BS 6259 The Design, Planning, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of Sound Systems

BRITISH STANDARD BS 6259:1997
Code of practice for
The design, planning,

installation, testing and
maintenance of sound
systems
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ICS 33.160.30
Copyright British Standards Institution

Provided by IHS under license with BSI
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
BS 6259:1997
Committees responsible for this

British Standard
The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by Technical

Committee EPL/100, Audio, video and multimedia systems and equipment, to
Subcommittee EPL/100/3, Equipment and systems in the field of audio, video
and audiovisual engineering, upon which the following bodies were
represented:
Association of British Theatre Technicians

Audio Engineering Society
British Broadcasting Corporation
British Educational Suppliers Association
British Federation of Audio
British Radio and Electronic Equipment Manufacturers Association
British Telecommunications plc
Federation of the Electronics Industry
Independant Television Association (ITVA)
Institute of Sound and Communication Engineers
Institution of Electrical Engineers
International Association of Broadcasting Manufacturers
Professional Lighting and Sound Association
Royal Institute of British Architects
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Royal National Institute for Deaf People
Society of Cable Television Engineers
The following bodies were also represented in the drafting of the standard, in
panel EPL/100/3/2:
Association of Noise Consultants

British Entertainments and Discotheque Association
District Surveyors Association
Health and Safety Executive
This British Standard, having Music Industries Association
been prepared under the
direction of the Electrotechnical
Sector Board, was published
under the authority of the
Standards Board and comes
into effect on
15 April 1997
BSI 11-1998
First published as CP 327.300,

May 1952
Second edition, as CP 327-3,
June 1964 Amendments issued since publication
Third edition, as BS 6259,
September 1982
Fourth edition, April 1997 Amd. No. Date Comments
The following BSI references

relate to the work on this
standard:
Committee reference EPL/100/3
Draft for comment 93/208023 DC
ISBN 0 580 26450 5

BS 6259:1997
Contents
Page
Committees responsible Inside front cover
Foreword iii
1 General 1
2 Application 7
3 Guidance for prospective purchasers 20
4 Planning and contract management of the system 23
5 Recommended design principles and procedures 27
6 Installing the system 42
7 Commissioning the system 46
8 Operation and maintenance of the system 48
9 Equipment 51
10 Special considerations for sound systems for emergency purposes 77
Annex A (informative) Example of a plan of work for Project Team
operation suitable for large projects (see 4.5) 78
Annex B (informative) Project checklist 94
Annex C (informative) Design checklist 96
Annex D (informative) Basic concepts for electronics and acoustics 98
Annex E (informative) Consultants for sound systems 105
Annex F (informative) Example of sound system operating
instructions for a Scottish court 106
Annex G (informative) Basic list of characteristics which should be
included in loudspeaker specifications, and references to the relevant
methods of measurement 106
Annex H (informative) List of characteristics recommended to be
specified in contracts for headphones and headsets, and the relevant
methods of measurement 107
Annex J (informative) Basic list of characteristics recommended to
be specified for amplifiers, and the relevant methods
of measurement 107
Annex K (informative) Attenuators for microphones 108
Annex L (informative) Bibliography 109
Index 110
Figure 1 Block diagram of an extensive sound system for a
large store 14
Figure 2 Block diagram of a sound system for a large church 19
Figure 3 Examples of sound system output levels 28
Figure 4 Empirical rule for estimating pairs of audio band limit
frequencies which give subjectively balanced reproduction of
programme signals 30
Figure 5 Sound from film maximum sound pressure levels,
types A, SR and SR.D 40
Figure 6 Diagram showing the floating-return technique for
disabling local loudspeaker attenuators in an emergency 56
Figure 7 Horizontal directional response of an omnidirectional
microphone with its axis vertical: decibel scale 63
Figure 8 Directional response of a cardioid
microphone: decibel scale 64
Figure 9 Directional response of a hypercardioid
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BSI 11-1998
BS 6259:1997
Page
Figure 10 Directional response of a supercardioid
Figure 11 Directional response of a highly directional shotgun (rifle)
microphone where f = 250 Hz and barrel length is 275 mm 67
microphone where f = 2.5 kHz and barrel length is 275 mm 68
microphone where f = 10 kHz and barrel length is 275 mm 69
Figure 14 Relative operating distances of microphones for equal
direct-to-reverberent signal ratios 70
Figure 15 Two methods for positioning microphones on a
conference table. The top view observes the 3 to 1 rule using cardioid
microphones. The bottom view shows alternative placement using two
omnidirectional microphones 70
Figure 16 The 3-to-1 ratio for microphone positioning 71
Figure 17 A reduced distance ratio using angled microphones 71
Figure 18 Illustrations of good and bad microphone placement 71
Figure 19 Optimization of the height of the microphone
above the table 72
Figure D.1 Distortion characteristics of a typical amplifier 100
Figure D.2 Reflection diagram for certain positions of sound
source and receiver in a rectangular room of 40 m 25 m 8 m 104
Figure D.3 Level recorder trace of sound decay in a room 104
Figure D.4 Reverberation time measurement 105
Figure K.1 Basic L-type microphone attenuator 108
Figure K.2 Attenuator configuration 109
Table 1 Basic recommendations for sound system applications 9
Table 2 Expected sound levels 29
Table 3 Maximum sound pressure levels for Dolby formats 39
Table A.1 Plan of work 81
Table A.2 Stage A: Inception 82
Table A.3 Stage B: Feasibility 83
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Table A.4 Stage C: Outline proposals 84

Table A.5 Stage D: Scheme design 85
Table A.6 Stage E: Detail design 86
Table A.7 Stage F: Bills of quantity 87
Table A.8 Stage G: Project plan 88
Table A.9 Stage H: Operation on site 90
Table A.10 Stage I: Completion 92
Table B.1 Project checklist for sound system installation 94
List of references 115
ii BSI 11-1998
BS 6259:1997
Foreword
This British Standard has been prepared by Technical Subcommittee EPL/100/3

in conjunction with Panel EPL/110/3/2.
This code of practice is a revision of BS 6259:1982 and has been developed in an
expanded form at the express wish of industry, as the original code of practice was
mainly applicable to small installations. The standard recommends good
accepted practice for the accomplishment of the defined tasks and their sequence
as followed by competent practitioners. This standard supersedes BS 6259:1982,
which is withdrawn.
Annex A is reproduced from RIBA Publications Plan of work for project team
operation [10], which is abbreviated and adapted from RIBA Publications RIBA
Handbook [11].
As a code of practice, this British Standard takes the form of guidance and
recommendations. It should not be quoted as if it were a specification and
particular care should be taken to ensure that claims of conformity are not
misleading.
A British Standard does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
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contract. Users of British Standards are responsible for their correct application.
Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity
from legal obligations.
Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i to iv,
pages 1 to 116, an inside back cover and a back cover.
This standard has been updated (see copyright date) and may have had
amendments incorporated. This will be indicated in the amendment table on
the inside front cover.
BSI 11-1998
iii
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iv
blank
Section 1 BS 6259:1997
Section 1. General
1.0 Introduction In order to achieve an appropriate sound quality

and intelligibility, a sound system should meet
1.0.1 How to use this code of practice
certain performance criteria, which are dependent
This standard is divided into sections intended for: upon the type and application of the system
a) purchasers of sound systems (see particularly concerned. The basic characteristics to be
sections 1 and 3); considered include:
b) designers of sound systems (see sections 4, 5, 6 a) sound level;
and 9); b) overall frequency response;
c) installers of sound systems (see sections 6 c) signal-to-noise ratio;
and 7); d) freedom from distortion and echoes;
d) users of sound systems (see sections 7 and 8). e) reliability;
1.0.2 General f) freedom from interference both to and from
Sound and communications systems are becoming other systems operating within the vicinity.
increasingly integrated into building design, either Humidity and other climatic conditions, such as
forming part of the emergency warning/fire alarm wind strength and direction, influence how a system
and evacuation system of a building, complex or performs on individual occasions, especially at
open-air site, general announcement (paging) open-air sites.
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system, or as a special design feature enabling Systems used for fire alarm and emergency
music or live entertainment to be played or relayed. announcement purposes should be appropriately
An even greater need for early consideration and
fire protected and monitored, and incorporate
appropriate integration of the sound system occurs
secondary power supply back-up and switch-over
in public buildings housing auditoria, lecture
facilities (see BS 5839-1 and BS 5839-4 and
theatres, and conference facilities where high
BS 7443). There may also be the need for emergency
quality sound reinforcement systems are required. override and priority for emergency messages, and
The system chosen should complement the natural it may be necessary to divide the system coverage
acoustics of such halls.
into zones.
In buildings with hostile acoustic environments,
All relevant aspects of local acoustic and
such as noisy and/or reverberant leisure centres,
environmental conditions should be taken into
ice rinks, and swimming pools, special care needs to
account at the system planning and design stage.
be taken in order to ensure that adequate speech
intelligibility is achieved. 1.0.3 Sound systems
Where large crowds gather noise levels can be high, 1.0.3.1 Types of sound system
so the system should be capable of comfortably Sound systems can be divided into three different
overcoming the anticipated noise level and types, each designed to fulfil a particular purpose.
providing a clear and distortion-free signal. Similar
a) Sound reinforcement system. A sound system
considerations also apply to noisy industrial process
intended to reinforce sound from orators, actors
areas and plant rooms.
and musicians, so that their voices can be heard
In addition to the more usual speech and music in areas and at distances beyond the range of an
signals, sound systems may be used to transmit unassisted human voice or solo musical
warning tones or signals, or information tones or instrument.
signals (for example to indicate factory processes, NOTE 1 In these systems the microphones are exposed to
swimming pool sessions). Sound systems are the sound produced by the loudspeakers.
frequently required to interface with or form an b) Sound distribution system. A sound system
integral part of other systems such as fire alarm and designed to distribute audio signals from a source
emergency evacuation control systems, or systems in one or more locations to a number of other
for the hard of hearing, audiovisual (AV) systems, locations through a multiplicity of loudspeakers.
video and film projection systems, language
NOTE 2 In these systems the microphones, if used, are not
interpretation systems, and broadcast and relay normally exposed to the sound produced by the loudspeakers.
systems. c) Sound reproduction system. A sound system
designed for the reproduction, usually through a
small number of loudspeakers, in one (or in a
small number of) location(s) of sound signals
generated or reproduced in another location.
NOTE 3 In these systems the microphones (if any) are not
exposed to the sound produced by the loudspeakers.

