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Chapter
Australian Curriculum
content descriptions:
ACMMG243
ACMMG272
ACMMG274
Measurement and Geometry
Circle
34
125
geometry
78
6
42
You have already seen how powerful Euclidean geometry is when working with
9
triangles. For example, Pythagoras theorem and all of trigonometry arise from
Euclidean geometry.
42 0
When applied to circles, geometry also produces beautiful and surprising
results. In this chapter, you will see how useful congruence and similarity are in
the context of circle geometry.
28
60
ISBN 978-1-107-64845-6
5 The University of Melbourne / AMSI 2011
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Chapter 14 Circle geometry 111
Cambridge University Press
14A Angles at the centre
and the circumference
A circle is the set of all points that lie a fixed distance (called the radius) from a fixed point
(called the centre).
10A
While we use the word radius to mean this fixed distance, we also use
radius to mean any interval joining a point on the circle to the centre.
The radii (plural of radius) of a circle radiate out from the centre, like the radius
spokes of a bicycle wheel. (The word radius is a Latin word meaning
spoke or ray.)
A chord of a circle is the interval joining any two points on the circle.
The word chord is a Greek word meaning cord or string, and you
chord
should imagine a chord as a piece of cord stretched tight. A plucked or
bowed string gives out a musical note, which is the origin of the word
chord in music. diameter
A chord that passes through the centre of the circle is called a diameter.
Angles in a semicircle
We will start this chapter with an important result about circles. The discovery of this result
was attributed to Thales (~ 600 BC) by later Greek mathematicians, who claimed that it was
the first theorem ever consciously stated and proved in mathematics.
In each diagram below, the angle P is called an angle in a semicircle. It is formed by taking
a diameter AOB, choosing any other point P on the circle, and joining the chords PA and PB.
P
P P
A B A B A B
O O O
These diagrams lead us to ask the question, What happens to P as P takes different positions
around the semicircle? Thales discovered a marvellous fact: P is always a right angle.
Theorem: An angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
Proof: Draw the radius OP.
Because the radii are equal, we have two isosceles triangles AOP and BOP.
Let BAP = a and ABP = b.
P
Then OPA = a (base angles of isosceles OPA) B
and OPB = b (base angles of isosceles OPB).
O
Adding up the interior angles of the triangle ABP, A
a + a + b + b = 180
a + b = 90
so APB = 90, which is the required result.
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Angles in a semicircle (Thales theorem)
C
An angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
B
Two slightly different proofs of this result are given in Exercise 14A.
Example 1
a Find a
25
A B
b Prove that APBQ is a rectangle. O
Solution
If AB is not a diameter, the regions are unequal. The larger region minor
B
segment
iscalled the major segment and the smaller region is called the
minor segment. major
Similarly, the points A and B divide the circumference into two pieces arc AB
called arcs.
If AB is not a diameter, the arcs are unequal. The larger piece is called
the major arc and the smaller piece is called the minor arc. Notice A
that the phrase the arc AB could refer to either arc, and we often need B
to clarify which arc we mean.
minor
arc AB
P
P
A B A B A B
F F F
Minor arcs
Suppose that AFP is a minor arc, and A, B and P are located as in the P
diagram. We draw all three radii, AO, BO and PO, and produce PO to X.
Since AO and PO are radii, AOP is isosceles. Let the equal angles be a. O B
2 2
Similarly, BOP is isosceles. Let the equal angles be b. A
X
Next, using the fact that an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum
F
of the two opposite interior angles, AOX = 2a and BOX = 2b.
Hence, AOB = 2a + 2b and APB = a + b.
The conclusion is that APB is half the AOB, an angle subtended at the centre of the
circle bythe arc AFB.
Theorem:The angle at the centre subtended by an arc of a circle is twice an angle at the
circumference subtended by the same arc.
The proof given above is incomplete.
hen AB is a minor arc, one of the radii OA or OB may cross one of, or coincide with, the
W
chords AP or BP. So there are actually three separate cases to consider:
P
P P
O
B O
O
B X B
X A
A A
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
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We have dealt with Case 1 on the previous page. The other two cases P
will be dealt with in question 7 of Exercise 14A.
