India
This article is about the Republic of India. For other
uses, see India (disambiguation).
India, ocially the Republic of India (Bhrat
Gaarjya),[lower-alpha 5] is a country in South Asia. It
is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most
populous country (with over 1.2 billion people), and the
most populous democracy in the world. It is bounded by
the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the
southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It
shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;[lower-alpha 6]
China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast; and Myanmar
(Burma) and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean,
India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime
border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a
region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the
Indian subcontinent was identied with its commercial
and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[17] Four
religionsHinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism
originated in India, whereas Zoroastrianism, Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam arrived in the rst millennium
CE, and they also played a part in shaping the regions
diverse culture. Gradually annexed and brought under the
administration of the British East India Company from
the early 18th century and administered directly by the
United Kingdom after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, it
became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle
for independence that was marked by non-violent resis-
tance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
In 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh
largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing
power parity.[14] Following market-based economic re-
forms in 1991, India became one of the fastest-growing
major economies and is considered a newly industrialised
country. However, it continues to face the challenges of
poverty, corruption, malnutrition, and inadequate public
healthcare. A nuclear weapons state and regional power,
it has the third largest standing army in the world and
ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. In-
dia is a federal constitutional republic governed under
a parliamentary system and consists of 29 states and 7
union territories. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-
ethnic society and is also home to a diversity of wildlife
in a variety of protected habitats.
1
1 Etymology
Main article: Names of India
The name India is derived from Indus, which originates
from the Old Persian word Hindu.[18] The latter term
stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the
historical local appellation for the Indus River.[19] The
ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (),
which translates as The people of the Indus.[20]
The geographical term Bharat (Bhrat, pronounced
[bart]), which is recognised by the Constitution of In-
dia as an ocial name for the country,[21] is used by many
Indian languages in its variations. It is a modernisation
of the historical name Bharatavarsha, which tradition-
ally referred to the Indian subcontinent and gained in-
creasing currency from the mid-19th century as a native
name for India.[22][23] Scholars believe it to be named af-
ter the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium
B.C.E.[24] It is also traditionally associated with the rule
of the legendary emperor Bharata.[25] Gaarjya (liter-
ally, peoples State) is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for re-
public dating back to the ancient times.[26][27][28]
Hindustan ([nd stan]) is a Persian name for India
dating back to the 3rd century B.C.E. It was intro-
duced into India by the Mughals and widely used since
then. Its meaning varied, referring to a region that en-
compassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its
entirety.[22][23][29] Currently, the name may refer to either
the northern part of India or the entire country.[29]
2 History
Main articles: History of India and History of the
Republic of India
2.1 Ancient India
The earliest authenticated human remains in South Asia
date to about 30,000 years ago.[30] Nearly contempo-
raneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in
many parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at the
Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh.[31] Around
7000 BCE, the rst known Neolithic settlements ap-
peared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites
2 2
in western Pakistan.[32] These gradually developed into
the Indus Valley Civilisation,[33] the rst urban culture in
South Asia;[34] it ourished during 25001900 BCE in
Pakistan and western India.[35] Centred around cities such
as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan,
and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation
engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging
trade.[34]
During the period 2000500 BCE, in terms of culture,
many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the
Chalcolithic to the Iron Age.[36] The Vedas, the oldest
scriptures associated with Hinduism,[37] were composed
during this period,[38] and historians have analysed these
to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the up-
per Gangetic Plain.[36] Most historians also consider this
period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan
migration into the subcontinent.[39][37] The caste system
arose during this period, creating a hierarchy of priests,
warriors, free peasants and traders, and lastly the indige-
nous peoples who were regarded as impure; and small
tribal units gradually coalesced into monarchical, state-
level polities.[40][41] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeolog-
ical evidence from this period suggests the existence of
a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[36] In south-
ern India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by
the large number of megalithic monuments dating from
this period,[42] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture,
irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[42]
Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th
century
In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE,
the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and
the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 ma-
jor oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the
mahajanapadas.[43][44] The emerging urbanisation gave
rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which be-
came independent religions. Jainism came into promi-
HISTORY
nence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.[45]
Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Bud-
dha attracted followers from all social classes except-
ing the middle class; chronicling the life of the Bud-
dha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in
India.[46][47][48] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both
religions held up renunciation as an ideal,[49] and both es-
tablished long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by
the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had an-
nexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan
Empire.[50] The empire was once thought to have con-
trolled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south,
but its core regions are now thought to have been sep-
arated by large autonomous areas.[51][52] The Mauryan
kings are known as much for their empire-building and
determined management of public life as for Ashoka's
renunciation of militarism and far-ung advocacy of the
Buddhist dhamma.[53][54]
The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals
that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern
peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas,
and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with
the Roman Empire and with West and South-East
Asia.[55][56] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal
control within the family, leading to increased subordina-
tion of women.[57][50] By the 4th and 5th centuries, the
Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain
a complex system of administration and taxation that be-
came a model for later Indian kingdoms.[58][59] Under the
Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather
than the management of ritual began to assert itself.[60]
The renewal was reected in a owering of sculpture
and architecture, which found patrons among an urban
elite.[59] Classical Sanskrit literature owered as well, and
Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics
made signicant advances.[59]
2.2 Medieval India
The Indian early medieval age, 600 CE to 1200 CE, is
dened by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.[61]
When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-
Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand
southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of
the Deccan.[62] When his successor attempted to expand
eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[62]
When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards,
they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south,
who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas
from still farther south.[62] No ruler of this period was
able to create an empire and consistently control lands
much beyond his core region.[61] During this time, pas-
toral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way
for the growing agricultural economy were accommo-
dated within caste society, as were new non-traditional
ruling classes.[63] The caste system consequently began
to show regional dierences.[63]
2.3 Early modern India 3

the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, set-

ting the scene for centuries of migration of eeing sol-
diers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans
from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating
a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[70][71] The
sultanates raiding and weakening of the regional king-
doms of South India paved the way for the indigenous
Vijayanagara Empire.[72] Embracing a strong Shaivite
tradition and building upon the military technology of the
sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsu-
lar India,[73] and was to inuence South Indian society for
long afterwards.[72]

2.3 Early modern India

The granite tower of Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur was

completed in 1010 CE by Raja Raja Chola I.

