CH 2 Part 2 PDF

Chapter 5
Small-scale Multipath Propagation
Multi-path Propagation
10
0
-10
dB

time or wavelength
Wireless Communication
Small-scale Fading and Multipath

Rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal over a short period of
time or travel distance
Fading is caused by multipath waves
Transmitted signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly different times
Effects: factors influencing small-scale fading
Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval
Random frequency modulation varying Doppler shift
Speed of the mobile or speed of surrounding objects.
Time dispersion Multipath delay : depends on bandwidth of the signal.
Fading
No single line-of-sight (LOS): mobile antennas are below the height of surround
structures
With LOS, multipath still occurs
Multipath random distributed amplitude, phases and angles.
A mobile is stationary, the signal may fade due to movement of surrounding objects.
A receiver moving at high speed can pass through several fades in a small of time.
Doppler shift
Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 1 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin
Page 1
Multipath Fading
Slow Fading
over large distances, due to gross changes in path
also called shadowing, log-normal fading
Fast Fading
over distances on the order of a wavelength
also called Rayleigh fading
Assumptions for above types:
many waves of roughly equal amplitude arrive
Rayleigh distributed amplitude
uniformly distributed phase
spatial angle of arrival
azimuth is uniformly distributed
elevation: PDF has mean of 0o, biased towards small angles, does not
extend to infinity, and has no discontinuities
Rician Fading
there is a LOS or dominant path, producing fewer deep fades occurs in
small cells
Multipath Fading: Duration and

Frequency
AT LEAST 18 dB C/I
10
0
-10
THRESHOLD FOR
dB ESTIMATING n and t

time or wavelength
for a Rayleigh signal 95% of the amplitude is above -10 dB

V = vehicle speed,
= carrier wavelength
n = average number of level crossings at 10 dB below average power
t = average fade duration at 10 dB below RMS power

n = 0.75 V crossings/second and t = 0.132 seconds
V
e.g. at 850 mHz and 15 miles per hour, n = 16 crossings/second, and t = 6 msec
Page 2
Multi-path Propagation Effects

Multi-path Propagation
Signal levels vary as user moves
Slow variations come from blockage
and shadowing by large objects
such as hills and buildings
Rapid Fading comes as signals
received from many paths drift into
and out of phase
phase cancellation occurs, causing
rapid fades that are occasionally deep Rayleigh Fading
the fades are roughly /2 apart: A

7 inches apart at 800 MHz. 10-15 dB

3 inches apart at 1900 MHz
called Rayleigh fading, after the
statistical model that describes it t
Selective Diversity
. maximum amplitude
. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .
A path 1
. ... . . . . .. .. ..
path 2
Use a diversity scheme to take advantage of uncorrelated fading

Use the dominant instantaneous amplitude
This eliminates most of the deep nulls
Page 3
Space Diversity
A Method for Combating Rayleigh Fading
D Fortunately, Rayleigh fades are
very short and last a small
percentage of the time
Two antennas separated by several
wavelengths will not generally
experience fades at the same time
Space Diversitycan be obtained
by using two receiving antennas
Signal received by
Antenna 1 and switching instant-by-instant to
whichever is best
Signal received by Required separation D for good
Antenna 2 decorrelation is 10-20(BS)
12-24 ft. @ 800 MHz.
Combined Signal 5-10 ft. @ 1900 MHz.
Required separation D is
(MS)
Space Diversity
D Application Limitations
Space Diversity can be applied
only on the receiving end of a link.
Transmitting on two antennas
would:
fail to produce diversity, since the
two signals combine to produce only
one value of signal level at a given
Signal received point -- no diversity results.
by Antenna 1 produce objectionable nulls in the
radiation at some angles
Signal received Therefore, space diversity is
by Antenna 2 applied only on the uplink, i.e.,
reverse path
Combined there isn
t room for two sufficiently
Signal separated antennas on a mobile or
handheld
Page 4
Doppler Shift
Doppler spreading increases the signal bandwidth
fd : moving toward, moving away
fd = cos() (v/ )
Example: fc 1850 MHz, 60mile/hour (mph)
= c / fc = 3 108 / 1850 106 = 0.162 m
v = 60 mph = 26.82 m/s
The mobile is moving toward the transmitter, fd = 26.82 / 0.162 = 1850.0 Hz
The mobile is moving away the transmitter, fd = - 1850.0 Hz
fd = 0, as = 90 cos() = 0
v
Impulse Response Model of a

