Chapter 6
Fundamentals
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview
of the problems caused by hydraulic transients and an
insight into the circumstances that make a more thor-
ough analysis necessary. The fundamental theory of
hydraulic transient analysis is described simply, with
no attempt to present rigorous mathematical or analyt-
ical methods. Simple numerical examples include
surge pressure calculations, attenuation of surge pres-
sure by programmed valve closure, and the design of
pipe to resist upsurge and downsurge pressures.
For more complete discussions of hydraulic tran-
sients, see Parmakian [1], Rich [2], Wy lie and Streeter
[3], Waiters [4], and Chaudhry [5].
6-1. Introduction
Hydraulic transients are the time-varying phenomena
that follow when the equilibrium of steady flow in a
system is disturbed by a change of flow that occurs
over a relatively short time period. Transients are
important in hydraulic systems because they can
cause (1) rupture of pipe and pump casings; (2) pipe
collapse; (3) vibration; (4) excessive pipe displace-
ments, pipe-fitting, and support deformation and/or
failure; and (5) vapor cavity formation (cavitation,
column separation).
of Hydraulic Transients
BAYARD E. BOSSERMAN Il
WILLIAMA. HUNT
CONTRIBUTORS
Robert C. Glover
Joseph R. Kroon
M. Steve Merrill
Gary Z. Waiters
Some of the primary causes (and frequency of occur-
rence) of transients are (1) valve movementsclosure
or opening (often), (2) flow demand changes (rarely),
(3) controlled pump shutdown (rarely), (4) pump failure
(often), (5) pump start-up (rarely), (6) air venting from
lines (often), (7) failure of flow or pressure regulators
(rarely), and (8) pipe rupture (rarely).
The identification and calculation of pressures,
velocities, and other abnormal behavior resulting from
hydraulic transients make possible the effective use of
various control strategies, such as the
selection of pipes and fittings to withstand the antic-
ipated pressures;
selection and location of the proper control devices
to alleviate the adverse effects of transients; and
identification of proper start-up, operation, and
shutdown procedures for the system.
The analysis of unsteady flow in pipe systems is
generally divided into two major categories.
Rigid water column theory (surge theory). The fluid
and pipe are inelastic, and pressure changes propagate
instantaneously. These flow conditions are described
by ordinary differential equations.
Solution: closed-form integration or finite differ-
ence numerical integration.
 Advantages: the analysis can be applied by a person K Bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid (in
with little numerical analysis skill and with limited newtons per square meter [pounds per square
computational facilities. inch or pounds per square foot]; see Table
Disadvantages: the solutions, which are always A-8orA-9)
approximations, are applicable only to simple pipe- L Length of pipeline (in meters [feet])
lines. Considerable experience is required to know AP Change of pressure due to surge (in newtons
whether the results are applicable. per square meter [pounds per square inch])
APa Allowable pressure change due to surge (in
Elastic theory (water hammer). The elasticity of
newtons per square meter [pounds per square
both fluid and pipe affect the pressure changes. Pres-
inch])
sure changes propagate with wave speed, a, which
Patm Atmospheric pressure (in newtons per square
varies from about 300 to 1400 m/s (1000 to 4700 ft/s).
meter (pounds per square inch); see Table A-
Flow conditions are described by nonlinear partial dif-
6orA-7]
ferential equations.
APC Difference between external and internal
Solution: arithmetic, graphical method or method pressure on a pipe (in newtons per square
of characteristics using finite difference techniques. meter [pounds per square inch])
Advantages: the theory accurately represents system Pv Vapor pressure of water (in newtons per
behavior and is, therefore, applicable to a wide range square meters [pounds per square inch]; see
of problems. Pipe friction, minor losses, and varying Table A-8 or A-9)
valve closure procedures can be incorporated. SF Safety factor (dimensionless)
Disadvantages: applying the theory requires a sub- sy Yield stress (in newtons per square meter
stantial initial effort on the part of user to learn it, a [pounds per square inch])
digital computer programmed for the method of t Time (in seconds)
characteristics, and a knowledge of the operational tc Critical time (2L/a\ in seconds)
characteristics of system components to set up the V Volume (in cubic meters [cubic feet])
solution for the computer. v Velocity (in meters per second [feet per sec-
ond]; in this chapter, "velocity" is average
velocity of fluid flow)
6-2. Nomenclature Av Change in velocity (in meters per second
[feet per second])
In Chapters 6 and 7, "velocity" always means velocity Ava Allowable change in velocity (in meters per
of water and "speed" means the velocity of pressure second [feet per second])
waves. The symbols used in Chapters 6 and 7 are p Density (in kilograms per cubic meters
defined as follows. [slugs per foot; see Table A-8 or A-9])
Ji Poisson's ratio (dimensionless; see Table
a Elastic wave speed in water contained in a
6-1)
pipe (in meters per second [feet per second])
Y Specific weight of water (in newtons per
C Coefficient whose value depends on pipe
cubic meter [pounds per cubic feet; see Table
restraint
A-8 or A-9])
D Inside diameter of a pipe (in meters [inches
or feet])
e Wall thickness of a pipe (in meters [inches or
feet])
j Longitudinal joint efficiency in welded pipes
6-3. Methods of Analysis
(dimensionless)
Methods of analyzing pipelines for the effects of
E Modulus of elasticity of pipe material (in new-
hydraulic transients, with or without various means of
tons per square meter [pounds per square inch
controlling them or reducing the severity, can be sum-
or pounds per square foot]; see Table 6-1).
marized as follows:
g Acceleration due to gravity (in meters per
second squared [feet per second squared]) Graphical [1]
h Head due only to surge (in meters [feet]) Arithmetic [2]
A/z Change of head due to surge (in meters Algebraic [3]
[feet]) Method of characteristics [3,4,5]
/za Allowable head due to surge (in meters Finite element
[feet]) Implicit differentiation
Table 6-1. Physical Properties of Pipe Materials