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the rst devotional hymns

were created in the Tamil language.[64] They were im-
itated all over India and led to both the resurgence
of Hinduism and the development of all modern lan-
guages of the subcontinent.[64] Indian royalty, big and
small, and the temples they patronised, drew citizens in
great numbers to the capital cities, which became eco-
nomic hubs as well.[65] Temple towns of various sizes
began to appear everywhere as India underwent another
urbanisation.[65] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the ef-
fects were felt in South-East Asia, as South Indian cul-
ture and political systems were exported to lands that
became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Java.[66]
Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were
involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took the
initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian semi-
naries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their
languages.[66]
After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic
clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in
united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Persian, 15901595
Asias north-western plains, leading eventually to the es-
tablishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[67] In the early 16th century, northern India, being then un-
The sultanate was to control much of North India, and der mainly Muslim rulers,[74] fell again to the superior
to make many forays into South India. Although at mobility and repower of a new generation of Central
rst disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely Asian warriors.[75] The resulting Mughal Empire did not
left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own stamp out the local societies it came to rule, but rather
laws and customs.[68][69] By repeatedly repulsing Mongol balanced and pacied them through new administrative
raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from practices[76][77] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[78]
4 2 HISTORY

leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform

rule.[79] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, es-
pecially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-ung
realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised
culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.[78] The
Mughal states economic policies, deriving most revenues
from agriculture[80] and mandating that taxes be paid in
the well-regulated silver currency,[81] caused peasants and
artisans to enter larger markets.[79] The relative peace
maintained by the empire during much of the 17th cen-
tury was a factor in Indias economic expansion,[79] result-
ing in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, tex-
tiles, and architecture.[82] Newly coherent social groups
in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the
Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing
ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collabora- The British Indian Empire, from the 1909 edition of The Impe-
tion or adversity, gave them both recognition and military rial Gazetteer of India. Areas directly governed by the British
experience.[83] Expanding commerce during Mughal rule are shaded pink; the princely states under British suzerainty are
gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites in yellow.
along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[83] As the
empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able
long after their introduction in Europe.[92][93][94][95] How-
to seek and control their own aairs.[84]
ever, disaection with the company also grew during this
By the early 18th century, with the lines between time, and set o the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by
commercial and political dominance being increasingly diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive
blurred, a number of European trading companies, in- British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and sum-
cluding the English East India Company, had established mary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the
coastal outposts.[85][86] The East India Companys control rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central In-
of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced mil- dia and shook the foundations of Company rule.[96][97]
itary training and technology led it to increasingly ex Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led
its military muscle and caused it to become attractive to the dissolution of the East India Company and to
to a portion of the Indian elite; both these factors were the direct administration of India by the British govern-
crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the ment. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but lim-
Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European ited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers
companies.[87][85][88][89] Its further access to the riches of also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safe-
Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of guard against future unrest.[98][99] In the decades follow-
its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by ing, public life gradually emerged all over India, lead-
the 1820s.[90] India was then no longer exporting man- ing eventually to the founding of the Indian National
ufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supply- Congress in 1885.[100][101][102][103]
ing the British Empire with raw materials, and many his-
torians consider this to be the onset of Indias colonial
period.[85] By this time, with its economic power severely
curtailed by the British parliament and itself eectively
made an arm of British administration, the company be-
gan to more consciously enter non-economic arenas such
as education, social reform, and culture.[91]

2.4 Modern India

Historians consider Indias modern age to have begun

sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment
in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the
East India Company set the stage for changes essential
to a modern state. These included the consolidation and Jawaharlal Nehru (left) became Indias rst prime minister in
demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the pop- 1947. Mahatma Gandhi (right) led the independence movement.
ulation, and the education of citizens (English Educa-
tion Act 1835). Technological changesamong them, The rush of technology and the commercialisation of
railways, canals, and the telegraphwere introduced not agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was

marked by economic setbacksmany small farmers be-
came dependent on the whims of far-away markets.[104]
There was an increase in the number of large-scale
famines,[105] and, despite the risks of infrastructure de-
velopment borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial em-
ployment was generated for Indians.[106] There were also
salutary eects: commercial cropping, especially in the
newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production
for internal consumption.[107] The railway network pro-
vided critical famine relief,[108] notably reduced the cost
of moving goods,[108] and helped nascent Indian-owned
industry.[107] After World War I, in which approximately
one million Indians served,[109] a new period began. It
was marked by British reforms but also repressive leg-
islations, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and
by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-
co-operation, of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
would become the leader and enduring symbol.[110] Dur-
ing the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by
the British; the Indian National Congress won victories
in the resulting elections.[111] The next decade was be-
set with crises: Indian participation in World War II, the
Congresss nal push for non-co-operation, and an up-
surge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the
advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the
partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan.[112]
Vital to Indias self-image as an independent nation was
its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place
a secular and democratic republic.[113] In the 60 years
since, India has had a mixed record of successes and
failures.[114] It has remained a democracy with civil lib-
erties, an active Supreme Court, and a largely inde-
pendent press.[114] Economic liberalisation, which was
begun in the 1990s, has created a large urban middle
class, transformed India into one of the worlds fastest-
growing economies,[115] and increased its geopolitical
clout. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings
play an increasing role in global culture.[114] Yet, In-
dia is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both
rural and urban;[114] by religious and caste-related vio-
lence;[116] by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;[117]
and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in North-
east India.[118] It has unresolved territorial disputes with
China[119] and with Pakistan.[119] The IndiaPakistan nu-
clear rivalry came to a head in 1998.[120] Indias sustained
democratic freedoms are unique among the worlds newer
nations; however, in spite of its recent economic suc-
cesses, freedom from want for its disadvantaged popu-
lation remains a goal yet to be achieved.[121]
3 Geography
Main article: Geography of India
India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, ly- charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following:
ing atop the Indian tectonic plate, and part of the Indo- 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including clis;
Australian Plate.[122] Indias dening geological processes and 46% mudats or marshy shores.[129]
5
A topographic map of India
began 75 million years ago when the Indian plate, then
part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a
north-eastward drift caused by seaoor spreading to its
south-west, and later, south and south-east.[122] Simul-
taneously, the vast Tethyn oceanic crust, to its north-
east, began to subduct under the Eurasian plate.[122]
These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earths
mantle, both created the Indian Ocean and caused the
Indian continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eura-
sia and to uplift the Himalayas.[122] Immediately south of
the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast
trough that rapidly lled with river-borne sediment[123]
and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[124] Cut o
from the plain by the ancient Aravalli Range lies the Thar
Desert.[125]
The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India, the
oldest and geologically most stable part of India. It ex-
tends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in
central India. These parallel chains run from the Ara-
bian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich
Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[126] To
the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan
Plateau, is anked on the west and east by coastal ranges
known as the Western and Eastern Ghats;[127] the plateau
contains the countrys oldest rock formations, some over
one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India
lies to the north of the equator between 6 44' and 35
30' north latitude[lower-alpha 7] and 68 7' and 97 25' east
longitude.[128]
Indias coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi)
in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi)
belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300
mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island
chains.[129] According to the Indian naval hydrographic
6 4 BIODIVERSITY

