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In this article, we propose a model of the process of and social action in psychology and related fields (Kar,
empowerment. The notion of empowerment is compelling Pascual, & Chickering, 1999; Masterson & Owen, 2006).
and much employed across many subfields inside and out- The current popularity of this term is easy to demon-
side of psychology, but the lack of consistency in the ways strate. In the research context, a search for empowerment in
prior literature has defined it is an obstacle to meaningful the PsycInfo search engine yielded 6,266 results. In com-
synthesis of findings and consistent application in practice. parison, self-confidence yielded 4,309 results and self-de-
Our empowerment process model builds on prior work in termination yielded 2,960. Of course, PsycInfo results rep-
taking the following steps: articulating empowerment as an resent only a subset of the scholarship that actually exists,
iterative process, identifying core elements of that process, as work using the concept of empowerment spans a wide
and defining the process in a way that is practically useful array of fields beyond psychology. To illustrate its use
to both researchers and practitioners with terms that are outside academia, we conducted a Google search using the
easily communicated and applied. The components of the term; it yielded over 14 million hits, the first of which led
model are personally meaningful and power-oriented the browser to websites as diverse as Green Empowerment,
goals, self-efficacy, knowledge, competence, action, and Employee Empowerment, the National Empowerment
impact. Individuals move through the process with respect Center (for recovery from mental illness), and Citizens
to particular goals, doubling back repeatedly as experience Internet Empowerment Coalition (a group focused on free
promotes reflection. We make specific recommendations speech issues on the Internet).
for research and practice and discuss applications to social Though much used, even a cursory search such as this
justice. one makes it apparent that this construct is not well defined.
In fact, one might argue that the lack of precise definition
Keywords: empowerment process model, social justice, has made it amenable to diffuse applications, which have
self-efficacy, goals, power then exacerbated the lack of precision in its definition. Our
E
own work in the field of intimate partner violence, where
mpowerment has long been a key concept in disci- the empowerment of victims has long been a focus, drew
plines such as critical, liberation, and community our attention to the shortcomings in current thinking on the
psychology, multicultural and feminist counseling, topic in general. In attempting to measure empowerment
and social work (e.g., Fox, Prilleltensky, & Austin, 2009; for the purpose of research and to employ the concept in
Freire, 1970/2000; Gutierrez, 1990; Martn-Baro, 1994; program development and evaluation, we found current
Rappaport, 1987; Solomon, 1987; Sue & Sue, 2007). understandings difficult to apply. This impression led us to
Within each perspective, empowerment is central to the an in-depth review of the empowerment literature. We
work of improving human lives. It spotlights social, polit- concluded that the many ways empowerment has been
ical, and material resources and inequities in the environ- defined allowed researchers and practitioners to pick from
ment, the strengths of individuals and communities, and the a menu of related, and at times vague, concepts rather than
enhancement of well-being through support of the natural rely on a cohesive picture. The model we have developed
inclination to strive for positive change (Zimmerman, captures this cohesive picture by including key concepts
2000). It encompasses a sense of personal control, which from prior literature, refining them where necessary and
has been linked clearly to greater health and well-being linking them together where appropriate. Our overarching
(Chandola, Kuper, Singh-Manoux, Bartley, & Marmot,
2004; Griffin, Fuhrer, Stansfeld, & Marmot, 2002; Rodin &
Langer, 1977; Sue, 1978); it suggests a mechanism for Lauren Bennett Cattaneo and Aliya R. Chapman, Department of Psychol-
ogy, George Mason University.
righting power imbalances in society (Freire, 1970/2000; We thank Jonathan Mohr for his invaluable consultation and support
Goodman et al., 2004; Martn-Baro, 1994; Toporek & Liu, during the process of writing and revising this article. We also thank Jim
2001); and it fits well with current dominant trends in the Maddux and Lisa Goodman for their very helpful comments on drafts of
profession such as strengths-based psychology and con- the article and model.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lau-
sumer-oriented mental health care. In short, the breadth and ren Bennett Cattaneo, Department of Psychology, George Mason Univer-
compelling nature of the concept of empowerment has led sity, 4400 University Drive, MSN 3F5, Fairfax, Virginia 22030. E-mail:
to its widespread use in the contexts of research, practice, lcattane@gmu.edu
Personally meaningful, What kind of power is this person seeking? To what extent do clients tend to have a clear
power-oriented What makes this goal personally meaningful? idea of their goals when they request services?
goals How are more short-term goals related to What mechanisms do we have to assess how
overarching goals? our services might relate to client goals?
What is the range of typical client goals?
What goals is our program designed to assist
with?
Self-efficacy Does this person believe she or he can reach What mechanisms do we have in place to learn
her or his goal? about clients beliefs and the context of those
What factors contribute to this persons sense beliefs?
of self-efficacy, including the history of his
or her attempts to reach this goal, and
practical considerations?
Knowledge What does this person know about what is What do clients need to know, and how can the
required to reach his or her goal? clients we tend to see best learn?
What can I teach the client about what is What resources do clients need, and what is
needed to reach his or her goals? their access to those resources? How can we
What can I learn about the clients enhance their access to these resources?
environment and history that will increase What mechanisms do we have in place to
my knowledge about what is needed to ensure that we learn about obstacles and
reach his or her goals? opportunities in each clients environment?
How do the power dynamics relevant to this What mechanisms do we have in place to
goal operate in this persons life? consider power dynamics related to clients
goals?
Competence Does this person have the skills to do what is What do clients need to be able to do, and how
required? can the clients we see best build these skills?
Do I understand the history of this persons What resources are needed to support their skill
attempts to gain such skills? building?
Are there obstacles to gaining skills that I can How can we increase access to these resources?
help to address? What mechanisms do we have in place to learn
about obstacles to and opportunities for skill
building in each clients environment?
Action Is this person taking action to pursue his or What are the pros and cons of taking action?
her goal? Are there ways we could shift the balance?
What is the context of any choices this What mechanisms do we have in place to
person has made in the actions she or he is assess how pros and cons vary depending on
taking? clients context?
Impact What happened as a result of this persons What is the impact of actions we encourage, or
action? that clients tend to take? What is the impact
What factors influenced the impact? on our client, on our program, and on others?
How will these events influence this persons What in the environment affects that impact?
continuing iterations through the other Are there ways we could influence the response
components of the process? to clients actions?
vention is in the social context (Banyard & Goodman, of these obstacles and provides a rubric for gathering
2009). Moreover, if during the use of this model, practi- information about their impact on clients.
tioners repeatedly see the same obstacles stymieing clients From the social justice perspective, a limitation of this
efforts, it is time to address the obstacles. The model is model is that it does not discriminate among the personally
relevant to social justice in that it requires the identification meaningful power-oriented goals that a person may have. It