BSI 11-1998 1
BS 6259:1997 Section 1
A complete sound system may consist of a number of 1.0.3.5 Acoustic considerations

different types of subsystem, which may be 1.0.3.5.1 General
interconnected or entirely separate.
This introduction does not give detailed
1.0.3.2 Sound reinforcement system considerations of acoustic factors as they apply to
This type of system enables the sounds of speech, sound systems generally, but a few basic factors
singing or music produced by a lecturer, actor, which affect sound system installations are as
singer or musical instruments, to be heard follows:
satisfactorily by listeners in the same acoustic area a) longer than acceptable reverberation times;
but at a distance (which may be considerable) from
b) the background noise level at the proposed site;
the sound source, for example, in an auditorium,
lecture theatre, concert hall, arena or other closed or c) the distances between the sound source and the
open areas. There is a limitation on the sound level nearest and furthest listeners;
(see note) in the area due to the microphones being d) sound insulation or reduction of overspill;
exposed to the sounds produced by their associated e) acoustic absorption;
loudspeakers. Above a certain sound level,
depending on the acoustic properties of the area, f) echoes due to wall and other surface reflections.
acoustic feed-back occurs, which is heard as a howl 1.0.3.5.2 Reverberation
or ring from the loudspeakers. Reverberation is the prolongation of sound within a
NOTE Strictly speaking, it is the amount of amplification, not space. When excessive it can lead to a loss of
the sound level produced by the system, that determines whether intelligibility of speech. For music, the effect of
acoustic feedback occurs. However, for a constant input to the
system, for example a person speaking in a normal voice at a reverberation is generally less; it can be beneficial
fixed distance from a microphone, the sound level produced by or not, depending on circumstances. In lay terms,
the system is proportional to the amount of amplification the reverberation time of a space is the time taken
(see 1.0.3.5.2).
for a sound to decay to inaudibility.
Sound reinforcement systems used for the
In large spaces, such as some stone-built churches
reproduction of live popular music in large auditoria
and cathedrals, reverberation can be the most
or open air sites employ amplifiers of high output
difficult feature. A reverberation time of much more
power and the loudspeaker systems have extended
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than 1 s becomes difficult to deal with and a solution

low frequency response. The dispersion of middle
is the use of a large number of loudspeakers, each
and high frequencies is closely controlled by special
producing a low sound level.
types of horn loudspeakers. Very careful
microphone techniques are required in order to An already constructed area obviously cannot be
obtain the high sound pressure levels required rebuilt. Therefore, from experience, a careful choice
without acoustic feedback. Sophisticated audio of loudspeaker types, the number required, the
processing equipment may also be required in order position of each unit, the overall frequency response
to obtain these very high sound pressure levels. and the most suitable type of microphone, is
essential.
1.0.3.3 Sound distribution system
1.0.3.5.3 Background noise level
A distribution system enables the sounds of speech,
music, tone etc., occurring at one or more places to For any sound system, other than a background
be reproduced, usually at the same time, in another music system, to be satisfactory, it is essential that
place or places, for example messages or the sound level of the wanted sound exceeds that of
announcements spoken into a microphone by an any unwanted sound by a sufficient margin. It is
unseen announcer. Announcements or background often necessary to operate various types of
music may also be recorded in analogue or digital loudspeaker at different sound levels, depending on
formats. These signals may be reproduced, the amount of sound absorbing materials that may
amplified and distributed to a considerable number be on the ceilings, walls or floors, which in some
of loudspeakers to cover a large area. locations can create a quite acoustically dead area.
1.0.3.4 Sound reproduction system
Such systems are mainly for the realistic
reproduction of music (and speech) usually from
recordings, disc, tape (cassette) or film. Large full
range loudspeakers are usually employed, with high
quality power amplifiers. Noise reduction and other
sound processing equipment may be necessary to
optimize the fidelity of reproduction.
2 BSI 11-1998
1.0.3.5.4 Distant listeners 1.0.4 Consultants

In sound reinforcement systems, if the loudspeakers For large installations, or where there are special
are closer to the listener than the original sound problems, the purchaser may wish to employ the
source, the sound may appear to come from the services of a specialist consultant. Most consultants
loudspeaker not the source. Where additional can offer a range of services, from an initial report or
loudspeakers are used in a reinforcement or feasibility study, to full specification and contract
reproduction system, a similar problem can occur. supervision. If the sound system is part of a major
Where some listeners are a considerable way from project, such as the design of a new building, the
the sound source but are in the same space, it may main project consultant, for example the architect,
be necessary to employ delayed techniques to may employ a specialist sound system consultant
preserve the impression that the sound is coming (see 3.2.4).
from the direction of the original source rather than 1.0.5 Site inspection
from the loudspeakers.
Whenever installation or modification of a sound
1.0.3.5.5 Sound insulation and reduction of system is being considered, a site inspection should
overspill be carried out. For a simple system, a brief visit may
As well as providing satisfactory sound coverage of be all that is required, but where the system is
the target area, a sound system should not cause a complex or the space has particular complications, a
nuisance to adjoining areas. This depends on the detailed site survey with tests and measurements
sound level produced by the system, the sound may be necessary. Where the space has not yet been
insulation provided by the building in which the built, inspection of the plans or the work in progress
system is used (if any) and the usage of the may be all that is possible. From the beginning, site
adjoining areas. visits should consider acoustic, aesthetic, structural
For sound generated in buildings of heavy and technical requirements.
construction, the existing sound insulation is often 1.0.6 Limitations of sound reinforcement
adequate. For buildings of lightweight construction,
In a sound reinforcement system, the person(s)
or with substantial apertures in the enclosing walls
speaking, the microphone(s) and the loudspeaker(s)
or roof, it may be necessary to improve the sound
are all in the same space. Severe acoustic feedback,
insulation. resulting in unacceptable performance of the
At open-air sites, overspill of sound into unwanted system, occurs if the sound level from the
areas is normally reduced by the use of directional loudspeakers at the microphone position is not
loudspeakers, appropriately orientated. much less than the sound level at the microphone
1.0.3.5.6 Acoustic absorption from the person speaking.
NOTE Acoustic feedback causes a ringing effect on speech, or
The acoustic characteristics of a space depend on the even a continuous howl or whistle.
amount of acoustic absorption present. This may
change due to redecoration, movement of furniture 1.0.7 Audio-frequency induction-loop systems
or fittings, the number of occupants and, for large and infra-red systems
spaces, atmospheric conditions. Systems for the hard of hearing may either be based
1.0.3.5.7 Echoes on an Audio-Frequency Induction-Loop System
(AFILS) (see BS 7594), which enables any hearing
An echo is a repetition after a perceptible delay of a aid with a telecoil usually identified by the aid
sound due to the original sound being reflected and having an additional switch position marked T, or
returned. Such a reflected sound has also to be loud via an infra-red transmission system (IR)
enough for it to be recognized as an echo. (see BS 6418). The latter system requires a special
Echoes are generally detrimental to speech receiver but may have the ability to transmit up
intelligibility and the perception of other sounds. to 12 separate channels simultaneously, making it
Echoes may occur in large enclosed spaces, and very suitable for multi-lingual systems, for example,
where there are trees, buildings or high ground near museum tour systems. Another application is
an open-air site. Due to the distances involved, such audio description for blind persons.
echoes can arrive with a sufficient delay after the
original sound to be not only destructive of
intelligibility, but also to interfere seriously with an
announcers ability to speak.
BSI 11-1998
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3
AFILS and IR systems may also be used to transmit 1.3 Definitions

speech or background music to personnel working in
For the purposes of this standard, the following
very noisy conditions where hearing protectors are
definitions apply.
required. Special protectors incorporating a receiver
and in-built miniature loudspeaker/earphone are 1.3.1
available, to maintain wireless communication. In sound system
certain circumstances, radio transmission may be a system including amplifiers, loudspeakers and
used, if the conditions for granting a licence are sources of speech, music or tone signals, which is
satisfied. intended to present the signals to persons outside
the household environment
1.1 Scope 1.3.2
This British Standard gives recommendations for sound reinforcement system
the design, planning, installation, testing and a sound system intended to reinforce sound signals
maintenance of sound systems intended for from actors, musicians, etc
communicating speech, music and/or other signals. NOTE In these systems the microphones are exposed to the
Unless otherwise stated, the recommendations in sound produced by the loudspeakers.
this standard apply to monaural systems and may 1.3.3
need to be varied for stereophonic systems (see 2.6). sound distribution system
NOTE Additional requirements and recommendations for
systems to be used for the reproduction of emergency warning
a sound system intended to distribute signals from
signals are included in various other standards, for example, in one or more locations to a number of other locations
BS 7443 and BS 5839-1 and BS 5839-4. through a multiplicity of loudspeakers
This standard is not applicable to: NOTE In these systems, the microphones are not normally
exposed to the sound produced by the loudspeakers.
a) simultaneous interpretation systems
(see ISO 2603); 1.3.4
sound reproduction system
b) some of the aspects associated with recording
studios, and applies only to some types of a sound system intended for the reproduction in one
broadcasting studio; (or a small number of) location(s) of sound signals
generated in another location, usually through a
c) home entertainment systems;
small number of loudspeakers
d) some aspects of systems intended only to NOTE In these systems, the microphones are not exposed to the
modify the perceived acoustic characteristics of sound produced by the loudspeakers.
the space. 1.3.5
acoustic feedback
1.2 References
the energizing of a microphone by the acoustic
1.2.1 Normative references output of a loudspeaker of the same sound
This British Standard incorporates, by dated or reinforcement system
undated reference, provisions from other NOTE As the effect increases so does the distortion, which may
publications. These normative references are cited become intolerable, and eventually the system may oscillate
continuously at some frequency, usually audible, at which the
at the appropriate points in the text and the cited microphone to loudspeaker gain exceeds the loss in the feedback
publications are listed on page 115. For dated path. The system is then said to howl-round.
references, only the edition cited applies; any 1.3.6
subsequent amendments to, or revisions of the channel
publications apply to this British Standard only
a signal path between input and output of a system
when incorporated in the reference by updating or
revision. For undated references, the latest edition 1.3.7
of the cited publication applies, together with any matching
amendments. the correct coupling of a source to a load, for example
1.2.2 Informative references a microphone to an amplifier, or an amplifier to a
loudspeaker system
This British Standard refers to other publications
that provide information or guidance. Editions of NOTE Correct matching enables units to work together
satisfactorily. It does not normally imply maximum power
these publications current at the time of issue of this transfer between units.
standard are listed on page inside back cover, but
reference should be made to the latest editions.
4
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BSI 11-1998
1.3.8 1.3.15
user control sound pressure level (Lp)
a device usually operated manually, for varying twenty times the logarithm to base ten of the ratio
some characteristic that may require adjustment or of the sound pressure under consideration (p) to the
selecting a particular programmable configuration reference sound pressure (po)
during the normal functioning of the equipment the sound pressure level Lp, expressed in decibels, is
1.3.9 calculated as follows:
pre-set control p
L p = 20 lg ------
a device for varying some characteristic of the po
equipment, the use of which is not required during NOTE 1 The standard reference sound pressure (po) is 20 Pa
the normal functioning of the equipment. Such in air.
controls are used only for setting up the equipment NOTE 2 Unless otherwise specified, the sound pressures are
and are usually arranged to be inaccessible to understood to be expressed in root-mean-square values.
unauthorized persons 1.3.16
NOTE User pre-sets should be adjusted (if necessary) only by mixer
the user and then in accordance with the manufacturers a specialized preamplifier with facilities, to allow
instructions. Factory pre-sets, however, should be adjusted only
by the manufacturer or authorized service agents input signals from several sources to be controlled or
combined or both
1.3.10
screened wiring 1.3.17
echo
wiring in which the insulated conductor or
a sound heard as a repetition of a first hearing, due
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conductors are enclosed within a continuous