The Kedar Range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind

Kedarnath Temple (Indian state of Uttarakhand), which is one
of the twelve jyotirlinga shrines. The brahminy kite (Haliastur indus) is identied with Garuda,
the mythical mount of Vishnu. It hunts for sh and other prey
near the coasts and around inland wetlands.
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially ow
through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra,
mass is covered by forests (tree canopy density >10%),
both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[130] Impor-
of which 12.2% comprises moderately or very dense
tant tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and
forests (tree canopy density >40%).[143] Endemism is
the Kosi; the latters extremely low gradient often leads
high among plants, 33%, and among ecoregions such as
to severe oods and course changes.[131] Major peninsu-
the shola forests.[144] Habitat ranges from the tropical
lar rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters
rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and
from ooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the
North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya.
Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay
Between these extremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest
of Bengal;[132] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which
of eastern India; the dry deciduous teak forest of central
drain into the Arabian Sea.[133] Coastal features include
and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn for-
the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the allu-
est of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[145]
vial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is shared
The medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal
with Bangladesh.[134] India has two archipelagos: the
remedies, is a key Indian tree. The luxuriant pipal g
Lakshadweep, coral atolls o Indias south-western coast;
tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gau-
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain
tama Buddha as he sought enlightenment.
in the Andaman Sea.[135]
Many Indian species descend from taxa originating in
The Indian climate is strongly inuenced by the Hi-
Gondwana, from which the Indian plate separated more
malayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the
than 105 million years before present.[146] Peninsular In-
economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter
dia's subsequent movement towards and collision with the
monsoons.[136] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian
Laurasian landmass set o a mass exchange of species.
katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of
Epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years
the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at
ago forced a mass extinction.[147] Mammals then entered
similar latitudes.[137][138] The Thar Desert plays a crucial
India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes
role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer
anking the rising Himalaya.[145] Thus, while 45.8% of
monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide
reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians are endemic, only
the majority of Indias rainfall.[136] Four major climatic
12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are.[142] Among
groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical
them are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and Beddomes toad
dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[139]
of the Western Ghats. India contains 172 IUCN-
designated threatened animal species, or 2.9% of en-
dangered forms.[148] These include the Asiatic lion, the
4 Biodiversity Bengal tiger, the snow leopard and the Indian white-
rumped vulture, which, by ingesting the carrion of
Main article: Wildlife of India diclofenac-laced cattle, nearly became extinct.
India lies within the Indomalaya ecozone and contains The pervasive and ecologically devastating human en-
three biodiversity hotspots.[140] One of 17 megadiverse croachment of recent decades has critically endangered
countries, it hosts 8.6% of all mammalian, 13.7% of Indian wildlife. In response the system of national parks
all avian, 7.9% of all reptilian, 6% of all amphib- and protected areas, rst established in 1935, was sub-
ian, 12.2% of all piscine, and 6.0% of all owering stantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife
plant species.[141][142] About 21.2% of the countrys land- Protection Act[149] and Project Tiger to safeguard cru-
5.1 Government
cial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted
in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.[150] India hosts
more than ve hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteen
biosphere reserves,[151] four of which are part of the
World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-ve wet-
lands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[152]
5 Politics
Main article: Politics of India
India is the worlds most populous democracy.[153] A par-
A parliamentary joint session being held in the Sansad Bhavan.
liamentary republic with a multi-party system,[154] it has
six recognised national parties, including the Indian Na-
tional Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and
more than 40 regional parties.[155] The Congress is con-
sidered centre-left in Indian political culture,[156] and the
BJP right-wing.[157][158][159] For most of the period be-
tween 1950when India rst became a republicand
the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the par-
liament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared
the political stage with the BJP,[160] as well as with pow-
erful regional parties which have often forced the creation
of multi-party coalitions at the centre.[161]
In the Republic of Indias rst three general elections,
in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the Jawaharlal Nehru-led
Congress won easy victories. On Nehrus death in 1964,
Lal Bahadur Shastri briey became prime minister; he
was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966,
by Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress to
election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public
discontent with the state of emergency she declared in
1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977;
the then-new Janata Party, which had opposed the emer-
gency, was voted in. Its government lasted just over three
years. Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress saw
a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was
assassinated; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi,
who won an easy victory in the general elections later that
year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a
National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata
Dal in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections; that
7
government too proved relatively short-lived, lasting just
under two years.[162] Elections were held again in 1991;
no party won an absolute majority. The Congress, as the
largest single party, was able to form a minority govern-
ment led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.[163]
The Rashtrapati Bhavan is the ocial residence of the president
of India.
A two-year period of political turmoil followed the gen-
eral election of 1996. Several short-lived alliances shared
power at the centre. The BJP formed a government
briey in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively
long-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended on
external support. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a
successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance
(NDA). Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA became
the rst non-Congress, coalition government to complete
a ve-year term.[164] In the 2004 Indian general elections,
again no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress
emerged as the largest single party, forming another suc-
cessful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA).
It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who op-
posed the BJP. The UPA returned to power in the 2009
general election with increased numbers, and it no longer
required external support from Indias communist par-
ties.[165] That year, Manmohan Singh became the rst
prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962
to be re-elected to a consecutive ve-year term.[166] In the
2014 general election, the BJP became the rst political
party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the
support of other parties.[167] The Prime Minister of India
is Narendra Modi, who was formerly Chief Minister of
Gujarat.
5.1 Government
Main articles: Government of India and Constitution of
India
India is a federation with a parliamentary system gov-
erned under the Constitution of India, which serves as
the countrys supreme legal document. It is a constitu-
tional republic and representative democracy, in which
"majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected
8 6 FOREIGN RELATIONS AND MILITARY

