BEARINGS AND AZIMUTHS

BEARINGS AND AZIMUTHS

Horizontal angles are angles measured in a horizontal plane by a level instrument

Used to determine:
the locations of points
the orientation of lines
The units of measurement most commonly used in surveying is the sexagesimal system
based on degrees, minutes, seconds

TYPES OF ANGLES

Interior angles
located on the inside of a closed polygon
may be measured clockwise or counterclockwise, but the direction must be consistent
throughout
Deflection angles
are measured right or left from an extension of the current line to the next station
are indicated by a numerical value and a "L" or "R"

DIRECTIONS OF LINES

Defined by a horizontal angle between the line and a defined reference line called a meridian
True meridian is the north-south reference line through the earths geographic poles
Magnetic meridian is a north-south reference line as defined by the earths magnetic field
An assumed meridian can arbitrarily chosen to serve as a reference for all other lines in a
survey

BEARINGS

Designate the direction of a line by an angle and quadrant letters. (e.g. N30 E)
Bearings are never greater than 90
Bearings are referenced from north or south and the angle to the east or west from the north-
south meridian.
True bearings are based on true north.
Magnetic bearings are based on magnetic north.

TRUE BEARINGS
BEARING DIRECTION
MAGNETIC BEARINGS
AZIMUTHS

Angles measured clockwise from any reference meridian

Azimuths range from 0 to 360
Azimuths are referenced from north
True azimuths are based on true north
 Magnetic azimuths are based on magnetic north

Web Exclusive: Calculating the Direction of a Line using Azimuths

November 21, 2000

Wesley G. Crawford RPLS

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2 Comments

A breakdown of calculating azimuths.

Representing the direction of a line with bearings is a long-standing tradition that continues
today on plats, legal descriptions, site plans, and other documents. Calculating the direction of a
line by using bearings is also a longstanding tradition. However, some surveyors have realized
that calculating the direction of a line is much easier when using azimuths and then converting
the azimuths to bearings for representation on documents. I find while presenting training
seminars that many people do not know how to calculate directions with azimuths as they have
never seen it done. In this article, I will present what azimuths are and how they are calculated.

FIGURE 1

Comparison between Azimuths and Bearings

Azimuths are measured clockwise from North and vary from 0 to 360. They require only a
numerical value (35, 145, 215, etc.).

Azimuths may be referenced to true North, to magnetic North, to an azimuth taken from plans, or
from an assumed direction. In addition, azimuths may be forward or backward.

TABLE 1

Bearings are measured either clockwise or counterclockwise from North and South. They vary
from 0 to 90 and require two letters and a numerical value (N 60 E, S 30 W, etc.).
Bearings may be referenced to true North, magnetic North, to a direction taken from plans, or
from an assumed direction. Bearings may also be forward or backward.
After traverse angles have been adjusted to represent a closed geometric figure and a starting
direction has to be determined or assumed, the direction of each line can be calculated. As noted,
this is accomplished using either azimuths or bearings. It is purely a matter of personal
preference because they both represent the same thinga direction. However, as stated earlier,
azimuths are much easier to calculate. Since they are easier, fewer mistakes in calculations
generally occur. It will also be shown how bearings can easily be obtained by converting from
azimuths.

Determining the Quadrant

By observation of the value of the azimuth, the surveyor should be able to instantly visualize
where the azimuth is located.

Whether it is in the Northeast quadrant, Southeast, Southwest, or Northwest.

Obtaining a Back Azimuth

To calculate azimuths about a traverse, it is necessary to obtain the back azimuth of a line. To
calculate a back azimuth, simply add 180 to the azimuth of the line.

Back Azimuth = Forward Azimuth + 180

For example, if a line has an azimuth of 75, its back azimuth would be 255. If a line has an
azimuth of 150, its back azimuth would be 330.

Calculating Directions Clockwise or Counter-Clockwise

Direction calculations can be performed in either a clockwise or counter-clockwise manner about

a traverse. There are specific rules for calculating in either direction.

To calculate azimuths clockwise around a traverse: Subtract the interior angle from the back
azimuth of the preceding line.
To calculate azimuths counter-clockwise around a traverse: Add the interior angle to the back
azimuth of the preceding line.

Step-by-step Procedure for Calculating Directions

The following is the step-by-step procedure for calculating azimuth of line BC for the figure
shown in Steps 1 through 4.