electrically conducting screen to the reflection of sound waves
1.3.11 NOTE Repetition of a sound may also occur without involving
reflection in two other ways:
equalizer a) if sound travels to a distant listener by more than one route
equipment used in a sound system to adjust the and the path length differences result in arrival time
differences of more than approximately 30 ms;
overall frequency response, i.e. that of the total
b) if delayed signals are intentionally generated
signal path including the room or space electronically.
NOTE The performance of a sound system can often be most 1.3.18
effectively improved by the provision of appropriate equalization.
The setting of an equalizer should be regarded as, at least, long path delay
semi-permanent, and should not be altered to change the tone the time interval between the generation of a sound
of the system, or to compensate for deficiencies in input signals.
and its perception at a distant point, due to the
1.3.12 finite velocity of propagation of sound waves
graphic equalizer (approximately 340 ms1 in air at 20 C)
a bank of band filters, each of whose loss or gain can 1.3.19
be varied by means of a continuously variable line voltage
control (usually a vertical sliding control)
a voltage of 0.775 V r.m.s. (corresponding to a power
1.3.13 of 1 mW in 600 ). When this voltage is used as a
parametric equalizer reference level in decibels (0 dB), it is written
a set of one or more filters in which the centre as 0 dB (0.775 V) or 0 dBu;
frequency, response shape and, sometimes, the NOTE 1 Although the reference level is derived from a system
symmetry of each filter can be adjusted in addition having a characteristic impedance of 600 , such systems are
to its loss or gain. Adjustable band limiting filters rarely used now. See 9.16.3 and BS EN 61938.
may also be provided NOTE 2 Some systems or equipment use other values of line
voltage, not in conformity with BS EN 61938. The specification of
1.3.14 such a system or equipment should include a statement of the
sound power level (Lw) relevant line voltage, or its level in dBu. Use or specification of
equipment with other line voltages is not recommended.
ten times the logarithm to base ten of the ratio of the
1.3.20
sound power under consideration (W) to a reference
voltage line principle
sound power (Wref). The sound power level Lw
expressed in decibels, is calculated as follows: a principle for designing and specifying amplifiers
and loudspeakers, with the following objects:
W-
L w = 10 lg ------------
Wref a) to simplify the connection and matching of
several loudspeakers to one amplifier;
NOTE The standard reference sound power (Wref)
is 1012 W (1 pW) b) to minimize power losses in cables;

BSI 11-1998 5
c) to facilitate interchangeability; 1.3.27

d) to provide a simple means of adjusting the user
sound level produced by an individual the person, group or organization who supervises
loudspeaker in a system, without incurring power the operation of the equipment in use
losses and affecting the rest of the system. NOTE The needs of the user will be an important factor in the
1.3.21 design of a sound system. There may be more than one user and
the user may not be the client or owner of the system, when a
control point room is hired with a sound system.
a place where controls for the operation of the 1.3.28
system are located operator
NOTE A control point may have controls for operating the the person who controls the sound system manually
system only under special conditions, for example a police or fire
control point. There may be more than one control point. when it is in use
1.3.22 1.3.29
closed circuit television (CCTV) system designer
a television service, either monochrome or colour, the person responsible to the client for the design
provided over a restricted distribution system and specification of the sound system
1.3.23 1.3.30
reverberation time installer
of an enclosure, for a sound of a given frequency or the person, group or organization responsible for the
frequency band. The time that would be required for installation of the sound system as specified by the
the sound pressure level in the enclosure to decrease System Designer
by a given amount, after the source has been 1.3.31
stopped. The recommended amount is 60 dB contractor
1.3.24 the person or company that enters into a contract
intelligibility with the purchaser to supply a sound system
a measure of the proportion of the content of a NOTE The contractor may also undertake the system design
speech message that can be correctly understood and/or the installation. In major building projects the sound
system maybe the subject of a sub-contract between the main
NOTE Satisfactory intelligibility requires adequate audibility building contractor and the specialist supplier.
and adequate clarity
1.3.32
1.3.25 foldback
clarity
provision to a performer, by headphone or
the property of a sound which allows its loudspeaker, of a signal selected to assist
information-bearing components to be coordination with other performers or signals
distinguished by the listener
1.3.33
NOTE Clarity is related to the freedom of the sound from
distortion of all kinds. confidence signal
1.3.26 the response, audible to an announcer, which
client confirms that his speech is being delivered by the
system
the person, group or organization that commissions
the design and installation of the sound system 1.3.34
NOTE The client is usually, but not always, the purchaser of
functional surveillance
the system. continuous automatic monitoring that audio
equipment is functioning correctly
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6 BSI 11-1998
Section 2. Application
2.1 General 2.2.4 Category A

Table 1 gives a summary of typical building types Category A systems aim at the highest possible
and sound installation requirements. In many quality of reproduction. This category is appropriate
buildings such as hotels, conference centres, and when the audience is expected to be critically
theatres, more than one type of system may be interested in the programme for its own sake and
required, such as stage music, speech not merely as a background. It is essential that the
reinforcement, systems for the main auditorium, listening conditions are acoustically very good, and
public paging/announcement for the front-of-house, that the input to this system is of adequately high
circulation and ancillary areas, and staff or quality, as any defects may sound more
technical paging/announcements behind the scene. objectionable. Signal quality from an amplitude
modulated broadcast receiver, for example, may
Self-contained systems may need to be linked or
cause the reproduction from this system to be less
interfaced with other systems or subsystems for
satisfactory than that obtained from a category N
emergency announcements, evacuation, or fire
system using similar inputs.
alarm purposes.
2.2 Categorization of systems by sound 2.3 Types of building and location

quality 2.3.1 Hospitals
2.2.1 General The main programme distribution is to bedside
sockets for headphones, pillow-phones etc. for
The three basic system types (see 1.3.1 to 1.3.4) patients use. A choice of programmes is desirable
covered by this standard are divided into three and individual volume controls are essential. A
categories based on the subjective quality of paging system is often required and this may also
reproduction. carry programmes from the main distribution,
a) Category C (clarity). particularly in areas such as waiting rooms, nurses
b) Category N (naturalness). rest rooms, etc.
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c) Category A (accuracy). 2.3.2 Airports, railway stations, passenger
2.2.2 Category C termini
Category C systems aim mainly at the reproduction The ambient noise levels may be high and cover a
of speech of good intelligibility (see 5.21.1), but not wide range of frequencies. The reverberation time in
necessarily a high degree of naturalness. Music, if many cases may be excessive. The area to be covered
reproduced at all, would be of an acceptable quality is usually so large that a number of spaced
but not necessarily of artistic merit. Where acoustic loudspeakers have to be used.
conditions are bad, for example because noise levels 2.3.3 Hotels, clubs, restaurants
are high or reverberation is excessive, this system Sound distribution systems for background music
should provide the best results that can be achieved. and announcements will usually be required. A
2.2.3 Category N sound reproduction system may be required if a
Category N systems are most commonly used. The performance in one room is to be reproduced in other
aim is to produce intelligible and natural sounding rooms. Local sound reinforcement systems may be
speech and/or music of a quality that the average required. The sound system may need to interface
listener considers pleasant. It is desirable that the with other sound systems and fire alarm and
listening conditions are either already fairly good evacuation systems. See also 2.3.8 and 2.3.9.
acoustically, or can be made so by suitable acoustic
treatment.
BSI 11-1998
7
2.3.4 Factories, offices, canteens and 2.3.5 Indoor sports stadia, swimming baths
department stores and exhibition halls
An example of an extensive sound system for a large The ambient noise levels are likely to be high and
department store is shown in Figure 1. Recorded variable and the reverberation time is often
material and broadcasts are generally of secondary excessive.
interest to the listeners who are engaged in other NOTE Adverse environmental conditions should be taken into
activities, but their attention may need to be drawn account, for example in swimming baths the high humidity and
to announcements and artificial signals by the use presence of corrosive substances.
of increased sound levels. If audible information
signals are likely to cause disturbing interruptions
on the main system, it may be preferable for those
used for process control to be separately zoned or
have a separate system of their own. High noise
levels or excessive reverberation or both may be
found and require special consideration. For
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example, an audio-frequency induction-loop system
(AFILS) may be used in a noisy factory, the
operators having ear-defender headsets fitted
with AFILS receivers which can receive background
music, paging, etc.
8 BSI 11-1998
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Table 1 Basic recommendations for sound system applications

BSI 11-1998
Section 2
Building Live Paging and Emergency CCTV Tone signals Radio/TV Back-ground High Assisted Interface Notes
type reinforcement general announcement excluding music quality hearing
announcement fire alarms recorded
(see 5.18) programme
Airports * * * * * FA/E Multiple inputs and
zones required.
Noise levels vary
Auditoria SM XS Rehearsal only * * * * FA/E Paging only during
General E/S A/V rehearsals. Relay to
other areas
Canteens (SM) * * R R * * R (see note) R (see FA/E May be used for live
(see note) note) entertainment: use a
separate system
(see also auditoria)
Clubs SM XS As auditoria * R R * * * FA/E Zone areas
Theatres A/V E/S (see theatre)
Concert halls SM XS Rehearsal only, * R * * FA/E Relay to other areas.
(see theatres) see theatres E/S A/V Zone peripheral
areas
Council S * R FA/E Relay to other areas.
chambers A/V Zone separately
Other areas of * May act as overflow
congregation area. Zone
accordingly
(see offices)
Court R * FA/E Announcement to
buildings public area
Court rooms S * R FA/E High quality
R A/V recording and
playback usually
required
Conference S (XS) (See note) * R R R Areas of * * FA/E Paging generally
rooms/centres (M) (SI) * R R circulation R ES A/V restricted to areas
only outside conference
SI rooms. Zone systems
Key:
( ) = Possibly necessary SI = Simultaneous Interpretation Systems
* = Usually or often necessary M = Music
R = May be necessary/should consider S = Speech
XS = External system (brought in). May operate and FA = Fire Alarm System
need to interface with permanent systems for example E = Emergency Evacuation System
a rock band PA system or broadcast system
A/V = Audio Visual
BS 6259:1997
9

