SOCIOLOGY

UnitI

WhatisSociology?

Sociologycanbedefinedasastudyofsocietyorsociallife,ofgroupinteractionand
ofSocialbehaviour.

Sociology,ascomparedtoothersocialsciences,likeeconomicsandpoliticalscience,
isayoungdiscipline.Onecouldsay,itisaboutahundredandfiftyyearsoldbut
therehasbeenamorerapiddevelopmentofthesubjectinthelastfiftytosixtyyears.

Thisispartlyduetodesire,particularly,aftertheSecondWorldWar,tounderstand
moreaboutthebehaviorofpeopleinsocialsituations.

Allsocialsciencesubjectsareconcernedwiththebehaviorofpeoplebuteachofthem
studiesdeferentaspects.Sociology,however,isconcernedwithsocialrelationsin
general,andwithsocialgroupandinstitutionsinparticular.

EmergenceofSociology

Duringthe19thcenturysociologyemergedasseparatesocialscienceinEuropeand
itsobjectivewasthestudyofsociety.AugusteComte,SpencerandEmileDurkheim
besidesseveralothersocialthinkerssoughttoestablishtheideaofsocietyasamatter
ofstudy,uniqueinitself.Theyexaminedsocietyasawholewhichismorethanthe
sumofitsparts.

Sociologyisusedinthedisciplineofsocialworktoanalyseandunderstandsocial
problems. Social work is concerned with the uplift of those socially deprived,
physically handicapped, etc. Sociology is not concerned with the reformation of
societyassuchnorisitdirectlyinvolvedinsocialplanningordirectedchange.The
sociologicalunderstandingandresearchcanhelpinbetterplanningandinfinding
ways and means of acceptance of improved practices, in the formulation of
developmentpoliciesandprogrammes.Itisgenerallyacceptedthatsociologistsdo
notinterferewithsocialprocess.

SocialGroup

i)agroupofpersons(twoormore);
ii)apatternedinteraction(i.e.,thereisaregularityinthesocialrelations,basedon
sharedbeliefs,valuesandnorms);and
iii)theinteractionissustainedoveraperiodoftime.

Ferdinand Tonnies (1855 1936), a noted German sociologist, while examining

differentkindsofsocietiesfoundthatthereweretwokindsofsocialgroups,similarto
theconceptsofprimaryandsecondarygroupsfoundinallsocieties.Hefoundthatin
smallhomogeneoussocietiesmembersinteractedwithoneanotheronfacetoface,
informalbasis.Inthesegroupstraditiondictatedsocialbehaviour.Tonniescalledthis
kindofsocietyaGemeinschaft,which.Whentranslatedmeansbroadly"acommunal,
ortraditionalsociety".

In comparison, societies that are large and heterogeneous, such as the modern
industrialsocieties,relationshipsamongmembersareimpersonal,formal,functional
and specialised. According to Tonnies these societies have often contractual
relationshipswhichareonthebasisofclearcut,legalcontractsratherthanbeing
governedbytraditions.TenniescallsthesesocietiesGesellschaft,or"associational
societies".

KindofSocialGroups

Themajorclassificationsare(i)primaryand(ii)secondarygroups.
i)Aprimarygrouphasbeendefinedasoneinwhichthemembershaveveryclose
orintimaterelationsandthereisanemotionalinvolvement.Ithasalsobeendefined
asprimarybecauseitisthisgroup,whichischieflyresponsiblefornurtureofsocial
ideasoftheindividual.

Personalityofanindividualisinvolvedinaprimarygroup.Thebestexampleofthe
primarygroupisthefamily.

Theprimarygroups(family,playgroups,community,etc.)alsoactsasalinkbetween
theindividualandthelargersociety.

ii)Incontrasttotheprimarygroup,therearesecondarygroups.Inthesecondary
group,membersinteractwithoneanotherinaveryspecificrangeofactivities.The
relationships inthesecondarygrouparemorecasual,impersonalandforspecific
purposes.Astudentbodyofalargecollegeisasecondarygroupastheyinteractas
students.Peopleworkinginafactoryarealsoanexampleofasecondarygroupas
theyrelatetoeachotherasworkers.

MajorConcernsofSociology

Sociologyaddressesitselftothreebasicquestions:
i)howandwhysocietiesemerge?
ii)howandwhysocietiespersist?
iii)howandwhysocietieschange?

Animportantareawhichsociologydealswithissocialinstitutions.Theinstitutions
provideastructureforthesocietyandperformfunctions,whichenablethesocietyto
meetitsneeds.

Inanysociety,therearefivebasicsocialinstitutions;family,politicalinstitutions,
economicinstitutions,religiousinstitutionsandeducationalinstitutions.
 However,inmorecomplexsocieties,theremaybemanyotherinstitutionssuchas
bureaucracy,militaryorganisations,welfareandrecreationalorganisations,etc.Caste
isalsoaninstitution,whichismoreorlesspeculiartoIndia.

Emil Durkheim on the division of labor transformation of mechanical ( simple)

societyintoorganic(complex)societywasnotforlargescaleproductionbutitwasa
needofthesocietyitself.

SociologyandScience

Thesystematicapproachconsistsof:
i)definingaproblemforstudy;
ii)collectingdataontheproblemdefined;
iii)analysingandorganisingthedata;whichwouldhelpinformulationofhypothesis;
and
iv)furthertestingofthehypothesisandonthebasisofthis,developnewconcepts
andtheories.

SociologyandOtherSocialSciences

Whatdefines thediscipline ofsociologyis thereforenot justwhatit studies (i.e.

familyortradeunionsorvillages)buthowitstudiesachosenfield.

Social Psychology and Sociology: Social psychology is the study of social and
culturalinfluencesontheindividual.

SociologyandAnthropology:

AnthroposmeansManandLogosmeansStudyi.ethestudiesofman.
Whilesociologystudiesthegroupslifeoftheindividuallivinginacomplexsociety,
Anthropologyisthestudyofmanfromhisearliesttimestothepresent.
 anthropology has been regarded as the study of early (primitive) cultures, and
sociologyofthemorecontemporarysociety.Thisdistinctionisnolongervalid.Many
oftheearlyvillagestudiesinIndiahavebeendonebysocialanthropologists.The
tribalcommunitiesinIndiahave,byandlarge,beenstudiedbyanthropologists,in
boththeirphysicalandsocialaspects.

Difference
1. Anthropology studies cultures which are small ad static while Sociology
studiescivilizationwhicharevastanddynamic.
2. Anthropologyisthestudyofmananditscultureastheydevelopedintimes
longpast;whilesociologystudiesthesamephenomenaastheyareatpresent.
3. Anthropologists are more neutral and do not offer suggestions, whereas
sociologistsuggestmeansforimprovementalongwiththeirstudies.
4. StudiesofAnthropologyismoregeneralwhilestudyofsociologyismore
particular.
5. Anthropologyisprimarilyconcernedwithmanwhilesociologyisconcerned
withsocialinstitution

Sociology and History : Professor G.E. Howard remarked "History is the past
SociologyandSociologyisthepresentHistory",

John Seely says that" History without Sociology has no fruit, Sociology without
Historyhasnoroot".
ThetwosocialsciencesHistoryandSociologyaredifferent.Thepointsofdifference
betweenthetwomaybenoted.

1.Sociologyisinterestedinthestudyofthepresentsocialphenomenawithalltheir
complexities.ButHistorydealswiththepasteventsofman.Itissilentregardingthe
present.
2.Sociologyisrelativelyayoungsocialscience.Ithasveryshorthistoryofitsown.It
isnoteventwocenturiesold.Buthistoryisanageoldsocialscience.Ithasalong
storyof2000yearsorevenmore.
3.Sociologyisananalyticalscience.Buthistoryisadescriptivescience.

4.Sociologyisabstractinnature.Itstudies mostlyregular,therecurrentandthe
universal.Forexample,thesociologistdoesnotstudyallthewarsorbattlesWaged
bythemankind.ButHistoryisconcrete.Thehistorianisinterestedintheunique,the
particularandtheindividual.Forexample,thehistorianstudiesallthewarswagedby
mankindinthepastthewars,theworldwars,theIndoPakwar,etc.Forhimeachwar
isuniqueandsignificant.

5.Sociologyisageneralizingscience.Sociologyseekstoestablishgeneralizations
after a careful study of the social phenomena. But History is an individualizing
science.Historyrarelymakesgeneralizations.Itseekstoestablishthesequencein
whicheventsoccurred.

6. Sociology follows the sociological approach. It studies human events from the
sociological.pointofview,i.e.,fromtheviewpointofsocialrelationshipinvolved.
ButHistorystudieshumaneventsinaccordancewiththetimeandorder.Itsapproach
ishistorical.

SociologyandPoliticalSciences :MorrisGinsberg''Historically,Sociologyhasits
mainrootsinpoliticsandphilosophyofhistory".Thestate,whichisthecenterof
politicalscienceinitsearlystage,wasmoreofasocialthanpoliticalinstitution.

Forunderstandingofpoliticalproblems,someknowledgeaboutsociologyisvery
essentialbecauseallpoliticalproblemsaremainlycorrectedwithasocialaspect.In
thisconnectionF.H.Giddingsays"Toteachthetheoryofthestatetomenwhohave
not learn the first principle of sociology is like teaching astronomy or
thermodynamicstomenwhohavenotlearntNewton'slawsofMotion".

Inspiteoftheaboverelationship,bothsociologyandpoliticalsciencearehowever
differentfromeachotherincertainrespects,
1.Sociologyisthescienceofpoliticalscience;ontheotherhand,itisthescienceof
stateandgovernment.Sociologystudiessocietyasawholeandmanasasocialbeing
whereaspoliticalsciencedealswithaparticularaspectofsociety,whichisregarded
as a politically organized unit. Therefore, political science is a more specialized
sciencethansociology.

2. Sociology has wider scope than that of political science. Sociology deals with
social,political,economic,culturalandotheraspectsofsocietyandstudieswillbethe
socialinstitutionssuchasfamily,marriage,religion,kinship,casteandsoon.But
politicalsciencedealswithpoliticalaspectandstudiesaspecificpoliticalinstitution
likestateandgovernmentonly.Thus,sociologyisregardedasageneralsciencewhile
politicalscienceisviewedasaspecializedsocialscience.

3.Sociologystudiesformsofassociationsandinstitutionswhereaspoliticalscience
dealswiththestateandgovernmentwhichareknownasspecificformsofassociation.
That is why professor Garner remarks "Political science is concerned with only
humanformassociationsuchasstate,sociologydealswithallformsofassociation."

4.Sociologystudiesallkindsofsocialrelationshipinageneralway.Butpolitical
sciencestudiesonlythepoliticalaspectofsocialrelationshipinaparticularway.

5.Sociologystudiesbothorganizedanddisorganizedsocieties.Butpoliticalscience
studiesonlythepoliticallyorganizedsocieties.

6.Sociologydealswithbothformalaswellasinformalrelationsofthesociety,which
arebasedoncustoms,traditions,folkways,mores,normsetc.Butpoliticalscience
dealsonlywithformalrelationsbasedonlawsandorderofthestate.

7.Sociologyisthestudyofallmeansofsocialcontrol.Politicalscience,ontheother
hand,isthestudyofonlygovernmentrecognizedmeansofcontrol.
NATUREANDSCOPEOFSOCIOLOGY

1. Sociologyisasocialsciencesandnotanaturalscience:Thesubjectmatterof
naturalsciencesisrelativelystaticandunchangingwhereashumanbehavior,
thesubjectmatterofsociologyisflexibleanddynamic.
2. Sociologyisapositivescienceandnotanormativeone:itisstudiesofwhat
isnotwhatouttobe.Prof.GiddingsSociologytellsushowtobecomewhat
wewanttobe
3. Sociologyisapurescienceaswellasanappliedsciences:
4. Sociology is an abstract science, not a concrete sciences: Sociology is
knowledgeaboutthingsbutitisnotknowledgeofhowtodothings.
5. Sociologyisarationalempiricalscience:
6. Sociologyisascienceofgeneralization:
7. Sociologyisageneralscience:

TYPESOFMAJORPERSPECTIVEINSOCIOLOGY

1. FunctionalistPerspective:Socialworldasastableandongoingunity.Theyare
impressed with the endurance of the family, organized religion and other
socialinstitutions.
GottheoriginalinspirationfromtheworkofHerbertSpaencer(SocialDarwinism
The Man verses the State)and Durkheim: "Sociology is a science of collective
representation"(TheRulesofSociologicalMethod,Suicide)

Societyislikealivingorganisminwhicheachpartoftheorganismcontributestoits
survival.
Maincriticism:
Ittendstobeinherentlyconservative.
Failstopaysufficientimportancetothechangesthattakeplaceinthesystem.
Ignoretheelementofconflictanditsroleinthesocialsystem.

 2. Conflict Perspective: Society as composed of may groups in conflict,

competingforscarceresources.
KarlMarxthesocialworldincontinualstruggle.
Societiesareinaconstantstageofchange,inwhichconflictisapermanentfeature.
Conflict not merely as a class phenomenon but as a part of everyday life in all
societies.Whobenefits,whosuffer,andwhodominateattheexpenseofothers.
Itencouragedsociologiststoviewsocietythroughtheeyesofthosepeoplewhorarely
influencedecisionmaking.Forexample,theBlacksinAmericaandSouthAfrica,the
untouchableinIndia,theHinduminoritiesinPakistan.

Criticism:Byfocusingsonarrowlyonissuesofcompetitionandchange,itfailsto
cometogripswiththemoreorderly,stableandlesspoliticallycontroversialaspects
ofsocialreality.

3. InteractionistPerspective: Themostinterestingaspectsofthesocialworlds
aretheeverydaylife,routineinteractionamongindividualsthatwesometimes
takeforgranted.
MaxWeberEmphasizedtheimportanceofunderstandingthesocialworldfromthe
viewpointsoftheindividualswhoactwithinit.
Traceonthesocialbehaviorineverydaylife.
Presumethatitisonlythoroughthesesocialbehaviorofthepeoplethatthesociety
cancomeintobeing.
Criticism:Itneglectslargesocialinstitutionsandsocialprocesses,whichpowerful
effectsonsocialinteractionandonourpersonalexperience.

Functionalism,primarilyonsocialorderandstability
Conflicttheory,primarilyontensionandchange
Interactionism,primarilyonordinaryexperienceofeverydaylife

Sociology studies everything and anything under the sun. However tow different
schoolofthought
 1. TheformalorSpecialistschoolofThought:
Itispureandanindependentsciences
Studyonlythecertainaspectofhumanrelationshiponly
Itshouldstudyonlytheformsofsocialrelationshipsbutnottheircontents.
Scope should not be generalized, but it should confine itself to describing ,
classifying,analyzinganddelineatingtheformsofsocialrelationships,theprocessof
socializationandsocialorganization.

Sociology studies social relationship involved in competition, subordination,

hierarchicalorganizationanddivisionoflabour.
George Simmel, sociology is concerned with the different forms of social
relationshipswhichareformedinvarioussocialgroups.
MaxWeber,theaimofthesociologyistointerpretorunderstandsocialbehavior.
Criticism:
1. Narrowedthescopeofsociology
2. Theconceptofpuresociologyisimpracticable.
3. Sociologyalonedoesnotstudysocialrelationships
4. Socialformsseparatedfromconcreterelationscannotbestudied.

2. TheSyntheticSchoolofThoughtWiderscope
Sociologyshoulddealwithhumanraceasawhole.
Sociologyshouldsynthesizetheresults ofthespecializeddisciplineslikepolitical
economy,law,history,religion,etc.
Ginsbergdividedthesubjectmatterintofourparts
1. SocialMorphology:studyofthepopulations
2. SocialControl:studyoflaw,religion,fashion
3. SpecialProcesses:studyofcooperationandconflict
4. SocialPathology:studyofthecause,effectsandremedies
SCOPEOFSOCIOLOGY

Scopemeansthesubjectmatterortheareasofstudy.Everysciencehasitsownfield
ofinquiry.Itbecomesdifficulttostudyasciencesystematicallyunlessitsboundary
orscopeisdeterminedprecisely.Sociologyasasocialsciencehasitsownscopeor
boundaries.ButthereisnooneopinionaboutthescopeofSociology.However,there
aretwomainschoolsofthoughtregardingthescopeofSociology:(1)TheSpecialist
or Formalistic school and (2) the Synthetic school. There is a good deal of
controversyaboutthescopeofSociologybetweenthetwoschools.Thesupporterof
first school believe that Sociology is a specific science and the scope should be
limitedwhereasothersbelievethatitisageneralscienceanditsscopeisveryvast

(1)Specialisticschool:
ThesupportersofthisschoolofthoughtareGeorgeSimmel,Vierkandt,MaxWeber,
Vonwise, and F. Tonnies. The main views of the school regarding the scope of
Sociologyare
(i)Sociologyisaspecific,pureandindependentsocialscience.
(ii)Sociologystudiesthevariousformsofsocialrelationships.
(iii)ScopeofSociologyisverynarrowandlimited.
(iv)Sociologydealswithspecificformofhumanrelationship.
(v)Sociologyneednotstudyalltheeventsconnectedwithsocialscience.
(vi)Simmelbelievesthatitisaspecificsocialscienceanditshoulddealwithsocial
relationshipsfromdifferentangles.
Criticism:
(i)Sociologistalonedoesnotstudytheformsofsocialrelationships.Othersocial
scientistsalsodothat.
(ii)Thedistinctionbetweentheformsofsocialrelationsandtheircontentsisnot
practicable.
(iii)Thirdly,theformalisticschoolhasnarroweddownthescopeofSociology.
(iv)Finally,theconceptionofpureSociologyisimaginary.
(2)Syntheticschool:
The supporters of synthetic school are the sociologists like Ginsberg, Durkheim,
Comte,Sorokin,Spencer,F.Ward,andL.T.Hobhouse.
Accordingtothisschool
(i)Sociologyisageneralandsystematicsocialscience.
(ii)ScopeofSociologyisveryvast.
(iii)Sociologyneedshelpfromothersocialsciences.
(iv)Itisasynthesisofsocialscience.
(v)Sociologyiscloselyrelatedwithothersocialsciences.
Conclusion:
Fromtheabovediscussion,wecometoknowthatformalisticschoolbelievesinthe
studyoftheparts,whichmakesupthesocietyandsyntheticschooladvocatesthe
studyofthewholesociety.However,boththeschoolscomplementtoeachother.
Theyarenotopposedtoeachother.Thus,Sociologyisageneralscienceofsociety
andspecialiseddiscipline.Sociologyisagrowingscience.Therefore,itisneither
possiblenordesirabletorestrictitsscope.