Modulus of elasticity
U.S. customary units
Material Poisson's ratio Sl units (N/m2) Ib/in.2 Ib/ft2

Aluminum 0.33 7.30 E + 1 0 1.05 E + 7 1.51 E + 9

Asbestos-cement 0.30 2.30 E + 1 0 3.4OE+ 6 4.9OE + 8
Brass 0.34 1.03 E + 1 1 1.5OE+ 7 2.16E + 9
Copper 0.30 1.10 E + 1 1 1.60 E + 7 2.3OE+ 9
Ductile iron 0.28 1.66 E +11 2.40 E + 7 3.46 E + 9
Gray cast iron 0.28 1.03 E + 1 1 1.5OE+ 7 2.16E+ 9
HDPE 0.45 1.0 E + 9a 1.5 E + 5a 2.2 E + 7a
PVC 0.45 2.7OE + 9 4.0OE+ 5 5.76E + 7
Steel 0.30 2.07 E + 1 1 3.00 E + 7 4.32 E + O
Concrete - 4 73 x 1Q6^ b 57,000^c

a
At 160C (6O0F). Increases greatly with decreasing temperature and vice versa.
b
fc is ultimate strength in newtons per square meter.
c
/c is ultimate strength in pounds per square inch.

These are methods of analysis, not methods of
design. In analysis, the system is described mathemat-
ically, and the behavior of the system is predicted by
the analysis. In design, the desired physical results are
described and alternative means for attaining these
results are compared, which leads to a selection of one
or more control measures. Analysis should be per-
formed as a part of the design process.
All of the above methods involve the equations of
motion and continuity used to describe the velocity
and pressure variation in the pipeline. For computer
modeling, the most widely used is the method of char-
acteristics, in which the partial differential equations
of motion and continuity are converted into four first-
order equations represented in finite difference form
and solved simultaneously with a computer. The
method provides for
the inclusion of many possible pipeline or system
features, such as junctions, pumping stations, air
chambers, air release valves, reservoirs, and line
valves;
the inclusion of fluid friction;
the retention of small or secondary terms in the
original equations so that accuracy is retained; and
the computation of pressure and velocity as a func-
tion of time at various points throughout the entire
pipeline system.
6-4. Surge Concepts in Frictionless Flow
Water hammer can occur in a pipeline flowing full
when the flow is increased or decreased, such as when
the setting on a valve in the line is changed. When a
valve in a pipeline is closed rapidly, the pressure on
the upstream side of the valve increases, and the pulse
of increased pressure travels upstream at the elastic
wave speed, a. This pulse (called an "upsurge")
decreases the velocity of flow. Downstream from an
in-line valve, the pressure is reduced and the wave of
decreased pressure travels downstream, also at the
elastic wave speed, a. This pulse (called a "down-
surge") decreases the velocity of flow. If the velocity
is reduced too rapidly and the steady-state pressure is
low enough, the downstream pressure can be reduced
to vapor pressure, which creates a vapor pocket. A
large vapor pocket (called "column separation") can
collapse with a dangerous explosive force produced
by the impact between solid water columns and can
cause the pipe to burst. This phenomenon can also
occur upstream of the valve when the reflected posi-
tive wave returns to the valve.
The events following a sudden closure of a valve
located a distance (L) downstream from a reservoir is
described in Figure 6-1. Friction is neglected, and the
energy gradeline (EGL) and hydraulic gradeline
(HGL) are assumed to coincide because velocity
heads are small compared with water hammer pres-
sure heads. The steady-state EGL is called //, and the