50
When the arc is a minor arc, the angle at the centre is less than 180 and O
the angle at the circumference is an acute angle. For example, in the 100
diagram to the right, the minor arc AFB subtends an angle of 100 at the A
centre and an angle of 50 at the circumference. B
F
P
Major arcs and semicircles
A 130 B
When the arc is a major arc, the angle at the centre is a reflex angle and
O
the angle at the circumference is an obtuse angle. For example, in the
diagram to the right, the major arc AFB subtends an angle of 260 at the 260
centre and an angle of 130 at the circumference. The proof is the same
as the proof of Case 1 for the minor arc. F
Finally, when the arc is a semicircle, the angle at the centre is 180 P
and the angle at the circumference is 90. You will recognise that this
is precisely the situation covered by Thales theorem, which is thus a O
A B
special case of our new theorem.
180
Thus, the two theorems are an excellent example of a theorem and its
generalisation. This situation occurs routinely throughout mathematics. F
For example, the cosine rule can be thought of as a generalisation of
Pythagoras theorem.
Example 2
Q 120 O P
Exercise 14A
Note: Points labelled O in this exercise are always centres of circles.
1 a i Use compasses to draw a large circle with centre O, and draw a diameter AOB.
ii Draw an angle APB in one of the semicircles. What is its size?
b i Draw another large circle, and draw a chord AB that is not a diameter.
ii Draw the angle at the centre and an angle at the circumference subtended by the
minor arc AB. How are these two angles related?
iii Mark the angle at the centre on the major arc AB and draw an angle at the
circumference subtended by this major arc. How are these two angles related?
Example 2 2 Find the values of a, b, g and q, giving reasons.
a P b c J
B L
80
P O Q
65
O O
T
A
K
15
d R e Z f
Y A
O
70
O C
B
O
X
T S 160
70
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3 Find the values of a, b, g and q, giving reasons.
a A b A c B
A
B
88
O
O
O
B 63
55
C
C C
d B e C
f A
95
A
79 A O B 123 O
C
O
B
C
g B h i
C 258
J
O P
O O
200
K A
M B
A 80
j k 50 l
L
X Q
K
O
J
60 P
O O T
R
S
12
O P O
O
Q
70
T 80
G
R F S R
g A h P i P
B
110 160
120 A
O O O
C
40
R Q
B Q
j U k A l K
30
J
D
B
220 T O
O O
R
L
C
S M
d e f B
B
A
50 A
140 O
C 160 O
O P R 200
Q
C
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6 Thales theorem states that: An angle in a semicircle is a right angle. X
This question develops two other proofs of Thales theorem.
P
We must prove, in each part, that APB = 90.
a (Euclids proof) Join PO, and produce AP to X. B
Let A = a and B = b.
O
A
i Prove that APB = a + b, and that XPB = a + b.
ii Hence prove that a + b = 90.
b Join PO and produce it to M. P
i Prove that AOM = 2a and BOM = 2b.
B
ii Hence prove that 2 + 2b = 180.
O
iii Deduce that a + b = 90. A
M
7 Prove that: An angle at the centre subtended by an arc is twice an angle at the
circumference subtended by the same arc.
We proved one case of this, and pointed out that there are two other cases to consider.
Here is the full proof, including all three cases.
P
a In the first diagram:
i Prove that APB = a + b. O B
A X
P
b In the second diagram:
i Prove that APB = b.
O
ii Prove that AOB = 2b. B
B
A P
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14B Angles at the circumference
and cyclic quadrilaterals
Let us look at three angles at the circumference, all subtended by the same arc AFB.
10A
P
P
A B A B A B
F F F
P
We know already that all three angles are half the angle AOB P
at the centre subtended by this same arc.
P O
It follows immediately that all three angles are equal. This result is
important enough to state as a separate theorem, in the box below.
A B
F
Angles at the circumference of a circle subtended by the same arc are equal.
Example 3
Solution
Cyclic quadrilaterals
An interesting alternative proof is given as question 8 in Exercise 14B. Every cyclic quadrilateral
is convex because none of its angles are reflex, but not every convex quadrilateral is cyclic.