by law". Federalism in India denes the power distri- state laws which contravene the constitution,[188] as
bution between the federal government and the states. well as to invalidate any government action it deems
The government abides by constitutional checks and bal- unconstitutional.[189]
ances. The Constitution of India, which came into eect
on 26 January 1950,[168] states in its preamble that India
is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[169] 5.2 Subdivisions
Indias form of government, traditionally described as
quasi-federal with a strong centre and weak states,[170] Main article: Administrative divisions of India
has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a See also: Political integration of India
result of political, economic, and social changes.[171][172] A clickable map of the 29 states and 7 union territories
of India
The federal government comprises three branches:

India is a federation composed of 29 states and 7 union

Executive: The President of India is the head of
territories.[190] All states, as well as the union territo-
state[176] and is elected indirectly by a national
ries of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of
electoral college[177] for a ve-year term.[178] The
Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both
Prime Minister of India is the head of govern-
patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining ve
ment and exercises most executive power.[179] Ap-
union territories are directly ruled by the centre through
pointed by the president,[180] the prime minister is
appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Re-
by convention supported by the party or political
organisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic
alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower
basis.[191] Since then, their structure has remained largely
house of parliament.[179] The executive branch of
unchanged. Each state or union territory is further di-
the Indian government consists of the president, the
vided into administrative districts. The districts in turn
vice-president, and the Council of Ministersthe
are further divided into tehsils and ultimately into vil-
cabinet being its executive committeeheaded by
lages.
the prime minister. Any minister holding a port-
folio must be a member of one of the houses of
parliament.[176] In the Indian parliamentary system,
the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the 6 Foreign relations and military
prime minister and his council are directly respon-
sible to the lower house of the parliament.[181] Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian
Armed Forces
Legislative: The legislature of India is the bicameral Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained
parliament. It operates under a Westminster-
style parliamentary system and comprises the upper
house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States)
and the lower called the Lok Sabha (House of
the People).[182] The Rajya Sabha is a permanent
body that has 245 members who serve in stag-
gered six-year terms.[183] Most are elected indi-
rectly by the state and territorial legislatures in num-
bers proportional to their states share of the na-
tional population.[180] All but two of the Lok Sabhas
545 members are directly elected by popular vote;
they represent individual constituencies via ve-year
terms.[184] The remaining two members are nomi-
nated by the president from among the Anglo-Indian
community, in case the president decides that they Narendra Modi meets Vladimir Putin at the 6th BRICS summit.
are not adequately represented.[185] India and Russia share extensive economic, defence, and tech-
nological ties.
Judicial: India has a unitary three-tier independent
judiciary[186] that comprises the Supreme Court, cordial relations with most nations. In the 1950s, it
headed by the Chief Justice of India, 24 High strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia and
Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[186] The played a lead role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[192]
Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases In the late 1980s, the Indian military twice intervened
involving fundamental rights and over disputes be- abroad at the invitation of neighbouring countries: a
tween states and the centre; it has appellate juris- peace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and
diction over the High Courts.[187] It has the power 1990; and an armed intervention to prevent a 1988 coup
both to declare the law and to strike down union or d'tat attempt in Maldives. India has tense relations with
 9

neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war United States and the European Union.[204] In 2008, a
four times: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and
these wars were fought over the disputed territory of the United States. Although India possessed nuclear
Kashmir, while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear
Indias support for the independence of Bangladesh.[193] Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the
After waging the 1962 Sino-Indian War and the 1965 war International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear
with Pakistan, India pursued close military and economic Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on Indias nu-
ties with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet clear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India
Union was its largest arms supplier.[194] became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.[205] In-
Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia, In- dia subsequently signed co-operation agreements involv-
ing civilian nuclear energy with Russia,[206] France,[207]
dia has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and [208]
France. In recent years, it has played key roles in the the United Kingdom, and Canada.[209]
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and The President of India is the supreme commander of
the World Trade Organisation. The nation has provided the nations armed forces; with 1.325 million active
100,000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN troops, they compose the worlds third-largest mili-
peacekeeping operations across four continents. It partic- tary.[210] It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy,
ipates in the East Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other mul- and the Indian Air Force; auxiliary organisations include
tilateral forums.[195] India has close economic ties with the Strategic Forces Command and three paramilitary
South America,[196] Asia, and Africa; it pursues a Look groups: the Assam Ries, the Special Frontier Force,
East policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with and the Indian Coast Guard.[211] The ocial Indian
the ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that revolve defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.83%
around many issues, but especially those involving eco- of GDP.[212] For the scal year spanning 20122013,
nomic investment and regional security.[197][198] US$40.44 billion was budgeted.[213] According to a 2008
SIPRI report, Indias annual military expenditure in terms
of purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion.[214] In
2011, the annual defence budget increased by 11.6%,[215]
although this does not include funds that reach the mil-
itary through other branches of government.[216] As of
2012, India is the worlds largest arms importer; between
2007 and 2011, it accounted for 10% of funds spent
on international arms purchases.[217] Much of the mili-
tary expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan
and countering growing Chinese inuence in the Indian
Ocean.[215]