10
BS 6259:1997
Building type Live Paging and Emergency CCTV Tone signals Radio/TV Back-ground High quality Assisted Interface Notes
reinforcement general announcement excluding music recorded hearing
announcement fire alarms programme
(see 5.18)
Department R * R R FA/E Zone different
stores floors/areas.
(Microphone
ports for spot
announcements)
Discos S (XS) * * * * Only in areas * FA/E Sound level noise
SM isolated from A/V limiters. FA/E
dance floors overrides. Zone
M/S areas
Factories * * * R R In noisy ares FA/E Zone system
for
communication
Halls/assembly SM XS (See note) * R R R * * FA/E Treat as
rooms A/V MS theatre/
conference centre
E/S
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Hospitals (See note) * R R * R FA/E Treat patients

areas and public
and staff areas
separately
Hotels *SM * * R * * R (See note) FA/E Incorporate
(see note) A/V many types of
system. See other
(XS) building types
Lecture *S (M) (See note) * * R * * FA/E Not usual to page
theatres (SI) (SI) but external
areas should be
A/V covered. SI
facilities
sometimes
needed
Offices * * R R R R FA/E Zone as required
Key:
XS = External system (brought in). May operate and need FA = Fire Alarm System
to interface with permanent systems for example a rock
band PA system or broadcast system E = Emergency Evacuation System
A/V = Audio Visual
BSI 11-1998
Section 2
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BSI 11-1998
Section 2
Building type Live Paging and Emergency CCTV Tone signals Radio/TV Back-ground High Assisted Interface Notes
reinforcement general announcement excluding music quality hearing
announcement fire alarms recorded
programme
(see 5.18)
Passenger Termini * * * R R * FA/E Poor acoustics and
high noise levels.
Zone areas. Local
microphone and
control facilities
Places of worship *S(M) R R R * FA/E May have poor
acoustics; some
require high
quality music
Railway stations * * R * * FA/E Poor acoustics and
high noise. Zone
platforms
Restaurants *(M) R R R * FA/E May need to zone
different area.
Some have live
entertainment
Pubs (see clubs) R SM R R R * R FA/E Zone bars and
M/S performance area
A/V
Schools/Educational *SM * * * * * * R FA/E May have separate
establishments (see note) M/S auditorium system
and sometimes
A/V requires special
assisted hearing
systems
Shopping precincts * * * * R FA/E May have poor
acoustics. Zone
areas. Cater for
local systems
Sports stadia indoor SM (R) * * * R R * * R FA/E May have poor
(E/S) acoustics and high
crowd noise levels
Key:
XS = External system (brought in). May operate and need to FA = Fire Alarm System
interface with permanent systems for example a rock band E = Emergency Evacuation System
PA system or broadcast system
BS 6259:1997
A/V = Audio Visual
11

12
BS 6259:1997
Building type Live Paging and Emergency CCTV Tone signals Radio/TV Back- High Assisted Interface Notes
reinforcement general announcement excluding ground quality hearing
announcement fire alarms music recorded
Sports stadia SM (R) * * * R R * * R FA/E Zone areas
outdoor E/S separately. May
have poor acoustics
and high crowd
noise levels
Swimming pools * * R * R * R FA/E Poor area should be
separately zoned.
May have poor
acoustics and high
noise level
Leisure centres R * * R * R * R R FA/E Careful zoning of
different areas
required
Theatres
comprising
a) Auditorium SM (XS) R (see note) * * * * A/V E/S Paging only under

FA/E rehearsal conditions
b) Other public R * * * * * * * FA/E Possible connection

area (See note) to other systems and
SM local inputs. Foyer
entertainment
c) Back stage (See note) * * R FA/E Specialist show
relay and technical
intercoms
d) Performance * Other
area theatre
systems
Key:
XS = External system (brought in). May operate and need FA = Fire Alarm System
to interface with permanent systems for example a rock E = Emergency Evacuation System
band PA system or broadcast system
A/V = Audio Visual
BSI 11-1998
Section 2
BSI 11-1998
Section 2
Building Live Paging and Emergency CCTV Tone signals Radio/TV Back- High Assisted Interface Notes
type reinforcement general announcement excluding ground quality hearing
announcement fire alarms music recorded
Exhibition RS * * * R * R * FA/E Acoustic characteristics
halls may change between
empty and occupied.
Local microphone
inputs and zoning
Ice rinks R * * * * R * * R FA/E May have poor
Music acoustics. Zone rink
systems separately
Plant rooms, * * R R FA/E May have poor
engine rooms acoustics and high
and noise levels. (Consider
machinery use of visual indicators
spaces to alert staff). Failure
alarms from individual
items of equipment
may be introduced into
the general emergency
alarm system
Museums, Art (See note) * * R R * * FA/E In some cases a
galleries R portable system may be
appropriate. Separate
systems required for
some exhibits. IR of
other tour systems may
be used
Key:
XS = External system (brought in). May operate and FA = Fire Alarm System
need to interface with permanent systems for example E = Emergency Evacuation System
a rock band PA system or broadcast system
A/V = Audio Visual
BS 6259:1997
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13

14
BS 6259:1997
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BSI 11-1998
Section 2
Figure 1 Block diagram of an extensive sound system for a large store

2.3.6 Outdoor sports stadia and showgrounds c) a system for relaying the performance
The area to be covered is usually large and generally backstage to dressing rooms, workshops, etc.,
requires use of a number of spaced loudspeakers. usually called the show relay system. In some
Careful positioning of the loudspeakers when widely theatres, performers and technicians rely on the
spaced is essential to prevent the generation of show relay for their cues. It is essential that the
sound echoes and long path delay effects. Prevailing system is extremely reliable. Automatic gain
wind direction and air temperature gradient may control should be considered and outputs may be
also affect the optimum aiming of directional required for other systems, before and/or after
loudspeakers, in both the vertical and horizontal automatic gain control. It is essential that a fault
planes. See also BS 7827. on one of these systems or the interconnections
does not disable the whole system. Loudspeakers
2.3.7 Racecourses may have level controls, but where performance
Racecourses differ in the following ways from other cues are taken from show relay, the level
sporting venues: control should reduce but not mute the signal;
a) the ambient noise level is characterized by a d) a system to relay the performance to
wide range of values. During periods between latecomers (using CCTV and the signal from
races the ambient noise level is steady and quite item c));
low, but during the race the shouting causes the e) systems for the hard of hearing and visually
background noise level to rise by up to 40 dB. The impaired;
sound system may, therefore, use ambient noise
f) an announcement system, usually zoned to
sensing with advantage (see section 5 and
stage, front of house and backstage. There may be
BS 7827);
a number of paging points each requiring access
b) there is a need for race commentary. to different zones, for example stage manager (all
If there are CCTV displays in indoor and/or public zones), house manager (front of house), stage door
areas, the sound associated with the programmes (backstage only). The stage manager should have
for these displays, the general racecourse the highest priority. In buildings with more than
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announcements and commentary, and emergency one auditorium, each auditorium can be
messages all usually need to be reproduced in these prioritized or (preferably) all stage managers
audience areas but without mutual conflict. have equal access, with clear indication when the
2.3.8 Theatres and opera houses system is in use. This system may be interlinked
with the fire alarm system;
2.3.8.1 Most theatres and opera houses require the
g) a sound control room housing the operational
following facilities:
controls for items a) and b). Some of the
a) a main sound reinforcement/reproduction equipment for these systems may be located near
system for amplifying the performance and the loudspeakers, in the stage and auditorium
replaying effects and music. This system may be areas. If the sound control room is to be the main
concealed or a prominent feature. The system monitoring position, any window should be
should be capable of reproducing loud sounds removable or retractable, and the opening should
without distortion; be at least 2.5 m 1.5 m. The operator should
b) a system for replaying sound effects at various have line of sight view of the main reinforcement
locations on stage and in the auditorium. loudspeakers from the normal control position;
Loudspeakers may be moved between a large h) an auditorium control position. This may be an
number of outlet points according to the specific area where the seats can be removed, or where a
needs. This system usually also feeds the main facility panel is provided, with a trestle to go over
sound reinforcement system; the seats. Ideally, the monitoring position should
be on the centre line, in the main body of the
auditorium, at least 1.5 m from any overhang or
wall.
2.3.8.2 An equipment room is usually required for
items c) to f) of 2.3.8.1. This room may also house
some of the equipment for items a) and b) of 2.3.8.1.
2.3.8.3 Powerful amplifiers are often used for
items a) and b) of 2.3.8.1. These amplifiers should
be located where cooling and forced ventilation do
not cause noise problems.
BSI 11-1998
15
2.3.8.4 Theatre sound systems should be provided NOTE 1 There may be a number of paging points, each
with a separate mains supply from stage machinery requiring access to different zones. If more than one
auditorium shares common facilities in a building, the
and lighting. A technical or clean earth should also auditoria may be prioritized or have equal access with clear
be provided. General service mains and earths indication when the system is in use. This system may be
should be provided in areas served with clean interlinked with the fire alarm system.
mains and earths, to ensure that any general The following may also be required:
equipment (such as vacuum cleaners or power tools) e) a main sound reinforcement system for
does not corrupt the system. See also 5.17.5. amplifying elements of the performance;
2.3.8.5 Systems a) and b) of 2.3.8.1 should be NOTE 2 Depending on the use of the hall, this may be a
Category A. Systems c) to e) of 2.3.8.1 should be simple system used mainly for spoken announcements, or a
Category N. Other systems should be Category C. large system used regularly for pop concerts.
2.3.8.6 Most theatres use multichannel output for f) a sound control room housing the operational
reproduction but most of the equipment is arranged controls for item e);
to be stereo capable. If films are shown in the g) an auditorium control position.
theatre, a surround sound system may be required. NOTE 3 This may be an area where the seats can be removed,
or where a facility panel is provided, with a trestle to go over the
2.3.8.7 The following may be required for some seats. The monitoring position should be on the centre line of the
theatres. auditorium in the main body of the hall, at least 1.5 m from any
overhang or wall.
a) Provision for visiting artists with large sound
systems. A suitable power supply on the same 2.3.9.2 The facilities described in 2.3.8.7 are also
phase as the installed sound system and applicable to concert halls.
loudspeaker positions are the basic 2.3.10 Conference centres
requirements. Numerous tie lines and cable These venues are used not only for conferences but
routes may also be required. Visiting artists may also for lectures, product launches, company
also bring their own sound sources and use the
seminars, small scale music events, sales
theatre sound reproduction system. In this case,
promotions, etc. A good quality flexible sound
the system should be able to accept a variety of
system is desirable to take account of the normal
sources (see 9.11 to 9.14).
range of activities which might be presented. When
b) System outlets for broadcast and other simultaneous interpretation facilities are to be
external facilities. Audio lines should be isolated included, these are generally provided by a
and provision may be made to supply clean power hard-wired system to each seat or an infra-red
on the same phase as the installed sound system system with delegates using personal receivers. As
and earths to mobile technical vehicles. these requirements are usually occasional,
c) Theatres that are used for conferences or managements often provide only cable containment
meetings need some or all of the facilities (and sometimes cabling) to minimize costs and then
of 2.3.10. Many of these facilities can be provided rely on hire companies to provide the required
by the systems detailed above. facilities.
2.3.9 Concert halls
2.3.9.1 Most concert halls require the following
facilities:
a) a system for relaying the performance
backstage to the dressing rooms, offices, etc.,
usually called the show relay system;
b) a system to relay the performance to
latecomers (using CCTV and the signal from
item a);
c) systems for the hard of hearing and visually
impaired;
d) an announcement system, usually zoned to
stage, auditorium and backstage;
16 --``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BSI 11-1998
2.3.11 Discotheques 2.3.12.2 The sound system should be category N.