Example 4
100 A
70
C
B
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Solution
P
The converse of Thales theorem
We began this chapter by proving Thales theorem: O
A B
An angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
Thales theorem has an important converse, which we can prove in an
elegant fashion using the diagonal properties of rectangles.
Theorem (converse of Thales theorem): P
If an interval AB subtends a right angle at a point P, then P lies on the circle with
diameter AB.
g h J i P
B Q J
N
M G 60
130 20
A M
50
K
Q
P L K
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d 40 e 130 f C B
B Q R 130
D
45
80 C 40
P S
A
A
D
20
g X h i
D
C L
70X K
D A
A
20 M
B J
O
70
B 100
C Y
Y
d e f S T
D
J K
C
O R U
20 O
M L O
B
A 70
Q
T
R
i Prove that i Find a, b and .
P = Q = S = T.
ii Prove that PT = SQ. ii Prove that PQ GR.
6 a Q
b Q
70 A
50 B
P
S M
B A
T P
i Find a, b and . i Find a, b and .
ii Prove that PS || QT. ii Prove that AB || PQ.
iii Prove that AP = BQ.
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9 Prove that: An exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral equals the X
A
opposite interior angle.
C
10 a Prove that: A cyclic parallelogram is a rectangle. B
In the cyclic parallelogram ABCD, let A = . A
i Give reasons why C = 180 and why C = .
C
ii Hence, prove that ABCD is a rectangle. D
b Use part a to prove that: A cyclic rhombus is a square.
11 Prove that: In a cyclic trapezium that is not a parallelogram, M
the nonparallel sides have equal length. A
AFB. It is also called the angle at the centre subtended by the chord AB. F
OA = OB (radii of a circle) O
this section.
triangles)
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Theorem: The interval joining the midpoint of a chord to the centre
of a circle is perpendicular to the chord, and bisects the angle
at the centre subtended by the chord. O
A M B
A M B
A M B
Chords and calculations
The circle theorems stated above can be used in conjuction with Pythagoras theorem and
trigonometry to calculate lengths and angles.
Example 5
Solution
The interval joining the midpoint of a chord to the centre of a circle is perpendicular to
the chord, and bisects the angle at the centre subtended by the chord.
The perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects the chord, and bisects
the angle at the centre subtended by the chord.
The bisector of the angle at the centre of a circle subtended by a chord bisects the
chord, and is perpendicular to it.
A B
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Let the perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC meet at O,
and join AO, BO and CO.
Then AOM BOM (SAS)
so AO = BO (matching sides of congruent triangles),
and CON BON (SAS)
so CO = BO (matching sides of congruent triangles),
so AO = BO = CO
Hence, O is equidistant from A, B and C, so the circle with centre O and radius
AO passes through A, B and C.
To find the centre of a given circle, construct the perpendicular bisectors of two
nonparallel chords, and take their point of intersection.
To find the circumcentre of a given triangle, construct the perpendicular bisectors of
two sides, and take their point of intersection.
Exercise 14C
c d
S
x
4 O
O B 8
6
4
L M x N
T
e B f S
M3
A
x 10
3 5 O
K x
O
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4 Find the values of a, b, g and q, giving reasons.
a T b B C c Q
S
U P
50 A
R O
O R
O
d B e 25 f C
G
H B
O 130
O A
O
C
A
6 This question leads you through the proofs of the three theorems in the
text about the midpoint of a chord.
a Prove that: The line joining the midpoint of a chord to the centre
is perpendicular to the chord, and bisects the angle at the centre
O
subtended by the chord.
Let M be the midpoint of the chord AB.
A M B
i Prove that AOM BOM.
ii Hence, prove that OM AB and that OM bisects AOB.
b Prove that: The perpendicular from the centre to a chord bisects the chord, and bisects
the angle at the centre subtended by the chord.
Let M be the foot of the perpendicular from O to chord AB.
O
i Prove that AOM BOM.
ii Hence, prove that M is the midpoint of AB
A M B
and that OM bisects AOB.