AUGUSTECOMTE(17981857)

HewasbornatMontpellierFranceofCatholicroyalistparents.
In1814hewasadmittedtooneofthemostprestigiouseducationalinstitutionsof
FranceatthattimecalledtheEcolePolytechnique.
ComtewasinvolvedinastudentprotestattheEcolePolytechniquebecauseofwhich
hewasexpelled
AttheEcolePolytechnique,hecameundertheinfluenceofsuchtraditionalistsocial
philosophers as L.G. Bonald and Joseph de Maistre. It was from them that he
borrowedthenotionofanordergoverningtheevolutionofhumansociety.
From Condorcet, another major philosopher of France, who was beheaded later,
Comtegottheideathatthisevolutionoccursalongwithprogressinhumansocieties.
In1824,hebecameasecretarytoSaintSimon,anaristocratbybirthbutanutopian
socialistinideas.
ItwasatthisperiodthatAugusteComteworkedoutthegeneralconceptionofa
scienceofsociety,whichhenamedsociology.
Auguste Comtes ambition was the political reorganisation of human society.
Accordingtohim,suchreorganisationwillhavetodependuponthespiritualand
moralunificationofsociety.
LaterAugusteComtepublishedsomeofhislecturenotesin,CoursdePhilosophie
Positive(6Vol.183042) Inthisworkhewroteaboutthelawofthreestagesand
developedhisconceptionofascienceofsociety.

Between18511854,hewroteatreatiseentiled,SystemofPositivePolitics,(4Vols.).
Inthisbookheappliedthefindingsoftheoreticalsociologytowardssolvingthesocial
problemsofhissociety.

Hewascontinuallydistressedanddisturbedbythedisorderofhistime,andbythe
material and cultural poverty of the people. His fundamental and lifelong
preoccupation was how to replace disorder by order; how to bring about a total
reconstructionofsociety.

AccordingtoAugusteComte,sociologyistheabstracttheoreticalscienceofsocial
phenomena.

AugusteComtemaintainedthatthenewscienceofsocietymustrelyonreasoningand
observationinsteadofdependingontheauthorityoftradition.Onlythencanitbe
consideredscientific.Buteveryscientifictheorymustalsobebasedonobservedfacts
andviceversa.
AccordingtoComte,nothingisabsolute.Everyknowledgeistrueinarelativesense
anddoesnotenjoyeverlastingvalidity.Thus,sciencehasaselfcorrectivecharacter
andwhateverdoesnotholdtrueisrejected.Inthissensethisnewscience,whichwas
also called positive science, replaced the authority of tradition that could not be
refuted.

TheLawoftheThreeStages
AugusteComtebelievedthattheevolutionofthehumanmindhadtakenplacealong
withtheevolutionoftheindividualmind.Inotherwords,heholdsthatjustaseach
individualdevelopsfromthestageofadevoutbelieverinchildhood,toacritical
metaphysician(onewhoquestionstheabstractnotionsofexistence)inadolescence,to
anaturalphilosopherinadulthood,soalsothehumanbeingsandtheirsystemof
thoughthaveevolvedinthreemajorstages.Thesethreestagesoftheevolutionof
humanthoughtare
i) thetheologicalstage;
In the theological stage, the mind explains phenomena by ascribing them to beings or
forces comparable to human beings. In this stage, human being attempts to discover
the first and the final causes (the origin and purpose) of all effects. Thus, human mind
at this level supposes that all phenomena are produced by the immediate action of
supernatural beings. For example, some tribes believed that diseases like small pox,
cholera were the expressions of Gods anger.

ii) themetaphysicalstage;
In the metaphysical stage, the mind explains phenomenon by invoking abstract
entities like nature. These abstract entities are personified abstractions. Human
beings pursue meaning and explanation of the world in term of essences, ideals,
forms, i.e. in short, in a conception of some ultimate reality, such as God.

iii)thepositivestage.
Inthepositivestagehumanbeingsceasetolookfororiginalsourcesorfinalcauses
becausethesecanbeneithercheckedagainstfactsnorutilisedtoserveourneeds.
Humanmindatthisstageappliesitselftothestudyoftheirlaws,i.e.theirinvariable
relations of succession and resemblance (Coser 1971: 7). Human beings seek to
establishlawswhichlinkfactsandwhichgovernsociallife.

Intermsofthehistoryofhumanrace,thetheologicalstageofhumanthought,in
relationtopoliticaldominance,wasdominatedbythepriestsandruledbymilitary
men.ThemetaphysicalstagewhichcorrespondedroughlytotheMiddleAgesandthe
Renaissance,was dominatedbytheChurchmenandlawyers.Thepositivestage,
whichwasjustdawning,willbedominatedbyindustrialadministratorsandscientific
moralguides.

Thetheologicalstage,intermsofsocialunit,hadfamilyasitsimportantunit,the
metaphysicalstagehadstateasitsimportantunit,andthepositivestagewillhavethe
wholehumanraceastheoperativesocialunit.
AugusteComtedividedsociologyintotwomajorparts,namely,staticanddynamic
sociology. The static sociology studies the conditions of the existence of society,
while the dynamic sociology studies the continuous movement or laws of the
successionofindividualstagesinsociety.Inotherwords,thefirstpartstudiesthe
socialorderandthesecondsocialchangesorprogressinsocieties.

HERBERTSPENCER(18201903)

Hissociologyisbasedontheevolutionarydoctrineandtheorganicanalogy.
In1850hepublishedhisfirstbook,SocialStatics,whichwaswellreceivedinthe
intellectualworld.Inthisbookhepresentedthecoreideasofhissociologicaltheory.

ThesociologicalworksofHerbertSpencer,suchas,SocialStatics(1850),TheStudy
ofSociology(1873),PrinciplesofSociology(187696),aredominatedbytheideaof
evolution.
Spencerbelievedthatthroughoutalltimesthereactuallyhasbeensocialevolution
from a simple, uniform or homogeneous structure to a complex, multiform or
heterogeneousone.

Hemaintainedthatasociety,asanentity,issomethingmorethan,andotherthan,
anorganism,eventhoughhumanorganisms(individuals)aremembersofit.Itisa
totalsystemofelementsofsocialorganizationandtheirinterdependentfunctions.Itis
a superorganic entity; an organisational entity over and above the level of the
organism
Spencer accepted the ideas that a society was more than a collective name for a
numberofindividuals.Thatis,itisnotjustacollectionofseveralindividualsbutisa
distinctentity.Thewholeismorethanitsparts.

SimpleSociety,CompoundSociety,andDoublyCompoundSociety.

AccordingtoSpencertheaggregateofsomesimplesocietiesgivesrisetocompound
societies,theaggregateofsomecompoundsocietiesgivesrisetodoublycompound
societies.
According to Spencer simple societies consist of families, a compound societies
consist offamilies unified into clans,doublycompoundsocieties consistofclans
unifiedintotribesandthetreblycompoundsocieties,suchasourown,havetribes
broughttogetherformingnationsorstates

EMILEDURKHEIM(18581917)

EmileDurkheimwas bornonApril15,1858inEpinalintheLorraineregionof
FranceontheGermanborder.HewasfromanorthodoxJewishfamily;hisfather,
grandfatherandgreatgrandfatherwereallrabbisorJewishpriests.Emiletoowas
initiallysenttoaschoolfortrainingrabbis.
1876:EnterstheEcoleNormaleSuperieureinParistostudyphilosophy.
1887: Appointed lecturer in social sciences and education at the University of
Bordeaux.
1893:PublishesDivisionofLabourinSociety,hisdoctoraldissertation.
1895:PublishesRulesofSociologicalMethod.
1897: Founds Anee Sociologique,the first social science journal in France; and
publisheshisfamousstudy,Suicide.
1902:JoinstheUniversityofParisastheChairofEducation.Laterin1913theChair
wasrenamedEducationandSociology.
1912:PublishesTheElementaryFormsoftheReligiousLife.
1917:Diesattheageof59,heartbrokenbythedeathofhisson,AndreinWorldWar
I.
SocietywasforDurkheimasocialfactwhichexistedasamoralcommunityoverand
above the individual. The ties that bound people in groups were crucial to the
existenceofthesociety.
For Durkheim the social was to be found in the codes of conduct imposed on
individualsbycollectiveagreement.Itwasevidentinthepracticesofeverydaylife.

ThescientificunderstandingofsocietythatDurkheimsoughttodevelopwas
basedontherecognitionofmoralfacts.

Sociologyconcerneditselfexclusivelywithwhathecalledtheemergentlevel,that
is,thelevelofcomplexcollectivelifewheresocialphenomenacanemerge.These
phenomenaforexample,socialinstitutionslikereligionorthefamily,orsocial
valueslikefriendshiporpatriotismetc.wereonlypossibleinacomplexwholethat
waslargerthan(anddifferentfrom)itsconstituentparts.

TheseconddefiningfeatureofDurkheimsvisionofsociologywasthat,likemostof
thenaturalsciences,itwastobeanempiricaldiscipline.Themostfamousexample
ofhisuseofanewkindofempiricaldataisinhisstudyofSuicide.Althougheach
individualcaseofsuicidewasspecifictotheindividualandhis/hercircumstances,the
averagerateofsuicideaggregatedacrosshundredsofthousandsofindividualsina
community was a social fact. Thus, social facts could be observed via social
behaviour,andspeciallyaggregatedpatternsofsocialbehavior.

Inhisfirstbook,DivisionofLabourinSociety,Heclassifiedasocietybythenature
ofsocialsolidaritywhichexistedinthatsociety.Hearguedthatwhileaprimitive
societywasorganizedaccordingtomechanicalsolidarity,modernsocietywasbased
on organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity is founded on the similarity of its
individual members and is found in societies with small populations. It typically
involvesacollectionofdifferentselfsufficientgroupswhereeachpersonwithina
particulargroupisengagedinsimilaractivitiesorfunctions.Asthesolidarityorties
betweenpeoplearebasedonsimilarityandpersonalrelationships,suchsocietiesare
notverytolerantofdifferencesandanyviolationofthenormsofthecommunity
attractsharshpunishment.Inotherwords,mechanicalsolidaritybasedsocietieshave
repressive laws designed to prevent deviation from community norms. This was
becausetheindividualandthecommunityweresotightlyintegratedthatitwasfeared
that any violation of codes of conduct could result in the disintegration of the
community.

Organicsolidaritycharacteristicmodernsocietyandbasedontheheterogeneityofits
members. It is found in societies with large population where most social
relationships necessarily have to be impersonal. Such a society is based on
institutions, and each of its constituent groups or units is not self sufficient but
dependentonotherunits/groupsfortheirsurvival.Interdependenceistheessenceof
organicsolidarity.Itcelebratesindividualsandallowsfortheirneedtobedifferent
fromeachother,andrecognisestheirmultiplerolesandorganicties.Thelawsof
modernsocietyarerestitutiveinnatureratherthanrepressive.Thismeansthatin
modern societies, the law aims to repair or correct the wrong that is done by a
criminalact.
Bycontrast,inprimitivesocietiesthelawsoughttopunishwrongdoersandenforced
asortofcollectiverevengefortheiracts.Inmodernsocietytheindividualwasgiven
someautonomy,whereasinprimitivesocietiestheindividualwastotallysubmerged
inthecollectivity.

MAXWEBER(18641920)

Weberarguedthattheoverallobjectiveofthesocialscienceswastodevelop
aninterpretiveunderstandingofsocialaction.

ForWeber,socialactionincludedallhumanbehaviourthatwasmeaningful,thatis,
actiontowhichactorsattachedameaning.
Weberwasamongthefirsttodiscussthespecialandcomplexkindofobjectivity
thatthesocialscienceshadtocultivate.
Weber again used the ideal type to illustrate the three types of authority that he
definedastraditional,charismaticandrationallegal.Whilethesourceoftraditional
authority was custom and precedence, charismatic authority derived from divine
sources or the gift of grace, and rationallegal authority was based on legal
demarcationofauthority.Rationallegalauthoritywhichprivilegedinthemodern
timewasepitomizedinthebureaucracy.

KARLMARX(18181883)

Marxarguedthathumansocietyhadprogressedthroughdifferentstages.Thesewere:
primitivecommunism,slavery,feudalismandcapitalism.Capitalismwasthelatest
phaseofhumanadvancement,butMarxbelievedthatitwouldgivewaytosocialism.

Capitalistsocietywasmarkedbyaneverintensifyingprocessofalienationoperating
atseverallevels.
First,moderncapitalistsocietyisonewherehumansaremorealienatedfromnature
thaneverbefore;
second, human beings are alienated from each other as capitalism individualizes
previouslycollectiveformsofsocialorganisation,andasrelationshipsgetmoreand
moremarketmediated.
Third,thelargemass ofworkingpeopleis alienatedfromthefruits ofitslabour
becauseworkersdonotowntheproductstheyproduce

Marxsconceptionoftheeconomywasbasedonthenotionofamodeofproduction,
whichstoodforabroadsystemofproductionassociatedwithanepochorhistorical
period.Primitivecommunism,slavery,feudalismandcapitalismwereallmodesof
production.
UnitII
THECONCEPTOFSOCIETY

Latinwordsocius.Thetermdirectlymeansassociation,togetherness,gregariousness,
orsimplygrouplife.Theconceptofsocietyreferstoarelativelylargegroupingor
collectivityofpeoplewhosharemoreorlesscommonanddistinctculture,occupying
acertaingeographicallocality,withthefeelingofidentityorbelongingness,having
allthenecessarysocialarrangementsorinsinuationstosustainitself.

BasicFeatureoftheSociety

First,asocietyisusuallyarelativelylargegroupingofpeopleintermsofsize.Ina
very important sense, thus, society may be regarded as the largest and the most
complexsocialgroupthatsociologistsstudy.

Secondly,themostimportantthingaboutasocietyisthatitsmemberssharecommon
anddistinctculture.
Third,asocietyalsohasadefinite,limitedspaceorterritory.Thepopulationsthat
makeupagivensocietyarethuslocatableinadefinitegeographicalarea.Thepeople
considerthatareaastheirown.

Fourth, the people who make up a society have the feeling of identity and
belongingness.Thereisalsothefeelingofoneness.Suchidentityfellingemanates
fromtheroutinizedpatternofsocialinteractionthatexistsamongthepeopleandthe
variousgroupsthatmakeupthesociety.

Fifth,membersofasocietyareconsideredtohaveacommonoriginandcommon
historicalexperience.Theyfeelthattheyhavealsocommondestiny.

Sixth,membersofasocietymayalsospeakacommonmothertongueoramajor
languagethatmayserveasanationalheritage.

Seventh,asocietyisautonomous andindependentinthesensethatithas allthe

necessarysocialinstitutionsandorganizationalarrangementstosustainthesystem.
However,asocietyisnotanisland,inthesensethatsocietiesareinterdependent.
Therehasalwaysbeenintersocietalrelations.Peopleinteractsocially,economically
andpolitically.

SIMPLESOCIETY

The term 'simple societies' refers to smallscale societies with a relatively simple
technology.Suchsocietiesarenotonlysmallinsizebutalsotheircontroloverthe
environmentisquitelimited.Withsmallscalemarkets,theirscopeforspecialization
inthedivisionoflabourisrestricted.

Alltribalsocietiescanbecalledsimpleintermsoftheirlimitedtechnologicalcontrol
overtheenvironment.

ECONOMIESINSIMPLESOCIETIES
Simplesocietiesarespreadovernearlytheentirerangeofnaturalenvironmentsand
arenotconfinedonlytooneortworegions.Theyarefoundinthedenseequatorial
andtropicalforests,inthehotandcolddesertsandintherichalluvialplains.Theyare
foundalsointhefoothillsandhighrangesofmountains,inthesavannas,seacoasts
andintheislandsjuttingoutoftheopenseas.

Basedonthemodeofproductionofmaterialgoodsforsubsistence,economiesin
simplesocietiescanbegroupthefollowingtypes:

a) Hunting and gathering: All these hunting and gathering societies live close to
nature and (rather than adapting nature to themselves) they adapt themselves to
nature.Followingthisprinciple,theykeeponmovingfromplacetoplaceinsearchof
animals,fruits,rootsandtubers.

b)Pastoral: Thedomesticationofanimals formsthemainfeatureofthepastoral

stage.Someofthepastoralcommunitiesmixpastoraleconomywithagriculture.For
acquiring sufficient water and pasture ground for their animals, the pastoral
communitieshavetomovefromplacetoplace.Somepastoralistsmakeonlyseasonal
movements,whileothersremainconstantlyonthemove.

c)Shiftingcultivation: Inshiftingcultivation,aftereveryfewyears,newgroundis
clearedbythefarmerforplantingcropsandtileoldplotislefttoitsnaturalgrowth.
Comparedtothepastoralists'wayoflife,practitionersofshiftingcultivationhave
relativelylongresidenceinonearea.Insuchsocieties,landisoftenownedbythe
community.

d)Settledcultivation: Relativelylargernumberofsimplesocietiespractisesettled
cultivation,wherethesamefieldsarecultivatedyearafteryear.Settledcultivation
makesitnecessaryforthevillagestobecomepermanentsettlements.Anumberof
godsanddeitiesriseupallaroundthevillages,investingreligioussignificationtothe
villages.Theinstitutionofprivatepropertyalsogetsmorecrystallised.
SOCIALORGANISATIONINSIMPLESOCIETIES

Kinship:Atribeis,often,spreadoverasmallterritorywithitslanguage,politicaland
religiousorganisation.Itisusuallydividedintotwoormoresections.Whendivided
intoonlytwosections,eachsectioniscalleda moiety.Butifatribeisdividedinto
morethantwosections,eachsectioniscalledaphratry.