multipath Channel
The small-scale variations of a mobile radio signal ; assumptions
The velocity may be assumed constant over a short time (or distance) interval.
The multipath channel is a band-limited band-pass channel
The high frequency variations caused by carrier is removed. (baseband).
N-1
hb (t,
)= ai ( t, ) exp [ j2fc i ( t ) + i (t, )] (-i ( t )]
I=0
i (t, )
ai ( t, ) : real amp. and excess delay of A time-varying discrete-time impulse response for a multipath radio channel
Ith multipath component at time t.
i (t, ) = 2fc I ( t ) + i (t, ) : the
phase shift due to free space
propagations of the Ith multipath
component + additional phase shifts
i (t, ) : lumps together all the
mechanisms for phase shifts of a
single multipath component within
the ith excess delay bin.
Page 5
Impulse Reponses Model (time invariant)

If the channel impulse response is assumed to be time invariant
or is at WSS over a small-scale time or distance interval, then
N-1
hb () = ai exp [ ji ] (-
i)
i=0
x+iy
Power delay profile: the spatial of | hb (t, ) |2 over a local area.
) |2
P ( t ; ) = k | hb (t, base band , K relates the transmitted power
average over a local area to

provide a single time -invariant
multipath power make several
local area measurement in
different location P ()
Measurement : hb ( ) can be
predicted by a probing pulse p( t )
p( t ) ( t - ) x2(t) = 1/2 2
c(t)
Bandwidth and Received power

Wideband signal : a very narrow pulse, p( t ), does not fluctuate when a
receiver is moved about a local area The received power varies very little
Narrowband signal : the CW signal strength will vary at a rate governed by
the fluctuations of ai and i large signal fluctuations (fading) occur
ai varies little over local area
I varies greatly due to changes Narrowband
in propagation distance
When the path amplitudes are
uncorrelated, multipath phases Wideband
are I.I.d over [ 0 , 2]
multipath is not resolved
fading due to the phase shifts of
the many unresolved multipath
components
Ex: Tb = 10ns wideband signal and

CW signal, fc = 4GHz
Page 6
Bandpass and Baseband channel

impulse response
Mobile radio channel as a function of time and space.
Channel impulse response = h(d, t), x(t) = transmitted signal
the received signal y(d,t) = x(t) h(d,t), d: position of the receiver
d = vt, v : assumed constant over a short time interval.
h(d, t) h( t, ) , t : time due to motion, : multipath delay for a fixed t.
Bandpass channel Complex baseband impulse response
factor of 1/2 are due to the properties of the complex envelope Bandpass channel
y(t)
1
f
-fc fc

f
Complex Baseband
2 ~y(t)
f
f
~ ), ~ ~ ~
y(t) = 1/2 ~
~ x(t ) h(t x(t ) = c(t ), h(t ) = hb(t ), y(t ) = r(t )
Complex Envelop of Bandpass System

h
t
Re h b
t
e j2 fc t , h b
th R
tjh I
t
1
x(t)
c.c
-fc fc
h
t h t
1 j2 fc t Immediate complex
2
e b term
c(t)
2
c.c
f
x
t ct
1 j 2 f c t
e
2
y
tx
th
t h
x t
1
d h(t)
f
-fc fc
2
h b
ct
1
de j2 fct c.c
hb(t)
4 Cos(2fct )+ j sin(2fct ) f
0 2
h b
ct
1
e j2 fcde j2 fct c.c r(t)= (c(t) hb(t)
4
f
1
y
t Re hb
t c
t ej2fct r
t hb
t c
1
t 1
y(t)
2 2 f
Page 7
Channel Baseband Complex Envelope
Baseand impulse of a multipath channel

N-1 Initial phase
hb ( t, ) = ai ( t, ) exp [ j2fc i ( t ) + i (t, ) ] (-
i ( t ) )
I=0
i (t, )
Time invariant baseand impulse
h(t ) Re[ hb
N-1
hb ( ) = ai exp [ ji ] (- i )
i=0
x+iy
Power delay profile : the spatial

average of hb (t, ) 2 over a
local area ~ d ~ t.
To provide a single time-invariant
multipath power delay profile P () d(t)
Maximum bandwidth that this
model can accurately represent is
equal to 1 / 2 t
Wideband Signal in Mutipath Channel