A
B
O
O
F
Q
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9 Let AB be an interval with midpoint M, and let P be a point in the plane not on AB.
a Prove that if P is equidistant from A and B, then P lies on the perpendicular
bisector of AB.
b Conversely, prove that if P lies on the perpendicular bisector of AB, then P is
equidistant from A and B.
c Use parts a and b to prove that a circle has only one centre.
d For these questions you will need to think in three dimensions.
i A circle is drawn on a piece of paper that lies flat on the table. Is there any
other point in three-dimensional space, other than the centre of the circle, that is
equidistant from all the points on the circle?
ii What geometrical object is formed by taking, in three dimensions, the set of all
points that are a fixed distance from a given point?
iii What geometrical object is formed by taking, in three dimensions, the set of all
points that are a fixed distance from a given line?
iv What geometrical object is formed by taking, in three dimensions, the set of all
points that are a fixed distance from a given interval?
v What geometrical object is formed by taking, in three dimensions, the set of all
points that are equidistant from the endpoints of an interval?
vi How could you find the centre of a sphere?
The diagrams show that a line can intersect a circle at two points, one point or no points.
10A
tangent
B T
secant
A line that intersects a circle at two points is called a secant, because it cuts the circle into
two pieces. (The word secant comes from Latin and means cutting.)
As we learned in Chapter 11, a line that intersects a circle at just one point is called a
tangent. It touches the circle at that point of contact, but does not pass inside it.
(The word tangent also comes from Latin and means touching.)
Constructing a tangent
P T Q
In the diagram, OT is a radius of a circle.
The line PTQ is perpendicular to the radius OT.
The diagram is symmetric about the line OT.
O
We would expect from the symmetry that PTQ is the tangent to
the circle at T. Here is the proof.
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Example 6
P
T 15
Solution
OS = OT (radii)
Example 7
7 cm
Solution
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The various lines are all the common tangents to the two circles. There are 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4
common tangents in the five successive diagrams.
In the second and fourth diagrams, the two circles touch each other, and they have a common
tangent at the point of contact.
Tangents to a circle
A line that intersects a circle at just one point is called a tangent.
We say that the tangent touches the circle at this point of contact.
A line that intersects a circle at two points is called a secant. We say that the
secant cuts the circle.
Exercise 14D
Note: Points labelled O in this exercise are always centres of circles.
1 Find the values of a, b, g and q, giving reasons. In each diagram, a tangent is drawn at T.
a b P c T B A
30
O
20
50
O
A
T T
d e E
F S
25
O P
O
G
H 15 T
h i T U
U
S
O
B A
20 T O
j T
k R
D
D O
25 O
C
B
70
E T
A S
l S m D
Q
20
15
O O
C
P 55
A B T
T
B
A
n L o B
X Y
T
P
T Z A
O Q
O
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Example 7 2 Find the values of a, b, g and q, and the values of x, y and z. In the diagrams, tangents
are drawn to the circle at S, T and U.
a P b S
x O
5
40 A
x
T
S 70 T
c C d R
1
S
T x
2
B 11 T
x z S
U
5 y
Q 4 U 6 P
A
e f P
B
S 10 T
4 A
P 60
U 130
5
x
T
A S O
c P d
7 T
O
8
T A x
4 A
x
O
S y 20
B
U
B
5 The tangents at the four points P, Q, R and S on P
a circle form a quadrilateral ABCD. Prove that A
AB + CD = AD + BC.
Q
D R C
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6 This question describes the method of construction of tangents to a circle from an
external point P.
a Draw a circle with centre O and choose a point, P, outside the
S P
circle. Let M be the midpoint of OP, and hence draw the circle
with diameter OP. Let the circles intersect at S and T, and join
M
PS and PT.
O
b Prove that PS and PT are tangents to the original circle.
T
c Deduce that PS = PT.
7 Let PS and PT be the two tangents to a circle with centre O from a P
point, P, outside the circle.
a i Prove that PSO PTO.
ii Hence, prove that the tangents have equal length, and that OP S M T
bisects the angle between the tangents and bisects the angle
O
between the radii at OS and OT.
b Join the chord ST and let it meet PO at M.
i Prove that SPM TPM.
ii Hence, prove that OP is the perpendicular bisector of ST.
8 The circle in the diagram is called the incircle of triangle A
ABC. It touches the three sides of ABC at P, Q and R.
