2/16/2017 PrintArticle:CommercialSurrogacy

CommercialSurrogacy

Source:http://www.
Author:shriyamisra
Publishedon:June22,2012

CommercialSurrogacyTheNeedforRegulation shriyamisra'sProfileand
details
CommercialSurrogacyhasbecomesorampantinIndiathatithasnow
beennicknamedthe"rentawomb"capitalandthesurrogatemom ShriyaMisra,B.A
capitaloftheworld,wherehighclasswomenhireawombonrent (historyhonours),
tocarrytheirchildtofullterm. LL.BfromCampus
LawCentre,Facultyof
Thisessayexamineswhetherissuesarisingoutofcommercial Law,DelhiUniversity
surrogacycanbeadequatelyaddressedbycontractlaw,thedifferent
anddistinctquestionsposedbycommercialsurrogacyagreements,the
evolutionbyCourtsofa"bestinterestofthechild"test,andthecaseforregulationofcommercial
surrogacy.

Commercialsurrogacyiswhenthesurrogatemothercarriesthechildinherwombtotermandthen
relinquishesthechildtothecommissioningparents,forconsideration.Thebasisofthisisa
surrogacyagreement,whichdemarcatestheliabilitiesandintentionsofthepartiesconcerned.

Thesurrogacyagreement,whichisbasedonfreeconsentandameetingofthemindsoftheparties
concernedtowardsaparticularoutcome,hasbeenheldtobevalidinIndiaandistherefore
interpretedinlightoftheprovisionsofTheIndianContractAct,1872.Thereisnoenactmenton
surrogacyonthesubcontinentandTheIndianContractAct,1872exercisesjurisdictionoverall
agreementsandcontracts.

IntheLandmarkcaseBabyManjiYamadav.UnionofIndia,aJapanesecouple,Dr.IkufumiYamada
andhiswife,wishedtohaveababyandenteredintoasurrogacycontractwithanIndianwomanin
Anand,acityinthestateofGujaratwherethispracticewaspioneered.Thecouplewentthrough
matrimonialdiscordbutthefatherstillinsistedonhavingcustodyofthechild.UnderIndianLawa
singlefathercannotadoptagirlchild.Hesenthismotherinhissteadandapetitionwasfiledbefore
theSupremeCourt.TheGovernmentseemedtobehelplessinthismatterastherewerenolaws
governingtheeffectofsurrogacy.TheApexCourtdirectedthattheNationalCommissionfor
ProtectionofChildRightswastheaptbodytodealwiththisissue.
JusticArijitPasayatandJusticeMukundakanSharmaoftheSupremeCourtheldthatthefatherwas
thegeneticfatherofthechildandhewasgivencustodialrightsofthechild.TheGovernmentwas
instructedtoissuethepassporttoManajiYamadaandshereturnedwithhergrandmother.Most
importantly,theSupremeCourtheldthattheSurrogacyAgreementwasvalidinIndia.

WhatismostnoticeableintheBabyManjiYamadacaseisthatthestanceoftheCourtwasnotonly
prosurrogacyitwasalsoextremelyprocontract.Thecontractwasheldtobevalidandthereforeof
mostimportanceeventhoughwhattheCourtgrantedwentagainstaparticularlegislationinthe
country.

MorerecentlyinthematterofJanBalazv.AnandMunicipality,aGermancoupleenteredintoa
contractwithasurrogatemothernamedMarthabenImmanuelKhrishti.Twinchildrenwereborn.
TheGermancouplewasworkingintheUnitedKingdomandthechildrenrequiredIndianpassports
totravel.Sincetheircitizenshipwasbeinglitigatedinthecourtsthepassportauthoritieswithheldthe
passports.Germany,theparentstateoftheGermancoupledidnotrecognizesurrogacy.TheSupreme
CourtdeniedthepassportsbutgrantedanexitpermittothechildrenandtheGermanauthorities
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decidedtogivethecoupleanopportunitytoadoptthechildrenandfightfortheirrights.