added-pressure head pulse is called h. The velocity of
the fluid under steady-state conditions is V0 just before
the valve is closed (at t = O).
The sequence of events between the valve and the
reservoir occurs in a four-phase cycle; the duration of
each phase is the time for the pressure wave to travel
between the valve and the reservoir (the length of the
 Figure 6-1. Sequence of events for one cycle after sudden valve closure.
pipeline divided by the elastic wave speed, L/a). The
sequence occurs as follows:
1 . O < t < L/a. At t = O, the fluid just upstream from
the valve is compressed and brought to rest. Part of
the pipe (section BC) is expanded and stretched, as
shown in Figure 6- Ia. This process is repeated for
each successive increment of fluid as the pressure
wave travels upstream. The fluid upstream from the
wave front continues to flow downstream until it is
stopped by the advancing pressure wave front. When
the pressure wave reaches the reservoir at t = L/a, the
fluid (at rest in the pipe) is under a total pressure head
H + /z, or h greater than the static head in the reservoir.
2. L/a < t < 2L/a. The pressure head difference at
t = L/a at the reservoir causes the fluid to flow from
the pipe back into the reservoir with a velocity -V0.
The pressure along AB is reduced to the original
steady- state level, //, and a negative wave producing
normal pressure propagates back to the valve, as
shown in Figure 6- Ib. At / = 2LIa, the pressure is nor-
mal (equal to H) along the pipe but the velocity
throughout the pipe is negative; that is, water is flow-
ing away from the valve.
3. 2LIa < t < 3LIa. At t = 2LIa, there is no fluid
available to maintain the upstream flow at the valve,
and the normal pressure head, //, is reduced by h to
bring the fluid in section BC to rest (Figure 6- Ic). This
wave of reduced pressure propagates back toward the
reservoir, all fluid comes to rest, and the reduced pres-
sure allows the fluid to expand and the pipe walls to
contract. At t = 3LIa, the reduced pressure, H - h,
exists all along the pipe, the velocity is zero through-
out the pipe, and the static pressure head in the pipe is
less than the pressure head in the reservoir.
4. 3L/a <t< 4L/a. Mt = 3L/a, the unbalanced pres-
sure head at the reservoir causes the fluid to flow back
into the pipe at a velocity +V0. A wave of pressure at the
original static pressure head level propagates down-
stream toward the valve, but in section BC, the pressure
is still reduced to H - h (Figure 6-ld). At t = 4L/a, the
pressure throughout the pipe is normal (equal to H),
and the velocity is the same as the original +V0 prior to
the valve closure. But when the velocity, V0, reaches the
valve, the four-phase cycle repeats and continues to
repeat periodically every 4L/a time period.
The variation of pressure with time during a 4L/a
interval is shown at several points along the pipeline in
Figure 6-2. Friction in a real pipe system eventually
dampens the increased water hammer pressure head, h.
The principal concepts indicated by the events fol-
lowing a sudden valve closure are as follows:
The time L/a is a significant parameter for water
hammer analysis.
The time 2LIa is critical because the pressure head
at the valve reaches a maximum at 2LIa. A valve
closed in any shorter time produces the same maxi-
mum pressure head rise at the valve, whereas the
 Figure 6-2. Head fluctuations at selected points in the pipeline of Figure 6-1 after valve closure.