Tbb
A pulsed, transmitted RF signal 2
a1
x( t ) = Re { p( t ) exp [ j2 fc( t ) ],
p
t 2 TREP
max Tbb a repetitive baseband pulse a2
train with very narrow pulse width Tbb and
period TREP Wideband signal
TREP >> max , max : maximum excess delay
Low-pass channel output r(t) hb (t) Instantaneous power delay profile
N-1
r (t ) = ai exp [ ji ] p(t - i ) a1 Measure at t0 ~ d0

i=0 a2
a3
To determine the received power at ai
some time t0 Complex Base Band

1
2
3
i t
The measured power if the multipath
components are resolved Resolved
N-1 average N-1
d2 d0
PWB = |r (t0 ) |2 = ak 2(t0 ) Ea, [PWB ]= ak2 d1
k= 0 k= 0
Sum of powers received in each multipath bins received
power does not fluctuate with d ~ ai , f
Page 8
Narrow Signal in Mutipath Channel

Tbb
A CW, transmitted RF signal a1
x( t ) = Re { p( t ) exp [ j2 fc( t ) ],
The complex envelope is given by c(t) = 2 a2
Instantaneous complex envelope of the received
signal N-1
r (t ) = ai exp [ ji ( t, ) ] fading
i=0
Instantaneous envelope a1 + a2
Instantaneous power (Complex base band )
N-1 Measured at t0 ~ d0
Pcw = |r (t0 ) |2 = | a i exp [ ji ( t, ) ] |2

i=0
N-1 N-1 N
Ea,[Pcw ] = ai 2 +2 r i, j cos(i - j )
i=0 i=0 j i d
r i, j = Ea [ai aj ]: path amp. Correlation coefficient d0
Ea,[Pcw ]= Ea, [PWB ] as r i, j and/or cos(i - j ) =0 d1
This can occur i are i.i.d over [0,2] or path amplitudes

are uncorrelated f
An Example (SMRCIM)
This technique of quantizing the delay bins determines the
time delay resolution of the channel model
Maximum bandwidth that the SMRCIM model (Simulation of Mobile
Radio Channel Impulse-response Models) can accurately represent
is equal to 1 / 2 (useful frequency span of the model)
Example: A discrete channel impulse response model, If
number of multipath bins is 64,
urban radio cahannel with excess delays up to 100 s.
= N / N = 100/ 64 =1.5625 s
1 / 2 = 1/ (2(1.5625 s)) = 0.32 MHz
DELAY SPREAD FUNCTION
microcellular channels with excess delays < 4 s.
= N / N = 4/ 64 =62.5 ns
1 / 2 = 1/ (2(62.5s)) = 8 MHz
indoor channels with excess delays < 500ns
= N / N = 500 10 / 64 =7.8125 ns
-9

1 / 2 = 1/ (2(7.8125 ns)) = 64 MHz
N =

Page 9
An Example (Narrow band v.s.Wideband)
A mobile traveling at a velocity of 10 m/s, two multipath

components, fc = 1000MHz, The first path with 0 = 0 and power = -
70dBm, Second path with 1 = 1 s and power = -73dBm. Mobile
moves directly towards the first path and away from the second.
0 = 0 , 1 = 0, = c / f = 0.3m second
P0 = -70dBm = 100pW, P1 = -73dBm = 50pW complex
at t =0, the narrow instantaneous power = 2
r(t) first
=100pW exp(0)+ 50pW exp(0) 2 = 291 pW
at t = 0.1s, 0 = 2d / = 2vt / = 210 0.1 / 0.3 = 20.94 rad = 2.09 rad= 120
1 = -120 , since mobile moves away from the second component.
2 =
r(t) 100pW exp(j120)+ 50pW exp(-j120) 2 = 79.3 pW t=0
at t = 0.3s, 0 = 360= 0 , 1 = -360= 0= 2

r(t)= 291 pW
at t = 0.4s, 2 = 79.3 pW, at t = 0.5s,
r(t) 2 = 79.3 pW.
r(t)
The average narrowband received power = (2)(291)+(4)(79.3)/6 = 149 pW
t = 0.1
The average wideband received power = P0 + P1 = 100+50 = 150 pw
PW,B PN,B, The wideband signal power remains constant over the same interval
Delay Profile
Measured multipath power delay profiles
900 MHz cellular in San Francisco
Inside a grocery store at 4GHz
Page 10
Time Dispersion Parameters
Power delay profile