Discotheques utilize high level sound systems for Where a separate system is provided for item c)
the reproduction of dance music and high level of 2.3.12.1 this should be category A.
speech. Normally, high efficiency horn-loaded loud 2.3.12.3 In historic buildings there may not be
speaker systems are used in large discotheque convenient cable routes available. Particular care
premises, usually in conjunction with time delayed should be taken to ensure that the installation is in
peripheral area systems using small direct keeping with the character of the building.
radiators. Smaller premises normally utilize direct
radiator systems. The operating duty cycle can be 2.4 Induction loop systems
arduous, in that continuously high sound levels are 2.4.1 Audio-frequency induction-loop systems
typically required for a duty cycle of 6 h per (AFILS)
day, 5 days or 6 days per week. Systems,
particularly loudspeakers, should be designed with The provision of an AFILS for use with hearing aids
this requirement in mind and attention paid to fitted with a T switch position should always be
considered. The design, installation, operation and
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keeping the electronic equipment sufficiently cool.
Attention is drawn to the need for systems to be maintenance of AFILS is covered in BS 7594.
designed to conform to the Noise at Work 2.4.2 Carrier-frequency induction-loop
Regulations 1989 [1] (in respect of employees systems (CFILS)
present). Licensing authorities may also require Where a loop system is used for simultaneous
systems to contain shut down devices, to allow fire interpretation systems and when more than one
alarm announcements to override in the event of an channel (i.e. language) is required, a carrier
emergency. Modern systems frequently include frequency system (CFILS) is used. At venues, where
digital sound processing equipment, to allow the both an AFILS and a CFILS are installed, generally,
system performance to be changed to suit different the floor language is fed to the AFILS. Hearing
types of programme material. Compact disc players, impaired persons requiring anything other than
video disc and video tape machines are increasingly floor language make use of the CFILS multi-channel
used as signal sources. Advanced voice signal receiver and the associated ear-piece or headphone.
processors are also often necessary to optimize vocal For comfort, this might entail users removing their
dynamics, particularly where maximum sound hearing aids. Alternatively, and providing the low
levels become critical in relation to permissible frequency magnetic noise level is sufficiently low
operating levels within the Noise at Work (and no AFILS is in operation), the CFILS receiver
Regulations. can be provided with a magnetic coupling device for
2.3.12 Places of worship use with hearing aids switched to the T position.
2.3.12.1 Places of worship may require the following This arrangement enables the user to select the
facilities: required language channel and adjust the
reproduction level to take account of the hearing
a) a sound reinforcement system for services; impairment.
NOTE 1 Large reverberant churches (see Figure 2) present
problems, usually requiring extremely careful investigation
and system design; 2.5 Infra-red systems
b) a number of microphone positions; Systems using infra-red transmissions may be used
NOTE 2 If a radiomicrophone is provided, careful for simultaneous interpretation, information and
consideration is essential to avoid the risk of acoustic communication with the hard-of-hearing
feedback. (see BS 6418).
c) sound reinforcement for the performance of NOTE BS 6418 will shortly be superseded by:
music as part of services, which may vary from a BS EN 61603 Transmission of audio and/or video and related
choir to a rock band, although in the latter case a signals using infa-red radiation
separate system may be essential; BS EN 61603-1:1997 General
BS EN 61603-2:1997 Transmission systems for audio wideband
d) sound reproduction for the playback of a and related signals
favourite song at weddings or funerals, usually
They have the advantage of eliminating
on compact disc;
inconvenient direct cable connection, but the
e) systems for the hearing impaired; disadvantage that special receiving equipment has
f) a sound distribution system for announcements to be issued to, used by and recovered from users.
may be needed where the building has a large
number of visistors.
BSI 11-1998
17
2.6 Stereophonic systems

A stereophonic system should be used where the
most pleasing reproduction of music (category A) is
desired, for example from a disc or tape recording.
These systems need to be laid out by experts, but
some general information on them is given in later
sections. Difficulties can arise when the geometry of
the space is such that two groups of loudspeakers
cannot provide satisfactory stereophony.
NOTE It may not be satisfactory to derive a mono signal by
paralleling or mixing the stereo channels. A special mono
deriving amplifier may be required.
2.7 CCTV systems

CCTV systems may be provided in addition to, or in
conjunction with, sound system installations.
However, the CCTV sound signal may differ from
that of the sound system; this may occur, for
example, with action replays or off-air inserts. In
this case, careful design is necessary to prevent
conflict between the differing sound fields.
The loudspeakers (if any) of the CCTV display units
are not generally adequate except for very small
areas, and a separate sound reproduction system is
necessary.
Provision for overriding CCTV sound for
priority/emergency announcements may be needed
(see BS 7443). It is necessary to make specific
provision for generating and distributing the sound
signal association with the CCTV.
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18 BSI 11-1998
BSI 11-1998
Section 2
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BS 6259:1997
Figure 2 Block diagram of a sound system for a large church
19

Section 3. Guidance for prospective purchasers

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3.1 General 3.2.3 Seeking technical advice

This standard details the optimum design and Observance of this standard will greatly increase
installation procedures for sound systems. the probability that satisfactory results will be
Prospective purchasers should stipulate that the obtained. However, its provisions cannot be
system is to be designed and installed in accordance properly applied without adequate technical
with this code. Operation and maintenance knowledge and experience, and each design
procedures should also follow its recommendations. presents individual problems. Unless a purchaser is
The responsibility for ensuring that the system, certain of having adequate technical knowledge,
when installed, meets its specification, lies with the advice should be sought during the early planning
System Designer. stages. Such advice should cover:
NOTE This implies that the System Designer should take a full a) the suitability of a sound system for a
part in commissioning the system (see section 7). particular venue;
The standard also forms the basis on which a b) factors that may adversely affect the
consultant may be requested to provide independent performance;
assurance of the performance of an installation.
c) factors that may add to the cost of installation;
It is not expected that the purchaser should be able
d) the need for, and scope of, a site assessment
to brief the System Designer at the technical level.
(see 4.6).
It is, however, essential that the purchaser
describes all the functional requirements of the e) interface and liaison with other specialists and
system as clearly and definitely as possible. There systems, for example architect and project
should be specific agreement on these functional manager for fire alarm systems, power
requirements between the purchaser and the requirements.
System Designer, and the purchaser should make 3.2.4 Sources of technical advice
no assumption that the system will do anything that
Technical advice should be sought only from:
is not included in the agreement.
a) bona fide system designers (see also 3.2.5);
3.2 Acquiring or modifying a sound b) sound system equipment manufacturers;
system c) appropriate professional organizations, for
3.2.1 Possible procedures example:
There are several possible procedures for acquiring 1) Institute of Sound and Communications
or modifying a sound system and the choice of Engineers;
procedure depends on the area to be covered, the 2) Association of Noise Consultants;
funds available and any special complications which 3) Audio Engineering Society;
may be involved. 4) Institute of Acoustics;
Possible procedures are: 5) Professional Lighting and Sound
a) design and installation by the purchaser; Association.
b) design by the purchaser with contractor 3.2.5 The nature of the advice
installation and project managed by the
The advice required depends on the particular
purchaser;
requirements of each installation, but is generally
c) design and installation by a contractor; covered by the following categories:
d) design by a consultant with installation by a a) advice provided through an architect or
contractor and project management by the specialist managing a large project;
purchaser;
b) advice direct to the purchaser on specific
e) design and project management by a issues, for example feasibility study or problems
consultant with installation by a contractor. with existing systems, from a consultant
3.2.2 Modification of an existing sound system employed specifically for that purpose.
Modifications to an existing system may not require c) advice supplied direct to the purchaser
the application of all the procedures in sections 3 covering all aspects of the design;
and 5; this has to be determined by the System d) advice supplied to a technically competent
Designer. person on a specific issue beyond the scope of that
person;
e) advice following disagreement between the
purchaser and supplier of an existing contract.
20 BSI 11-1998
3.2.6 Independent professional (consultancy) 3.3.2 Approaching a manufacturer of sound

advice systems or associated equipment
Independent professional advice from a specialist A manufacturer of sound systems or associated
consultant is advisable when installations are to be equipment can be asked to recommend competent
undertaken in extra large buildings, prestigious system designers and/or installers. In some cases
buildings and for installations with special the manufacturer may also offer its own site survey
difficulties. However, a consultant can only give of the proposed installation and systems design
good advice if the purchaser supplies good services. In this case, the responsibility for choosing
information. appropriate equipment (microphones, amplifier,
When using the services of a consultant, the etc.) and commissioning the system normally rests
consultants responsibilities and terms of with the selected manufacturer. The contractor is
engagement should be clearly defined. Consultants responsible to the manufacturer for the correct
may work on a fixed fee, time or percentage basis. In installation of the system and commissioning
either case, there may be extra costs for travel, (where this is also undertaken).
disbursements, test equipment, etc.. After an initial For some systems, a manufacturer may be called in
meeting, a clear letter of agreement should be to provide detailed technical advice on areas of
issued, stating the duties and fee basis for the uncertainty or particular difficulty. On these
agreement. It is necessary for the purchaser to occasions the contractual obligations of the
satisfy himself that the consultant understands the installation contractor and the manufacturer to the
objective of the purchaser and has experience in the prospective purchaser should be clearly
relevant field. documented, preferably under a single contract.
The advice of an independent consultant may also NOTE British Standards do not purport to include all the
be required in the event of an otherwise necessary provisions of a contract.
unresolvable dispute between the purchaser and 3.3.3 Approaching a specialist consultant
supplier or manufacturer. Such advice can often For large or complex systems, it can be appropriate
provide a more economical resolution than recourse to engage a specialist consultant, who will be
to litigation. responsible for the initial survey, design and
commissioning of the system, specification of
3.3 Choosing the system supplier equipment and recommending which installation
3.3.1 Approaching a contractor contractors should be invited to tender. In this case,
the main contract may be between the purchaser
Particularly for small and uncomplicated sound
and the contractor, with the consultant acting as the
systems, a contractor can be asked to supply and
purchasers agent. In a new building, the consultant
install suitable equipment. Names of contractors
would also liaise with architects, main and
who specialize in this work may be obtained from
subsidiary construction contractors on matters
business directories and trade associations. The
affecting the system. Names of consultants who
purchaser may wish to inspect similar installations
specialize in this work may be obtained from
by the contractor or arrange for a demonstration.
business directories and trade associations.
Responsibility for equipment selection usually rests
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with the contractor, providing the purchaser clearly