pressure rise is reduced if the valve is closed in a
longer time interval. Hence,
rc = % (6-1)
where tc is the critical time, L is the length of the pipe,
and a is the elastic wave speed.
Pressure Head Change
A momentum analysis of the flow conditions for the
valve closure shows the pressure head change, A/z, is a
function of the change in flow, Av.
where Ah is the change in pressure head in meters
(feet), a is elastic wave speed in meters per second
(feet per second), Av is the change in velocity (of
water) caused by the event in meters per second (feet
per second), and g is the acceleration due to gravity
in meters per second squared (feet per second
squared). Use the negative sign for waves traveling
upstream, use the positive sign for waves traveling
downstream, and note that Av = V2 - V1, where V1 is
the velocity prior to the change in flow rate and V2 is
the velocity following the change. If the flow is sud-
denly stopped, Av = V1 and A/z = 0V1Tg. Note, too, that
A/J is positive if Av is negative. If the valve on the
downstream end of a pipe is closed incrementally,
Equation 6-2 becomes

AA - ^ AV (6-2) ZA/2 = --ZAv (for t < tc) (6-3)

8 O
 Transient pressure heads due to valve closure can for wave speed for water in pipes are given in Table
be reduced by slowly closing the valve over a time 6-2. Because the elastic wave speed, a, for steel and
interval greater than rc, as discussed in Section 6-5. ductile iron pipe is often close to 980 m/s (3200 ft/s),
the change in pressure head from Equation 6-2 is,
roughly, 100v. For PVC, h = 34v.
Elastic Wave Speed The speed of the pressure wave in a pipeline carry-
ing liquids is greatly reduced if bubbles of free gas are
The pressure head change due to a change in the flow entrained, as shown in Table 6-3. A detailed discus-
rate requires the calculation of the elastic wave speed sion of this phenomenon is given by Wylie and
in the pipe. The wave speed depends on both the fluid Streeter [3]. There seems to be no way of predicting
properties and the pipe characteristics. air volume entrainment. Neglecting the effect of air
entrainment provides a conservative analysis. How-
a= I K
'P (6-4) ever, as the wave speed decreases, L/a increases and
the time for closure of valves must be increased.
Ji +4IY-I
y (EJ(ej

where K is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid

in newtons per square meters (pounds per square Table 6-2. Typical Wave Velocities in Pipe for Water
foot), E is the modulus of elasticity of pipe material in Containing Dissolved Air
newtons per square meters (pounds per square foot), Wave velocities
D is inside pipe diameter in meters (feet), e is the pipe
Pipe material m/s ft/s
wall thickness in meters (feet), C is a correction factor
for type of pipe restraint, and p is the density of the Asbestos cement 820-1200 2700-3900
fluid in kilograms per cubic meter (slugs per cubic Copper 1000-1300 3400-4400
foot). The bulk modulus given in Table A-8 must be Ductile iron 980-1400 3200-4500
HDPE3 180-370 600-1200
changed from kilopascals to newtons per square
PVC 300-600 1000-2000
meter, and in Table A-9 it must be converted from Steel 600-1200 2000-4000
pounds per square inch to pounds per square foot.
a
For thin- walled pipes (those with D/e > 40) the cor- For a modulus of elasticity of 1.03 E + 9 N/m2 (150,000 lb/in.2)
rection factor, C, varies according to pipe restraints.
Values for three cases are
C1 = 1.25 - JLI for pipes anchored at the upstream
end only (Wylie and Streeter [3] use 1.0 - ju/2; the Table 6-3. Effect of Air Entrainment on Wave Speed3
difference has little practical significance);
C2 = 1.0 - jLi2 for pipes anchored against axial Wave speed
movement; and V/ai/V/total m/s ft/s
C3 = 1 .0 for pipes with expansion joints throughout.
O 1200 4000
The symbol ji is Poisson's ratio (see Table 6-1 for 0.001 610 2000
properties of pipe materials). Expressions for C3 for 0.002 460 1500
thick- walled pipes (D/e < 40), which are more com- 0.004 300 1000
0.008 210 700
plex, are given by Wylie and Streeter [3]. Buried pipes
a
are best represented by the factor C2. Typical values After Wylie and Streeter [3].