Prove that:
1 Q
Area of triangle = (perimeter of triangle) (radius of R
circle) 2
O O
B
B
A
A T
T
1
i Prove that a = 30. i Prove that sin a = .
2
ii Find b. ii Prove that b = 60.
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14E The alternate segment
theorem
The first diagram below shows two angles at P and Q subtended by an arc, AB. Think of
A, B and P as being fixed and Q as moving. We ask the question, What happens as Q
10A
approaches A?
Y
Y P
P P
Q Q
A
A A
X B
B B X
In the middle diagram above, we have extended the interval AQ in both directions to
become the line XAQY. This suggests that when Q actually coincides with A, as in the third
diagram, we should be thinking about the tangent XAY, and the angles XAB and P seem
to be equal.
P
This is in fact the case, and is the alternate segment theorem.
The angle between the tangent and the chord is XAB. The alternate Y
segment (alternate here simply means other) is the segment of the
B
circle on the other side of the chord AB from XAB. The angle P is
A
an angle in the alternate segment.
X
Theorem: The angle between a tangent and a chord is equal to any
angle in the alternate segment.
Solution
Exercise 14E
Note: Points labelled O in this exercise are always centres of circles.
1 Draw a large circle and a chord AB. At one end of the chord, draw the C
tangent to the circle.
a Mark one of the angles q between the tangent and the chord AB,
then draw any angle in the alternate segment. How are these two A B
angles related?
b Mark the angle a between the tangent and the chord AC.
Which angle is equal to a?
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Example 8 2 Find the values of a, b, g and q, giving reasons. In each diagram, a tangent is drawn at T.
a b c D
B T
35 40
N
A L
C
110
M
P A B
T T
d M e P f 125 Q
A
T
T
150 P
U T Q
70 C A
D
R
B
E B
3 Find the values of a, b, g and q, giving reasons. In the diagrams, tangents are drawn
at S, T and U.
a G M b D c S
T
50 A
C
T
B
80
F 70 B
T
L A
d P e B T f A
S H U
T 130
110 B
70
F T
S
50
S
Y F
F A
6 The two circles in the diagram touch externally at T,
with common tangent ATB at the point of contact,
Q
and FTP and GTQ are straight lines.
T
a Let F = q. Prove that GTB = q
and QTA = q. G
B P
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14F
Intersecting chords
Similarity and circles 10A
Take a point, M, inside a circle, and draw two chords, AMB and QMP,
through M. Each chord is thus divided into two subintervals called B
intercepts. In the following, we shall prove that Q
M
AM BM = PM QM
A P
This is a very interesting and useful result called the intersecting chord
theorem.
Theorem: When two chords of a circle intersect, the product of the
intercepts on one chord equals the product of the intercepts
on the other chord. B
Q
M
Proof: raw the intervals AP and BQ to make two triangles AMP
D
and QMB. A P
In the triangles AMP and QMB,
AMP = QMB (vertically opposite at M)
P = B (angles on the same arc AQ)
so AMP is similar to QMB (AAA).
AM PM
Hence, = (matching sides of similar triangles)
QM BM
so AM BM = PM QM.
d
Note: If we have a family of chords passing through a point, we can apply f
the theorem to see that ab = cd = ef. a b
e cM
Intercepts
A point M on an interval AB divides that interval into two subintervals AM and MB,
calledintercepts.
A B
M
For the next two theorems, we will need to apply this definition to the situation where the
dividing point M is still on the line AB, but is outside the interval AB.
A M
B
The intercepts are still AM and BM. Everything works in exactly the same
way provided that both intercepts are measured from M.
Now take a point, M, outside a circle, and draw two secants, MBA and B Q
MQP, to the circle from M. Provided that we continue to take our lengths
from M to the circle, the statement of the result is the same. That is,
AM BM = PM QM
P
A
Theorem: When two secants intersect outside a circle, the product of the intercepts on one
secant equals the product of the intercepts on the other secant.
The proof by similarity is practically the same as when M is inside the circle, and we will
address this in question 3 of Exercise 14F.
Example 9
Solution
AM BM = TM2
We therefore have a new theorem. For completeness, we give another proof.