Mean excess delay
RMS delay spread
Excess delay spread
Mean excess delay
ak2 k P( k ) k
k
k
=
ak 2
P( k )
k k
RMS deplay spread
ak2 k2 P( k ) k2
= 2 - ( )
2
Where 2
k
ak
=
k
k
2
P( k )
k
In outdoor mobile: RMS ~ s In indoor mobile: RMS ~ ns
An Example
Maximum excess delay ( xdB ):
time delay during which multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum.
I.e.
x-
0 , where 0 is the first arriving signal,
x is the maximum delay at
which a multipath component X dB of the strongest arriving component
(which does not necessarily arrive at 0 )
Threshold level: ,
2 , depend on the choice of noise threshold

noise threshold , ,
2
, Pr(
)
0dB
Example: -10dB
1
= 4.38 sec Bc = -20dB
5
2 = 21.07 sec = 146 kHz -30dB

= 1.37 sec 0 1 2 5
( s)
Page 11
Typical measured RMS delay spread
Outdoor mobile channel : RMS is on the order of s

Indoor radio channel : RMS is on the order of ns
Coherence Bandwidth
Relation derived from RMS delay spread
BW Bc , the channel can be considered as flat
Flat channel: a channel which passes all spectral components with
equal gain and linear phase
Two frequency components have a strong potential for amplitude
correlation over the range of frequencies.
Relation between Frequency correlation function and Bc
1
correlation function > 0.9 Bc
50 CR > 0.5
1 CR > 0.9
correlation function > 0.5 Bc
5
Ex: = 1.37 sec, Bc 1/ 5= 146 kHz
AMP BW = 30k no equalizer required.
GSM 200 k equalizer required
Page 12
Signal BW v.s. Coherent Bandwidth
t f
T BW > Bc Freq. Selective channel
Narrowband Channel
1
Bc BW 1/T

t f
BW Bc Flat channel
Wideband Channel
Flat and Frequency-selective Fading

2-ray multipath channel (point-point)
Flat fading Frequency-selective fading
Page 13
Channel Delay Spread, A

Phenomenological Model
DELAY SPREAD FUNCTION
| H(f) |

TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
CHANNEL
TRANSFER
FUNCTION
The delay spread of a channel d is the RMS value of the channel

impulse response (delay spread function)
In a mobile environment, the delay spread function is constantly
changing (i.e., |h(f)| is a nonlinear time-varying filter)
The channel transfer function |h(f)| has a lowpass characteristic with
multiple delays (time dispersion)
The delay spread represents the time it takes most of the energy from
the transmitter to propagate (at c = 3e+8 m/s) to the receiver
can be considered the group delay of the channel model |h(f)|
For in-building propagation, = 0.1 s; for urban propagation = 3s
Coherence Bandwidth, Frequency

Diversity Gain and Delay Spread
The channel coherence bandwidth BC can be computed from the
delay spread d of a channel:
1
BC =
2
If a signal has a bandwidth b greater than BC , then the signal has
frequency components that fade independently. the signal has a
frequency diversity gain, G
G = 1+B , B : Bandwidth of signal
Signals with bandwidths greater than BC are more resistant to

channel fading effects
EXAMPLES:
Compute the coherence bandwidth of a channel with = 3s (Bc = 53 khz)
Show there is no frequency diversity gain for amps.(AMPS = 30 khz < 53 khz)
Compute the frequency diversity gain for CDMA. ( g = 1 + 1.25 x 3 = 4.75)
Page 14
INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE (ISI)

AND DELAY SPREAD
To avoid isi in the standstill (nonfading) case, the maximum data rate
RB is related to the delay spread d of the channel
1
RB =