Moietiesandphratriesare,generally,exogamousgroups,thatis,membersofthese
groupsmustfindtheirspousesoutsidethesegroups;theycannotmarrywithin.Only
insomesocieties,themoietiesareendogamous,thatismembersofsuchmoieties
mustmarrywithinthemoiety.

Descent:Commondescentororigininsimplesocietiesisgenerallytracedthrough
lineagesandclans.Lineagesarethosegroups,whichreckoncommondescentfroma
knownancestor.Clansarethegroupsofthosepeople,whotreateachotherasrelated
throughcommonancestry,eventhough,itmaynotbetraceablewithcertainty.In
otherwords,clanshavemythicalancestors.Lineagesarerelativelysmallergroups
withknownancestorswithinclans,whicharewidergroupswithpresumedcommon
ancestry.

Marriage:Monogamyisthemostpopulartypeofmarriagefoundinsimplesocieties.
Fewtribalgroupsalsopracticepolygynywhereamanhasmorethanonewifeata
givenpointoftime.Morerareisthepolyandrytypeofmarriage,inwhichawomanis
simultaneouslythewifeofmorethanoneman.

Religion:Thebeliefinimpersonalsupernaturalforcefindsexpressioninthewide
spread belief in 'mana', a supernatural power generally associated with kings or
successfulmen.

ReligionandMagic:
Polity:Thesimplesocietiesarecharacterisedbyundifferentiatedwaysofkeepinglaw
andorder.Theresponsibilityofmaintenanceoforderisdistributedamonganumber
ofinstitutions andstructures.Manifestlynonpoliticalinstitutionslikekinshipand
religionalsoperformpoliticalfunctions

Politicalsystemsamongthesimplesocietiesaredividedintotwogroups:
(i)Cephalous:Apoliticalsystemisoneinwhichthereisarecognizedhead,achief
oraking
(ii)Acephalous:Apoliticalsystemisoneinwhichnosingleheadisrecognizedand
orderismaintainedbymeansotherthanstateapparatus.

COMPLEXSOCIETY

Technologicaladvancementiswhatdefinesthecomplexityofmodernsociety.

i)Largerterritoryandpopulationmembership;
ii)Greateroccupational differentiation,,andspecialisationofworkandsocialgroups;
iii)Advancedtechnologyforproductionofconsumeritems,buildingofhouses,work
places,etc;
iv)Greatercoordinationinthemanagementofthecomplexsociety;
v)Quickrateofchangeintermsofconsumergoods,formsofeducation,andsoon;
vi)Fastermodesofmasscommunication,suchas,radio,TV,computersinternetetc.

RuralUrban Dichotomy: Some sociologists found that there was as much

individualism,lackofunderstanding,fearandsuspicionofstrangersevenamongthe
villagersasitexistedintheurbanlife.

AspectsofCommunityLife
i)Socialclassand
ii)Stageinfamilycycle

Therearethreetypesofurbanisationconcept:
i)Overurbanisation. overurbanisationimpliesthatcitiesinthedevelopingworldare
notindustrialisedenoughrelativetopopulationratios
ii)Underurbanisation.
iii)Deurbanisation

MODERNSOCIETY

Modernsocietyisbasicallyindustrial
Administrationandmanagementservicesareveryprestigious
i)profitmotiveproductionbybigcapitalists;
ii)technologicaladvances;
iii)highrateofurbanpopulations;
iv)bureaucraticorganisation;and
v)spreadofeducation.

POSTINDUSTRIALSOCIETY

i)ServiceEconomy:Inpostindustrialsociety,agricultureandmanufacturingdo
notabsorbamajorityoftheworkforce.Servicesandtradearethemajoravenues
ofemploymentandthegovernmentsaremajoremployers.
ii)ProfessionalandTechnicians:Inindustrialsocietiesbluecollarandsemiskilled
labourpredominate.Howeverinpostindustrialsocietiesprofessionalandtechnical
operatorsgrowtodominate.
iii)TheoreticalKnowledge:Inpostindustrialsociety,theoreticalknowledgehasa
crucialvalue.Scientificknowledgealongwithmathematicsbasedsocialscience
becomeverysignificant.

COMMUNITIES
Thecharacterofthecommunityandtheroleoftheindividualinitdependmuchonits
territorial size, size of the populations, nature of the local government and the
economicpursuitsofthepeople.
1. Identificationwiththecommunitythenotionofwefellingpertainingtothe
areathatapersonlives.
2. Roleplayingonehasarolethatheplayfortheshakeofcommunity.
3. Dependence everymembersofthecommunityfeelsthatheisdependent
uponthecommunity.
BenefitoftheCommunityLife
1. TheindividualfindtheneedofProtectionandSecurity.
2. Providesforcooperationofthemembers.
3. Dependsonsomekindofcommunicationssystems.
4. Providestheindividualopportunitiesforthemanifestationofhistalentsand
ability.

Negativity
1. tensionsandclashes
2. selfishness
3. unsocialandantisocialhabitsandtendenciesoftheman

INSTITUTION,ASSOCIATIONANDCOMMUNITY

Manlivesinthesocietyandtohavevariousneedstheyformorganizationandframe
rulesofproceduresthatiscalledInstitution.

FeaturesofInstitution
1. Theinstitutionembodytheultimateandcorevaluesthatthepeoplehavein
commonandthemainagenciesforrealizingthevalues
2. Conceptandideasformulatedthefunctionsattributedtotheinstitutionbythe
individualscontrolledbyit.
3. The values and concepts take more concrete form as norms or standards
which prescribe the supreme conditions of formal lawfulness and give
directiontoinstitutionalbehaviors
 4. Asaresultofthesetpatternsofvalues,ideas,normsaninstitutionsbecomes
concrete,overtandfunctionalintheattitudes,sentiments,habitsandroles.
5. Most institutions develop and maintain rituals, customs, dogmas and
ceremoniesaseffectiveimplementarydevicesandprocedures.
6. The necessary symbolic and utilitarian physical equipment such as the
weddingringsformarriage,theflagfornation.

COMMUNITY

Ageographicareahavingcommoncenteresofinterestsandactivites.

ElementsofCommunity
1.Locality:isthephysicalbasisofcommunity.
Incontrastwithsociety,communityismoreorlesslocallylimited.

2.CommunitySentiment:afeelingofbelongingtogether.

3. Stability:apermanentgroupslifeinadefiniteplace
4. Naturalness:Individualbecamethemembersbybirthitself.
5. SizeoftheCommunity:allsmallcommunitymaybeincludedinthewider
community.
6. RegulationofRelations:theyhavecommonmemoriesandtraditions,customs
andinstitutionsshapesanddefinesthegeneralneedofmantolivetogether

DifferencebetweenSocietyandCommunity

1. Societyisawebofsocialrelations.Communityagroupsofindividualliving
inaparticularareawithsomeofwefeeling
2. A definite geographic are not an essential feature of society. Community
alwaysdenotesadefinitelocalityorgeographicalarea
3. Societyisabstract.Communityisconcrete
 4. WeFellingmaybeormaynotbepresentinsociety. Communityfeelingis
essential
5. Societyiswider.Communityissmallerthansociety.
6. The objectives and interests of society are more extensive and varied .
Communityarecomparativelylessextensiveandvaried
7. Societyinvolvesbothlikenessanddifference.Likenessismoreimportantthan
differenceincommunity.

ASSOCIATION

Whenagroupsorcollectionofindividualorganizesitselfexpresslyforthepurposeof
pursuingcertainofitsintereststogetheronacooperativepursuit,anassociationis
saidtobeborn.

1. AssociationaHumanGroup:Itshouldbeanorganizedgroupswithpeople.
2. CommonInterest:theremostbeacommoninterest
3. CooperativeSpirit:Peopleworktogethertoachievesomedefinitepurpose.
4. Organization:itgivesstabilityandpropershapetoanassociation.
5. RegulationofRelations:Itdependsonthesomeelementofregulation.
6. AssociationasAgencies:Sometimethroughrepresentativesomeassociation
functionsandtheyactasagencies.
7. DurabilityofAssociations:somearepurelytemporaryinnature.

INSTITUTION

1. SocialinNature:itisbecauseofthecollectiveactivitiesofthepeople.
2. Universality: social institution is ubiquitous family, religion, property,
politicalinstitution.
3. Institutions are Standardized Norms: there are some prescribe rule and
regulationthataretobefollowed:Marriage
4. Institutions as a Means of Satisfying Needs: selfpreservation, self
perpetuation,selfexpression
5. InstitutionsaretheControllingMechanisms:state,law,legislation,morality,
religionsetc.preservethesocialorderandgivestability.
6. Relatively Permanent: Generally do not undergo sudden or rapid changes
caste,religions
 7. AbstractinNature:notexternal,visibleortangiblethings.Marriagecannot
bekeptinamuseum,religioncannotberatedorquantified.
8. OralandWrittenTraditions:Moderncomplexsocietyisitinwrittenform.
9. SynthesizingSymbol:thestatehasflag,nationalanthemasitssymbol.
10. InstitutionsareInterrelated:Understandingonerequirestheunderstandingof
theothereducational,political,economicetc.

PrimaryInstitution:Family,Religion,Marriage,Propertyetc
SecondaryInstitution:Educations,Law,Legislation,Parliamentaryetc

DifferencebetweenAssociationandInstitution
1. Associationisagroupsofpeopleorganizedforthepurposesoffulfillinga
needorneeds.Institutionsreferstotheorganizedwayofdoingthings.
2. Associationsdenotesmemberships.Institutionsdenotesonlyamodeormeans
ofservice.
3. Associations consist of individuals. Institutions consists of law, rules and
regulations
4. Associationsareconcrete.Institutionsareabstract
5. Associationshasalocations.Institutionsdoesnothavelocations.
6. Associations are mostly created or established. Institutions are primarily
evolved.
7. Associationsmayhaveitsowndistinctivename.Institutionsdoesnotpossess
specificname,mayhavesymbol
8. Associationsmaybetemporaryorpermanent.Institutionsarerelativelymore
durable.

SOCIALPROCESS

COOPERATION
Workingtogetherforthepursuitofacommongoal. CotogetherandOperarito
work
Cooperationrequiressympathyandidentification.

Typeofcooperation
 1. Direct Cooperation : the individual involved do the identical functions
playingtogether,workingtogether
2. Indirect Cooperation: people work individually for the attainment of a
commonendbasedontheprincipleofdivisionoflabourandspecialization
farmers,spinners,weavers
3. PrimaryCooperation:Everymembersworksforthebettermentofallfamily,
neighborhood,friendsgroups.
4. SecondaryCooperation:featureofthemodernsocietyhighlyformalizedand
specialized.Individualfeelssomeroyaltytowardsthegroup.Wages,salaries,
promotionsetc.foundinpolitical,economic,religiousgroupsetc.
5. Tertiary Cooperation: found in the bigger groups, often called
accommodation, two groups may cooperate and work together for
antagonisticgoals.Examplepoliticalparty
RoleofCooperationinSocialLife
Itisbothpsychologicalandabiologicalnecessityandasocialconditionofmans
continuedexistence.

COMPETITION

Nature
1. ScarcityasConditionofCompetition:whilethehumanwantsareunlimited
theresourcesthatcansatisfythesewantarestrictlylimited.
2. CompetitionandAffluence:forthestatusofthetopclass
3. CompetitionisContinuous:itisfoundvirtuallyineveryareaofsocialactivity
andsocialinteraction.
4. Competition is Universal: Modern civilized society is marked by the
phenomena.
5. CompetitionisDynamic:itliftsthelevelofaspirationfromlowerlevelto
higherlevel
6. CompetitionaCauseofSocialChange:changesocietyhasmoregoaltoopen
thanarelativelystaticsociety.
7. Competition may be Personal or Impersonal: in the social world it is
impersonal,personalwhentowindividualcontestforelectiontoanoffice.
8. CompetitionmaybeConstructiveorDestructive:
9. CompetitionisAlwaysGovernedbyNorms:moralnormsorlegalrulealways
governandcontrolcompetition.
 10. CompetitionmaybeUnconsciousalso:
TypeofCompetition
1. Social
2. Economic
3. Political
4. Cultural
RoleofCompetitioninSocialLife
1. AssignsStatusestotheIndividuals
2. SourcesofMotivation
3. ProvidesforSocialMobility
4. ContributetoSocioEconomicProgress
5. ProvidesforNewExperiences

CONFLICT

1. ConflictisUniversal:KarlMarxthehistoryofthehithertoexistinghuman
societyisnothingbutthehistoryoftheclassstruggle.
2. ConflictisaConsciousAction: individualandgroupswhoareinvolvedin
conflictareawareofthefactthattheyareconflicting.
3. ConflictisPersonal:
4. ConflictisnotContinuousbutIntermittent:Nosocietycansustainitselfina
stateofcontinuousconflict
5. ConflictDefineIssues:
6. ConflictisConditionedbyCulture:
7. ConflictsandNorms:
8. ConflictsmaybePersonalorImpersonal:
9. WaysofResolvingConflictAccommodationandAssimilation
10. FrustrationandInsecurityPromoteConflicts

TypesofConflicts
1. War:
2. Feud:Intragroupconflict
3. Litigation : judicial struggle by an individual or group to protect right to
possessions
4. ConflictsofImpersonalIdeas:ideologicalwar
5. CorporateandPersonalConflict
6. LatentandOvertConflict:persistentissues
7. ClassConflict
8. RacialConflict
 9. CasteConflict
10. GroupConflict
11. InternationalConflict

Conflictcausedisorder,chaosandconfusion
Conflict also contribute to group stability, social unity and oneness among the
members,individualcanrisetoahigherlevel.

UnitIII
 Marriage

ThereareeighttypesofmarriagedescribedintheancientHindutextofManusmriti
(LawsofManu)or"ManavaDharmaShastra":
Riteof Brahmana (Brahma)wherethefatherofthebrideinvitesaman
learnedintheVedasandagoodconduct,andgiveshisdaughterinmarriageto
himafterdeckingherwithjewelsandcostlygarments.
RiteoftheGods(Daiva)wherethedaughterisgroomedwithornamentsand
giventoapriestwhodulyofficiatesatasacrificeduringthecourseofits
performanceofthisrite.
Riteofthe Rishis (Arsha)whenthefathergivesawayhisdaughterafter
receivingacowandabullfromthebrightgroom.
RiteofthePrajapati(Prajapatya)wherethefathergivesawayhisdaughter
afterblessingthecouplewiththetext"Maybothofyouperformtogetheryour
duties"
Riteofthe Asuras(Demons)whenthebridegroomreceivesamaidenafter
bestowingwealthtothekinsmenandtothebrideaccordingtohisownwill.
RiteoftheGandharvathevoluntaryunionofamaidenandherlover,which
arisesfromdesireandsexualintercourseforitspurpose.
RiteoftheRakshasaforcibleabductionofamaidenfromherhomeafterher
kinsmenhavebeenslainorwoundedandtheirhousesbrokenopen.
RiteofthePisakawhenamanbystealthseducesagirlwhoissleepingor
intoxicatedorismentallymisbalancedorhandicapped.
Marriageisanimportantanduniversalsocialinstitutionofsociety.Asasocial
institution, it provides a recognised form for entering into a relatively enduring
heterosexualrelationshipofthebearingandrearingofchildren.Itisthusprimarilya
way of regulating human reproduction. This reproduction, however, also has a
sociologicaldimension.Therightofsexualrelationship,thatuniversallyaccompanies
marriage,provideslegitimisationtothechildrenborninwedlock;thislegitimacyisof
great importance in the matters of inheritance and succession. Besides, through
marriagetherecomesintoexistencethefamily,arelativelystablesocialgroup,thatis
responsibleforthecareandtrainingofchildren.Inalltheserespects,then,marriage
hashistoricallyprovidedtheinstitutionalmechanismsnecessaryforreplacementof
socialmembersandtherebyhasbeenmeetingtheimportantprerequisitesofhuman
survival and society's continuance. However, these societal prerequisites do not
encompassallthevaluesandgoalsofmarriage.

Insomesocieties,particularlyintheindustrialisedwesternsocieties,thechiefaimof
marriageisnotonlyprocreationbutcompanionship,emotional,andpsychological
supportareequallyemphasised.Theideaofcompanionshipinmarriageasamain
feature,however,isarecentdevelopment.Forthemajorpartofhumanhistory,all
societies have emphasised marriage to be a social obligation. It is invested with
severalfamilial,socialandeconomicresponsibilities.

FORMSOFMARRIAGE

Monogamy

Monogamyrestrictstheindividualtoonespouseatatime.Underthissystem,atany
giventimeamancanhaveonlyonewifeandawomancanhaveonlyonehusband.
Monogamyisprevalentinallsocietiesandisalmosttheuniversalforminallmodern
industrialsocieties.
Duetoconstraintsoffinancialresourcesandalmostanevenbalancebetweentheratio
of men and women in the population, a vast majority of individuals living in
polygamoussocietiescannothavemorethanonespouseatatime.

Inmanysocieties,individualsarepermittedtomarryagainoftenonthedeathofthe
firstspouseorafterdivorce;buttheycannothavemorethanonespouseatoneandthe
same time. Such a monogamous marriage is termed as serial monogamy. Most
westernsocietiespractiseserialmonogamy

Asocietymayalsopractisestraightmonogamy,inwhichremarriageisnotallowed.
Most upper caste Hindu females were obliged to follow the norm of straight
monogamypriortotheenactmentofWidowRemarriageActof1856,asuntilthen
widowswerenotallowedtomarryagain.