3.4 Contractual provisions
states the intended application and any special
requirements. It is necessary that the purchaser is 3.4.1 Observance of the code and agreement on
satisfied that the contractors solution meets his deviations
needs before accepting any offer. The word should used in a standard is sufficient to
require a contractor to provide a good reason why
any variation to the stated requirement is proposed.
It is recommended that contracts include a specific
variation clause under which parties document any
agreed variations.
3.4.2 Contents of contract
The contract which determines the conditions under
which any work is carried out should include the
following:
a) the parties to the contract;
b) the work to be undertaken;
BSI 11-1998
21
c) the standard of the workmanship etc.; 3.5.2.3 Acoustic feedback

d) performance tests; If the sound level radiated by the loudspeakers is
e) prices and payment terms; increased by raising the amplification of the system,
microphones in the same space may receive such a
f) conditions for variations and extensions;
high level of sound that the resultant
g) timetable; re-amplification leads to distortion of the frequency
h) ownership, insurance, etc., while the work is in response of the system. This distortion imparts a
progress; characteristic coloration, most readily detectable
i) resolution of disputes including arbitration; with speech or impulsive sounds such as a handclap.
At higher levels of amplification, the sound system
j) warranty, spares and maintenance;
may generate self-sustaining oscillations i.e., it may
k) other terms as appropriate. howl-round.
NOTE British Standards do not purport to include all the
necessary provisions of a contract. 3.5.2.4 Ambient noise
3.4.3 Model contracts The greater the ambient noise level, the greater the
level of wanted (amplified) sound has to be in order
Model contracts are available from various bodies,
for it to be effective. If the level of ambient noise is
such as the Royal Institute of British Architects
very high, the limitations on the level of amplified
(RIBA) and the Institution of Electrical Engineers sound may make it difficult to design an effective
(IEE), and many contractors and consultants have system. For example, in an underground train, on a
their own standard contracts. The purchaser may
railway station platform or in an aircraft, the level
wish to amend these contracts to ensure that the
of the amplified sound level may need to be so high
terms are suitable.
that it becomes uncomfortable or even painful.
Automatic control of the sound level in response to
3.5 Functions and limitations of a changes in ambient noise can be provided. In these
sound system systems, microphones are strategically placed to
3.5.1 Function monitor the noise environment, so that any change
in noise level results in a corresponding change in
The basic function of a sound system is described
wanted sound level.
in section 1.
3.5.2 Limitations 3.6 Maintenance and replacement
3.5.2.1 Overspill funding
In a single space (for example, a room, or outside in After a sound system has been installed,
the open air) served by loudspeakers, it is not commissioned and paid for, it is still necessary to
practicable to increase the sound level without limit spend money on it from time to time, to keep it in
because of the danger that the amplified sound will good condition. Furthermore, it will inevitably, after
spill over into areas where it is not wanted, some years of satisfactory service, need to be
perhaps causing annoyance. This inability to replaced, usually by a system with more facilities
confine the sound to particular locations may be and/or more advanced technology. If the system
because the loudspeakers are insufficiently cannot be properly maintained, for lack of funds, the
directional or it may be fundamental to the nature need to repair or replace it will arrive that much
of sound propagation itself, i.e. the ability of sound sooner.
to travel round corners by diffraction. It is therefore prudent to make specific financial
NOTE Recommendations for reducing overspill are given provision for funding both in-service maintenance
in 5.5.
and repair, and for the eventual replacement of the
3.5.2.2 Acoustic characteristics of the listening system. A projected life of approximately 10 years is
area realistic in the present situation of product lifetimes
If the listening area is an enclosed space having few and advances in technology. Ideally, the sound
absorbent surfaces, the unwanted sounds arising system fund should be ring-fenced so that it cannot
from the reflecting surfaces may be so numerous, be appropriated for any other purpose.
intense and delayed that they mask the wanted
sound. Speech may be rendered unintelligible; the
character of music may be altered to an
unacceptable extent. Examples of such spaces
include underground railway stations, some indoor
swimming pools, some ice rinks.
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22British Standards Institution BSI 11-1998

Copyright
Section 4. Planning and contract management of

the system
4.1 General b) design;
This section covers the period from the initial c) liaison and coordination with building
enquiry by the client briefing to final acceptance of contractors and other service providers;
the completed installation. Depending on the size of d) installation, including scheduling delivery of
the system and the amount of design work equipment to site;
necessary, the stages outlined below may be fulfilled e) commissioning;
by a simple exchange of letters or may involve
f) information for the managerial staff of the
months of specialist effort.
owners of the system;
4.2 Initial enquiry g) training for system operators.
At the initial enquiry, the purchaser should state An example plan of work for projects involving
budgets in excess of 30 000, is given in annex A.
the general sound system contractual requirements
(see 3.2.3). The consultant or contractor should NOTE A typical project checklist is given in annex B.
outline their suitability for the project and declare This activity also comprises the technical functions
any special interests. Outline solutions, timescale, that are not directly related to the design of the
terms of engagement and fees may also be sound system.
discussed. A preliminary site visit may be arranged. 4.5.2 Progressing the project
Any special conditions should be identified as soon
Regular progress meetings should be arranged to
as possible.
ensure that all parties are aware of the whole
4.3 Outline proposal project progress. The meetings should be minuted
and minutes circulated to all participants in the
The consultant or contractor should provide a contract, whether present at the meeting or not. The
general outline proposal, giving details of the major purpose of holding these meetings is to ensure that
items of equipment that might be involved and problems are identified as soon as possible and any
levels of performance that should be attained. remedial action taken. It is essential that all
Alternative proposals may be offered at this stage. contributors should give accurate information to
Budget costings should be provided, and a detailed these meetings. When problems arise, the emphasis
site survey may be undertaken. Details of should be on finding solutions, not on apportioning
engagement of contractors, supervision, blame.
performance tests, services and other requirements Stages should be identified in each of the
should be agreed at this stage. Any issues identified participants activities that can be inspected or
but not resolved at this stage should be clearly verified in order to verify the projects progress.
stated. When a project involves innovation, special care is
needed in project management to ensure that all the
4.4 Written records design objectives will be met.
Throughout the design, installation and 4.5.3 Power supply
commissioning of a sound system, a written record
should be kept of all discussions and agreements. An adequately rated mains power supply,
Where a consultant is employed, he should keep substantially free from electrical interference,
records and copy them to the purchaser and should be provided in accordance with the System
contractor. The purchaser and contractor may wish Designers requirements. This supply should not be
to keep their own records of any agreements. Where shared with other equipment, especially
an agreement is reached verbally, it should also be motor-driven or thyristor-controlled equipment.
agreed who is to confirm that agreement in writing. Where battery back-up is provided, arrangements
should be made for charging and suitable
4.5 Planning accommodation (see BS EN 60896, BS 6312 and
BS 6313).
4.5.1 General
The planning function involves the solution of any
immediate problems disclosed by the initial enquiry
or the site assessment, and scheduling and
monitoring progress of the project in all its phases.
This should include the following steps:
a) collection of data for cost estimation and
quotation or tendering;
BSI 11-1998
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23
4.5.4 Accommodation 4.5.8.3 Wiring