Step 1

Plan and prepare. Determine a known azimuth. In this case, it is shown to be 45 and the
direction that the calculation will proceed (clockwise or counterclockwise). In this case, we are
going to calculate clockwise from A to B to C. List the adjusted interior angle draw a sketch of
the entire traverse. Be sure your sketch is reasonably accurate (that is, angles and distances
should be close to scale). Label the points, the starting direction, and the interior angles. Orient
the drawing properly to North.

Step 2

Perform the calculation. Start by writing down the starting azimuth. Add 180 to obtain the
back azimuth. Subtract the interior angle to obtain the azimuth of the next line. If the result is
greater than 360, subtract 360. Write down the azimuth on the sketch.

Step 3

Repeat the calculation for each line of the traverse. That is, add 180 and subtract the interior
angle.
 EQUATION 2

Step 4

Check the calculations by using the last interior angle to recalculate the starting azimuth.

Example

For the figure below, calculate the direction of each line and provide a check. Proceed clockwise
about this traverse. The calculations are shown in a tabular form for ease of understanding along
with a sketch of the calculation of each line.

Azimuth of AB = Add 180 to get Back Azimuth

------------------------ Back Azimuth = Subtract Interior
Angle ---------------------- The Azimuth of BC is
35000' +18000' --------- 53000' -6421'
------- 10539'

Calculation of the Direction of Line BC

Azimuth of BC = Add 180 to get Back Azimuth =

--------------------- Back Azimuth = Subtract Interior
Angle --------------------- The Azimuth of CD is
 10539' +18000' --------- 28539' -20635'
--------- 7904'

Calculation of the Direction of Line CD

Azimuth of CD = Add 18000'to get Back Azimuth

------------------ Back Azimuth = Subtract Interior
Angle ---------------------- The Azimuth of DE is 7904'
+18000' -------- 25904' -6453' ---------
19411'

Calculation of the Direction of Line DE

Azimuth of DE = Add 18000'to get Back Azimuth

------------------ Back Azimuth = Subtract Interior
Angle ---------------------- The Azimuth of EA is
19411' +18000' -------- 37411' -9638'
-------- 27733'

Calculation of the Direction of Line EA

 Azimuth of EA = Add 18000'to get Back Azimuth
------------------ Back Azimuth = Subtract Interior
Angle ---------------------- The Azimuth of AB is
27733' +18000' -------- 45733' -10733'
-------- 35000'

Calculation of the Direction of Line AB as a Check

Summary

Thats all there is to calculating azimuths. Simply follow a simple rule if going clockwise about
the traverse: Subtract the interior angle from the back azimuth of the previous course, and the
calculations can be performed quickly and easily. If bearings are needed, simply convert from
azimuths to bearings as shown in the Table at the beginning. For those who arent using
azimuths, I hope this article helps in understanding why many people now use azimuths.

The video directly below will demonstrate how to gain the area of an irregular quadrilateral. For
this particular type of quadrilateral, we know the lengths of all four sides and one internal angle.

The steps for finding this area can be done by performing these steps:

1. Divide the figure into two triangles by drawing a diagonal.

2. Calculate the area of the triangle that has the given angle.

3. Calculate the length of the diagonal using the Law of Cosines.

4. Calculate the area of the second triangle using Heron's Formula.

5. Add the two areas of the triangles to determine the area of the quadrilateral.
The Law of Sines
Home > Lessons > Law of Sines Search | Updated January 28th, 2017
Introduction

These are the sections in this lesson:

The Law of Sines Equation

Calculate the Length of a Side

Calculate the Measure of an Angle

Choosing the Correct Law

Instructional Videos

Interactive Quizzes

Activities

Related Lessons

Equation: The Law of Sines

Triangles are a fundamental geometrical shape. Triangles appear within several

disciplines, some of which are architecture, engineering, astronomy, and chemistry. This is
why mathematicians have studied them and consequently have several relations to
enumerate their sides and angles. Here is one such relation.

This is the equation called The Law of Sines.

As it will be thoroughly explained within the next section, this equation is useful when a
certain angle and its opposite side are known (and either another side or angle) for a given
triangle. If this given information is known, then it is possible to calculate another
known angle's opposite side or another known side's opposite angle.

If you are not familiar with how to label a triangle or you have never worked with sine,
cosine, or tangent, please read our trigonometry basics section before moving on to the
next sections within this page.

Calculating the Length of a Side

Let's say we are given the following information for a triangle.

This situation is appropriate for The Law of Sines. The reason it is appropriate is because
the 15 degrees and the 7.5 miles are opposite of each other. This is emphasized in the next
graphic.