To avoid ISI in mobile environments (fading case), the maximum data
rate RB is given by:
1
RB =
2
EXAMPLE:
You are interested in buying a wireless modem from a vendor for indoor data
transmission at rates less than 300 kbits/sec.
the vendor insists that you buy modems equipped with equalizers which
doubles the price.
is this necessary? no. assume a fading case with = 0.5s, then RB = 318
kbits/sec
Doppler Spread
To describe time varying nature of the channel in a
small-scale region.
Doppler spread BD : a measure of the spectral boarding channel
caused by the time rate of change of the channel.
Doppler spectrum : components in the range fc-fd to fc-fd.
Effect of Doppler spread are negligible, as BW signal BD
t
Coherence time TC is the time domain Tc
dual of Doppler
To characterize time varying nature
Tc 1/ fm under Rayleigh fading
Ts Tc channel will change during the
transmission of the baseband message
distortion
Time correlation function > 0.5,
Tc 9 / 16fm , fm: the max. Doppler shift
Page 15
A thumb rule
A popular rule of thumb for modern digital communications is
f 9 0.423
TC = =
16 m
2 fm
Tc 1/ fm suggests a time duration during Rayleigh fading
Tc 9 / 16fm is often too restrictive
Definition of coherence time : two signals arriving with a time separation > Tc
are affected differently by the channel.
Example: A vehicle, speed = 60 mile/per hour, fc = 900 MHz

Tc = 9 / 16fm = 2.22ms
If a digital transmission is used, max. symbol rate Rc = 1/ Tc = 454bps.
Distortion could result from multipath time delay spread
Using the practical rule, Tc = 0.423/fm = 6.77ms , max. symbol rate Rc = 1/ Tc =
150bps
An Example
Small-scale propagation measurements

Determine the proper spatial sampling interval
consecutive samples are highly correlated in time
fc = 1900 MHz and v = 50m/s.
For correlation, the sampling time is Tc /2. Use the smallest Tc for
conservative design.
Tc 9 / 16fm = 9/16 v = 565 s Tc /2 = 282.5 s
How many samples is required over 10m travel distance.
Spatial sampling interval: x = vTc /2 = 50 565 s /2 = 1.41 cm
Required samples = Nx = 10 / x =708 samples
How long would it take to make these measurements
d / v = 10m/50 = 0.2 seccond
The Doppler spread BD = fm = vfc / c = 316.66 Hz
Page 16
Types of small-scale fading
Depending on the relation Small-Scale fading

between the signal and (based on multipath time delay spread)
channel parameters,
different transmitted
signals will undergo Flat Fading Frequency selective Fading
different types of fading 1. BW of signal < BW of channel
2. Delay spread < Symbol period
1. BW of signal > BW of channel
2. Delay spread > Symbol period
Signal parameters: Small-Scale fading

Bandwidth, symbol period (based on Doppler spread)
Channel parameters: RMS
delay spread, Doppler
spread Fast Fading Slow Fading
1. High Doppler spread 1. Low Doppler spread
2. Coherence time < Symbol period 2. Coherence time > Symbol period
3. Channel variations faster than 3. Channel variations slower than
baseband signal variations baseband signal variations
Types of fading
Ts
Transmitting Symbol
Symbol Period of
Flat Slow Flat Fast

Type of fading experienced Fading Fading
by a signal as a function of

Frequency Selective Frequency Selective
Slow Fading Fast Fading
Signal parameters: Ts
Tc
Symbol period (Ts )
Transmitted Symbol Period
Baseband signal Bs
bandwidth ( Bs )
Transmitted baseband
signal bandwidth
Channel parameters: Frequency Selective Frequency Selective

RMS delay spread () Fast Fading Slow Fading
Bc
Coherent BW ( Bc )
Flat Fast Flat Slow
Doppler spread ( BD ) Fading Fading
Coherent Time ( Tc ) Bs
BD
Transmitted baseband signal bandwidth
Page 17
Rayleigh Distribution
To describe statistical time varying

nature of the received envelope
A flat fading signal
An individual multipath component
The envelope of the two quadrature
Gaussian noise
r = x2 + y2
x+iy
Zero-mean Gaussian dist. with 2

r r2
exp ( ) , 0 r
P(r) = 2 22
0 , r 0
Rayleigh
fading beams
: rms before envelope

2 : time-average power before x, y
envelope t
Rayleigh Distribution Parameters
Cumulative distribution function (CDF)
R2
P( R ) = Pr( r R) = 1- exp ( )
22
Mean value of Rayleigh distribution

rmean = E [ r ] = r p( r ) dr = / 2 = 1.2533
0
Variance of Rayleigh distribution
E [ r 2 ] = E [ x 2 ] + E [ y 2 ] = 2 2
1.2533
r2 =E[r 2] (E [ r ] )2 =2 2 - (/2) = 0.4292 2
rms of the envelope = square root of the mean square = E [ r 2 ] = 2
Page 18
Ricean Fading Distribution