Example 6-1
Effect of Pipe on Wave Speed and Pressure

Problem: For 300-mm (12-in.) pipes of ductile iron, steel, and PVC, find the effects of pipe
material, bedding, and joint conditions on wave speed and water hammer pressure. Assume the
pipes are 3000 m (9840 ft) long and carry 0.15 m3/s (5.3 ft3/s) of water at a temperature of 150C
(590F).
Solution: The wave speeds are based on Equation 6-4. The calculation of wave speed to the
nearest 30 m/s (100 ft/s) is usually sufficient, because the accuracy of the data does not justify
greater precision. The critical valve closure times, f c , are based on Equation 6-1. Valve closure in
 any time interval less than tc subjects the pipe to the maximum pressure, A/z, given by Equation
6-2. Note that K = 2.15 x 109 N/m2 (4.49 x 107 lb/ft2) for water.

Sl Units U.S. Customary Units

Ductile iron Steel PVC Ductile iron Steel PVC

OD(m[ft]) 0.335 0.324 0.324 1.10 1.063 1.063

c(m[ft]) 0.0094 0.0048 0.0149 0.0308 0.0157 0.0259
E (N/m2 [lb/ft2]) 1.66XlO 11 2.OTxIO 1 1 2.7OxIO 9 3.46 X l O 9 4.32 x 109 5.76 x 107
\L 0.28 0.30 0.45 0.28 0.30 0.45
C1 = 1.25-Ji 0.97 0.95 0.80 0.97 0.95 0.80
C2=I-JLi2 0.92 0.91 0.80 0.92 0.91 0.80
C3=LO 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Wave speed, a (m/s [ft/s]), from Equation 6-4:
C1 = 1.25 - ji, no air 1220 1150 280 4000 3770 930
C 2 = I - J i 2 , n o air 1210 1130 280 3970 3710 930
C3 = 1.0, no air 1190 1110 260 3920 3640 840
C3 =1.0,0.2% air 490 490 230 1620 1600 760
For C3 = 1.0 and no air:
rc = 2LAz (in s) 5.0 5.4 23 5.0 5.4 23
Flow (m/s [ft/s]) 1.8 1.8 1.9 5.9 6.0 6.2
h (in m [ft]) 219 206 49.4 718 676 162
P(inkPa[lb/in. 2 ]) 2150 2020 480 310 290 70

6-5. Slow Closure of Valves is not exceeded. To be valid, a method of solution

must include
To limit the pressure rise, the maximum deceleration
of the water during the critical time period, tc, must be the change of valve coefficient, K, in the formula
limited. The maximum allowable deceleration can be for headloss (Equation 3-15), or
calculated by using the ratio the shape of the valve closure curve, CV/CVO, and the
nonlinear action of some valve stems, and
the effect of the increasing pressure, which tends to
A^* = A/T = A^" (6(**>
5)
A/> AA AV

- sustain the original flow through the valve. The

where AP is pressure rise, A/z is the head rise, Av is the
change in velocity, and the subscript, a, means allow-
able. The terms in the denominator are for instanta-
neous valve closure.
Manufacturers can provide either (1) curves of the
valve headloss coefficient, K, in Equation 3-15
wherein h = Kv2/2g (shown for a butterfly valve in
Figure 6-3) or (2) values of flow coefficients, Cv,
wherein Cv equals water flow in gallons/minute at
7O0F and 1 lb/in.2 pressure differential shown for ball
and eccentric plug valves in Figure 6-4 (see Appendix
A for conversion to SI units.). Both K and Cv vary
greatly with valve opening, so either is a convenient
aid for solving valve problems.
Equation 6-5 can lead either to simplified equa-
tions or to computer solutions for determining the
allowable rate of valve closure so that a given pressure
pressure, for example, depends on the shape of an
associated pump curve and the location of the valve
as well as on other characteristics of the system.
Because resistance to flow is relatively small in the
initial stages of closure, a valve can be quickly closed
to near shut-off if the final closure is slow. Of the three
gate valve closure programs occurring in the same
interval, 3rc, as shown in Figure 6-5, the least pressure
is generated by a 95% closure in 0.5rc with the
remainder of the closure occurring in 2.5tc.
A valve poorly selected with respect to Cv closure
characteristics can often be the difference between a
problem situation and no problem at all. Ball valves
(with their worm and compound lever actuators) have
the ideal characteristic of closing rapidly at first fol-
lowed by very slow closure without any complicated
control gear. The capacity of the valve is reduced 80%
 Figure 6-3. Headless coefficient for a butterfly valve.