INS Vikramaditya, the Indian Navys biggest warship. 7 Economy

Chinas nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated Main article: Economy of India
threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 See also: Economic History of India and Economic de-
war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.[199] In-
velopment in India
dia conducted its rst nuclear weapons test in 1974 and According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
carried out further underground testing in 1998. De- the Indian economy in 2015 was nominally worth
spite criticism and military sanctions, India has signedUS$2.183 trillion; it is the 7th-largest economy by mar-
neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor ket exchange rates, and is, at US$8.027 trillion, the
the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both third-largest by purchasing power parity, or PPP.[14]
to be awed and discriminatory.[200] India maintains a With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8%
"no rst use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclearover the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during
triad capability as a part of its "minimum credible deter-
201112,[218] India is one of the worlds fastest-growing
rence" doctrine.[201][202] It is developing a ballistic mis-
economies.[219] However, the country ranks 140th in the
sile defence shield and, in collaboration with Russia, aworld in nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP per
fth-generation ghter jet.[203] Other indigenous mili- capita at PPP.[220] Until 1991, all Indian governments
tary projects involve the design and implementation of followed protectionist policies that were inuenced by
Vikrant-class aircraft carriers and Arihant-class nuclear
socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and
submarines.[203] regulation largely walled the economy o from the out-
Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its side world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991
economic, strategic, and military co-operation with the forced the nation to liberalise its economy;[221] since then
10
Cashew packets displayed in a Supermarket at Paravur near Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so in the
Kollam. Kollam is known as the Cashew Capital of the World.
An average of 130,000 tonnes of processed cashews are exported
from Kollam to various countries in the world
it has slowly moved towards a free-market system[222][223]
by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment
inows.[224] Indias recent economic model is largely
capitalist.[223] India has been a member of WTO since
1 January 1995.[225]
The 486.6-million worker Indian labour force is the
worlds second-largest, as of 2011.[211] The service sec-
tor makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3%
and the agricultural sector 18.1%. Indias foreign ex-
change remittances were US$70 billion in year 2014, the
largest in the world, contributed to its economy by 25
million Indians working in foreign countries.[226] Major
agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cot-
ton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.[190] Major in-
dustries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel,
transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, ma-
chinery, and software.[190] In 2006, the share of exter-
nal trade in Indias GDP stood at 24%, up from 6%
in 1985.[222] In 2008, Indias share of world trade was
1.68%;[227] In 2011, India was the worlds tenth-largest
importer and the nineteenth-largest exporter.[228] Ma-
jor exports include petroleum products, textile goods,
jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and
leather manufactures.[190] Major imports include crude
oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.[190] Be-
tween 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical
and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14%
to 42%.[229] India was the second largest textile exporter
after China in the world in calendar year 2013.[230]
Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several
years prior to 2007,[222] India has more than doubled
its hourly wage rates during the rst decade of the 21st
century.[231] Some 431 million Indians have left poverty
since 1985; Indias middle classes are projected to num-
ber around 580 million by 2030.[232] Though ranking 51st
in global competitiveness, India ranks 17th in nancial Tidel Park, the then largest IT park in Asia when it was opened
market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in 2000.
7 ECONOMY
in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, ahead
of several advanced economies, as of 2010.[233] With 7
of the worlds top 15 information technology outsourcing
companies based in India, the country is viewed as the
second-most favourable outsourcing destination after the
United States, as of 2009.[234] Indias consumer market,
the worlds eleventh-largest, is expected to become fth-
largest by 2030.[232]
Driven by growth, Indias nominal GDP per capita has
steadily increased from US$329 in 1991, when economic
liberalisation began, to US$1,265 in 2010, and is es-
timated to increase to US$2,110 by 2016; however, it
has remained lower than those of other Asian develop-
ing countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri
near future. However, it is higher than Pakistan, Nepal,
Afghanistan, Bangladesh and others.[235]
According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers report, In-
dias GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that
of the United States by 2045.[236] During the next four
decades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annu-
alised average of 8%, making it potentially the worlds
fastest-growing major economy until 2050.[236] The re-
port highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly
growing working-age population; growth in the manufac-
turing sector because of rising education and engineering
skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market
driven by a rapidly growing middle class.[236] The World
Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic po-
tential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform,
transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural develop-
ment, removal of labour regulations, education, energy
security, and public health and nutrition.[237]
In 2016, the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) released
a list of the Top 10 cheapest cities in the world, based on
the cost of 160 products and services, of which four were
in India: Bangalore (2nd), Mumbai (3rd), Chennai (6th)
and New Delhi (8th).[238]
7.1 Sectors
 11