There is a dominant stationary (nonfading) signal component
line-of-sight ( LOS ) Rayleigh
small-scale fading envelope distribution is Ricean
Ricean Rayleigh as LOS fades away

r ( r 2 +A2 ) Ar
exp ( ) I0 ( ) , A 0 , 0 r
P(r) = 2
22 2
, r 0
0
A : peak amplitude of LOS Random multipath

LOS
I0 ( ) : Modified Bessel function of the first kind
of zero-order
K = A2 / ( 2 2 ) : describe Ricean distribution
K (dB) = 10 log [ A2 / ( 2 2 ) ] dB
A 0, K dB, Ricean Rayleigh
Clarke
s Model for Flat Fading
Assumptions
A fixed transmitter with a vertically polarized antenna
The field on the mobile antenna comprises of N azimuthal plane waves with
arbitrary carrier phases
z
vertically polarized
arbitrary azimuthal angles of arrival y
each wave having equal average amplitude
in absence of a direct LOS
experience similar attenuation over small-scale distances

Vertically polarized plane waves at BS x
N
Azimuthal plane
Ez = E0 Cn cos ( 2 fct + n )
n =1
Doppler shift is very small Tc( t ) and Ts( t ): Gaussian

The phase angles uniformly distributed on [0, 2] Random processes
Ez = Tc( t ) cos ( 2 fct ) + Ts( t ) sin( 2 fct ) r ( t ) = Tc2( t ) + Ts2( t )
2 = E 2 / 2 = 2
Tc2 = Tc2 = Ez 0
Rayleigh distribution = p (r)
Page 19
Spectral-Shape with Doppler-spread

Spectral analysis for Clark
s model
Total received power z
vertically polarized
2 y
Pr = A G() p() d
0

G() = Antenna Azimuthal gain pattern
x
A : average received power w.r.t an Azimuthal plane
isotropic antenna y
p() = incoming power of the angle

instantaneous freq. Of the received signal (CW, freq.= fc) component
arriving at an angle
v
f () = f = cos() + fc = fm cos() + fc
df
=d
-sin
fm

fm : maximum Doppler shift, an even function f () = f (-)
The received power with frequency
S( f )
df
= A [ G() p() + G(-) p(-)]
d
Doppler power spread

0 180
Doppler power spectrum
(unmodulated CW carrier)
= cos -1 [ ( f-fc ) / fm ]
sin = 1-[( f-fc ) / fm ] 2
For the case, vertical /4 Antenna G()

=1.5 and p() = 1/2over [0, 2]
1.5
SEz( f ) =
fm 1-[( f-fc ) / fm ] 2
A Baseband power spectral density
1
SbbEz( f ) = K 1- ( f / 2fm ] 2
8fm
K [ ] : complete elliptical integral of the first kind
not intuitive
Page 20
Two-Rayleigh Fading Model

To consider multipath time delay spread as well as fading
hb ( t ) = 1 exp [ j1 ] ( t ) + 2 exp [ j2 ] ( t - )
1 , 2 : independent and Rayleigh distributed
1 , 2 : independent and uniformly distributed
over distributed
: time delay between two rays
To create a wide range of frequency selective
fading effects by varying
1st Rayleigh fading neam
2nd Rayleigh fading neam Rayleigh fading beam

Simulation of Flat Fading Model

Quadrature Amplitude modulation Quadrature Amplitude modulation
RF Doppler filter Two indep. Gaussian low-pass noise
Baseband Doppler filter for in-phase and quadrature fading
Spectral filter
Accurate time domain of Doppler
fading IFFT at the last stage
Construct negative components of the noise source
Page 21
Simulation of frequency-selective Fading
To produce both flat and

frequency-selective fading
effects
Several Rayleigh fading
simulators
Variable gains
Time delays
Rayleigh Ricean
Add a single freq. Component
dominant in amplitude within
Doppler fading spectrum
Small-scale multipath measurements
Measurements
Direct RF pulse system
Spread spectrum sliding
correlator
Narrow BW wideband
Frequency Domain
FFT, IFFT
Page 22
Digital Modulation under flat fading

Performance in slow, flat fading channels in AWGN
Binary modulation
Rayleigh fading
To average the error
probability in AWGN over
the possible ranges of signal
strength due to fading
= [ Eb/ No] 2 is the

average value of signal-to-
noise ratio, has a Rayleigh
distribution
Mean SNR is significantly
larger than that required Fading v.s. nonfading
when operating over a
nonfading channel (~20-
50dB)
Level Crossing Rate (LCR)