Polygamy

Polygamydenotesmarriagetomorethanonemateatonetimeandtakestheformof
either:Polygyny(onehusbandwithtwoormorewives)orPolyandry(onewifewith
twoormorehusbands).

Incertainsocietiesmalesmarrythewife'ssisters,andfemalestheirhusband's
brothers.Suchmarriagesaretermedassororalpolygynyandfraternalpolyandry,
respectively

Polyyandry

Among polyandrous societies, "fraternal" polyandry is by far the most common.

these societies, a groups of brothers, real or classificatory, are collectively the
husbandsofawoman.Thiskindofpolyandryhasbeenfoundbytheresearchersin
various parts of the world. Tibet has been described as the largest and most
flourishing polyandrous community by Prince Peter. Polyandry is reported to be
widelyprevalentamongsometribesinSouthIndia,Todasareconsideredaclassic
exampleofpolyandrouspeople.InNorthIndiasomegroupsofJatsarereportedtobe
polyandrous.

RulesofEndogamyandExogamy

All societies have prescriptions and proscriptions regarding who may or may not
marrytowhom.Insomesocietiestheserestrictionsaresubtle,whileinsomeothers,
individuals who can or cannot be married, are more explicitly and specifically
defined.Formsofmarriagebasedonrulesgoverningeligibility/ineligibilityofmates
isclassifiedasendogamyandexogamy.

TheAnuloma(hypergamy)marriagepermitsanalliancebetweenalowerclasswoman
and higher caste man, while the Pratiloma (hypogamy) marriage is an alliance
betweenhighercastewomanandalowercasteman.Theformerisreferredtobythe
sociologistsashypergamyandthelatterashypogamy

RulesofexogamyamongHindusareveryspecific.Hindusaretraditionallyprohibited
frommarryingintheirowngotra,pravaraandsapinda(gotra,pravaraandsapinda
refertoagroupofindividualsassumedtohavedescendedfromapaternalormaternal
ancestorandarevariouslytermedasclan,siborlineage).TheHinduMarriageAct
(1955)forbidsmarriagebetweensapinda,andspecifiesthatmarriagebetweentwo
personsrelatedwithinfivegenerationsonthefather'ssideandthreeonthemother's
sideisvoid,unlesspermittedbylocalcustom.

MATESELECTION

Theprocesswherebypeoplechoosemarriagepartnersiscalledmateselection.While
insomesocieties,individualsarerelativelyfreetochoosetheirmatefromthe'fieldof
eligible',insomeothersocietiesthosegettingmarriedhavealmostnosayregarding
whomtheywishtomarry.Evenintheformersituationindividualsarenotentirely
freetochoosetheirmates.Cultureandsocialpressures,insubtleorexplicitways,do
influencechoice.

PreferentialMarriage

Whilesomesocietiesprohibitmarriagebetweencertaincategoriesofrelations(kins),
othersocietiespermitorevenrequirecertainkindofrelativestogetmarriedto.Thus
marriage with particular cross cousins (father's, sister's or mother's brother's off
springs)areapprovedorpermittedinmanysocieties.AmongArabsandMuslimsin
India,marriagebetweenparallelcousins(childoffather'sbrotherormother'ssister)is
common. Possible reasons for permitting or preferring cousin marriages are: (a)
familywealthisnotdispersedasitremainswithinrelatedfamilygroups;and(b)
relationshipsdonotfadeawayastheyareconstantlyrenewedamongoffspringsof
relatedfamilies.

MarriageArrangements

Parent arranged (arranged marriage): Traditional societies like India, where extended
family network has been crucial, arranging marriage has been the concern of parents
and elders. In additions, gains in terms of family prestige, economic prosperity and
power (especially in affluent families) have also been sought through 'proper'
marriage alliances. However it should be remembered that arranged marriages are
rarely forced marriages; the needs and preferences of the young people getting
married are not entirely ignored.

Self-choice (love marriage):

MateSelectionamongTribals

Thoughpremaritalrelationshipsamongtribalsaretolerated,andselfselectionis
permitted,allregularmarriagesareparentarranged.Evenmarriageby'capture'is
effected,insometribes,attheinstanceorconnivanceofparents.Irregularmarriages
areeffectedthroughelopement,intrusionorforcibleapplicationofvermilion,allof
whichareeventuallyacceptedbytheparentsandthefamiliesconcerned,assignifying
wedlock.Inpracticevariousotherformsofmateselectionareinexistence.

1. Selection by purchase and service: Mate selection 'by purchase' is the most
prevalentpractice.Inthis.bridepricehastobepaidtothegirl'sparents.Theamount
ofbridepriceratesfromanominalprice(asincaseofRegmaNaga)tosuchahigh
price(asincaseofHo)thatmanyyoungmenandwomenhavetoremainunmarried.

Sometribes(Gond)havefoundawayoutofthehighbrideprice.Thewouldbe
groomlivesandworksinhiswouldbefatherinlaw'shouseasasuitorservantfora
numberofyearsbeforehecanaskforthegirl'shandinmarriage.

2.Youthdormitories:Tribeshavingyouthdormitoriesprovideawidescopeforthe
youth to choose their mates. Therefore, marriage by mutual consent with parents
approvalhasbeenthe:generalpractice.Whereparentsobject,elopementisasolution.
Eventuallytheparentswelcomethecouple'sreturn.

3..Selectionbycaptures:Mateselection'bycapture'hasbeenafeatureofNaga,Ho,
BhilandGondtribes.AmongNagas,femaleinfanticidewasresortedtobecauseof
fearofraidsforbridecapturing.AmongtheGondcapturetakesplaceoftenatthe
instance of parents of the bride and amongst the Ho it is prearranged. Besides
physical capture, there is also a ceremonial capture. AmongCentral Indian tribes
peacefulcapturesareeffectedontheoccasionofcertainintervillagefestivals.

4.Selectionbytrial:Mateselectionbytrialalsoexistsamongsometribals.Ayoung
Bhil has to prove his prowess before he can claim the hand of any girl. This is
generallydonethroughisdancegame.OnHolifestival,youngwomendancersmake
acirclearoundatreeorpoleonwhichacoconutandgudaretied.Themenfolkmake
anouterring.Thetrialofstrengthbeginswhenayoungmanattemptstobreakthe
innercircleinordertoreachthetreelpole.Thewomenresisthisattemptwithalltheir
might;andincasethemanisabletoreachthetreeandeatthegudandbreakopenthe
coconut.Hecanchooseanygirlfromthesurroundinginnercircle,ashiswife.
CHANGESINMARRIAGE

Industrialisationandurbanisationhaveusheredinchangeswhichhaveprofoundly
affectedtheinstitutionofmarriageallovertheworld.Whiledifferentsocieties,and
withineachsocietydefferentgroups,haverespondeddifferentiallytoindustrialisation
and urbanisation, nonetheless certain common trends in the changes affecting
marriagearediscernible.

1.ChangesintheFormsofMarriage

India, the Hindu Marriage Act has banned both polygynous and polyandrous
marriages.EveninaMuslimcountrylikePakistan,legislationwasintroducedmaking
itnecessaryforthekazitosolemnizepluralmarriagesonlyifthefirstwifegaveher
writtenconsent.Thetrendtowardsmonogainyhasalsobeenencouragedbythenew
ideaofromanticloveasthebasisformarriagepropogatedbythewesternsocieties.It
isamarriageinwhichonespecificindividualisconsideredtobetheidealpartner.

2.ChangesinMateSelection

Inurbanmiddleclassfamilies,sonsanddaughtershaveevencometoenjoytheright
tovetomarriageproposalsinitiatedbyothers.Inthemoreadvancedandenlightened
urban families, parents are now giving opportunities to their children to become
acquaintedwithprospectivemates."Dating"apracticeinwhichaboyandagirlmeet
eachothertogettoknoweachotherandenjoythemselveswithrelativefreedomisa
phenomenon which can be seen in different colleges and universities of
predominantlymetropolitancitiesinIndia.ItisagainanimitationoftheWestern
SocietyandistheresultofexposureofpeopletoWesternculturetoafargreater
extentthanitwasearlier.
3.ChangesinAgeofMarriage

TheChildMarriageRestraintAct,popularlyknownastheSardaAct,waspassed
in1929. However, early marriage continues, in spite of the impact of modern
industrialisationandurbanisation,especiallyamongtheruralpeople.Inurbanareas,
too,therewasastrongtendencytogetadaughtermarriedoffassoonaspossible.

4.ChangesinMarriageRitualsandCustoms

MarriagesinIndiaaretendingtobecomemoretraditionalinsofarastheritualcustom
complexisconcerned.Today,thereisarevivalofmanyritualsandcustoms,which,
soonafterindependence,appearedtohavebecomeweak.Toanextent,thisrevivalis
afunctionofaffluence.Manypeopleinsocietyhavealotofmoneytospendlavishly
onweddings,andthereisatendencyamongthenotsoaffluenttoimitatetheaffluent.

5.ChangesinMarriage:GoalsandStability

SeveraldevelopingCountriesareseizedoftheproblemsthatexplodingpopulations
can cause and are, therefore, committed to encouraging the small family norm.
Restrictionoffamilysizeisthedeclaredofficialpolicyofmanyofthefamilies.India,
infact,wasthefirstcountrytoadoptanofficialfamilyplanningprogramme.Inthose
Asian and African countries where there are democratic governments, through
vigorous education efforts, citizens are being made to realise and accept the
advantagesoflimitedprocreation.Chinahasalsoadoptedaverystrictpopulation
controlprogrammeswhichinvolvescertaindisincentivesandpunishmentsforcouples
thatdonotrestrictprocreation.

InfluencesofLegislationonMarriage

LawenactedinIndiarelatedtoMarriage
1. AgeatMarriage
2. FieldofMateSelection
3. NumberofSpousesinMarriage
 4. BreakingofMarriage
5. DowrytobeGivenandTaken
6. Remarriage
LegislationPertainingtoMarriage

1. ThePreventionofSatiAct1929RajaRamMohanRay
2. The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856 Pandit Ishwara Chandra Vidya
Sagar
3. TheCivil(orSpecial)MarriageAct1872[ReplacedbytheSpecialMarriage
Act of 1954] The parties interested in registered marriage must notify the
marriageofficeratleastonemonthbeforethedateofthemarriage.Itinsists
onthepresenceoftwowitnessformarriage
4. TheChildMarriageRestrainAct1929Marriageoftheboysunder18and
girlsunder14yearsofagewasanoffence.
Amendedin1978whichfurtherraisedtheageforboysto21andgirlsto18
5. TheHinduMarriageAct1955WholeIndiaexceptJammuandKashmirThe
worldHinduincludesJains,Sikhs,BuddhistandtheScheduledCastes.
6. TheDowryProhibitionAct1961

FAMILY
Thespecificpatternoffamilylifeinanygivensocialstructureistheproductofthe
moresandvarieswithtimeandplaceandpeoples.Therefore,thefamilyhasbeen
seenasauniversalsocialinstitution,asaninevitablepartofhumansociety.Itisbuilt
around the needs of human beings to regularize sexual behavior and protect and
nurturetheyoungones.Itistheunitinwhichresourcesarepooledanddistributedfor
consumption,aroundwhichresidenceisorganisedanddomestictasksareperformed.
The social organization is associated with such emotive issues as love, marriage,
homeandchildbearing.Itisthefamilythatgivesusourprincipalidentityoursocial
statusandevenourveryname,whichisthelabelofthisidentityinthelargersociety
ofwhichweareapart.

DEFINITIONOFFAMILY
Theearlyandclassicaldefinitionsemphasisedthatthefamilywasagroupbasedon
marriage,commonresidence,emotionalbonds,andstipulationofdomesticservices.
Thefamilyhasalsobeendefinedasgroupbasedonmaritalrelations,rightsandduties
of parenthood, common habitation and reciprocal relations between parents and
children.Somesociologistsfeelthatthefamilyisasocialgroupcharacterisedby
commonresidence,economiccooperationandreproduction.

The family is a primary kinship unit, which carries out aspects of the sexual,
reproductive,economicandeducationalfunctions.Keepinginviewthesedefinitions,
wegenerallypictureafamilyasadurableassociationofhusbandandwifewithor
withoutchildren,oradurableassociationofamanorwomanalongwithchildren.
Thus,membersinthefamilylivetogether,pooltheirresourcesandworktogetherand
produce offspring. A family is also viewed as an adult male and female living
togetherwiththeiroffspringinamoreorlesspermanentrelationshipsuchasmarriage
which is approved by their society. These definitions point out the basics or the
minimumessentialsofthefamilyasaspecialkindofsocialgrouping:
(i) itinvolvesasexualrelationshipbetweenadultsofoppositesexes
(ii) itinvolvestheircohabitationorlivingtogether
(iii) itinvolvesatleasttheexpectationofrelativepermanenceoftherelationship
betweenthe
(iv) Mostimportant ofall, therelationshipisculturallydefinedandsocietally
sanctioneditisamarriage.

FamilyasanInstitution

Therearevariousformsoffamilyfoundallovertheworld;butmostsociologistsand
anthropologistsagreethatuniversallythemostcommonfeaturesofafamilyisthatlit
iscomposedofindividualsrelatedtoeachotherbyblood,marriage,oradoption

GeorgeMurdocklistsfourimportantfunctionsservedbythenuclearfamily,these
functionsservetoresolvefourmajorproblemsofsociety.
i)regulatesexualrelations;
ii)accountforeconomicsurvival;
iii)controlsreproduction;and
iv)socialiseschildren

VariationsinFamilyForms

Somesocietiesarematrilocalintheirmarriageandfamilycustoms,whileothersare
patrilocal.Intheformercase,theyoungmarriedcoupletakes upresidenceatthe
homeofthebride'sparents,whereas,inthelattertypecoupletakesupresidenceatthe
homeofthebridegroom'sparents.

Thereisissueofdescentastowhowillberelatedtowhomandhow,isnotassimple
as it might first appear. Those who are socially defined by a given society as
"related",arecalledkin.Thereforefromthepointofviewoflineage,therearethree
differentsystemsfortracingdescent.Inamatrilinealsocietydescentistracedthrough
thefemaleline,andinapatrilinealsocietythroughthemaleline.1tisalsocommon
totracedescentbilaterallyinsomesocieties

Anotherdistinctionismadebetweentheconjugalfamilyorfamilybymarriageon
theonehandandconsanguinefamilyorfamilybybloodontheother,basedonthe
membershiptypeofthefamily.Whilethe conjugal familyconsistsofparentsand
theirchildren,theconsanguinefamilyismadeupofeitherparentandtheunits'blood
relatives,suchas,mother,herchildren,herparentsorfather,hischildren,hisparents
etc.

Wecanalsoclassifyfamiliesintonuclearandextendedtypesbasedonthewaythey
areorganised.Thenuclearfamilyconsistsofamarriedcoupleandtheirchildren.The
extendedfamilyiscommonlydefinedasthenuclearfamilyplusallkinbelongingto
eitherside,livingtogether.
UniversalNatureofFamily
Thereisnohumansocietywithoutanyfamilysystem.Allsocietiesbothlargeand
small,primitiveandcivilised,ancientandmodern,haveinstitutionalisedtheprocess
ofprocreationofthespeciesandtherearingoftheyoung.Itisapermanentand
universalinstitutionandoneoftheconstantsofhumanlife.

Thereareseveraltypesoffamily.ForexampleintheWestthenuclearfamilyis
found.Thiscomprisesthehusbandandwifetogetherwiththeirchildren.InIndian
villagesandinsmalltownstheextendedorjointfamilyisfound.InIndia,too,largely
nuclear families are found but often, amongst the better off families in villages,
especiallywhereagriculturallandisthereoramongstthecommunitiesinvolvedin
businessandtrade,oneoftenfindsthelargejointorextendedfamily.

BiologicalBasisoftheFamily

The institution of the family is to be explained in terms of biological factorthe

existenceoftwosexesandthesexualcharacterofreproductioninthehumanspecies.
Family provides legitimacy to all these biological activities with the support of
marriage.Thefamilyischaracterisedbyitslimitedsize.Becauseofthischaracteristic
feature,familyisidentifiedasaprimarygroup.

CommonResidenceandNomenclature

Thefamilyisoneofthemostdurableofallsocialinstitutions.Eachfamilyhasa
residence,anaddress andaname.Werecogniseanyfamilywiththehelpofthe
familyname,locationandaddress

SOCIALFUNCTIONSOFTHEFAMILY

1.Memberreplacementandphysicalmaintenance
Theregulationsofreproductioniscentredinthefamilyasarecookingandeatingand
careofthesick.Oncechildrenareborn,theywillbenurturedandprotectedwithinthe
family.Itisthefamilythatfeeds,clothesandsheltersthem.

2.Regulationofsexualbehavior
Thesexualattitudesandpatternsofbehaviourwelearninthefamilyreflectsocietal
normsandregulateoursexualbehaviour.

3.Socialisationofchildren
Afamilypreparesitschildrenforparticipationinthelargerworldandacquaints
themwiththelargerculture

4.Statustransmission
Individual'ssocialidentityisinitiallyfixedbyfamilymembershipbybeingbornto
parentsofagivenstatusandcharacteristics.Childrentakeonthesocioeconomic
classstandingoftheirparentsandthecultureoftheclassintowhichtheyareborn,
includingitsvalues,behaviourpatternsanddefinitionsofreality.

5.Economicactivities
Thefamilyproducedmostofthegoodsitconsumedandconsumedmostofthegoods
itproduced.Buttoday,modernfamiliesmainlyearnincomes.Thus,theirprincipal
function is that of the consumption of goods and services which they purchase.
Becauseoftheproductionofincometheprovisionofeconomicsupportforfamily
membersisamajorfunctionofthemodernfamily.