Figure 6-4. Valve closure functions, (a) Plug valve (DeZurik Series 100), the plug angle is linear with the time of
closure; (b) ball valve (Williamette List 36), actuator travel is linear with the time of closure.

at about 20% closure (see Figure 5-2). In contrast, the would require either a much longer time for closure or
eccentric plug with linear valve stem angle (or per- a programmed closure to equal the ball valve's control
centage of closure) has a near linear characteristic and of surge pressure.
 Figure 6-5. Water hammer caused by various gate valve closure programs. After Waters [4, p. 195J.

As a rule, valves should not be closed in less than 2 lem is important because of the size of the pipe, the
to 10 times tc. Insist on a computer solution wherever amount of flow, or the dynamic pressure involved.
more certainty than this is needed, or when the prob-

Example 6-2
Seating a Valve

Problem: A 200-mm (actually, a 203-mm or 8-in.) butterfly valve discharges a flow of 12.6 L/s
(200 gal/min) to atmosphere from a level pipe 4.83 km (3 mi) long with a gauge pressure of 690
kPa (100 lb/in.2) just upstream of the valve. The valve design is such that it will close from its
fully open position in 50 s.
Find the initial valve position (percentage of opening) and estimate the surge pressure when
the valve closes.
Solution: First, find the percentage of valve opening from Equation 3-15 and a manufac-
turer's curve of K as shown in Figure 6-3. Then find the approach velocity in the pipe.

Sl Units U.S. Customary Units

G 0.0126 m3/s n/im , Q [2.00 gal/min] [0.00223 ft3/s]

= =
" A ^^? ' -401 ^ " "'A =
[^^\[-&n*r\
= 1.28 ft/s
The differential head across the valve is (see Tables A-8 and A-9):

h = P = 690,00ON71T12 = 7Q5m h = P_= 100 lb/in 2 x 144Jn^ = ^ ft

V 9789 N/m f 62.3 Ib/ft ft
 Sl Units U.S. Customary Units

From Equation 3-16

R = 2gh = 2X9.81X70.5 = ^ R = 2_gh = 2x32.2x231 = ^
v2 (0.401)2 v2 (1.28)2
The discrepancy between SI and U.S. units is due only to rounding off the difference between
200 mm and 8 in. From Figure 6-3, the valve is open about 7 (nearly closed).
The wave speed can be calculated from Equation 6-4 or simply estimated as about 100 g. For
linear valve closure, the last 7 of valve movement would require (7/90)50 = 3.9 s.
a = 100 x 9.81 (980) a = 10Ox 32.2-(3200)
2L 2x4830 i n , 2L 2x3x5280 i n
'c = T = -98(r~ 1()S ?C =
T= 3200 ~1QS
Because the valve will close in 3.9 s (less than the critical time, 10 s), it closes quickly enough
to generate the full transient pressure given by Equation 6-2.
Al 0Av 980x0.401 Ar. A7 0Av 3200x1.28 i a n .
Ak =
=V 9.81 ~ 4 m M =
T = 32.2 ~ 1 3 f t
And the total pressure in the pipeline is

P = 690 kPa + 40 x 9.81 = 1080 kPa P= 100 lb/in.2 + 130 x Q.4331-^^- = 156 lb/in.2
it