Consequently, we will be able to solve for the side marked with the 'x.' [The angles have
been marked with the letters 'A,' 'B,' and 'C.' The labeling is arbitrary and the problem could
be solved with any arrangement of the letters.]
 The reason side-x can be calculated is because it is opposite a known angle, angle-C.

Now we will refer to our equation. The Law of Sines has three ratios three angles and
three sides.

We have only three pieces of information. We also know nothing about angle-A and
nothing about side-a. So, we will only need to utilize part of our equation, which are the
ratios associated with 'B' and 'C.'
 We know angle-B is 15 and side-b is 7.5. We also know that angle-C is 20, but we do not
know side-c. We will substitute these values into the equation as such.

Now that we were able to construct two equal ratios, called a proportion, let's solve it by
cross-multiplying.

Cross-multiplying will give us these equal products.

The equal products above make a simple equation. We have to solve for the variable 'c.'
To do so, we will have to divide both sides of the equation by the sin 15.

We can cancel the sin 15s because we're both multiplying and dividing 'c' by that value.
 With the sin 15 out of the way, we need to plug this into a calculator.

After evaluating with a calculator, this is our final value for 'c.'

This means the value of 'x' in our problem is 'c' also, which is 9.9 miles.

Use this video and quiz to reinforce the lesson.

ideo: The Law of Sines: Find a Side

uiz: Law of Sines: Find a Side

Calculating the Measure of an Angle

For our next Law of Sines problem, let's take a look at this given information.

This stuation is ideal for The Law of Sines. We were given a side and it's opposite angle.
 Since we also have another side, we can solve for another angle, which has been marked
with a 'y' in this graphic.

Angle-y rests opposite the 250, which is a known length of our triangle.

The Law of Cosines

Home > Lessons > Law of Cosines Search | Updated January 28th, 2017
Introduction

Here are the sections within this lesson:

 The Law of Cosines Equations

Calculate the Length of a Side

Calculate the Measure of an Angle

Choosing the Correct Law

Instructional Videos

Interactive Quizzes

Activities

Related Lessons

Equations: The Law of Cosines

Triangles are a fundamental geometrical shape. Triangles appear within several

disciplines, some of which are architecture, engineering, astronomy, and chemistry. This is
why mathematicians have studied them and consequently have several relations to
enumerate their sides and angles. Here is one such relation.

These are the equations collectively called The Law of Cosines.

As it will be thoroughly explained within the next section, these equations are useful for
two cases: 1) when two sides and the angle between them are known within a triangle and
2) when all three sides of a triangle are known. If either case is known, then the law of
cosines is helpful.

If you are not familiar with how to label a triangle or you have never worked with sine,
cosine, or tangent, please read our trigonometry basics section before moving on to the
next sections within this page.

Calculating the Length of a Side

 Let's take a look at some given information within the following diagram.

The law of cosines is a helpful tool for this situation because we know a triangle's angle
and the sides that are next to it, as emphasized via the colored graphic below.

Now that we know the lawe of cosines can be used for the problem, we now need to label
the triangle's angles. The triangle can be arbitrarily labeled with the letters 'A,' 'B,' and 'C.'
We will progress with the following arrangement of labeled angles.
 Now we can start labeling the sides. The side opposite angle-A, our 35-degree angle, is
side-a.

Likewise, side-b is 375, side-c is 400. Using this set of information, we have to determine
which law of cosines equation is best to use. Since we know angle-A, we should find the
formula that has angle-A in it.
 Using this equation, we need to plug in the given information within it.

A calculator can be used to simplify the right side of the equation.

To cancel the square on the right side of the equation, we must employ its inverse
function, which is the square root. We will take the square root of both sides of the equation.

Again, with the use of a calculator, we can find side-a by actually using the square root
function of a calculator.

It has been shown that the law of cosines is useful for calculating the side of a triangle
when we know two sides and the angle between those sides. The side we calculate will
always be the side opposite the given angle

Use this video and quiz to reinforce the lesson.

ideo: Law of Cosines: Find a Side

uiz: Law of Cosines: Find a Side

Calculating the Measure of an Angle

Here is a given situation involving a triangle.

 The given information above is one where we know all three sides of a triangle. Let's label
the angles with 'A,' 'B,' and 'C.' Labeling the angles is arbitrary; but, for the sake of
continuing along with the given information, we will go with this arrangement of angles.