6.Socialemotionalsupport
Thefamilyasaprimarygroupisanimportantsourceofaffection,loveandsocial
interaction
7.Interinstitutionallinkage
Each baby is a potential participant in the group life of the society. Family
membership in a religious, political, economic, recreational and other kinds of
organisationstypicallygivesindividualsanopportunitytoparticipateinactivitiesthat
mightotherwisebeclosedtothem.
ROLEOFFAMILYININDUSTRIALSOCIETY

Manysociologistsfeelthatthefamilyhaslostanumberofitsfunctionsinmodern
industrialsociety.Institutionssuchasbusiness,politicalparties,schools,welfareand
recreationalorganisations,crcheandplayschools,nowspecialiseinfunctionsearlier
performedonlybythefamily.Thisreducesthedependencyoftheindividualonhisor
her family and kin. The high rate of geographical mobility in industrial society
decreases,thefrequencyandintimacyofcontactamongmembersofthekinfamily
network.

KINSHIP

Thekinshipsystemreferstoasetofpersonsrecognisedasrelatives,either,byvirtue
ofabloodrelationshiptechnicallycalledconsanguinity,orbyvirtueofamarriage
relationship,thatisthroughwhatiscalledaffinity.

BASICCONCEPTSOFKINSHIP

1ThePrinciplesofDescent

Descentistheprinciplewherebyachildissociallyaffiliatedwiththegroupofhisor
herparents.Insomesocietiesthechildisregardedasadescendantequallyofboththe
fatherandthemother,exceptthattitlesandsurnamesareusuallypasseddownalong
themaleline.SuchasystemistermedBilateralorCognatic.

Therearesomecognaticsystemswheretheindividualhastherightbydescentto
membershipofseveralcognaticallyrecruitedgroups,butthisrightisactualisedonly
ifthepersonisabletoresideinaparticulargroup'sterritory.Modernnationalitylaws
oftenmakethistypeofrequirement.

2TypesofDescent

Inothersocieties,bycontrastandyourownismostprobablyoneofthemdescentis
reckonedUNILINEALLY,thatis,inonelineonly.Thechildisaffiliatedeitherwith
thegroupofthefather,thatis,PATRILINEALDESCENT,orwiththegroupofthe
mother,thatis,MATRILINEALDESCENT.

Additionally,insomesocietiesonefindsthatthechildisaffiliatedtothegroupof
eitherparent,dependingonchoice,ortooneparentforsomepurposes(forinstance,
inheritanceofproperty)andtotheotherparentforotherpurposes(forinstance,the
inheritanceofritualorceremonialroles).ThisiscalledDOUBLEUNILINEAL
DESCENT.

3FunctionsofDescentGroups

Apartfromthefunctionofexogamy,unilinealdescentgroupstendtobe'corporate'in
several other senses. Their members may often come together for ritual and
ceremonialfunctions,forinstance,forcollectiveworshipoflineagegods,totemsor
ancestors. The descent group will have a builtin authority structure, with power
normallyexercisedbyseniormales,anditmaywellowncorporateproperty

Inpatrilinealsystems,themother'sfather,mother'ssister,andespeciallythemother's
brother,areimportantrelationshipswhichneedfurtherdiscussion.Totakenoteofthe
importanceofrelationships,thescholarshaveidentifiedanotherprinciple.Thishas
beentermedtheprincipleof COMPLEMENTARYFILIATION thatexplainsthe
significantritualandsocialrolesofthemother'sbrother(s)inthelivesoftheirsister's
children.Itremindsusthat,inmostsocieties,anindividualisachildofbothparents,
howeverdescentisformallyreckoned.
4InheritanceRules

InmostpartsofIndia,inthepast,immovablepropertysuchaslandandhousing,was
inheritedonlybysons.Intheabsenceofsons,exceptunderrarecircumstances,bythe
nearestmalerelativesonthefather'sside.Onetheotherhand,movablepropertyin
theformofcashandjewelrywasgiventothedaughteratthetimeofhermarriage,
withacertainamountofjewelryalsopassingfromthemotherinlawtothedaughter
inlaw.

Inadditiontopropertyofvariouskinds,rightsandobligations,esotericknowledge,
craftsandskills,etc.,mightbepassedoninaccordancewithkinshiproles,succession
toofficetochieftainship,kingship,etc.andtoothersocialrolesandstatuses,isalso
veryoftendeterminedbykinshipcriteria.Insuchcases,theindividual'sstatusissaid
tobe'ascribed',not'achieved'.

5RulesofResidence

Rulesofresidence,meaningresidenceaftermarriage,areanimportantvariableina
kinshipsystem,andsubstantiallyaffectthequalityofpersonalrelationswithinthekin
network.Ifhusbandandwifesetuptheirownindependenthomeaftermarriage,asis
usuallythecaseinmodernwesternsociety,residenceissaidtobeNEOLOCAL.
Where the wife goes to live with the husband in his parents' home, residence is
describedasVIRILOCAL,PATRILOCAL,orPATRIVIFULOCAL,andwherethe
husband moves to live with the wife, it is termed MATRILOCAL or Rules of
residence may or may not 'harmonise' with the rules of descent. On the whole,
patrilinealdescentsystemscorrelatewitheitherneolocalorpatrivirilocalresidence
patterns.However,matrilinealdescentsystemsmaybecombinedwithallthreetypes
ofresidence.ItisalsocombinedwithwhatiscalledAVUNCULOCALresidence,that
is,residencewiththemother'sbrother.

6PatriarchyandMatriarchy
Asocietyissaidtohaveapatriarchalstructurewhenanumberoffactorscoincide,i.e.
whendescentisreckonedpatrilineally,wheninheritanceofmajorpropertyisfrom
fathertoson,whenresidenceispatrilocal,andwhenauthorityisconcentratedinthe
handsofseniormales.

In 1980 the government of India began to take notice of the issue of dowry as
oppressionagainstwomenandtooklegalactionagainstit.InDecember1983the
CriminalLaw(SecondAmendment)Actwaspassed.Section498Awasaddedtothe
IndianPenalCode.UnderthisActcrueltytoawifewasmadeacognisablenon
bailableoffence,punishableuptothreeyearsimprisonment,andafine.Section113
A of the Evidence Act was amended so that court could draw an inference of
abatementtosuicide(whichmostdowrydeathsareclaimedtobe)undersection174
oftheCriminalProcedureCode.

UnitIV

SocialControl

Insociology,thestudyofsocialcontroloccupiesaplaceofcentralimportance.The
existence and persistence of organised social life is not possible without some
minimum degree of control over its members. Social control is needed for
maintainingsocialorder.Whatdowemeanbysocialorder?Asocialorderrefersto
asystemofpeople,relationshipsandcustoms,allthesetogetheroperatingsmoothly
toaccomplishtheworkofasociety(HortonandHunt1981).Nosocietycanfunction
effectivelyunlessbehaviorcanbepredicted.Orderlinessdependsonanetworkof
roles. The network of reciprocal rights and duties is kept in force through social
control.
MEANINGANDNATURE

Thetermssocialcontrolisbroadlyconcernedwiththemaintenanceoforderand
stability in society. It may be used in the limited sense of denoting the various
specialisedmeansemployedtomaintainordersuchascodes,courts,andconstables.
Itisalsousedtocategorisesocialinstitutionsandtheirinterrelationsinsofarasthey
contributespecificallytosocialstabilitye.g.legal,religious,politicalinstitutionsetc.
Socialcontrolisoneofthemostfundamentalsubjectsofsociologicaldiscussion.It
arisesinalldiscussionsaboutthenatureandcausesofbothstabilityandchange.

Definitions
MaclverandPage(1985)definesocialcontrolasthewayinwhichthewholesocial
orderbecomesconsistentlyinterlinkedandmaintainsitself.Someotherslookatsocial
controlasthemeansbywhichsocietyestablishesandmaintainsorder.

i)Thetermrefersessentiallytomeansandprocesseswherebycertaingoalsaretobe
achieved.

ii)Thetwomostimportantgoalssoughttobeachievedbysocialcontrolare:
a)Conformitytonormsandexpectationsofthegroup;
b)Maintenanceoforderinsociety.

iii) Thereisanelementofinfluence,persuasionorcompulsionincontrol.The
individualoragroupisdirectedtoactinaparticularway.Conformityis
expectedorimposedirrespectiveofwhetheronelikesitornot.

iv) Thescopeofsocialcontrolisvast.Itmayoperateatdifferentlevels.One
groupmayseektocontrolanothergroup;agroupmaycontrolitsown
members or an individual may seek to control another individual. The
scope of control ranges from the management of deviants to social
planning.
RelatedConcepts

i) Theconceptofselfcontrol
Self-control implies that imposition of external control, is not required to compel the
individual to do the right thing in a given situation. In this sense, self-control
supplements the mechanisms of social control in producing conformity. But, it should
also be remembered that self-control itself, originates in social control. For it is the
processes of social control which instill a sense of inner control in the individual. The
relation between self-control and social control can be understood in the following
manner: the group applies some sanctions (punishment etc.) on an individual for
indulging in deviant behaviour. But many persons are capable of visualising the
consequences of their action in advance, and restrain themselves. In this sense, self-
control is also a form of social control. From this point of view we can also maintain
that both self control and social control are closely related to yet another
processsocialisation, to which we now turn.

ii) Socialisation
Socialisation is the process by which an individual, from childhood, learns and
acquires the cultural characteristics of ones group. He is thus able to participate as a
member of the group of society. In childhood, ones parents, for instance, enforce
their expectations on the child by a system of reward, punishment and discipline. One
also acquires many traits by observing the behaviour of others, and by anticipating the
consequences of and reaction to, ones own conduct in different situations. In this
way, one develops self-control, a sense of right and wrong. Through the learning
process we begin largely to conform to group expectation, very often without any
conscious attempt being made on our part to do so. You can cite several examples
from your daily life in which you perform many minor and major activities which you
are supposed to do, without even being aware of why you are doing so. Thus,
socialisation contributes significantly to bringing about effective social control in
society. It is only when the process of socialisation fails that the individual may begin
to act against the expectations of the group. In that case, imposition of sanctions
become necessary.
GOALS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

i) Conformity
One of the aims of social control is to bring about conformity in society. Social
control mechanisms are employed to control, check or prevent deviant behaviour. The
objective of social control, is to safeguard the group against such dysfunctional
consequences of deviant behaviour.

ii) Uniformity
A related objective of social control is to produce uniformity of behaviour. This does
not mean that all the members have to behave alike. It only implies that there should
be some co-ordinations, among the several interrelated activities performed by
different people. For example, movement of traffic on a road will be impossible if
some traffic rules (keeping to the left etc.) are not followed by all road users. A game
cannot be played if uniform rules are not followed by all teams and its members. In
every sphere of social life some uniformity of behaviour is not only expected, but is
also essential.

iii) Solidarity
This is a very important objective of social control. As Maclver and Page (1985) have
noted, social control ensures order and solidarity in society. Society is constituted of
several parts and units. These different parts have to maintain an equilibrium with
each other, and with the whole to ensure social solidarity and stability. The
mechanisms of social control are directed at maintaining this equilibrium among the
parts, and between the parts and the whole.

iv) Continuity
Social control is also necessary to maintain and preserve the accumulated culture of
the group. By compelling or inducing individuals to conform to the prevailing norms
and values, continuity of these cultural characteristics is ensured. For example, when
parents insist on their children following family customs or practices, their continuity
over generations is sought to be assured.

v) Social Change
Social control is employed not only to conserve the existing patterns, but also
sometimes to induce desired social changes. In our country, many methods of
persuasion, inducement, and compulsion are used to bring about desired changes in
some social customs, attitudes and behaviour. Prescribing the age of marriage. Two
child family norm, removal of untouchability, dowry etc. are some of the Social
Control examples of attempts to bring about social change through various means of
social control.

METHODS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Methods of social control can be broken into two types: (i) informal, and (ii) formal.
The informal type of control is casual, unwritten. It lacks regulation, scheduling and
organisation. The informal types consists of casual praise, ridicule, gossip and
ostracism. The formal type is codified, scheduled organised, or regulated in some way,
as in promotion, demotion, satire, monetary payment, mass-media etc.

Informal Social Control

This is also known as primary social control, as it is more effective in what

sociologists call primary groups. The primary groups are relatively more
homogeneous, small, compact and intimate groups. Members are tied to each other,
and to the group by feelings of personal loyalty. A family, playgroups, neighbourhood,
rural community, and a simple primitive society are some examples of such compact
social groupings. In such societies every individual, is constantly surrounded by very
potent and subtle mechanisms of social control. Within a family the individual is
under the control of his or her parents and other family members. Family, in turn, is
under the control of neighbourhood or kinship groups, and these, in turn, are under the
watchful control of the whole society. Thus, no individual or group can be free from
social control.

We may say that in such social settings, social control exists like a set of concentric
circles surrounding individuals and groups. The important characteristics of this type
of control are that it is informal, spontaneous, and unplanned. Usually the group
shows its disapproval to the deviating member by ridicule gossip, opprobrium,
criticism, ostracism and sometimes application of physical force and coercion. Since
the group is compact, ties are strong, members are personally known and the
individual has little choice of an alternative groups membership. He cannot afford to
ignore the disapproval of his groups and so he has to conform to his groups
expectations. Such methods of control are effective not only in primitive societies in
which primary groups and relations abound, but are also effective in modern complex
societies such as ours, particularly within secondary groups (such as voluntary
associations, clubs and trade unions etc.) where such informal controls are effective to
achieve the goals of the organisation.

Formal Social Control

This is also known as secondary social control as it is usually found in larger,
secondary social groups. Modern complex societies such as ours are good examples
of such social groupings. In such societies we find a large number of groups, which
are characterised by impersonal relations, and are oriented to certain specific
objectives. A political party, trade union, factory, office, students association, may be
some examples. In these secondary groupings, relations among members are more
formal and less intimate. Their relationships mean that informal controls such as
ridicule, criticism or gossip do not operate here. It is a well known fact in sociology,
that informal groups do develop within such formal organisations. In a university or a
college, certain cliques informal controls are more effective. The point is that such
informal groups which develop within formal organisations, may either inhibit or
facilitate formal secondary controls and affect the performance of the organisation.

In large secondary groupings informal controls are weakened due to growing

anonymity, mobility, and conflicting norms and values. Intimacy declines and
members do not have personal or emotional feelings towards each other. They
frequently move from one place to another, or from one group to another. Thus, they
can easily escape from the controls of some particular group. Moreover, in a complex
society, there is always a conflict of norms and values of different groups. One group
may approve a conduct which may be disapproved by some other group. Under such
circumstances, recourse is ultimately taken to the formal agencies of social control.

MECHANISMS, MEANS AND CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Types of Mechanisms

i) Preventive mechanisms: These mechanisms are designed to prevent such

situations from developing, that might lead to deviance Socialisation,
social pressures, establishment of role priorities, force are some of the
mechanisms through which conformity is promoted or the occurrence of
deviance is prevented.

ii) Mechanisms to manage tensions: Institutionalised safety valves like

humour, games and sports, leisure, religious rituals are regarded as outlets
for the tensions generated by social restraints, and cultural inconsistencies
within a society

iii) Mechanisms to check or change deviant behaviour : Sanctions are used

by every society to bring about conformity, and check or change deviant behaviour.
Sanctions have been classified into :
a) Psychological sanctions : Negative sanctions are reproof, ridicule non acceptance,
ostracism etc. Positive sanctions include acceptance in the group, praise, invitation to
inner circle events, verbal or physical pat on the back gifts etc.

b) Physical sanctions : These are mostly negative. The most important forms of
physical sanctions are expulsion, physical punishment and extermination.

c) Economic sanctions : These include positive rewards like promotion of a loyal

sincere worker, grant of tenders to civic minded businessmen etc., or negative
sanctions like threat of loss or reduction in ones income (e.g. threat of discharge by
employer may prevent the employee from continuing his strike), economic boycott
etc.

iv) Propaganda Mechanisms: Another important mechanism that can bring

about change in the desired direction, is propaganda or moulding public
opinion. Propaganda is a deliberate attempt to control the behaviour and
interrelationships of members in order to change the feelings, attitudes and
 values. For example, the efforts of the government to control population
growth through family planning propaganda

MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

i) Custom

Social codes found in every society provide standardised ways of doing things. These
ways, known as customs, have come to be accepted in the group or society. Some
degree of pressure is always exerted on the individual to make one conform to
customs. In case, they are violated the group applies some sanctions or penalties of
varying degrees of severity. The severity would depend on the importance attached to
the particular customary regulation. Custom is sustained by common acceptance.
Informal social pressures are brought to bear, in the case of violation of customs.
Violation of mores, on the other hand, inspire intense reaction and the punishment
may involve expulsion from the group, harsh ridicule, imprisonment or in some cases
even death. To function effectively in a culture it is imperative that one learns the
appropriate folkways (customs and conventions) and mores of that culture. Let us
now see the role of law as a means of social control.

ii) Law

Certain norms become laws when a society feels strongly, about them, Laws are
formal standardised expressions of norms, enacted by legislative bodies to regulate
certain types of behaviour. Laws not merely state what behaviours are permitted and
not permitted, but they also state the punishment for violating the law. As we shift
from simple societies to the modern ones, the role of law as a mechanism of social
control assumes greater significance. In modern, complex societies the more informal
types of social control are weakened. Though law may itself be based on custom, it
has three distinct characteristics which separate it from custom: first, it has
politicality as it is upheld by the political authority of the state. Second, it has
uniformity, as it is applicable throughout the jurisdiction of the state on all groups or
parts of society. Third, it has penal sanction, as each law is enforced on the strength
of penalty imposed by the State (Courts) in case of violation. There are distinct
agencies such as police, courts, prisons etc. to enforce the law. However, when a law
does not reflect folkways and mores, its enforcement is likely to be ignored or given
low priority. For example, even though the minimum age at marriage for girls and
boys in India is fixed by law, many communities ignore these prescriptions. When
there is a conflict between custom and law, it becomes difficult to impose the law. We
will now turn to the role of religion.

iii) Religion

Sociologists are interested in studying how religion is organised, and what impact it
has on the members of a society in terms of controlling their behaviour. They are also
interested in the kinds of belief system developed by people, in different situations
and circumstances, and how religious beliefs change over time as external situations
and circumstances change. All religions are seen to have the following elements: (a)
things considered sacred (b) a set of believers (c) a set of rituals and ceremonies (d) a
system of beliefs such as a creed, doctrine or a holy book (e) a certain form of
organisation.