Level Crossing Rate (LCR): the rate at which the Rayleigh
fading envelope, normalized to RMS level (2 ), crosses a
specified level.
NR : the number of level crossings per second ( r = R )

rp
N R dr 2fm e
2
R , r 10
0 0
-10 R
fm : the maximum Doppler frequency
r: time derivative of r(t) dB
p
R , r: joint density function of r and
r at r = R 1 sec.
= R / Rrms : the value of the specified NR
R normalized to RMS amplitude of Few crossings at both high and low levels
fading envelope Maximum at = 2
Example: For a Rayleigh fading signal, = 1, maximum Doppler freq.
fm= 20Hz, fc = 900 MHz.
NR = 2(20) 1e -1 = 18.44 crossings per second
f d,max = v / v = 20 (1/3) = 6.66 ms = 24 km/hr
Page 23
Average fade duration

Average fade duration: average period of time for which the
received signal a specified R. For a Rayleigh fading signal
e - 1
2
1
= Pr [ r R ] = 10
NR fm 2 0
R
Pr [ r R ] = 1- exp( 2 ) : probability
that the received signal less than R =
the fading time in one second.
Helps determine the most likely NR
number of signaling bits that may be 1 sec.
lost during a fade Pr [ r R ] = fading time in 1 sec.
Example: Threshold level = 0.707, Doppler freq. = fm = 20Hz, Binary

digital modulation with bit duration of 50 bps, bit error occurs for 0.1
2
The average fade duration = (e 0.707 -1) / (0.707)20 2= 18.3 ms
bit period = 1/50 = 20ms the signal undergoes than fast Rayleigh fading
for =0.1, = 0.002 s = 20ms one bit will be lost during a fade, NR = 4.96 the
total number of bits in error is 5/sec. BER = 5/50 = 0.1
Lesson 5 Complete
Page 24

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Chapter 5

Small-scale Multipath Propagation

Small-scale Fading and Multipath

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 1 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Multipath Fading: Duration and

for a Rayleigh signal 95% of the amplitude is above -10 dB

Multi-path Propagation Effects

7 inches apart at 800 MHz. 10-15 dB

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 4 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Use a diversity scheme to take advantage of uncorrelated fading

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 5 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 8 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Impulse Response Model of a

Impulse Reponses Model (time invariant)

average over a local area to

Bandwidth and Received power

Ex: Tb = 10ns wideband signal and

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 11 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Bandpass and Baseband channel

Complex Envelop of Bandpass System

Channel Baseband Complex Envelope

Baseand impulse of a multipath channel

Power delay profile : the spatial

Wideband Signal in Mutipath Channel

r (t ) = ai exp [ ji ] p(t - i ) a1 Measure at t0 ~ d0

Narrow Signal in Mutipath Channel

This can occur i are i.i.d over [0,2] or path amplitudes

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 17 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

An Example (Narrow band v.s.Wideband)

A mobile traveling at a velocity of 10 m/s, two multipath

at t = 0.3s, 0 = 360= 0 , 1 = -360= 0= 2

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 18 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 19 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Time Dispersion Parameters

Power delay profile

Mean excess delay

2 = 21.07 sec = 146 kHz -30dB

Typical measured RMS delay spread

Outdoor mobile channel : RMS is on the order of s

Relation between Frequency correlation function and Bc

Signal BW v.s. Coherent Bandwidth

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 24 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Flat and Frequency-selective Fading

Flat fading Frequency-selective fading

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 25 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Channel Delay Spread, A

The delay spread of a channel d is the RMS value of the channel

Coherence Bandwidth, Frequency

Signals with bandwidths greater than BC are more resistant to

INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE (ISI)

Example: A vehicle, speed = 60 mile/per hour, fc = 900 MHz

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 30 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Small-scale propagation measurements

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 31 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Types of small-scale fading

Depending on the relation Small-Scale fading

Signal parameters: Small-Scale fading

Chapter 5 Small-scale multipath propagation 32 Dr. Sheng-Chou Lin

Flat Slow Flat Fast

Channel parameters: Frequency Selective Frequency Selective

To describe statistical time varying

Zero-mean Gaussian dist. with 2

: rms before envelope