The location of all equipment, microphones, It is often necessary to install wiring into ducts,
loudspeakers and their means of mounting should conduits and chases at an early stage of building
be agreed between the parties concerned, so that construction. The ducts should be cleared and dried
adequate provision for their means of installation is out before wiring is begun. Care should be taken to
ensured (see 6.3). Security and storage of portable protect cable tails from damage and moisture
equipment should also be considered. Any special ingress. Surface wiring should be installed
requirements for equipment rooms and control immediately prior to the final decoration.
points should be identified. 4.5.8.4 Installation of equipment
4.5.5 Cabling plan and schedule Equipment should be installed at a late stage in the
A cabling plan should be agreed in collaboration project to minimize risk of damage and loss, and in
with those responsible for other services, to enable any event not until the building work and preferably
the necessary ducts, chases, sleeves, etc. to be the decoration work in the immediate vicinity have
specified before building operations commence. been completed. It is essential to protect the
Segregation from other services may be essential equipment from dust and moisture until all
and should be considered at an early stage. construction and decoration work is finally
4.5.6 External lines completed. Protection to IP 54 (BS EN 60529) is
recommended.
Wayleaves should be obtained for any lines that run
outside the clients property. If external lines cross, 4.5.9 Prefabricated and custom made
or are in close proximity to, electric power or equipment
telecommunication lines, safety of the installation Some equipment assembly or prefabrication may be
should be cleared with the appropriate authority. undertaken off-site. Where this is the case, or for
Leased telephone circuits (leased lines) used to custom made equipment, regular inspections should
interconnect remote systems have to be terminated be made to ensure that satisfactory progress is being
by the appropriate authority. The system made and that the equipment can be installed in its
equipment to be connected to this point has to be final location.
approved for connection and has to bear the
recognized approval label as specified in 4.6 Site survey and client briefing
Telecommunications (Marking and Labelling) 4.6.1 Site survey
Order 1982 SI 1982/491 [2].
The satisfactory completion of the design and
4.5.7 Approval of the proposed installation installation of a sound system is frequently a
demanding task, whose critical aspects vary from
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Early approval of the proposed installation should
be obtained from the client or the authorized case to case. To achieve a good result, it is essential
consultant and sought from any public or other that the preparations for design and installation are
authority which may be concerned. very thorough. It is therefore necessary to examine
the site at the earliest reasonable time, to collect
4.5.8 Time schedule
data and investigate any potential problems.
4.5.8.1 Commissioning date A detailed site survey should be carried out at an
It is essential that the latest date by which the early stage, in order that the sound pressure levels
commissioning is to be completed is firmly required from the system may be more accurately
established, since: assessed. The need for group or automatic noise
a) the system may be required to be operating for sensing controls may also be established.
an event immediately following commissioning; Areas with long reverberation times should be
b) the achievement of the commissioning date noted. The measurement and assessment of room
may involve extra costs, such as 24 h working acoustic data requires specialist equipment and
during installation. consultancy should be sought accordingly.
4.5.8.2 Ordering equipment The site survey should take account of the following.
As the equipment may have to be specially a) The use(s) of the premises
manufactured, it should be ordered at an early date
to ensure its availability at the appropriate time for
installation.
24 BSI 11-1998
The proposer should visit the site, preferably Discussions should be held with the client in
accompanied by the client. If the system is order to establish microphone positions, control
intended to be used for a particular event, for points and system input priorities. Wherever
example, theatre, football, factory paging, then possible, early discussions should be held with
the visits should be made so that the facility or the architect in order to establish suitable
operation can be observed under typical loudspeaker and equipment locations.
conditions. 4.6.2 Briefing the client
b) The location and dimensions of the required
The following actions should be taken when briefing
coverage area(s)
a client:
A survey should be made of all areas under a) The proposers status, for example contractor,
consideration and their usages. It is important to consultant, installer, distributor etc., should be
look at all the areas. For example, when
declared to the client. Confusion can arise where
confronted with a series of rooms, it should not
a company claims to offer consultancy and
be assumed that they are all the same, even if it
contracting services simultaneously.
is so implied.
b) The proposer should declare to the client on
c) Whether the system configuration is what financial basis the work would be carried
permanent or subject to change. out. Some contractors carry out the design free of
d) Noise levels and reverberation charge (see note), whilst consultants would
Where applicable, measurements should be make a charge. The client should be left in no
made of operational noise levels, ambient noise doubt as to the basis of the operation.
levels and reverberation times. NOTE Free of charge means that no separate charge is
made for design, the cost being absorbed in the charges for
e) Access and working conditions equipment and/or installation.
The question of access and working conditions c) The proposer should declare to the client what
should be discussed with the client. Any services are offered, for example, design, design
disruption to the day-to-day operation should be and build, supply only, or supply and install.
clearly defined.
d) The proposer should declare any vested
It is imperative that notes are taken (a dictation interests. This is especially applicable when:
machine is very useful) and details are not
1) the consultant is really a contractor and
committed only to memory. Where possible,
expects, if the design is adopted, to carry out
photographs should be taken which incorporate
the installation;
scaling factors. Particular attention should be
paid to heights, access and cable routes, and 2) a contractor is also an agent and hence the
fixing methods. Any special environmental client might expect any design to employ
aspects of the site should be noted, together with preferred products.
any possible noise annoyance to neighbours. The e) The proposer should discuss with the client the
coverage required should be considered, and an basis of the clients perceived needs and the
estimate made of the number and type of clients expectation. It should be noted that the
loudspeakers to be used, including for outdoor clients perceived needs may be different from the
situations the possible positions for exposed actual needs.
loudspeakers. If there is a designated equipment f) The proposer should discuss with the client the
room/rack space proposed, this should be basis for their ongoing cooperation and define
checked to ensure that there is sufficient power precisely the proposed contractual relationship.
and space for the equipment, and adequate
ventilation. Cable access should also be g) The proposer and client should discuss the
project in hand, in broad terms and arrive at a
considered to and from the equipment location.
predesign budget estimation. This estimation is
f) Audio-frequency induction-loop system required to avoid wasting either the clients or the
(AFILS) proposers time. It is not intended to be binding
If an induction loop is to form part of the but to provide approximate figures.
installation, a background magnetic noise survey h) The proposer should request the client to
should also be carried out (see BS 7594). The site supply copies of any relevant drawings.
survey should include an assessment of potential
i) The proposer should provide references and
cable routes, equipment locations, and fixing
accreditation to the client. This may include a
methods. Any areas requiring special fixings or
brochure and information on similar projects,
access should be noted.
with photographs and client lists.
g) Location of equipment
25
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BSI 11-1998
j) The proposer should provide a succinctly NOTE In certain cases, the purchaser may decide to proceed on
written proposal. It is recommended that the the basis of an incomplete specification, because the cost of
waiting time while the specification is finalized exceeds the cost
proposer includes the following text in the of any likely late changes (see 4.7.2.4).
proposal:
4.7.2.2 Design and build
This proposal covers the following aspects of the
system: When a contractor offers to design and build a
system for an inclusive price, the purchaser should
1) design; be sure that the system design is likely to meet his
2) supply of equipment; requirements before agreeing to any contract. This
3) installation; may be done by agreeing subjective or objective
tests. If the purchaser has chosen the contractor on
4) commissioning, etc.
the basis of a previous installation, comparison with
After completion of the client briefing, it should be this system may be used as the performance test. In
possible to complete a design check list, a model for addition to agreeing the performance tests, the
which is given in annex C. contract should establish exactly what is and is not
included in the design/build package.
4.7 Contract management
4.7.2.3 Contract placed directly by the
4.7.1 General purchaser
The contract between the purchaser and the other When a purchaser has sufficient technical
parties involved should specify every aspect of the knowledge to design his own system and experience
project, not only the required performance of the of contract placement and negotiation, he may
system. On all but the simplest contracts, decide to engage the contractor directly This need
supervision is necessary to ensure that the contract not preclude the use of consultants by the contractor
is executed with satisfaction. Most sound system for specific matters or elements of design.
installations require the coordination of a number of
4.7.2.4 Design freeze
suppliers, services and resources. If there is a
significant time between the placement of the There may be elements of the design that cannot be
contract and its completion, there may be variations determined at the initial design stage, for example
and alterations to the contract. Regular checks the acoustic properties of a new building may not be
should be made to ensure that all parts of the known with sufficient accuracy. Each such element
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contract are proceeding to a satisfactory completion. should be identified and a suitable course of action
agreed. This may be by designing for the worst case,
4.7.2 Types of contract
or a separate contract, or agreed prime costs.
There are a number of ways that a contract may be
At some stage in the design, both parties should
placed depending on the complexity of the design, agree that the design is finalized and any variations
the knowledge and experience of the purchaser and may have cost implications. The design freeze
whether the sound system is part of a larger scheme should usually be as close as possible to the
of works.
installation date, subject to allowing sufficient time
4.7.2.1 Competitive tender for any custom manufacture or long order items.
When a consultant prepares a detailed design, he Where the contractor is required to undertake the
usually arranges for competitive tenders by suitable detailed design of some components, the design
contractors, on the basis of the design and agreed freeze should be after placement of the contract.
contract terms. Tenderers may be required to
adhere exactly to the specification, or invited to
suggest alternative solutions where appropriate. In
either case, it is important that each tenderer is
given the opportunity to compete on an equal basis.
If the purchaser does not wish to be bound by the
lowest tender, this should be made clear when
inviting the tenders. The consultant should confirm
the purchasers acceptance of the design and
contract terms before the specification is issued and
again before the contract is issued. Alterations to
the design, timetable and contract terms after the
placement of the contract should be avoided, as
these are likely to increase the costs.
26 BSI 11-1998
Section 5. Recommended design principles and

procedures
5.1 Design principles The relationship between the power supplied to the
loudspeaker and the sound level achieved depends
When designing a sound system, the most
on the distance from the loudspeaker and the
important factor to consider is the intelligibility
acoustics of the room. Near to the loudspeaker, the
(which depends on both audibility and clarity, sound pressure is proportional to the voltage input
see 5.21) of the required speech signals, to the loudspeaker; as the distance between listener
the audibility of any warning tones, and the desired
and loudspeaker increases, so the sound reflected
quality of reproduction of any music signals. Sound
from the room boundaries becomes more important.
systems are classified in this respect in 2.2. This
The presence of an audience can radically change
clause is primarily concerned with the factors and
the reverberant properties of the room and thereby
methods for obtaining good speech intelligibility, reduce sound levels away from the immediate
and if this can be achieved, then the audibility of vicinity of the loudspeakers. When commissioning
warning signals is almost automatically assured.
the system it is important to bear in mind that the
The quality of reproduction of music signals
addition of furnishings and the presence of an
depends on additional factors.
audience reduces perceived sound levels.
The three primary factors to be considered are:
An important point to be borne in mind is that the
a) loudness; relationship between amplifier output power and
b) frequency range; perceived loudness is logarithmic. A doubling of
c) echoes and reverberation. power produces an increase in perceived loudness
of 3 dB, which is just perceptible. An increase
A sound system consists essentially of the following of 10 times in amplifier power is required to produce
four basic components, as shown in Figure 1. an apparent doubling of loudness.
1) microphone, or signal input;
5.2.2 Ambient noise level sensing
2) pre-amplifier (control unit);
In many locations, for example sports stadia,
3) power amplifier; railway stations and airports, the background noise
4) loudspeaker. level is not constant. It may fluctuate over long or
Additionally, loudspeaker zoning or group switching short periods, or both. The technique of ambient
may be required. In order to obtain the maximum noise level sensing may be applied to systems whose
performance from a system, to maintain an sound output is required to be controlled
adequate signal-to-noise ratio and provide an automatically, depending on the nature and level of
appropriate frequency response, a number of other the background noise. A sound system having a
additional elements may be added, such as fixed output level may be too loud when the noise is
compressors or limiters, equalizers and volume least, or inaudible when the noise is greatest.
controls. (See also annex D). See Figure 3 for examples.
Equipment which provides such automatic control
5.2 Loudness is commercially available, and is particularly useful
5.2.1 General where the output of the sound system needs to be
kept to a satisfactory minimum in order to prevent
Good siting of loudspeakers is very important for overspill which causes nuisance to nearby residents.
uniform sound coverage. A position above audience Some ambient noise level sensing equipment is able
listening height helps to establish a clear to disregard the sound originating from the sound
line-of-sight path to every listener and also helps to system itself, thereby preventing feedback effects
equalize the distances between loudspeakers and which could cause the system sound level to
listeners. fluctuate unpredictably. Such intelligent systems
can also differentiate between background music
and background noise.
27
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BSI 11-1998
Figure 3 Examples of sound system output levels
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Copyright
5.2.3 Speech 5.2.4 Background music

A prerequisite of any sound system is that it is loud The sound level required for background music
enough to be heard clearly. Research has shown depends on:
that under normal quiet listening conditions, a) the type of venue, for example shopping arcade,
optimum speech intelligibility is achieved at sound restaurant, shop;
levels of 65 dBA to 75 dBA with the range of 70 dBA
b) the background noise level;
to 75 dBA preferred. This level should therefore be
designed for wherever possible. However, in c) listeners preferences.
conditions of higher background noise, the overall It is impossible to generalize as every case will be
level of the sound system has to be increased to different, but levels of approximately 60 dBA
compensate for the effect of the background noise to 65 dBA are typical in busy retail environments.
masking out the speech. The level should be such that it does not interfere
Ideally, the system should be designed to achieve a with conversation.
minimum speech-to-background noise or Managements of public houses and similar venues
signal-to-noise ratio of 10 dB. The maximum signal frequently expect background music systems to be
level should not normally exceed 90 dBA to 95 dBA, capable of levels which would normally be
except under exceptional conditions or in areas associated with foreground music. Care should be
where hearing protection is worn. taken at the specification and design stages that
In extremely quiet areas, where paging signals for there is clear agreement as to the maximum sound
example are not to be intrusive, levels towards the level capability of the background music system;
lower end of the 65 dBA to 75 dBA range should be this will help to avoid potential misunderstandings
used but the final setting should always be made arising later.
subjectively. 5.2.5 Foreground music
The target sound levels given above refer to the In contrast to background music, the sound levels
long-term average level of the speech signal. required for foreground music are determined
However, the level of speech fluctuates largely by the type of music, rather than the
considerably, with the short-term peaks being listening venue. The aim of a foreground music
some 10 dB to 12 dB higher than the mean system is to create an emotional experience via the
(see note). When planning a sound system, music; this is often closely linked with the level at
adequate provision should be made to cater for this which the music is produced. It is difficult to
significant peak-to-mean ratio. generalize, but surveys of common practice (and
NOTE In fact, peaks up to 20 dB or more above the mean can thereby listeners expectations) suggest that the
occur, but it is not normally necessary to make full allowance for sound levels shown in Table 2 are expected.
this.
For sound distribution systems where the Table 2 Expected sound levels
microphone user cannot hear the sound from the Type of music Average Leq Peak
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loudspeakers, it is helpful to provide a visual dB dB

indication of the sound level being produced, using, Classical orchestral Programme 105 to 110
for example, one to three light emitting diode (LED) music dependent
indicators. Middle of the road 94 to 99 123 to 127
An allowance for at least a 10 dB headroom margin (MOR) orchestral
should be made, if the power amplifier is not to clip music
(be overdriven) to an unacceptable extent. Clipping Rock/pop 103 to 110 132 to 140
can result in excessive distortion and hence loss of
intelligibility, and possible damage to loudspeakers These levels are typical of those measured at the
if sustained signal clipping occurs. front barrier near to the stage; levels in the body of
In terms of the required amplifier power output, the hall can be some 4 dB lower. In some extreme
a 10 dB margin is very significant, being equivalent cases (for example rap music) peak levels in excess
to a multiplication factor of 10. However, techniques of 140 dB can occur.
such as compression and limiting of speech input 0.1 5.2.6 Cinemas (see 5.19)
signals are available which enable smaller power Cinema sound systems are usually set up to
margins to be employed. proprietary industry-standard levels associated
with a particular system, for example the Dolby
Cinema system. Peak levels may reach the values
given in 5.19.3 per loudspeaker during reproduction
of film sound tracks.