Religion contributes to stability and order in society in that it reinforces social norms
providing sanctions for violation of norms and reinforcing basic values. Today, with
the explosion of scientific knowledge, some customs, religious and moral
interpretations of behaviour are no longer considered binding or accepted. The sacred
books of most of religions include rules for ordering social relationships. It is
especially explicit about matters pertaining to the family, marriage, divorce and
inheritance. Though laws are challenging some of the practices upheld by religious
teachings, beliefs and experiences associated with religion are still seen to be essential
for both personal identity, and social cohesion. Education too is an important means
of social control. Let us see how this is so.

iv) Education

The institution of education helps to control human behaviour through socialisation

of the young and adult members of society. The different levels of formal education
transmit the culture of society, to individuals within the society. In discharging their
socialisation function, schools and colleges transmit many of the societys values. The
individuals learn to conform to rules, be honest, be diligent and to co-operate with
others etc. Another value of education is that it prepares students for their adult
occupational roles. Education is further valued for the understanding it imparts, about
the social and physical environment. However, the fact that education tries to impart
such values, is no indication that everyone who goes to school and college learns and
accepts these values. Were the educational system and educators and other socialisers
always successful, there would be no deviance and no social conflict. This brings us
to the topic of family.

v) Family

Across the world, the institution of family performs certain important functions.
These include socialisation, imparting of affection and emotional support, regulation
of sex and reproduction. Family is not only an important agency of socialisation but
of social control as well. It is in the family that an individual normally has his most
intimate, and important social relation. Some of human beings most basic needs, both
physical and psychological are fulfilled within the family. Though the more formal
and more coercive measures of social control are generally absent in the family, other
informal means such as ridicule, criticism, disapproval, loss of prestige, withdrawal of
rewards etc. are very potent means of control. In fact, an individual always seeks
emotional support of his or her near and dear ones in the family in timers of stress and
tension. The mere threat of withdrawal of this support, is sufficient to bring the
recalcitrant member back into line. Every family has its own set of moral values and
customs. These are enforced upon its members, particularly the younger ones through
disciplinary measures and a system if rewards and punishments. We now turn to
leadership.

vi) Leadership

It can play a very important role in social control. It develops out of the process of
interaction itself. Leaders have guided the destinies of groups, communities, and
nations. If the leader enjoys group support, his or her suggestions and directions lead
the members towards some common values and goals, and may help to promote order
and stability in society. In this process mass media can play a very important role.

vi) Mass Media

In traditional smaller societies face to face contact was the only means of
communication. In modern technological societies the media of mass communication,
such as newspapers, radio and television, are a means of not only communication but
also of social control. Much of the public opinion and propaganda, for example, (and
other social and cultural groups) make use of these means to mold public opinion, and
to change or control attitudes and behaviour of the vast mass of population. New
values and life styles, fashions, wants, ideas etc. are thrust upon the public with a
view to redirect and control their behaviour in a particular way. We will now consider
the role of force in social control.

vii) Force

Though some sociologists have neglected or under emphasised the element of force
or physical coercion in social relationships, the role of force in social control cannot
be underestimated. In some types of societies, such as the totalitarian states and
colonial regimes, physical force and violence are used as significant instruments of
control. In fact, it can be asserted that physical violence is the oldest and ultimate
means of social control. Even modern, liberal democratic societies maintain police
and armed forces. This signifies the fact that the resort to force and violence is the
ultimate answer to many issues, when other means have failed. On the other hand,
communal and caste violence, are examples of how force is used by interested groups
to control and coerce each other though it is not legally sanctioned.

CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

i) Exploitation: Social control may sometimes become a subtle means of

 exploitation. Some of the dominant groups or individuals may simply use
it to fulfil their own vested interests. These interests may be political,
economic or social. In such cases, the real motivations are hidden under
the cover of some laudable objectives. A ruling party may try to perpetuate
its rule, or a business firm may try to sell its substandard goods by means
of utilising the techniques of social control.

ii) Inhibiting Reform and Change: Social control may have limiting
consequences in that it may sometimes inhibit creativity, and obstruct
attempts at constructive reforms and social changes.

iii) Psychological Pressures Social Control

Social control may also exert enormous amount of emotional and psychological
pressures on some individuals. The best example is that of the institutions such as the
prisons and mental hospitals. The strict regime and oppressive atmosphere sometimes
create mental tensions and even illnesses among them. Similarly, where parents have
very strict standards of discipline, their childrens personalities do not develop in a
normal way. In repressive police-states, many individuals, likewise, suffer from stress
and tension. Thus, the individual has to pay a price for social control in psychological
terms.

iv) Social Tensions

Social control may also lead to social tensions, particularly in a large, complex
society. Here, there may be different groups with their distinctive interests, norms,
and values which may conflict with each other. When attempts are made by one or
more groups to impose their own standards on others, conflict and struggle become
inevitable.

LIMITS ON SOCIAL CONTROL

i) Each group is organised around norms and values. Social control is

intended to check deviation from these standards. Yet, it is not possible to
 contain deviation completely. Some deviation from prescribed norms will
always be there. Each group or society has to determine the limit of
tolerance of deviant conduct and thus set a realistic limit on social control.

ii) The effectiveness of social control is also limited by the degree of

consistency in the cultural directives. If the cultural prescriptions are
uncertain and inconsistent, then social control cannot operate successfully.
This is why in a rapidly changing society, in which normative standards
become inconsistent, mechanisms of social control are generally weak.
Individuals may not know what is expected of them in a particular
situation.

iii) In a complex society, it is not generally possible to impose social control

uniformly on all groups that are divided on the basis of class, caste,
religion, race etc. Sometimes the uniform application of law also
encounters numerous difficulties. In our country, despite the constitutional
directive to have a uniform civil code, it has not been possible to evolve
one so far.

iv) Social control implies huge economic costs to the society. The control of
deviance requires a disproportionate share of societal attention and
resources. Huge expenditure has to be incurred on the establishment of
social control agencies such as the police, prisons, mental hospitals, etc.
There is a limit beyond which a poor country such as ours cannot afford to
deploy such resources at the cost of other development programmes.

Unit-V

SOCIAL CHANGE
Change is a very broad concept. Though change is all around us, we do not refer to all
of it as social change. Thus, physical growth from year to year, or change of seasons
do not fall under the concept of social change. In sociology, we look at social change
as alterations that occur in the social structure and social relationship.

The International Encyclopaedia of the Social Science (IESS 1972) looks at change as
the important alterations that occur in the social structure, or in the pattern of action
and interaction in societies. Alterations may occur in norms, values, cultural products
and symbols in a society. Other definitions of change also point out that change
implies, above all other things, alteration in the structure and function of a social
system. Institutions, patterns of interaction, work, leisure activities, roles, norms and
other aspects of society can be altered over time as a result of the process of social
change.

Three Aspects of Social Change

i) Social change is essentially a process of alteration with no reference to the Quality

of change.

ii) Changes is society are related/linked to changes in culture, so that it would be

sometimes useful to talk about socio-cultural change. Some sociologists, however,
differentiate between social change and cultural change. Social change is defined as
alterations in the social structure, (including the changes in the size of society) or in
particular social institutions, or in the relationship between institutions. They feel that
social change refers mainly to actual human behaviour. Cultural change, on the other
hand, refers to variation in cultural phenomena such as knowledge and ideas, art,
religion moral doctrines, values, beliefs, symbol systems and so on. This distinction is
abstract, because in many situations it is difficult, or nearly impossible to decide
which type of change is occurring. For instance, growth of modern technology as part
of the culture has been closely associated with alterations in the economic structures,
on important part of the society.
iii) Social change can vary in its scope and in speed. We can talk of small scale or
large-scale changes. Changes can take a cyclical pattern, e.g. when there is the
recurrence of centralisation and decentralisation in administrative organisations. It can
also be revolutionary. Revolutionary change can be seen when there is an overthrow
of government in a particular nation. Change can also include short-term changes (e.g.
in migration rates) as well as long-term changes in economic structures. We can
include in social change, both growth and decline in membership and size of social
institutions. Change may include continuous processes like specialisation, and also
include discontinuous processes such as a particular technical or social invention that
appears at some point of time.

THEORIES ON SOCIAL CHANGE

The major sociological theories of change can be classified in various ways. One can,
for instance make a distinction between evolutionary, (linear) and cyclical theories of
social change. Among the former, the most significant are those of Comte, Spencer,
Hobhouse and Marx. Among the latter, the most prominent ones are those of
Spengler, Pareto, and Sorokin.

i) The evolutionary perspective,

ii) The cyclical perspective,
iii) The structural-functional perspective, and
iv) The conflict perspective.

i) The evolutionary perspective

The notion of social evolution was taken from the theories of biological evolution.
Spencer propounded an analogy between social and organic growth and between
society and an organisation. The theories of social evolution are composed of one or
more of the following principleschange, order, direction, progress and perfectibility.
The principle of change states that the present system is the outcome, of more or less
continuous modification from its original state. Some evolutionists add to the
principles of change the notion that change must have an order.
Other evolutionists combine the principles of change and order with the principle of
direction, thereby suggesting that there is a natural linear order of change in a social
system. The evolutionary process of change implies, that every society goes through
distinctive and successive states of existence and orientation. Comte, for instance,
proposed a directional theory of society. He suggested that a society evolves from a
theological orientation, to a metaphysical orientation to a positivistic orientation.
Durkheim classified societies into simple societies united by similarity of their
members, (what he called mechanical solidarity) and complex societies based on
specialization and functional interdependence of members (what he called organic
solidarity). This also suggests a directional evolutionary pattern.

ii) The cyclical perspective

The basic premise of the cyclical theories is: cultures and civilisations pass through
stages of change, starting and often ending with the same stage. This passing through
stages is called a cycle. The cycle when completed, repeats itself over and over again.
The ancient civilisations in Greece, China and India for instance, can be explained by
the principle of cycles. Some cyclical theorists are pessimistic in that they think that
decay is inevitable. Oswald Spengler (1945) believed that every society is born,
matures, decays and eventually dies. The Roman Empire rose to power and then
gradually collapsed. The British empire grew strong, and then deteriorated. Spengler
believed that social change might take the form of progress or of decay, but that no
society lives for ever.

iii) The structural-functional perspective

Its roots in the work of the early sociologists especially Durkheim and Weber.
Structural functionalists believe that society, like the human body, is a balanced
system. Each institution serves a function in maintaining society. When events outside
or inside the society, disrupt the social order, social institutions make adjustments to
restore stability.

They also argue that change generally occurs in a gradual, adjustive fashion and not
in a sudden violent, radical fashion. Even changes which appear to be drastic, have
not been able to make a great or lasting impact on the core elements, of the social and
cultural systems. Change according to them comes from basically three sources:

i) Adjustment of the system to exogenous change (e.g. war, conquests),

ii) Growth through structural and functional differentiation (e.g. changes in the
size of population through births and deaths),

iii) Innovations by members of groups within society (e.g. inventions and discovery
in a society).

The most important and basic factor making for social integration and stability,
according to this school of thought, is value consensus.

iv) The conflict perspective

Conflict theory also has its origins in early sociology, especially in the works of Marx.
Conflict theorists do not assume that societies smoothly evolve to higher or complex
levels. According to this school every pattern of action, belief and interaction tends to
generate an opposing reaction. Modern life is full of examples. The legalisation of
abortion has provoked the anti-abortion movement. The feminist
movement has stimulated a reaction from men and women. The liberalisation of
sexual mores has led to open denunciation. The basic premise is that one of the
outcomes of conflict among groups is social change. The greatest limitation of this
approach is that it lays too much emphasis on conflict, as the most important factor
of change.

FACTORS IN SOCIAL CHANGE

Three Basic Sources of Social Change

Some sociologists propose that social change takes place basically in one or more
of the following three ways:

i) Discovery

A shared human perception of an aspect of reality which already exists e.g. discovery
of blood circulation in biology. It is an addition to the worlds store of verified
knowledge. However, it becomes a factor in social change only when it is put to
use, not when it is merely known.

ii) Inventions

A new combination or a new use of existing knowledge e.g. the assembling of the
automobile from an already existing idea. The idea of combining them was new.
Inventions can be material (technology) and social (alphabet, trade union). Each
invention may be new in form (i.e. in shape or action) in function (what it does) or in
meaning (its long range consequences) or in principle (the theory or law on which it
is based).

iii) Diffusion

Diffusion refers to the spread of cultural traits from one group to another. It operates
both within and between societies. It takes place whenever societies come into contact
with each other. Diffusion is a two way process. The British gave us their language
and made tea an important ritual for us Indians; but they adopted several terms in
English from us, for example, Pacca Sahib, Chchota haziri, Jaggernaut, etc. Diffusion
is also a selective process. Majority of the Indians may adopt the English language,
but not their beef-eating habits. Diffusion generally involves some modification of the
borrowed elements of culture either in form, function or meaning

iv. Exogenous and Endogenous Origin of Change

It is very difficult to determine where and how change originates. Some sociologists
have offered a distinction between endogenous change (change originating from
within) and exogenous change (change entering from outside). In practice, the origin
of change, can only rarely be assigned wholly to one or the other category. It can be
argued that wars and conquest (exogenous origin) have played an active part in
bringing about major social changes in societies across the world. Again it could be
said that in the modern world, the changes taking place in the developing countries
have been stimulated to a large extent, by Western technology which was introduced
in most cases following colonial rule. But in all societies, including those in which the
initial impetus has come from outside, social change has depended to a great extent
upon the activities of various social groups within the society. A major part of
sociological analysis consists in identifying the spheres and groups, that are
principally affected, and the ways in which innovations are diffused from one sphere
to another

Some Factors that Affect Direction and Rate of Change

Social change has two important aspects: direction and rate. Here, we shall discuss
the factors that affect the direction and rate of changes in society

i) Geography, Population and Ecology

These factors are seen to bring about sudden changes or set a limit on social change.
Climatic conditions, natural resources, physical location of a country, natural disasters
can be important sources of change. A natural disaster like floods may destroy entire
population, force people to migrate to another place, or make them rebuild their
community all over again. Similarly, increase and decrease in the size of human
population through birth, death or migration can pose a serious challenge to
economic, and political institutions. Today, many geographic alterations and natural
disasters are induced by the activities of the inhabitants or a region. Soil erosion,
water and air pollution may become severe enough to trigger off new norms and laws
regarding how to use resources and dispose waste products.
 ii) Technology

Technology is recognised as one of the most crucial factors in social change. You
may read Ogburns concept of culture lag in detail, i.e [The term cultural lag is
often used to describe the state of disequilibrium between material and non-material
aspects of a culture. Ogburn (1886-1959) who coined this word, explained that
cultural lag occurs when parts of a culture that were once in adjustment with each
other change at different rates, and become incompatible with each other. Ogburn
(1922) pointed out how the non-material culture (values, beliefs, norms, family,
religion) often lags behind material culture (technology, means of production output
of the economic system). For example, family planning technologies (i.e. material
culture) have advanced, but people take their time to accept them. Some sections of
the population may reject the very idea of family planning and believe in having a
large family. Again, when an event such as increase in population or a depletion in
natural resources cause a strain in society, it takes some time for the society to
understand and absorb the strain and alter its values and institutions to adapt to the
change. But in order to function smoothly, societies adjust to maintain and restore
themselves.]

To understand how technology has been an important factor in social change. The
modern factory, means of transportation, medicine, surgery, mass media of
communications, space and computers technology etc. have affected the attitudes,
values and behaviour of people across societies. To take a simple example,
automobiles and other means of modern transportation have spread culture, by
increasing interaction among people who live far away from each other. The
technological feats in the area of transport and communication have altered leisure
activities, helped in maintaining social networks, and stimulated the formation of new
social relationships.

iii) Values and Beliefs

The role of values in social change has been clearly brought out in Max Webers
book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber proposed that
some historical situations, doctrines or ideas may independently affect the direction
of social change. He tried to show that the rise of modern capitalism was mainly
rooted in religious values as contained in ascetic Protestantism. Conflict over
incompatible values and beliefs can be an important source of change. For instance
values regarding racial or caste superiority, may clash with the values of equality of
opportunity and status. New laws have emerged to ensure that people do not face
discrimination on the basis of caste or race. Conflicts between group within a society,
have been and are a major source of innovation and change. For instance, the
establishment of political democracy in Western Europe can be said to be largely the
outcome of class struggles.

iv) The Great Men and Women:

The role of individuals in social change. It has been pointed out that the contribution
by men of genius and leaders to social change is important. The great men (which
includes several women leaders as well) faced a set of circumstance, and their
influence arose in part from their ability to draw out persuasively the latent
aspirations, anxieties and fears of large numbers of people. They were also
charismatic leaders. These leaders owed their positions to personal qualities, and left
upon events the mark of their own convictions

v. Social Legislation

The function of the law is to maintain social order through social control. It insists
that law must bring about social change by influencing people behavior, belief and
values.
The Hindu Marriage Act 1955 enforcing monogamy and permitting judicial
separation and divorce.
The Hindu Succession Act 1956 the rights over the property possessed by a Hindu
woman. Both son and daughter get equal share.
The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956 for the adoption of son and
daughter.
The Untouchability Offence Act of 1955 with the provision of Article 35-
Cognizable offence- substituted by the Protection of Civil Rights Act in 1976
The Dowry Prohibition Act 1961
Unit VI

INTRODUCTION :
In all societies there is differentiation of the population by age, sex, and personal
characterstics. Everywhere individuals and societies differ. In no society people are
absolutely equal in all respects. Differentiation is the keyhome of human society.
A social issue is a problem that influences a considerable number of the individuals
within a society. It is often the consequence of factors extending beyond an
individual's social issue is the source of a conflicting opinion on the grounds of what
is perceived as a morally just personal life or societal order. Social issues are
distinguished from economic issues; however, some issues have both social and
economic aspects. There are also issues that don't fall into either category, such as
warfare. There can be disagreements about what social issues are worth solving, or
which should take precedence. Different individuals and different societies have
different perceptions.
Social issues involve values cherished by widespread society. For example, a high
unemployment rate that affects millions of people is a social issue.