Indias telecommunication industry, the worlds fastest- 8 Demographics

growing, added 227 million subscribers during the period
201011,[239] and after the rst quarter of 2013, India
Main article: Demographics of India
surpassed Japan to become the third largest smartphone
See also: Languages of India and Religion in India
market in the world after China and the US.[240]
With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 pro-
The Indian automotive industry, the worlds second
fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during
200910,[241] and exports by 36% during 200809.[242]
Indias capacity to generate electrical power is 250 gi-
gawatts, of which 8% is renewable. At the end of 2011,
the Indian IT industry employed 2.8 million profession-
als, generated revenues close to US$100 billion equalling
7.5% of Indian GDP and contributed 26% of Indias mer-
chandise exports.[243]
The pharmaceutical industry in India is among the signif-
icant emerging markets for global pharma industry. The
Indian pharmaceutical market is expected to reach $48.5
billion by 2020. Indias R & D spending constitutes 60%
of the biopharmaceutical industry.[244][245] India is among
the top 12 biotech destinations of the world.[246][247] The
Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 201213, in- Women attend a literacy programme in Thiruputkuzhi, Tamil
creasing its revenues from 204.4 Billion INR (Indian Ru- Nadu.
pees) to 235.24 Billion INR (3.94 B US$ exchange rate
June 2013: 1 US$ approx. 60 INR).[248] Although hardly visional census report,[263] India is the worlds second-
2% of Indians pay income taxes.[249] most populous country. Its population grew by 17.64%
during 20012011,[264] compared to 21.54% growth in
the previous decade (19912001).[264] The human sex
ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females
7.2 Poverty per 1,000 males.[263] The median age was 24.9 in the
2001 census.[211] The rst post-colonial census, con-
ducted in 1951, counted 361.1 million people.[265] Med-
Main article: Poverty in India ical advances made in the last 50 years as well as in-
creased agricultural productivity brought about by the
Despite impressive economic growth during recent "Green Revolution" have caused Indias population to
decades, India continues to face socio-economic chal- grow rapidly.[266] India continues to face several public
lenges. In 2006, India contained the largest number health-related challenges.[267][268]
of people living below the World Banks international Life expectancy in India is at 68 years with life ex-
poverty line of US$1.25 per day,[250] the proportion hav- pectancy for women being 69.6 years and for men be-
ing decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005, and ing 67.3.[269] There are around 50 physicians per 100,000
25% in 2011.[251] 30.7% of Indias children under the Indians.[270] The number of Indians living in urban areas
age of ve are underweight.[252] According to a Food has grown by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.[271] Yet,
and Agriculture Organization report in 2015, 15% of In- in 2001, over 70% lived in rural areas.[272][273] The level
dian population is undernourished.[253][254] The Mid-Day of urbanisation increased from 27.81% in 2001 Census
Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates.[255] Since to 31.16% in 2011 Census. The slowing down of the
1991, economic inequality between Indias states has con- overall growth rate of population was due to the sharp
sistently grown: the per-capita net state domestic prod- decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.[274]
uct of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the According to the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus
poorest.[256] Corruption in India is perceived to have in- urban agglomerations in India; among them Mumbai,
creased signicantly,[257] with one report estimating the Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and
illegal capital ows since independence to be US$462 Ahmedabad, in decreasing order by population.[275] The
billion.[258] literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females
India has the highest number of people living in con- and 82.14% among males.[276] The rural urban literacy
ditions of slavery, 18 million, most of whom are in gap which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped
bonded labour.[259] India has the largest number of child to 16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement
labourers under the age of 14 in the world with an in literacy rate in rural area is two times that in urban
estimated 12.6 million children engaged in hazardous areas.[274] Kerala is the most literate state with 93.91%
occupations.[260][261][262] literacy; while Bihar the least with 63.82%.[276]
12
India is home to two major language families: Indo-
Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and
Dravidian (24%). Other languages spoken in India come
from the Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan language fami-
lies. India has no national language.[277] Hindi, with the
largest number of speakers, is the ocial language of the
government.[278][279] English is used extensively in busi-
ness and administration and has the status of a subsidiary
ocial language";[4] it is important in education, espe-
cially as a medium of higher education. Each state and
union territory has one or more ocial languages, and
the constitution recognises in particular 22 scheduled
languages. The Constitution of India recognises 212
scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about
7.5% of the countrys population.[280] The 2011 census
reported that the religion in India with the largest number
of followers was Hinduism (79.8% of the population),
followed by Islam (14.23%); the remaining[lower-alpha 3]
were Christianity (2.30%), Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism
(0.70%) and Jainism (0.36%).[8] India has the worlds
largest Hindu, Sikh, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Bah' popu-
lations, and has the third-largest Muslim populationthe
largest for a non-Muslim majority country.[281][282]
9 Culture
Main article: Culture of India
Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[283]
A Chola bronze depicting Nataraja, who is seen as a cosmic Lord ture.
of the Dance and representative of Shiva
During the Vedic period (c. 1700 500 BCE), the ets such as Kabr, Tulsds, and Guru Nnak. This pe-
foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, theology riod was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum
9 CULTURE
and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices
which still exist today, such as dhrma, krma, yga,
and moka, were established.[20] India is notable for its
religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism,
Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nations major
religions.[284] The predominant religion, Hinduism, has
been shaped by various historical schools of thought, in-
cluding those of the Upanishads,[285] the Yoga Sutras, the
Bhakti movement,[284] and by Buddhist philosophy.[286]
9.1 Art and architecture
Main article: Architecture of India
Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal,
other works of Mughal architecture, and South Indian
architecture, blends ancient local traditions with im-
ported styles.[287] Vernacular architecture is also highly
regional in it avours. Vastu shastra, literally sci-
ence of construction or architecture and ascribed to
Mamuni Mayan,[288] explores how the laws of nature
aect human dwellings;[289] it employs precise geome-
try and directional alignments to reect perceived cos-
mic constructs.[290] As applied in Hindu temple archi-
tecture, it is inuenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a series
of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is
the Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the
"absolute".[291] The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between
1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Shah Jahan in mem-
ory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO
World Heritage List as the jewel of Muslim art in In-
dia and one of the universally admired masterpieces of
the worlds heritage.[292] Indo-Saracenic Revival archi-
tecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century,
drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.[293]
9.2 Literature
Main article: Indian literature
The earliest literary writings in India, composed be-
tween 1700 BCE and 1200 CE, were in the Sanskrit
language.[294][295] Prominent works of this Sanskrit lit-
erature include epics such as the Mahbhrata and the
Ramayana, the dramas of Klidsa such as the Abhij-
nakuntalam (The Recognition of akuntal), and poetry
such as the Mahkvya.[296][297][298] Kamasutra, the fa-
mous book about sexual intercourse also originated in
India. Developed between 600 BCE and 300 CE in
South India, the Sangam literature, consisting of 2,381
poems, is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil litera-
[299][300][301][302]
From the 14th to the 18th centuries,
Indias literary traditions went through a period of dras-
tic change because of the emergence of devotional po-
9.4 Motion pictures, television
of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval
Indian literary works diered signicantly from clas-
sical traditions.[303] In the 19th century, Indian writers
took a new interest in social questions and psychologi-
cal descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature
was inuenced by the works of Bengali poet and novel-
ist Rabindranath Tagore,[304] who was a recipient of the
Nobel Prize in Literature.
9.3 Performing arts
Rukmini Devi Arundale, one of the foremost revivalists of
bharatnatyam dance in the 20th century, performs at a concert.
Main articles: Music of India and Dance in India
Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional
styles. Classical music encompasses two genres and
their various folk oshoots: the northern Hindustani
and southern Carnatic schools.[305] Regionalised popular
forms include lmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition
of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian
dance also features diverse folk and classical forms.
Among the better-known folk dances are the bhangra of
Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Odisha, West
Bengal and Jharkhand, garba and dandiya of Gujarat,
ghoomar of Rajasthan, and the lavani of Maharashtra.
Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mytho-
logical elements, have been accorded classical dance
status by Indias National Academy of Music, Dance,
and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state
of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and
13
mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh,
manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Odisha, and the sattriya of
Assam.[306] Theatre in India melds music, dance, and im-
provised or written dialogue.[307] Often based on Hindu
mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances
or social and political events, Indian theatre includes the
bhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki
and ramlila of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra,
burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu,
and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[308]
9.4 Motion pictures, television
Main articles: Cinema of India and Television in India
The Indian lm industry produces the worlds most-
watched cinema.[309] Established regional cinematic tra-
ditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Hindi,
Kannada, Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Odia,
Tamil, and Telugu languages.[310] South Indian cinema
attracts more than 75% of national lm revenue.[311]
Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-
run medium of communication, and had slow expansion
for more than two decades.[312][313] The state monopoly
on television broadcast ended in the 1990s and, since
then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped popular
culture of Indian society.[314] Today, television is the most
penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate
that as of 2012 there are over 554 million TV consumers,
462 million with satellite and/or cable connections, com-
pared to other forms of mass media such as press (350
million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).[315]
9.5 Cuisine
Main article: Indian cuisine
Indian cuisine encompasses a wide variety of regional
An assortment of Indian spices
and traditional cuisines, often depending on a particular
state (such as Maharashtrian cuisine). Staple foods of
Indian cuisine include pearl millet (bjra), rice, whole-
wheat our (aa), and a variety of lentils, such as ma-
14 9 CULTURE