A P
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hen a secant and a tangent to a circle intersect, the product
Theorem: W
of the intercepts on the secant equals the square of the M
tangent.
B
That is, AM BM = TM 2 T
Proof: Let M be a point external to a circle.
Let TM be a tangent from M. Suppose a secant from M
cuts the circle at A and B. A
Draw the intervals AT and BT, and look at the two triangles AMT and TMB.
AMT = TMB (common angle)
MAT = MTB (alternate segment theorem)
so AMT is similar to TMB (AAA).
AM TM
Hence, = (matching sides of similar triangles)
TM BM
so AM BM = TM 2
Example 10
6
B
A x
Solution
P
A
A T
A M B
B M B
Q
Q P M
2
AM BM = PM QM AM BM = PM QM AM BM = TM
Exercise 14F
Note: Points labelled O in this exercise are always centres of circles.
Examples 9,10 1 In each diagram, find the value of x, giving reasons. Tangents are drawn at the point T.
a C
b S c A D
B
M x 3
6 4 x
x 3 W B
12 6 6
D M E C
A 12
x
V R
d N e
J A 5 B 4 M
3 7
K
4 x
M x
T
L
f g
F G 8 M C
x
12 x
T
B
T
8
4
152 I C E - E M M a t h e m a t ic s ye a r 1 0 B o o k 2
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h H i B j G
x x x
O F
D 2
A 5 M 8
T G 4 R
7 C S
6 3 12
F M
k C
l K
x L 7
x
B D R
x 14 S
E 3 7
A 4
J
2 Find x.
a A
b F
c A
C
M
4 2
x x+5 x
x +7 B L
4
D M
6 T B
x
K G
6 4
M
d C e B
A 4
x
B 6
2 C D
A 7
M x
4
T
f A
B
2
6
C E M
x D O 4
B Q
P
7 Let P be a point on the common secant AB of two intersecting S
circles. Let PS and PT be tangents from P, one to each circle.
A
Prove that PS = PT.
T
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Review exercise
R R 268
58.6 96 Y O
O O
Q Z
P
O O 220 O
D
57 K
42 B L 66
N
118
A I
P
C
O 58 76 N
G
O
A O
L
B
F D
E
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Challenge exercise
1 Here is a form of the sine rule that shows its connection with the A
circumcircle of a triangle.
a b c
In any triangle ABC, sin A = sin B = sin C = 2R, O
B P
3 Prove that: In any triangle ABC, the altitudes are concurrent (their intersection is called
the orthocentre of the triangle).
Let the altitudes AK and BL meet at H. Draw CH and produce it to meet AB at M.
a Prove that C, K, H and L are concyclic.
A
b Let ACM = q. Prove that AKL = q.
L
c Prove that B, K, L and A are concyclic, M H
and hence prove that ABL = q.
d Hence prove that CM is an altitude of the triangle. C
B K
That is, we have proved that the three altitudes are
concurrent.
C F B
a Let F be the midpoint of BC. Use the fact that the centroid, G,
divides the median AF in the ratio 2 : 1 to prove that GOF is
similar to GMA.
b Hence, prove that M lies on the altitude from A.
c Show that point M is the point H constructed in Question 3.
5 Prove the following converse of the cyclic quadilateral theorem:
If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then the
quadrilateral is cyclic.
Let the opposite angles of the quadrilateral ABCD be supplementary. A
Draw the circle through the points A, B and C. Let AD, produced if P
D
necessary, meet the circle at P, and draw PC.
a Prove that P = D.
B
C
b Hence prove that the points P and D coincide.
6 Prove the following converse of the intersecting chords theorem:
Suppose that two intervals AB and CD intersect at M, and that AMBM=CMDM.
Then the points A, B, C and D are concyclic. B
C
Draw the circle through the points A, B and C.
Let CD, produced if necessary, meet the circle at P. M
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7 Take two nonintersecting circles in the plane with centres O and O. Draw two indirect
common tangents AA and BB, and one direct tangent CC, where A, B and C lie on the
first circle, and A, B and C lie on the second circle. Produce AA and BB to meet CC
at X and Y.
a Prove that AA = BB. Y
C X C
b Prove that AA = XY. A B