Social stratification
The caste system in India resulted in the oppression of those referred to as
Untouchables for the past 3,000 years.

Economic issues
Unemployment rates vary by region, gender, educational attainment, and ethnic
group. In most countries (including the developed countries), many people are poor
and depend on welfare.

Social disorganization
So-called "problem neighbourhoods" exist in many countries. These neighbourhoods
tend to have a high drop-out rate from secondary school, and children growing up in
these neighbourhoods have a low probability of going to college compared to children
who grow up in other neighbourhood.

Public health
Widespread health conditions (often characterized as epidemics or pandemics) are of
concern to society as a whole. They can harm quality of life and the ability of people
to contribute to society and to work, and most problematically result in death.

Age and the life course

Throughout the life course, there are social problems associated with different ages.
One such social problem is age discrimination. An example of age discrimination is
when a particular person is not allowed to do something or is treated differently based
on age.
Inequality
Inequality is "the state or quality of being unequal". Inequality is the root of a number
of social problems that occur when things such as gender, disability, race, and age
may affect the way a person is treated.

Education and public schools

Education is arguably the most important factor in a person's success in society.

Work and occupations

Social problems in the workplace include occupational stress, theft, sexual
harassment, wage inequality, gender inequality, racial inequality, health care
disparities, and many more.

Environmental racism
Environmental racism exists when a particular place or town is subject to problematic
environmental practices due to the racial and class components of that space. In
general, the place or town is representative of lower income and minority groups.
Often, there is more pollution, factories, dumping, etc. that produce environmental
hazards and health risks which are not seen in more affluent cities.

Child marriage
India has the second highest number of child marriages. Marriage is considered to be
a sacred union between two mature and consenting individuals who are ready to
accept each other and share responsibilities for a lifetime. With respect to this context,
child marriages happen to be an unsound institution. Child marriage mars the
innocence of childhood. The Indian Constitution provides for prohibitions against
child marriage through various laws and enactments.

Illiteracy
India has the second highest number of child marriages. Marriage is considered to be
a sacred union between two mature and consenting individuals who are ready to
accept each other and share responsibilities for a lifetime. With respect to this context,
child marriages happen to be an unsound institution. Child marriage mars the
innocence of childhood. The Indian Constitution provides for prohibitions against
child marriage through various laws and enactments.

Starvation
Starvation is a condition characterized by the deficiency in calorie energy intake and
is a serious form of malnutrition which ultimately leads to death if not taken care
about. Historically, starvation has been constant across various human cultures apart
from India. Starvation can take place in a country due to many reasons like war,
famine, the disparities between the rich and the poor and so on.

Child Labour
Child labour typically means the employment of children in any work with or without
payment. Child labour is not only limited to India, it happens to be a global
phenomenon. As far as India is concerned, the issue is a vicious one as children in
India have historically been helping parents at their farms and other primitive
activities. Over population, illiteracy, poverty, debt trap are some of the common
causes which are instrumental in this issue.

Scheduled Castes
The Scheduled Castes are official designations given to various groups of historically
disadvantaged indigenous people in India. The terms are recognised in the
Constitution of India and the various groups are designated in one or other of the
categories. During the period of British rule in the Indian subcontinent, they were
known as the Depressed Classes. The percentage of people in a scheduled caste is
essentially the percentage of people in the lower part of Indian society. The Scheduled
Castes are sometimes referred to as adi dravida or Dalits.
The Scheduled Castes is the legal and constitutional name collectively given to the
groups which have traditionally occupied the lowest status in Indian society and the
Hindu religion which provides the religious and ideological basis for an
untouchable group, which was outside the caste system and inferior to all other
castes. Today, untouchability is outlawed, and these groups are recognized by the
Indian Constitution to be especially disadvantaged because of their past history of
inferior treatment, and are therefore entitled to certain rights and preferential
treatment.
The Scheduled Castes are not an homogenous group and are divided into many castes
and sub-castes, as well as by language and geography. Collectively they are best
known outside India as Untouchables but this term is not used in official Indian
terminology where the word harijan is more likely to be favoured
The Scheduled Castes comprise about 16.6 percent and 8.6 percent, respectively, of
India's population. The Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950 lists 1,108 castes
across 29 states in its First Schedule.
Since independence, the Scheduled Castes were given Reservation status,
guaranteeing political representation. The Constitution lays down the general
principles of affirmative action for SCs.

Steps taken by the government to improve the situation of

SC
The Constitution provides a three-pronged strategy to improve the situation of SCs:

Protective arrangements: Such measures as are required to enforce equality, to

provide punitive measures for transgressions, to eliminate established practices that
perpetuate inequities, etc. A number of laws were enacted to implement the provisions
in the Constitution. Examples of such laws include The Untouchability Practices Act,
1955, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, The
Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition)
Act, 1993, etc.

Affirmative action: Provide positive treatment in allotment of jobs and access to

higher education as a means to accelerate the integration of the SCs and STs with
mainstream society. Affirmative action is popularly known as reservation.

Development: Provide resources and benefits to bridge the socioeconomic gap

between the SCs and STs and other communities.

Problems faced by SCs

1. Social Problem:
These problems pertained to the concept of purity and pollution. The
untouchables were given a very low position in the society. The high-caste
Hindus maintained a social distance from them. They were denied many
basic amenities of life which were accorded to the high-caste Hindus.
They were dependent on the tradition of Hindus for items of food and
drink.

2. Religious Problems:

These pertained to the denial of the right of entering temples which were
exclusively served by the high-caste Brahmins. The untouchables were
neither allowed to enter the temples nor served by the Brahmins. They had
no right to worship the Gods and Goddesses in the temple.

3. Economic Problems:
They suffered from many economic problems. They had to face many
economic hardships and they were not given proper reward for their service.
Traditionally, untouchables were deprived of landed property of their own.
They were not allowed to carry on any business. They were not permitted to
engage themselves in the professions which were being carried out by the
people of other castes.
The untouchables were not free to choose any occupation according to their
own ability they had to clean the streets, remove dead cattle and to undertake
heavy agricultural work. Mostly they were landless labourers. They worked
in the fields of high- caste Hindus as labourers.

4. Public Disabilities:
Harijans had to face many public indignities because they were denied the
right to use the services of public utilities like wells, public transport as well
as educational institutions.

5. Educational Problems:
 Traditionally the untouchables were deprived of getting education. They were
not allowed to use public educational institutions. Even today most of the
illiterates are untouchables.
Describing the conditions of Harijans, K.M. Pannikar has remarked, their
position, when the system functioned in its pristine glory, was in many ways
worse than that of slavery. The slave at least was a chattel of the master and
therefore, he stood in an individual relation to his owner. Considerations of
economic self -interest and even human feeling modified the barbarism of
personal slavery.
But these mitigating factors did not apply to the system of untouchability,
which was mostly perceived as a system of communal slave holding. Instead
of an individual owning slave, each village held the untouchable families
attached to it in a kind of slavery. No individual of the higher castes was
supposed to have any personal relations with an untouchable.

BEGGARY

Definition:
A solicitation for money or food (especially in the street by an apparently penniless
person).
Indigence: a state of extreme poverty or destitution; "their indigence appalled him";
"a general state of need exists among the homeless"

Introduction:
Begging includes various methods used by persons to obtain money, food, shelter,
drugs, alcohol, or other necessities from people they encounter during the course of
their travels. It is also referred to as peddling. There are three kinds of beggars: the
first type constitutes the traditional beggars, who crowd the major shrines of the city
and consider it their right to be given alms, owing to their proclaimed lineage to the
saint buried there. These include the rat-children, who are made to wear steel
helmets immediately after birth to produce an artificial deformation in the shape of
their heads. This serves to elicit sympathy from the passers- by, and thus better
earnings. The second class is the professional mendicants who roam the urban
locality. The third type is the people who are genuinely in dire financial straits but
have dignity, and normally are unable to beg, In larger cities, it is common to see
beggars asking others for money, food, or other items. They may also offer services,
such as washing car windows. They may attempt to sell items to others to make
money. One outgrowth of begging, particularly among young women, is to turn to
prostitution. One method of begging that is particularly dangerous is for beggars to
station themselves either in or near vehicle traffic in order to peddle goods or solicit
donations, for example walking between lanes at a red light. In these cases, beggars
run the risk of being struck by passing vehicles.
Coercive child beggary is also on the rise, with the parents forcibly sending their
children out on the streets to beg. There also thrives a begging mafia, which abducts
children, disables them and forces them to beg. Few things disrupt public life on roads
and streets with more audacity than beggars chasing people for a worthless amount of
money. It is becoming an increasingly common phenomenon to be interrupted, often
insolently, while driving a car or on foot, by a barefoot child, a seemingly healthy
woman carrying a bandaged infant, or an aging man. They have become a big source
of distraction for the public. Most of them shamelessly shock commuters in an
attempt to generate maximum sympathy. They have terrible appearances or
disabilities that are a convenient tool for extorting whatever little money they can,
walking, limping or roller-skating with amputated legs up and down a road all day.
For some commuters it does arouse an element of pity, while for many of them it is no
more than a sickening nuisance.
Beggary is a major problem which is today affecting large population of India. There
are large number of beggars in India who are forced in to doing begging because our
societies fails in providing any good alternative to them.
For the last few centuries India has suffered acute poverty. From the ancient times, the
main cause of poverty was various taxes. Poverty, disability and unemployment is the
problem of beggary which is a social problem.
The other issue is slightly more serious where large numbers of beggars are in
begging for earning easy money. The major issues with this beggary problem are non-
awareness about this whole business, societys failure, no humanitarian solutions and
failure of government in stopping beggary because of which large number of children
deprived from right to education & childhood. Indian government never tried to
rectify the faulty system by repealing anti-poverty or beggary laws. In fact, poor
women, children and elderly people need help from the government to obtain food
and shelter.
Beggary is a Social Problem in India. India, though free, is still a backward country as
regards the social life of its people. Our society has manifold evils. Millions of people
in India to do nothing except begging and passing away their time in all sorts of
nefarious and socially injurious practices. They do nothing but eat away the very
vitality of our nation life. Many people of robust health are beggars.
One people think that Indias religious and philosophic view of life is the chief reason
for this beggar problem. Though we cannot deny this statement wholly, yet it is not at
all a truth. Beggars and mendicants have, no doubt, been held in great esteem by the
loftiest and the lowliest in India in the past. Some Indians believe that in order to
prosper in this world and the next world, these beggars should be given alms. Religion
has its own contribution to the acuteness of this problem. But economic causes also,
are responsible for the same.
A large chunk of people in India are still poor this holds attractions for the social evil
of begging. It is the best breeding ground for communism as well as for beggars.
Neither the society is vigilant to deny the beggars their right for alms nor does the
Government take any step to weed out this evil by creating and maintaining
conditions of a decent and healthy national life. It has failed, to a great extent to
provide poor houses for the crippled and labour houses for the able-bodied
unemployed workers.
Though India is now a free country, and her future promises a lot, this problem of
beggars has not been solved. Rather it has assumed vast proportions and remains an
unchecked nuisance. A train of these beggars is to be found in every big town of India
particularly at religious places.
At present the profession includes, in its compass, not only disabled and needy
persons, but also able-bodied persons of doubtful character. Thieves, murderers,
cheats and all types of criminals find it easiest to pass undetected in the guise of
beggars. They lead a life of ease and indolence at expenses of others. Some families
make begging their hereditary profession and they devise novel methods of appealing
to the sympathies and nobler feelings of the people.
They will pretend to be dumb and deaf, although their faculties of speaking and
hearing may be quite sound. Some of them pretend to undergo severe penances in
public so that the people may take them to be pious souls and help them with alms.
If things are allowed to remain as they are in our country and nothing is done to check
the growth of the beggar problem India can never prosper and can never take her due
place in the community of nations. And one who raises a cry against this murderous
profession is not headed to. There is the religion to back it. People think, what they
sow in this world would be reaped by them in the next. If they give one rupee to a
beggar, they would get much more rewards as a return in their next life.
Really, a bold and vigorous step is required in the direction towards eradication of the
problem of beggary. The Government of India is taking efforts towards the welfare of
the poor people. It is help to improve the situation. The Government should take the
responsibility to provide for accommodation and food for the really needy persons,
blind, cripples etc.
Every municipality must maintain a poor house and only the disabled be permitted
to live there. It must be financed by the board and the charitable organizations.
We have heard about the negative impact of Begging in our society. It is said that
thousands of babies were stolen from their parents custody by the owners of begging
concerns, blinded, crippled and artificially paralyzed. What a shockingly inhuman act
it was!
Apart from the endeavors, to be made by the government to solve the problem of
beggary, public enthusiasm is also needed to combat this evil, which is essentially a
social evil, caused by the follies of our society. Naturally, beggary which is a social
evil, can be remedied by social regeneration of India.

Causes of beggary:
It's very hard to give specific reason or establish any reason for the organization of
beggary, as is the case with a crime. There can be a set of causes, including inability
to physical, mental derangement, or society, poverty, the custom of giving,
unemployment, the collapse of the family business , whether alone or in combination
could create a situation that can cause beggary.
Although the underlying cause in each case is the family's poverty or
underemployment when the family is not in a position to support and disabled people,
but at the same time, there are no security measures from the social forces them to
beg.

a) Economic reasons: The three main causes of economic poverty, job loss or
lack of employment and business income.
i) Poverty: One of the major factors that force people to make a miserable beggary. It
does not mean that enough to support themselves or their families, many people resort
to begging.
ii) Unemployment: But poverty alone cannot be held responsible because all those
living in poverty are not used to beggary.
iii) The lucrative business: Because of easy profits and income from begging, some
people can earn enough to make it as a career instead of doing honest labour. Not only
that, many people make it as business and exploit others by investing some money in
this business. There are group activities in large cities, which force many children to
this job. And in the next part I will discuss more about it.

b) Social causes: Among the social causes of family disorganization, lack of

parental control, disorganized communities, breaking joint family system and social
custom.
i) Disorganized family: Family is part of the relationship of our society, which affect
our patterns of behaviour and activities. Any disruption in our home state, especially
in the case of a poor one leads to a breakdown of the family, which do arise in
beggary.
ii) Lack of Parental Control: The parents do not have the industrial centre of control
necessary for their children, but mothers also often go to factories to work. As a result
children can switch to energy in any direction. If they fall into bad company, they can
develop love of travel, can lead to beggary.

c) Biological Cause: Among the biological causes may be addressed to illness,

physical disability or mental disability and old age.
i) Disability or illness: The physical disabilities such as blindness, deafness or
acquired in the beginning had this effect lot of people to beg as economic conditions
of their families so as not to afford the maintenance of the disabled.
ii) Lack of spirit: There are people who lack mental or insane and unable to earn any
living and they are forced to beg.

Other reasons: Among other reasons may be mentioned those forced to beg. When
someone is executed beggary. There are orphans and waifs and touch those who
deliberately maimed or deformed to have a guardian or other person can earn their
living. Many parents also trade on the normal weaknesses of their children by using
this additional source of income.

Effect of beggars to the society:

Beggars tend to present a negative image of a particular location. The presence of
beggars were seen as manifestations of larger social ills or issues and may cause
others to avoid the beggar-area population
The effects of street beggars cannot be overemphasized. Beggars into health risk
because many of them can transmit infectious diseases in society. Some dealers and
armed robbers abducted therefore constitute security risks in society. Looking at the
effects of street beggars, I think the governments of the countries in the world have to
hold big responsibility about it, no matter where it is, commonly reducing poverty in
their country which is one of the factors causing it. The government should increase
efforts to control traffic accidents which are making many people disabled. The
medical establishment should be improved so that children will not be attacked by
patients before and after birth. Above all, the Government should build a special
village to beg than to let them roam the streets.

Strategies to Eliminate Beggary:

Drastic measures have to be taken on a long-term basis to combat the problem.
Previous efforts of the government have failed miserably, and in recent years, the
invasion of these beggars has increased dramatically. So these are some policies,
which can solve the issue of Beggary:
Policies to solve the issue of Beggary:
In the first place, the poor should avoid begging. The media both the electronic and
print should highlight and also In order to create a public opinion against beggary,
awareness campaigns, and programs should be project on electronic media and print
media.
Welfare schemes and cottage industries (which include modelling clay, making
candles and traditional handicrafts) should be promoted as a means of enhancing
employment facilities for the needy and the deserving. This would also check beggary
that results from urbanization. Genuine beggars may be kept in camps and provided
medical, food and shelters by the Govt. or NGOs. It is the duty of the state to take
care of the handicapped persons who are alone in this world.
People honestly pay taxes to the State and ask it to help the poor.
Those who are able-bodied should be provided jobs, or some kind of training as
electricians, mechanics, telephone, operators, etc.
The government, local administration, the voluntary sector and all members of a
society must actively participate to root out beggary. Instead of depending on foreign
aid, we should properly implement which aims at helping the poor. It should be made
sure that aid reaches those who deserve it.
The government should address the issues of illiteracy more seriously, and then
explore other avenues for these under privileged members of our society. For this, we
should aim to set up training camps and provide them with proper incentives to work
Also, the numerous NGOs which work diligently for the advancement of humanity,
should set up shelters, educate their children and help them to be self-sufficient.
Children must be rescued from the curse of begging.
Professional beggars must be discouraged. People should be serious on the
resolution of this issue, and the stop giving money to beggars, for why should they
give it up when they earn a cozy living by doing nothing.
The social workers and opinion leaders to come up with practical suggestions in this
respect, whether this issue can be tackled administratively or by police intervention.
The policies are distorted and the priorities grossly misplaced. With around 30
percent of the budget allocated for defence, we cannot seriously hope for the
alleviation of poverty. To date, no detailed research or comprehensive study has been
carried out on this issue, and it is the responsibility of the State to compile such data.
taken as to its proper allocation.
Mafia also exists behind all this, and the police is also providing protection to
beggars, government should check those police servants and make a check on them,
and strictly give orders to them to not to provide protection to beggars, and the police
should take strict actions against those mafia which abducts children, disables the and
force them to beg.
Those beggars who are able bodied but use beggary, as a profession should be
awarded severe punishment.