TheSupremeCourtofIndiaalsorecommendedtheemergentlegislationofalawonsurrogacy.The
BenchheadedbyJusticeG.S.SinghviandJusticeC.K.Prasadsaidthatnosurrogatechildshould
undergothedifficultiesfacedbyNicolasandLeonardwhowerealreadytwoyearsofagebythetime
thisdecisionwasmadeandhadstillnotbeengrantedcitizenshipinanycountry.

ItisclearthatinthecaseofJanBalazthecontractprovedtobeinsufficientindemarcatingtherights
ofthepartiesanditalsobroughtoutresidualissuessuchascitizenshipandidentitythatarematters
ofvitalimportancetothechildrenbutdonotfindplaceinthesurrogacyagreement.

Inboththeabovecaselawsthecourtstakeaveryprocontractstandpossiblyasawayof
encouragingcommercialsurrogacy,whichcontributesmillionsofdollarstoIndiaseconomy.

ItseemsfromtheabovethattheContractActinitscurrentformisnotabletoquitecomprehendthe
complexquestionsandrequirementsthatsurroundsurrogacyandsurrogacyagreements.Theseare,
firstly,thatunlikemostcontractsthatdealwiththeinanimate,whichindirectlyhasanimpactonthe
livesofhumanbeings,themainentitybeinggivenforconsiderationhereisahumanchild.Certain
guidelines,precautionsandconditionsneedtobeincludedintheseagreementswhicharenotgiven
anywhereinTheIndianContractAct.Themandatoryclausesthataretobeincludedinthe
agreementarenotspeltoutnorarethereanyspecificformatsthathavebeenprovidedintheAct.In
theabsenceofsucharequirement,clausesfavourabletothecoupleandnotthesurrogatemothercan
beincorporated.Forexample,whatactuallydefinesbreachofasurrogacyagreementisnotgiven
anywhereintheContractActmakingiteasierforcertainpartiestoevadeliabilityandaccountability
whichwillleavetheinnocentchildunprotectedandvulnerable.

Secondly,thoughfreeconsentisonetheprerequisitesofthesurrogacyagreementthereisan
unequalbalanceofpowerbetweenthetwomainparties,i.e,thecommissioningparentsandthe
surrogateduetothefactthatthesurrogateisusuallymoreeconomicallyandsocialoppressedthan
thecouplewhoarewillingtopay$10,000ormoreforachild.Itisalsowellknownthatinmany
casesthehusbandsofthesurrogatespressurizethemtoactassurrogatemothersinordertomake
moremoneyforthefamily.Thecomparativeilliteracyandpowerlessnessofthesurrogatemother
createsaninherentlyunequalbargainingpowerbetweenthepartieswherebythesurrogatemother
willforgocertainrights.

Thirdly,mostsurrogacyagreementsinIndiaarewithforeignparentsbecausecomparedtothe
developedcountriessuchastheUnitedStateswherethecostofsurrogacyis$40,000ormore,thefee
forcommercialsurrogacyisnominal.Indianclinicschargepatients$10,000$28,000foracomplete
packageincludingfertilization,thesurrogatefeeanddeliveryofthebaby.Thisis1/10thlessthanthe
UnitedStates.Inthiscontextissuessuchaswhethertheparentcountryofthecommissioningcouple
recognizesandacceptsthecitizenshipofthesurrogatechildareofgreatimportancesinceThe
CitizenshipActofIndiadoesnotaccordcitizenshiptoachildbornoutofsurrogacyandsuchmatters
canleavethechildinanomanslandwherecitizenshipisdeniedfrombothcountries.Forexample
bothJapanandGermanydonotrecognizesurrogacyandthereforedonotgrantcitizenshipandthe
surrogatechildrenofcouplesfromthesecountrieswillnotberecognizedascitizens.Thiswas
evidencedintheBabyManjiYamadacaseandtheJanBalazcasementionedabove.Thisisan
importantissueforconsiderationsinceitdirectlyharmsthechildwhoisnotatfaultandthisfactor
shouldbeaprerequisiteforsurrogacyagreements.TheContractActdoesnotmentionanysuch
requirement,whichisanimportantissueofinternationalcitizenshipandidentityofthesurrogate
child.