The assumption of a steady pressure upstream
from the valve is often erroneous. The pressure usu-
ally changes with a change in flow as the system fol-
lows the characteristic pump H-Q curve. For pumps
with type numbers greater than about 85 (specific
speeds greater than about 4400), the head developed
by a pump increases substantially as the flow
decreases. If the type number is about 125 (specific
speeds about 6600) or more, the increase in head is
dramatic, as shown in Figure 10-16.
If the time of closure in Example 6-2 were greater
than tc, the resulting pressure surge would be less than
the 40 m (130 ft) calculated, and a computer analysis
would be used to reveal the pressure rise. Note that the
shape of the valve closure curve would be very impor-
tant in such an analysis.
6-6. Surge Concepts in Flow with Friction
The explanation of water hammer in Section 6-4 is
simplified by omitting friction. Such simplification
can be justified in some systems, such as those with
short force mains in which friction head is a small part
of the total design head. In most systems, however,
friction contributes substantially to the total head, and
it is important to understand its effect.
Figure 6-6 is similar to Figure 6- Ia except for the
hydraulic grade line, which slopes during steady-state
flow. Shortly after sudden closure of the valve at
point O, the wave front would arrive at point A. Con-
sider the anomalies that would ensue by following the
construction shown for frictionless flow in Figure
6- Ia in which the pressure rise for the wave front at B
forms rectangle abed. Its counterpart is trapezoid
oabc in Figure 6-6, but because the hydraulic grade
line be is sloping, water continues to flow past point
A (corresponding to point B in Figure 6-1); therefore,
v (and, hence, h) would be less in Figure 6-6 than in
Figure 6- Ia for the same original velocity. But flow
continues only until the HGL becomes level. Mean-
while the wave front progresses to point B (Figure
6-6) and the same phenomenon occurs again, with
more water flowing past point A, the pressure rising,
the pipe expanding, and the water compressing.
Wylie and Streeter [3] call this occurrence "packing."
As the wave front approaches the reservoir, friction
decreases v and /z, a phenomenon called "attenua-
tion." Eventually, the pressure builds to a maximum
above the level of the reservoir and finally dies to the
reservoir level.
Depending on the length of the pipeline, the pres-
sure surges at the valve might appear, as shown in Fig-
ure 6-7. With each reversal of the pressure wave,
 Figure 6-6. Packing and attenuation in a long pipe with friction.
Figure 6-7. Surges at a valve in a pipe with friction.
friction decreases the pressure changes, so pressure
eventually coincides with the reservoir level.
6-7. Column Separation
In the preceding sections, the pipelines are assumed to
be level, but in real systems pipes may slope and
downsurges result when power fails or when valves at
the upstream end (the usual configuration) close
quickly. Under some conditions, the downsurges can
cause column separation a condition to be avoided
at any cost by a proper control strategy. As shown in
Figure 6-8, a knee (a reduction in gradient or a change
from a positive to a negative gradient) makes a pipe-
line especially vulnerable. If the power fails, the
pumps stop quickly with an effect like closing a valve.
The upstream flow (near the pumping station) stops
whereas, due to inertia, flow continues at the down-
stream end (near the discharge). The static hydraulic
gradeline begins to decay as shown by successive
curves labeled t = 1 s, t = 2 s, t = 3 s, until, at t = 4 s, a
slight negative pressure occurs between the pump and
the knee. At t = 4.5 s, vapor pressure exists over a con-
siderable length of the pipeline, and the water is boil-
ing and forming large pockets of vapor. Column
separation has occurred. On the upsurge of pressure
that follows, the vapor pockets collapse and the two
liquid columns can come together at literally express-
train speed. Since the water is almost incompressible,
the forces at impact can be enormous.
The knee makes the situation in Figure 6-8 worse,
but note that column separation would occur with or
without the knee and would occur even if the pipeline
had a uniform gradient. However, if the pipeline pro-
file were flat near the pump and the steep gradient
occurred near the reservoir, column separation might
be avoideda useful control strategy that is mainte-
nance free.
A computer analysis of a similar problem is given
by Walters [4, pp. 235ff], and the results of still another
somewhat similar problem with and without surge
control devices are shown in Figures 7-12 and 7-13.
The hydraulic gradelines after power failure can
sometimes be crudely estimated at several time inter-
vals if the deceleration time of the pump is known or
 Figure 6-8. Successive hydraulic gradelines following power failure. Adapted from Walters [4, p. 271].
can be estimated. Row through centrifugal pumps after
power failure is a function of many variables, including
inertia and speed of the pump, driver, and water
within the casing;
length and profile of the pipe;
steady- state hydraulic gradeline;
velocity of flow; and
suction conditions in the wet well.
The true shape of the hydraulic gradelines requires
solution by a computer.
6-8. Criteria for Conducting Transient Analysis
Every pump and pipeline system is subject to transient