Conclusion:
As can be seen from all the above facts, people with no fixed income or even see
beggary is a business- this is a problem whose solution is the mass of the nuances that
require special attention. In Vietnam, beggary still legal, even though the government
tries to tell everyone that they cannot make children to go on the street and beg for
money. The abstract has been investigated not only the essence of social work, but the
underlying reasons for the formation of the problem. For all these reasons, we can
conclude: the most important in solving this problem - is to overcome the systemic
crisis in the country, to carry out social policies that would be aimed at ensuring
normal living conditions for the majority of the population, especially the so-called
most unprotected.

CHILD MARRIAGE

Child Marriage as violation of Human Right

State of the World's Children 2007, UNICEF is saying that - "Premature pregnancy
and motherhood are an inevitable consequence of child marriage. Girls under 15 are
five times more likely to die during pregnancy and childbirth than women in their
twenties."

Definition
UNICEF defines child marriage as marriage before 18 years of age and considers this
practise as a violation of human rights.
Definition under Prohibition of Child Marriage Act of 2006
Definition of child marriage under this act is only applicable to (a) to Hindus,
Christians, Jains, Buddhist and those who are non-Muslims of India, and (b) outside
the state of Jammu and Kashmir. For Muslims of India, child marriage definition and
regulations based on Sharia and Nikah has been claimed as a personal law subject.
For all others, The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act of 2006 defines "child marriage"
means a marriage, or a marriage about to be solemnized, to which either of the
contracting parties is a child; and child for purposes of marriage is defined based on
gender of the person - if a male, it is 21 years of age, and if a female, 18 years of age.

Normal Consequences
The harmful consequences of child marriage are segregation from family and friends,
limiting the child's interactions with the community and peers, lack of opportunities
for education. Girl children often face situations of bonded labour, enslavement,
commercial sexual exploitation and violence as a result of child marriage. Because of
lack of protection child brides are often exposed to serious health risks, early
pregnancy, and various STDs especially HIV/AIDS. There are many reasons why
parents consent to child marriage such as economic necessity, male protection for
their daughters, child bearing, or oppressive traditional values and norms.

Seriousness of the Problem:

Globally more than one third of the women between the ages 20-24 were married
before they reached the age of 18. Approximately 14 million adolescent girls between
the ages 15-19 give birth each year. Girls in this age group are twice more likely to die
during child birth than women in their twenties. Rate of child marriage are higher in
sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
Because of the early and often closely timed pregnancies before their bodies are able
to handle the stress of pregnancy, adolescent mothers give birth prematurely or to low
weight babies. The health of the child and mother are at risk and often they do not
survive. Child marriage also makes girls more vulnerable to domestic violence, sexual
abuse and inability to complete primary education. It is also found that infant
mortality rates are higher than the national average in the states where child marriage
is highly prevalent.
Indian Scenario:
According to the 2001 census there are 1.5 million girls, in India, under the age of 15
already married. Of these, 20% or approximately 300,000 are mothers to at least one
child. The 2001 census also estimated the average age of marriage has risen to 18.3
for females. The male average is 22.6 years. But child marriage is still widespread
across the nation. States like Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Bihar and Andra Pradesh still have average age of marriage below the
legal age of eighteen for females.
According to NFHS-III survey 47.3% of women aged 20-24 were married by age 18.
Of these, 2.6 percent were married before they turned 13, 22.6 percent were married
before they were 16, and 44.5 percent were married when they were between 16 and
17. In some states the percentage is quite high: Rajasthan 65.2%, Uttar Pradesh
58.6%, Madhya Pradesh 57.3%, Jharkhand 63.2%, Chhattisgarh 55%, Bihar 69% and
Andra Pradesh 54.8%.The states where prevalence is low are Himachal Pradesh
12.3%, Punjab 19.7%, and Kerala 15.4%.
Child marriage in India has grave implications for population control as adolescent
brides are likely to have high fertility and a number of unwanted pregnancies. States
where child marriage is most prevalent is also where there is the highest population.
Child marriage is low among women who have had access to higher education and
secondary education. Marriages in India are often unregistered, and are socially
binding if not legally, which makes it hard to survey.

Causes of Child Marriage:

The Cultural Root

The culture is playing a vital role in any social problems. You already know the
importance of culture by Emile Durkheim (April 15, 1858 November 14, 1917; The
Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, 1912), Max Weber (April 21, 1864 June
14, 1920; The Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism, 1934) and Karl Marx
(May 5, 1818 March 14, 1883; The German Ideology, 1932, The Manifesto of the
Communist party, 1848 etc.).
 Most of these child marriages are happen on the occasion of auspicious day of
Akshay Tritiya which is believed that this is most suitable day for (child) marriage.
For marriage on this day one need not to contact astrologer because this is count as
auspicious for everyone form marriage to start any new work.
Cultural root is that this is an Indian mentality that grandparents want to spouse of
their grandchildren. Not only this rather sometimes parents too wants to see the face
of spouse of their children if they are ill or suffering from serious disease.
Another cause is religious believes which is widely talked in concern news items
given bellow among Hindus. Muslims have too religious prejudice about marriage
which we will see under legal provisions.
Religion wise child marriage ratio is low among Christian, Buddhist, Sikh, Jain and
Parasi.
This is prejudice to say that Adivasis (Scheduled Tribes) are backward in social life
and culture. According to census of India from 1931 onwards age of average marriage
among Adivasis (Scheduled Tribe) are higher than other communities. Adiwasi /
Tribal communities have no culture of child marriage.

Poverty and Dowry

Poverty is playing an important role in child marriage. Due to culture of dowry
system parents wanted to marry their daughter earlier, because later they have to pay
more dowries.

Education, Dowry and Child Marriage

Many times parents do not want to give more education to their daughter because if
she get more education than their parents have to search more educated bridegroom
who will take more dowry. On the other hand from boy side new bride is an assets for
household and field work. `````````````````````````````````````````````

Security
Indian society is still very orthodox. Majority of family in both rural and urban setup
are not allowing love marriage rather they prefer and supporting arrange
marriage. Pretext to that their children can elopes with someone and/or at later age
they will not be in control of their hands therefore they wanted to get (arrange)
marriage in time. On the other hand due to social prejudice if a girl fall (or rise) in
love and that is breakdown by any reason than no any boy want to marry her.
Consequences of child marriage:

Early maternal deaths

Girls who marry earlier in life are less likely to be informed about reproductive issues,
and because of this, pregnancy-related deaths are known to be the leading cause of
mortality among married girls between 15 and 19 years of age. These girls are twice
more likely to die in childbirth than girls between 20 and 24 years of age. Girls
younger than 15 years of age are 5 times more likely to die in childbirth.
Infant health
Infants born to mothers under the age of 18 are 60% more likely to die in their first
year than to mothers over the age of 19. If the children survive, they are more likely to
suffer from low birth weight, malnutrition, and late physical and cognitive
development.
Fertility outcomes
A study conducted in India by the International Institute for Population Sciences and
Macro International in 2005 and 2006 showed high fertility, low fertility control, and
poor fertility outcomes data within child marriages. 90.8% of young married women
reported no use of a contraceptive prior to having their first child. 23.9% reported
having a child within the first year of marriage. 17.3% reported having three or more
children over the course of the marriage. 23% reported a rapid repeat childbirth, and
15.2% reported an unwanted pregnancy. 15.3% reported a pregnancy termination
(stillbirths, miscarriages or abortions).Fertility rates are higher in slums than in urban
areas.

Violence
Young girls in a child marriage are more likely to experience domestic violence in
their marriages as opposed to older women. A study conducted in India by the
International Centre for Research on Women showed that girls married before 18
years of age are twice as likely to be beaten, slapped, or threatened by their
husbands[44] and three times more likely to experience sexual violence.[48] Young
brides often show symptoms of sexual abuse and post-traumatic stress.
Legal aspects of Child Marriage:
British Government was very keen for social reforms in India. They proposed and
enacted many legislation for social reforms. But here we will limit our self to child
marriage.

The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929

British Government comes with The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 which was
come into force on April 1, 1930. Originally according to this law minimum age for
girl was 15 years and 18 years for boys. In 1978 after amendments minimum age of
marriage were raised from 18 years for girls and 21 years for boys.
This law was questioned during implementation by Muslims. Therefore this law is
only applicable to Non-Muslim Indian.
Under protests from Muslim organizations in the undivided British India, a personal
law Shariyat Act was passed in 1937 that allowed child marriages with consent from
girl's guardian.
That law was questioned by Muslims, then superseded by personal law applicable
only to Muslims in British India with Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act
of 1937, which implied no minimum limit and allowed parental or guardian consent in
case of Muslim marriages.

Prohibition of Child Marriage Act of 2006

In 2006 the government of India update legislations regarding child marriage and
passed the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006

Prevention programmes in India

Apni Beti, Apna Dhan (ABAD), which translates to "My daughter, My wealth," is one
of India's first conditional cash transfer programmes dedicated to delaying young
marriages across the nation. In 1994, the Indian government implemented this
programme in the state of Haryana. On the birth of a mother's first, second, or third
child, they are set to receive 500, or US$11 within the first 15 days to cover their
post-delivery needs. Along with this, the government gives 2,500, or US$55, to
invest in a long-term savings bond in the daughter's name, which can be later cashed
for 25,000, or US$550, after her 18 birthday. She can only receive the money if she
is not married. Anju Malhotra, an expert on child marriage and adolescent girls said of
this programme, "No other conditional cash transfer has this focus of delaying
marriage... It's an incentive to encourage parents to value their daughters."

Important measures taken are:

(i) Abolition of untouchability,

(ii) Protection from social injustice and various forms of exploitation,

iii) Throwing open to them religious institutions of public character,

(iv) Removal of restrictions on their access to wells, tanks, shops, restaurants and
roads, etc.

(v) Giving them the right to move freely and acquire property,

(vi) Giving them the right of admission to educational institutions and receiving
grants out of state funds,

(vii) Permitting the state governments to make reservation for them in services,

(viii) Giving them special representation in the Lok Sabha and the Vidhan Sabhas,

(ix) Setting up separate departments and advisory councils to promote their welfare
and safeguard their interests,

(x) Prohibiting forced labour, and

(xi) Making special provision for the administration and control of the scheduled
areas.
The Scheduled Caste and the Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act,
1989 has described the following acts as punishable crimes:

(1) Forcing an SC/ST person to eat or drink some disgusting substance.

(2) Throwing in the house or the neighbourhood of an SC/ST person refuse, rubbish
or dead animal, etc. which may humiliate, harm or anger him.

(3) Taking away clothes forcibly from the body of an SC/ST person and making him
naked; or blackening his face and taking him round the public places.

(4) Forcibly occupying and cultivating the land of an SC/ST person owned by him or
allotted to him.

(5) Usurping the land/property of any SC/ST person.

(6) Compelling an SC/ST person for forced labour (begar) or using him as a bonded
labourer.

(7) Preventing an SC/ST person from voting, or forcing him to vote for a particular
person.

(8) Committing any act against an SC/ST person which may be distressive or
punishable.

(9) Humiliating a SC/ST person.

(10) Molesting an SC/ST woman.

(11) Sexual harassment of an SC/ST woman.

(12) Polluting the drinking water used by an SC/ST person.

(13) Forcing an SC/ST person to leave his house, neighbourhood or his village.

The machinery for safeguarding the interests of the SCs (and STs) has been created in
the form of setting up a Commissioner for SCs and STs and recently a National
Commission for SCs and STI This Commission functions as an advisory body on
issues/policies related to the development of the SCs (and STs)

YOUTH UNREST

Youth unrest may be defined as the manifestation of collective frustration

of the youth in the society

Causes:

1. Improper Socialisation and Family Problems:

The failure on the part of parents to bring up their children, in accordance with the
culture expectations of the society has made the youth to go astray. The evil habits
and bad qualities of the parents also have a harmful effect on the personality growth
of the children. The family problems spoil the mental peace and the emotionality of
the growing children.

2. Political, Social and Economic Inequalities:

The young people are more sensitive to the political, economic and social inequalities
and exploitation. They have contempt for the existing system. They are disillusioned
with what they are having and are pessimistic about the future.

3. Defective Educational System:

The students do not have any respect for the present defective educational system.
The outdated, uninspiring, unintegrated and irrelevant educational system cannot
make the students to become disciplined and responsible.

4. Unemployment:
The unemployment of the educated youths is on the increase. The education that they
receive does not enable them to become economically self-reliant. On the other hand,
the government is not in a position to provide employment to all the educated youth.
As a result, the youth are losing confidence in themselves and are becoming more and
more restless.

5. Corrupt and Discredited Authority:

The youth are disappointed with the corrupt and discredited authority. Corruption,
craziness for power, moral lapses, opportunism, nepotism, discrimination, etc., found
among the political and social leaders has made the youth to have nothing but
contempt for them. The leadership has failed to set a good model for the students to
emulate.

6. Misuse of Student Power by the Politicians:

The corrupt and unscrupulous politicians, who are making use of student power to
further their partisan political interests, are also contributing to the problem. Students
are becoming puppets in the hands of some disgruntled politicians to serve their
selfish ends.

7. Administrative Failures:
Youth unrest is often caused by administrative errors and miscalculations. The
indifference and lack of sympathy for the student demands on the part of the
administrations (of the university as well as the government) many times force the
students, to resort to strikes.

8. Communication Gap:
Lack of understanding and lack of proper communication between the students and
teachers on the one hand, parents and children on the other also cause youth unrest.
The failure on the part of the parents to understand the aspirations of their young
children also adds to the problem.

9. Value Differences and Conflict of Values:

The value differences in society, the changes and conflicts of values also contribute to
youth unrest,

(i) Some of the old values are at conflict now, the traditional beliefs, practices, ideas,
ideals and values appear to be outmoded, unscientific, irrelevant and irrational for the
modern youths.

(ii) The youths are becoming more and more rationalistic. They are impressed by the
modern values based on science and rationalism. Still, they are not in a position to
give up the traditional values completely. They are in a state of confusion. They can
neither accept the new completely nor do away with the old once and for all. This has
made them to become restless.

(iii) The youth are influenced by values of individualism and democracy. Hence they
are revolting against the old traditional order.

(iv) The youths feel they are also matured, responsible and sensible. They resent their
elders treating them as immatured and irresponsible lot. They feel annoyed and
embarrassed to find themselves in a helpless situation. They do not want to remain
dumb witnesses to all the unfortunate and unwanted events that happen in society.

(v) Some of the youths are carried away by the hedonistic values or pleasure
philosophy. They want to take the maximum benefit out of the disturbed social
situations. They have no respect for any values for they have lost faith in them.

10. Lack of Opportunities:

The youths do not get proper opportunities, to express their talents, cultivate their
interests and develop their personality. This has contributed to their dissatisfaction.

11. Gap between the Aspirations and Achievement:

The youths are likely to have their own aspirations and ambitions. They will be
dreaming about it all the while. But the reality of life makes them to become
disgusted. The youths with unfulfilled desires and aspirations can hardly be at rest.

12. Lack of Determination and Self-Responsibility:

Some of the youths lack will power and self-determination. They depend more on
others rather than on their intrinsic abilities and talents. They apishly imitate others
and fail to develop the spirit of self-reliance. They are hesitant to assume
responsibilities. Such youths are highly vulnerable for any kind of use.

13. Influence of Movies:

The modern movies which mostly portray violence, arson, loot, rape, murder,
immorality, crimes, etc. have a great demoralising effect on the modern youths.
Students, in particular, imitate their pet film actors and actresses with all their frailties.
Scant respect for their cultural values and the apish imitation of the Western
tendencies has further contributed to the problem.

Remedies
1. System of Education:
A thorough overhauling for our education system is necessary to help the students to
face the problems and challenges of life. No hotch-potch change in education would
suffice. But education requires a comprehensive planning and an integral approach.

This would bridge the gap between what the students actually experience and what is
taught to them in schools and colleges.

Colleges and universities should make proper provision for (a) adequate boarding and
lodging facilities, (b) better libraries and reading rooms and laboratories, (c) enough
facilities for recreation and extra-curricular activities (d) seminar and tutorial, system.

2. Employment Opportunities:
Efforts should be made to provide opportunities for the students to offer courses in
agriculture, engineering, business management, commerce, medicine, etc. The spirit
of self-reliance must be created and the students should be encouraged to set up
business and cottage industries of their own.
3. Provision for Leisure-time Activities:
Students should not be allowed to idle their time. Hobby clubs and workshops
catering to painting, music, photography, stamp collection, swimming, etc. may be
established in colleges. Indoor games, dramatic performances, excursions and picnics,
functions catering to the interest of fine arts and literature must be encouraged among
them.

4. Economic Difficulties:
Poor and the needy students should be given financial help through scholarships, free
ships, loan scholarships, free hostel facilities, stipends, etc. so that they do not drop
out of schools and colleges. The programme of earn while you learn needs to be well
organised.

5. Discipline:
Students should be assisted in developing self-discipline for it is long lasting than the
imposed discipline. Acts of indiscipline should be dealt with sternly, but of course,
humanistically. The teachers must play an important role in this respect.

6. Able Leadership:
Students very badly need able and efficient leadership. In any democratic set-up
leadership is very important. Leadership training programmes under supervision
should be introduced in colleges. Politicians must not be allowed to misguide the
students.

7. Role of Political Parties:

Political parties should be kept out of the college campuses. The students should have
political awareness, but their active participation in politics would spoil the peaceful
atmosphere of the campus. The student leaders, teachers and university authorities
must make joint venture to save education and campus from power politics.
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