Fourthly,itisworthmentioningthatthougharequirementfortheeligibilityofawomantobecomea
surrogateisthatsheshouldhavehadachildbefore,innowaywillthesurrogatebeableto
comprehendpriortotheagreement,thefeelingofgivingawayachildthatiscarriedinherwomb.
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Asidefrombeingkeptincrampedconditionsandhavingtheireating,drinkingandmedication
heavilycontrolled,thesewomensuffermentalanguishsincethedoctorensuresthattheydonotbond
withthebabiesbyconstantlyremindingthemthatthefetusestheyarecarryingarenottheirs.
Thereforeitcannotbesaidthatthepartieswereactuallyadidemsincethesurrogatewillnothave
consentedinaninformedmannerbeingalientothefeelingofrelinquishingrightsoverachild
deliveredbyher.

Lastly,theabsenceofalegislationtoelaborateoncertainissuesthatarepeculiartoonlytheissueof
surrogacyresultsinthecourtsofIndiahandlingthesedelicateandlifechangingmatters.AsIhad
mentionedearlieroneofthemostdistinguishingfeaturesofasurrogacyagreementfromother
agreementsisthatitdirectlydealswiththeexchangeofahumanchildforconsideration.Intheevent
ofaproblemthematteristakentotheCourts,whichwilltakealongtimetogiveadecisiveverdict,
andthiswillhamperandtraumatizethechildduringitsformativeyearsbecauseoftheuncertainty
andinsecurityinhislife.

InthiswayitseemsthattheIndianContractActisnotabletocoverorbeofanyassistanceregarding
themyriadissues,questionsandproblemsthattheissueofsurrogacypresents.

IfweseehowsurrogacyhasbeentackledinotherjurisdictionswewillfindthattheEnglish
Legislaturewasthefirsttoenactalawthattackledthismedicolegalsituationbypassingthe
SurrogacyArrangementsAct,1985.ThisActwasmadeintheaftermathofthenotoriousBaby
Cottoncaseinwhich,inordertoadoptthebabytheAmericancouplecreatedafalsestoryandpaid
alumpsumtotheBritishsurrogatetomaintainthesamestory.JusticeBoothstatedthatsuch
arrangementsamounttothesaleofchildrenandmonetarypaymentstothesurrogateshouldbe
prohibited.

Section2oftheActmadecommercialsurrogacyacriminaloffence.

SubsequentlyinReE(ParentalOrder)andinReC(AChild)itwasheldthatpaymentscanbemade
retrospectivelyforthephysical,mentalandfinancialburdenundertakenbythesurrogateduring
pregnancy.TheCourthasrelaxeditspositionwhereitwasfeltthatthepaymentwasnotextortionate.

SurrogacyismorecommonintheUnitedStatesthanitisintheUnitedKingdombutthecertain
landmarkjudgmentsshowthataboveallelse,eventhesurrogacyagreement,thetestofbestinterest
ofthechildhasbeenadopted.InthehighlydebatedcaseReBabyMthesurrogatemotherrefused
torelinquishthebabyfor$10,000asagreed.TheSupremeCourtofNewJerseystatedthatthe
surrogacycontractwasagainstpublicpolicyandhenceinvalid.Custodywasawardedtothe
commissioningparentsofthechildkeepinginmindthebestinterestofthechild.

InJohnsonv.CalverttheSupremeCourtofCaliforniastatedthatasurrogacycontractwas
enforceableandcommissioningparentshadallparentalrightsoverthechildandnotthesurrogate.
Anyconflictregardingparentagewastoberesolvedonthebasisoftheintentionofthepartiesatthe
timeofagreement..Paymentsmadeinsurrogacyagreementsareforservicesrenderedandnot
compensationorconsiderationfortransferofparentalrights.
Thisdecisionhasbeenhighlycriticized.