Recall, we look to the sides opposite sides an angle and label them accordingly. For
instance, side-c is opposite angle-C. The graphic below demonstrates this labeling of
sides.
 It is now clear that side-a is 44, side-b is 29, and side-c is 50. Our next challenge is
determine what we can calculate. The only variables that are unknown are angles. So, we
must choose which angle to solve for. We can solve for any of them, making our choice an
another arbitrary choice. Let's pick angle-C to find.

There are three law of cosine equations to use. Let's review them.
 Of the three equations, only one of them contains angle-C. Since we have chosen to
solve for angle-C, we will use that equation.

Let's plug in the given information: side-a is 44, side-b is 29, and side-c is 50.

It is now time to start cleaning up the equation so we can solve for angle-C. Let's square
the numbers and multiply the factors in front of the cosine function. Doing so will yield this:

The steps that we have taken so far have been basic. It has involved basic the
substitution of values, squaring some numbers, and multiplying factors. Now, we have to
tackle some algebra.

Commonly, students make an error at this step. Some students think these two numbers
can be subtracted. However, these numbers cannot be combined because they are not like
terms. Do not make the mistake of combining these values.

Instead of combining unlike terms, we have to cancel the 2777 by subtracting that value
from both sides of the equation.
 This is the result of subtracting 2777 from both sides of the equation.

Our next task is to cancel the coefficient. The -2552 must be canceled by dividing that
value from both sides of the equation.

Insead of dividing the right side, let's leave the value as a fraction so that we can avoid
rounding a decimal value. It's better to round the value once at the conclusion of our
calculations. Doing so will allow us to retain the most accurate answer possible.

We have nearly solved our equation for angle-C. However, we have the cosine of angle-
C. The next step must involve canceling the cosine function. The only way to cancel the
cosine function is to use the inverse cosine function, like so.

This is what our equation becomes after we cancel the cosine function with its inverse
cosine function.

All that remains now is the use of a calculator. We have to place this information into a
calculator to get the final value for angle-C.
 The steps above show how we can arrive at an angle when we are given three sides of a
triangle.

Use this video and quiz to help you reinforce the lesson.

ideo: Law of Cosines: Find an Angle

uiz: Law of Cosines: Find an Angle

Choosing the Correct Law

There are two laws, The Law of Cosines and the Law of Sines (see the Related
Lessons section for the lesson). This table will help determine which law to use given the
circumstances that are present.

Let it be known to use the Law of Sines we do have to know three pieces of information:
1) we either know two angles and a side or 2) two sides and an angle.

When considering the first case, knowing two angles of a triangle means we can find the
third angle. If we know a side, we automatically know the angle opposite that side because
we know all the angles of the triangle. For the second case, we must know an angle that is
opposite one of the two given sides. Having an angle and a side opposite it is the indicator
we must use the Law of Sines.
 When there are two pairs of opposite sides and angle, we can utilize The Law of Sines. All
we have to do now is label the triangle. The triangle below has been arbitrarily labeled with
'A,' 'B,' and 'C.' Any arrangement of 'A,' 'B,' and 'C' can be used; so, we'll stick with this
arrangement of letters and angles.

This is when we use The Law of Sines.

We can see that Angle-C is 48 and side-c is 200. Angle-B is unknown, but side-b is 250.
So, we will place these values into the equation. Without knowing anything about side-a
and angle-A, we'll use only the ratios that involve 'B' and 'C.'

This is what the equation looks like once the appropriate numbers are plugged inside of it.

When we have two equal ratios, called a proportion, we need to cross-multiply to

advance.

This is what the cross-products look like.

To continue solving for B, we have to divide both sides of the equation by 200.

Since we are multiplying and dividing by 200, we can cancel it to get sinB alone.

This is what we are left with, the sin of angle-B.

 To cancel the sine of angle-B, we have to utilize the inverse sine function.

Therefore, this is what we need to plug into a calculator.

This is our final answer for angle-B.

Since we were trying to solve for variable-y, it is also 68.3 degrees.

Use this video and quiz to reinforce the lesson.

uiz: The Law of Sines: Find an Angle

uiz: Law of Sines: Find an Angle

Choosing the Correct Law

There are two laws, The Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines (see the Related
Lessons section for the lesson). This table will help determine which law to use given the
circumstances that are present.
 Let it be known to use the Law of Sines we do have to know three pieces of information:
1) we either know two angles and a side or 2) two sides and an angle.

When considering the first case, knowing two angles of a triangle means we can find the
third angle. If we know a side, we automatically know the angle opposite that side because
we know all the angles of the triangle. For the second case, we must know an angle that is
opposite one of the two given sides. Having an angle and a side opposite it is the indicator
we must use the Law of Sines.