soor (most often red lentils), toor (pigeon peas), uradranged by their parents or other elders in the family.[323]
(black gram), and mong (mung beans). Lentils may Marriage is thought to be for life,[323] and the divorce
be used whole, dehuskedfor example, dhuli moong rate is extremely low.[324] As of 2001, just 1.6 percent
or dhuli urador split. Split lentils, or dal, are of Indian women were divorced but this gure was rising
used extensively.[316] The spice trade between India and
due to their education and economic independence.[324]
Europe is often cited by historians as the primary catalyst
Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas;
for Europes Age of Discovery.[317] many women wed before reaching 18, which is their le-
gal marriageable age.[325] Female infanticide and female
foeticide in the country have caused a discrepancy in the
9.6 Society sex ratio, as of 2005 it was estimated that there were 50
million more males than females in the nation.[326][327]
Main article: Culture of India However a report from 2011 has shown improvement in
Traditional Indian society is sometimes dened by so- the gender ratio.[328] The payment of dowry, although
illegal, remains widespread across class lines.[329] Deaths
resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are on
the rise.[330]
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best
known include Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal,
Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and
Vaisakhi.[331][332] India has three national holidays which
are observed in all states and union territories Republic
Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets
of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are o-
cially observed in individual states.

9.7 Clothing

Main article: Clothing in India

Cotton was domesticated in India by 4000 BCE. Tradi-

Top: A North Indian home-cooked tin lunch as delivered to an
oce by a dabbawala. Bottom: A South Indian thali-style dinner
as served in a restaurant.
tional Indian dress varies in colour and style across re-
gions and depends on various factors, including climate
and faith. Popular styles of dress include draped gar-
ments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungi
for men. Stitched clothes, such as the shalwar kameez
for women and kurtapyjama combinations or European-
style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.[333] Use
of delicate jewellery, modelled on real owers worn in an-
cient India, is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000
years; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans.[334]

cial hierarchy. The Indian caste system embodies much

of the social stratication and many of the social restric- 9.8 Sports
tions found in the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are
dened by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, Main article: Sport in India
often termed as jtis, or castes.[318] India declared un-
In India, several traditional indigenous sports remain
touchability to be illegal[319] in 1947 and has since en-fairly popular, such as kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and
acted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare gilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial
initiatives. At the workplace in urban India and in in- arts, such as kalarippayattu, musti yuddha, silambam, and
ternational or leading Indian companies, the caste related
marma adi, originated in India. Chess, commonly held
identication has pretty much lost its importance.[320][321]
to have originated in India as chaturaga, is regaining
Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and widespread popularity with the rise in the number of In-
[335][336]
multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been dian grandmasters. Pachisi, from which parcheesi
the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming derives, was played on a giant marble court by Akbar.[337]
common in urban areas.[322] An overwhelming majority The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup
of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages ar- team and other Indian tennis players in the early 2010s