InthecaseofReMarriageMoschettathecourtawardedparentalrightstothesurrogatebecausethe
commissioningparentsgotseparated.

InAustralia,theviewofthecourtsonbestinterestofthechildishighlyinfavourofthesurrogate
mother.InReEvelyn,thecourtdecidedthatthechildshouldbewiththesurrogatemotherbecause
bondingwiththebiologicalandnaturalmotherwillbeinthebestinterestofthechildinthelong
term.

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WeseeherethatinbothAmericaandinAustralia,thetestusedtodecideissuesofparentalrightis
thatofbestinterestsofthechildwhichdrawsacloakoverallcomplexmatterssinceitseemstobe
themostdecisivefactorregardlessofwhethertheagreementisvalidornot.InReBabyM,though
theagreementwasheldtobeinvalidthechildwasstillgiventotheintendedparentsbyapplyingthis
test.ItsclearthattheUnitedStatesdoesnotconsideritacontractissuebecauseotherwiseinthecase
ofReMarriageMoschetta,eventhoughtheparentsgotseparatedthecontractshouldhavestillbeen
bindingandenforceable.Itisunfairbecauseitgoesagainstthecontract.Furthermore,ifparentsdo
notforfeitabiologicalchildondivorcethenwhyshouldtheybeallowedtoabandonafetus?
TheverdictinReMarriageMoschettaisexactlytheoppositeofthatinBabyManjiYamadawhere
thecontractgainedprecedenceovereverythingelseandthebabywasgiventoitsintendedparent
evenafterthecouplegotseparated.

Inlightoftheabovementionedargumentsitbecomesclearthatmorethananissueofcontract,
commercialsurrogacyisanissueofrights,mainly,therightsoftheintendingparents,therightsof
thedonors,therightsofthesurrogatemotherandlastbutdefinitelynottheleast,therightsofthe
child.ItisalsoanissueofHumanRightsbecauseofthecrampedandheavilycontrolledliving
conditionsofthesurrogatemothers.

TheIndianContractActisusedforeconomicregulation.Atthesametimethereareareaswherethe
marketbyitselfwillnotworksuchastelecommunications,andwillrequireacertainamountof
monopolizationinordertosucceedbyvirtueofaseparatelegislation.Surrogacyissimilarinthis
mannerbecausetherearetoomanycollateralcoststhatarenotcoveredbytheIndianContractAct.

KeepinginmindtheGovernmentsdesiretoencouragemedicaltourismandthefactthatcommercial
surrogacyisrecognizedinIndia,whatwouldbebestwouldbetohaveaseparate,comprehensive
legislationonsurrogacy.

In2008,TheIndianCouncilofMedicalResearch(ICMR)cameoutwithadraftAssisted
ReproductiveTechnologiesBill,2008.TheLawCommissionofIndiainits228threportmade
furthersuggestionsontheissueofsurrogacyinIndia.ThisBillhasyettobeplacedbefore
Parliamentandtherearealready350surrogacyclinicsinthecountry.
**************
#ItisselfishtohaveasurrogatebabybyJulieBindelfortheTheGuardianon31December2011
#BabyManjiYamadav.UnionofIndia,AIR2009SC84(2008)13SCC518
#AIR2009SC84(2008)13SCC518
#GuardianandWardsAct,1890
#SpecialCivilApplicationno.3020of2009SC31639/2009
#IsSurrogateMotherhoodMoral?byIrviH.Thakkar.
#[1985]FLR846
#[1996]1FLR369
#[2002]1FLR1008
#525A2d1128(NJ,1987)
#851p2d776(Cal,1993)
#30CalRptr2d893(1994)
#(1998)FLC92

Theauthorcanbereachedat:shriyamisra@legalservicesindia.com

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