
ex.Weighing balance, age, income.
Ratio Scale
used when exact numbers on objective
(as opposed to subjective) factors are called
for

Ex. How many organization did you work

for before joining this system/organization?
 Properties of the four scales

Scale Difference Order Distance Unique

origin
Nominal Yes No No No
Ordinal Yes Yes No No
Interval Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes
Scale Measures Measures Some
of central of Tests of
Tendency Dispersion Significance

Nominal Mode --- Chi-Square

Ordinal Median Semi-inter Rank-order
range correlations
Interval Arithmetic SD, variance,
mean Coefficient t,F
of variation
Ratio Arithmetic SD or variance
or geometric or coefficient t,F
mean of variation
 Interval Vs Ratio Scale

The interval scale has 1 as an arbitrary

starting point.
The ratio scale has the natural origin 0,
which is meaningful.