A game of kabaddi in Bagepalli, Karnataka
have made tennis increasingly popular in the country.[338]
India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting
sports, and has won several medals at the Olympics, the
World Shooting Championships, and the Commonwealth
Games.[339][340] Other sports in which Indians have suc-
ceeded internationally include badminton[341] (Saina Ne-
hwal and P V Sindhu are two of the top ranked fe-
male badminton players in the world), boxing,[342] and
wrestling.[343] Football is popular in West Bengal, Goa,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-eastern states.[344]
India is scheduled to host the 2017 FIFA U-17 World
Cup.[345]
Field hockey in India is administered by Hockey India.
The Indian national hockey team won the 1975 Hockey
World Cup and have, as of 2016, taken eight gold, one sil-
ver, and two bronze Olympic medals, making it the sports
most successful team in the Olympics.
India has also played a major role in popularising cricket.
Thus, cricket is, by far, the most popular sport in In-
dia. The Indian national cricket team won the 1983 and
2011 Cricket World Cup events, the 2007 ICC World
Twenty20, shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy
with Sri Lanka, and won 2013 ICC Champions Trophy.
Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Con-
trol for Cricket in India (BCCI); the Ranji Trophy, the
Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy,
and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy are domestic com-
petitions. The BCCI also conducts an annual Twenty20
competition known as the Indian Premier League.
India has hosted or co-hosted several international sport-
ing events: the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games; the 1987,
1996, and 2011 Cricket World Cup tournaments; the
2003 Afro-Asian Games; the 2006 ICC Champions Tro-
phy; the 2010 Hockey World Cup; and the 2010 Com-
monwealth Games. Major international sporting events
held annually in India include the Chennai Open, the
Mumbai Marathon, the Delhi Half Marathon, and the
Indian Masters. The rst Formula 1 Indian Grand Prix
featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the
F1 season calendar since 2014.[346]
15
India has traditionally been the dominant country at the
South Asian Games. An example of this dominance is
the basketball competition where Team India won three
out of four tournaments to date.[347]
The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are
the highest forms of government recognition for athletic
achievement; the Dronacharya Award is awarded for ex-
cellence in coaching.
10 See also
Outline of India
Index of India-related articles
11 Notes
[1] "[...] Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of In-
dia, subject to such alterations in the words as the Gov-
ernment may authorise as occasion arises; and the song
Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the
struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally
with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with
it. (Constituent Assembly of India 1950).
[2] Hindi in the Devanagari script is the ocial language of
the Union. English is an additional ocial language for
government work alongside Hindi.[4][1][5] States and union
territories can have a dierent ocial language of their
own other than Hindi or English.
[3] Besides specic religions, the last two categories in the
2011 Census were Other religions and persuasions
(0.65%) and Religion not stated (0.23%).
[4] The countrys exact size is subject to debate because some
borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total
area as 3,287,260 km2 (1,269,220 sq mi) and the total
land area as 3,060,500 km2 (1,181,700 sq mi); the United
Nations lists the total area as 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219
sq mi) and total land area as 2,973,190 km2 (1,147,960
sq mi). (Library of Congress 2004).
[5] See names of India in its ocial languages.
[6] The Government of India also regards Afghanistan as a
bordering country, as it considers all of Kashmir to be part
of India. However, this is disputed, and the region bor-
dering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. Source:
Ministry of Home Aairs (Department of Border Man-
agement)" (PDF). Retrieved 1 September 2008.
[7] The northernmost point under Indian control is the dis-
puted Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however,
the Government of India regards the entire region of the
former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including
the Gilgit-Baltistan administered by Pakistan, to be its ter-
ritory. It therefore assigns the longitude 37 6' to its north-
ernmost point.
16
12 References
[1] National Informatics Centre 2005.
[2] Wolpert 2003, p. 1.
[3] National Symbols | National Portal of India. In-
dia.gov.in. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
[4] Ministry of Home Aairs 1960.
[5] Prole | National Portal of India. India.gov.in. Re-
trieved 23 August 2013.
[6] Constitutional Provisions Ocial Language Related
Part-17 Of The Constitution Of India. National Infor-
matics Centre (in Hindi). Retrieved 27 December 2015.
[7] Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities:
50th report (July 2012 to June 2013)" (PDF). Commis-
sioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority
Aairs, Government of India. Retrieved 26 December
2014.
[8] C 1 Population by religious community 2011. Oce
of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner. Re-
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[9] Sitting Hon'ble Judges: Hon'ble Mr. Justice Jagdish
Singh Khehar. Supreme Court of India. Retrieved 4 Jan-
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[10] Prole. india.gov.in.
[11] India IMF Population estimates.
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[13] A 2 DECADAL VARIATION IN POPULATION
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[14] World Economic Outlook Database, October 2015 Re-
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[17] Stein 1998, pp. 1617.
[18] Serge Gruzinski 2015.
[19] Oxford English Dictionary.
[20] Kuiper 2010, p. 86.
[21] Ministry of Law and Justice 2008.
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Ocial website of Government of India

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General information

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Agency.
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India from the BBC News

Wikimedia Atlas of India

Geographic data related to India at OpenStreetMap

Key Development Forecasts for India from

International Futures

Coordinates: 21N 78E / 21N 78E

30 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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15.1 Text 31

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32 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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session_of_both_houses_2010.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/whitehouse/5246059812/in/
set-72157625560847260/ Original artist: The White House
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BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by BishkekRocks using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original
15.2 Images 35

uploader was Fastsix at English Wikipedia

File:Brahminy_kite.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Brahminy_kite.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
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Scanned and reduced from personal copy by <a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User:
Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw'
title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Talk</a> 18:10, 5 August 2007 (UTC) Original artist: Edinburgh Geographi-
cal Institute; J. G. Bartholomew and Sons.
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tributors: ? Original artist: ?
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domain Contributors: http://www.dcaa.com.bd/Modules/CountryProfile/BangladeshFlag.aspx Original artist: User:SKopp
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tors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: User:Nightstallion
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Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370
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cense: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
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