pressures, but in practice, it is impractical to spend the
time and expense necessary to analyze all of them.
The following empirical guidelines, which seem to be
satisfactory in most (though certainly not all) situa-
tions, can be used to decide whether a complete tran-
sient analysis is required.
Do Not Analyze
Pumping systems with flow less than 23 m3/h (100
gal/min). Discharge piping is usually such that
velocity is low and transient pressures are low. Even
if transient pressures are high, small diameter (100-
mm or 4-in.) piping has a high pressure rating and
can usually withstand the pressures.
Pipelines in which the velocity is less than 0.6 m/s
(2ft/s).
Distribution systems or pipe networks (as in com-
munity potable water systems). The many junctions
significantly dissipate the pressure waves.
Reciprocating pumps, because virtually every
reciprocating pump should have a pulsation damp-
ener on the discharge (see Ekstrum [7] for methods
of sizing such dampeners).
Pumping systems with a static differential pressure
between suction and discharge of less than about 9
m (30 ft).
Warning: it is possible that a very low static head
coupled with a relatively high dynamic head could
result in a column separation problem.
Do Analyze
Pumping systems with a total dynamic head greater
than 14 m (50 ft) if the flow is greater than about
1 15 m3/h (500 gal/min).
High-lift pumping systems with a check valve,
because high surge pressures may result if the
check valve slams shut upon flow reversal.
 Any system in which column separation can occur:
(1) systems with "knees" (high points), (2) a force
main that needs automatic air venting or air vacuum
valves, or (3) a pipeline with a long (more than 100
m [300 ft]), steep gradient followed by a long, shal-
low gradient.
Some consultants analyze any force main larger than
200 mm (8 in.) when longer than 300 m (1000 ft).
Checklist
Some additional insight can be gained from the fol-
lowing conditions, which tend to indicate the serious-
ness of surge in systems with motor-driven centrifugal
pumps. A serious surge may well occur if any one of
these conditions exists. If two or more conditions
exist, a surge will probably occur with a severity pro-
portional to the number of conditions met [8-1 1].
There are high spots in pipe profile
There is a steep gradient: length of force main is
less than 20 TDH
Flow velocity is in excess of 1 .2 m/s (4 ft/s)
Factor of safety (based on ultimate strength) of pipe
(and valve and pump casings) is less than 3.5 for
normal operating pressure
There can be slowdown and reversal of flow in less
than tc
There is check valve closure in less than tc
There is any valve closure (or opening) in less than
10s
There can be damage to pump and motor if allowed
to run backward at full speed
Pump can stop or speed can be reduced to the point
where the shut-off head is less than static head
before the discharge valve is fully closed
Pump can be started with discharge valve open
There are booster stations that depend on operation
of main pumping station
There are quick-closing automatic valves that
become inoperative if power fails or pumping sys-
tem pressure fails.
Criteria for determining whether to use simple hand
calculations or a more detailed computer program are
also given in Pipeline Design for Water and Wastewa-
ter [8, p. 65].
Shut-downs will occur, so plan for them. They can
result in low pressures and column separation at knees
in steep pipelines. Air venting valves that close too
rapidly while an empty pipe is being filled also cause
destructive hydraulic transients. Even on low-lift
pumping stations, depending on the pipe profile, col-
umn separation can occur in the vicinity of the dis-
charge header or farther downstream.
Computers
There is no simple, easy way to perform reliable tran-
sient analyses. Computer modeling is the most effec-
tive means available, but there are practical constraints
on time and cost. Both computer time and the labor
needed to analyze and review are expensive, so the
extent of the analysis should be related to the size and
cost of the project. For example, spending $1000 to
$5000 to analyze transients for a $1,000,000 project is
probably worthwhile even if no problem is found.
6-9. References
1. Parmakian, L, Waterhammer Analysis, Dover, New
York (1963).
2. Rich, G. R., Hydraulic Transients, Dover, New York
(1963).
3. Wylie, E. B., and V. L. Streeter, Fluid Transients, Feb
Press, Ann Arbor, MI (1982, corrected copy 1983).
4. Walters, G. Z., Analysis and Control of Unsteady Flow
in Pipelines, 2nd ed., Butterworths, Stoneham, MA
(1984).
5. Chaudhry, M. H., Applied Hydraulic Transients, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1979).
6. Wood, D. J., and S. E. Jones, "Water hammer charts for
various types of valves," Journal of the Hydraulics
Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, 167-178 (January 1973).
7. Ekstrum, J. D., "Sizing pulsation dampeners for
reciprocating pumps," Chemical Engineering (January
12, 1981).
8. Pipeline Design for Water and Wastewater, American
Society of Civil Engineers, New York (1975).
9. AWWA Mil, Steel Pipe A Guide for Design and
Installation, p. 54, American Water Works Association,
Denver, CO (1985).
10. Kerr, S. L., "Minimizing service interruptions due to
transmission line failures: Discussion," Journal of the
American Water Works Association, 41, 634 (July
1949).
11. Kerr, S. L., "Water hammer control," Journal of the
American Water Works Association, 43, 985-999
(December 1951).