BSI 11-1998 29
Figure 4 Empirical rule for estimating pairs of audio band limit frequencies which give
subjectively balanced reproduction of programme signals
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5.2.7 Exposure to high sound levels 5.3 Frequency response limits
A major concern in the performance of popular When selecting equipment for a sound system, due
music is that of potential hearing damage arising consideration should be given to the frequency
from high sound levels. The rock/pop levels listed response characteristics of the equipment and the
in Table 2 (see 5.2.5) are considered potentially nature of the task it is required to perform.
injurious to hearing. Employers have statutory
The minimum frequency range which a sound
duties via the Noise at Work Regulations [1] to
system should reproduce for intelligible speech
protect employees from damaging sound levels, but
is 400 Hz to 4 kHz. However, the quality of such a
it is a general legal principle that members of the
limited range is extremely poor. For reasonable
general public are entitled to subject themselves to
quality reproduction a sound system should be
hazardous conditions in the pursuit of leisure if they
capable of reproducing the range 150 Hz to 6 kHz.
so wish. Nevertheless, Section 3 of the Health and
For high quality sound reinforcement, the range
Safety at Work Act [3] places a general duty on
should extend to 8 kHz or 10 kHz. For high quality
employers to have regard for the safety of members
reproduction of music, a range extending from at
of the public affected by their commercial activities.
least 100 Hz to 10 kHz is required (see Figure 4).
Where average sound levels are in excess of 96 dBA,
warnings should be given to the public that hearing For speech reinforcement applications an extension
damage could result. at the high-frequency end of the band may be
necessary to combat atmospheric attenuation if the
In cases of doubt, advice should be sought from the
value derived from Figure 4 is 5 kHz or more. In
Health and Safety Executive, which has a great deal
highly reverberant areas, it is often desirable to
of experience in this area. The Guide to Health,
limit the low frequency response of the system in
Safety and Welfare at Pop Concerts and other
order to reduce the sound masking effect of the low
similar events [4] is recommended reading. It
frequency reverberation and hence improve the
recommends that event continuous sound level
potential intelligibility of the reproduced speech.
(Event Leq) in audience areas should not
Although the basic tone controls found on sound
exceed 107 dBA.
equipment can be useful, their flexibility of control
is limited. The use of a multi-band filter or graphic
equalizer to adjust the overall frequency response of
a sound system is an extremely useful and powerful
aid to system performance.
30 BSI 11-1998
5.4 Echoes and reverberation Each 3 dB increase in SPL output required from a
loudspeaker needs a doubling of the audio frequency
Secondary sources of sound, for example reflections
power delivered to the loudspeaker.
from room surfaces, or the output from
supplementary or repeater loudspeakers, which An example calculation applying these principles is
arrive at a listening position within a period of up as follows.
to 35 ms after the original sound, integrate or merge If the sensitivity of a particular loudspeaker is 90 dB
with the original, direct sound (person speaking or for an input of 1 W when measured at 1 m distance
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
loudspeaker) and combine to produce one overall (the standard rating conditions), what is the SPL
louder sound and intelligibility is usually enhanced. at 8 m, and how much additional power will be
Secondary sounds arriving after 50 ms do not fully required to achieve an SPL of 85 dB?
integrate and depending on their level relative to At 8 m from the loudspeaker, the SPL has decreased
the initial sound may be heard as echoes which have by:
the effect of reducing the overall intelligibility of the 20 lg 8 = 18 dB;
speech signal.
so that the final value is 90 18 = 72 dB SPL.
Sound systems should be designed to ensure that
To achieve 85 dB requires a power increase
the generation of long-delayed secondary sound
equivalent to:
signals, caused either by structural reflections or by
secondary loudspeakers, does not occur or is well 85 72 = 13dB
controlled. 13 dB relative to 1 W is 20 W.
Any acoustic treatment necessary to increase sound The above approach is sufficiently accurate for both
insulation, reduce reverberation or improve outdoor and indoor calculations for planning
monitoring positions should be clearly specified. purposes. In indoor situations, the contribution
from the reflected or reverberant sound components
5.5 Outdoor systems should be considered as this affects not only the
perceived loudness (this is increased) but also the
Loudspeakers should be placed no more than 12 m
intelligibility if the reverberant component is too
to 15 m apart when facing in the same direction
strong with respect to the direct sound. For large
or 25 m apart when directed to cover an area. The
reverberant areas, expert advice from either the
loudspeakers should be angled downwards to cover
the appropriate area and to limit the overspill to manufacturers and suppliers, or from a specialist
adjacent areas. A row of loudspeakers, even though sound consultant should be sought.
individually spaced at 12 m to 15 m apart, can still
give rise to an appreciable echo effect at certain
5.7 Loudspeaker layout and coverage
positions, due to the difference in distance between Loudspeakers should be selected and located to
the nearest and subsequent loudspeakers whose provide as uniform a coverage of an area as
output is still audible. practicable. The inverse square law (see 5.6) and
Local authorities are empowered to impose limits on coverage angle data should be used initially to
sound levels and should therefore be consulted. predict the coverage and plan an installation. For
paging systems, the maximum variation of sound
5.6 Distance and sound pressure level pressure level in the coverage area should be less
(SPL) considerations; the inverse than 10 dB at 2 kHz. In areas of high noise or
reverberation, a smaller variation will be required if
square law intelligibility is not to be downgraded. In sound
In general, the SPL decreases with distance from reinforcement systems, the variation should be
the loudspeaker, reducing by 6 dB every time that within 6 dB and preferably within 4 dB at 2 kHz
the distance is doubled. For example, the SPL and 4 kHz.
at 2 m from a loudspeaker is 6 dB less than at 1 m, The coverage angles of each loudspeaker should be
whilst at 4 m the SPL is 6 dB less than at 2 m, taken fully into account when designing the layout.
and 12 dB less than at 1 m. It can be seen therefore The coverage angles are defined as the angles at
that the SPL initially decreases rapidly with which the output from the loudspeaker is 6 dB less
distance but as the absolute distance increases, the than that produced on the main axis of the
relative change becomes less. For example, the loudspeaker. Usually, the total included angle is
SPL 100 m away from a loudspeaker is only 6 dB quoted. This angle changes significantly with
less than at 50 m, yet it is 40 dB less than at 1 m. frequency, usually decreasing as the frequency
Furthermore, the SPL at 52 m is not measurably increases. When designing sound systems, the
different from that at 50 m. coverage angle measured in the octave band centred
on 4 kHz should be used.

BSI 11-1998 31
When laying out and positioning loudspeakers, Low-level distributed sound systems are an
consideration should be given to the difference in alternative to the centralized cluster, consisting of a
sound pressure level (SPL) which is produced at a relatively high density of small loudspeakers spaced
position on the main axis of the loudspeaker, and to provide a good overlap between adjacent units.
that produced at the same distance at an off-axis This method can provide extremely uniform
position at half the coverage angle for example coverage of a space and normally provides better
where, by definition, the SPL is 6 dB lower than on coverage than column or similar loudspeakers, in
the main axis. A 6 dB difference is quite noticeable, spaces which are wide or have low ceilings.
and is sufficient to affect significantly the potential
intelligibility of the system in a noisy environment 5.8 Loudspeaker signal distribution
by decreasing the apparent signal-to-noise ratio 5.8.1 Methods of distribution
calculated for the on-axis case. In such
circumstances, loudspeakers should be positioned so Distribution of signals from amplifiers to
that their coverage areas either meet or preferably loudspeakers can be carried out in one of the
overlap, resulting in a higher overall SPL; following two ways:
theoretically, when two separate but equal sound a) at low impedance, typically 2 to 8 ;
sources combine, a 3 dB increase in SPL can be b) by voltage line distribution.
expected.
5.8.2 Low impedance distribution
Loudspeaker coverage of a space can essentially be
achieved in one of the two following ways: Low impedance distribution generally offers an
extended low frequency response but cable lengths
a) by use of a centralized loudspeaker system
have to be short and/or conductor diameters large to
cluster;
minimize resistive losses. Satisfactory connection of
b) by use of a grid of ceiling-mounted several loudspeakers to one amplifier can also be
loudspeakers usually operated at a low sound difficult, due to the need for complex series-parallel
level. arrangements to produce the wanted division of
Many sound systems make use of both types of power and the correct source and load impedances.
distribution. There is often no clear-cut reason for Loudspeaker switching in such a system may be
using one type, and so other considerations such as very difficult indeed, and reliability is compromised
architectural constraints, accessibility, and by series connection.
installation costs are often the deciding factors. 5.8.3 Voltage line distribution
Centralized loudspeaker systems typically comprise According to this principle (see 1.3.20), all
column, Constant directivity (CD) horn, or amplifiers are designed, regardless of their rated
full-range loudspeaker cabinets. The units may output powers, to have the same rated output
either be mounted on either side of the stage or voltage, traditionally 100 V in the UK, but lower
rostrum, or alternatively they may be mounted voltages are now used as well. This voltage is called
centrally over it in the form of a cluster. Use is made the loudspeaker line voltage, and the higher it is,
of the loudspeakers directional properties to direct the lower the power loss is in a cable of fixed
sound into the audience and away from reflecting conductor length, diameter and material, for a given
wall surfaces thus reducing the degree of amount of useful power carried.
reverberation generated by the system and aiding
intelligibility and gain without risk of acoustic Amplifiers are designed to operate satisfactorily
feedback. into any load impedance equal to or greater than an
impedance ZA (in ohms), given by:
They should provide an even coverage of a space by
employing different parts of the cluster to cover ZA = V2/Po
different areas, for example the front and rear of the where
room. Delayed repeater loudspeakers may also be
V is the line voltage in volts; and
required, either to fill in areas which cannot be
reached from the central cluster, for example under Po is the rated output power of the amplifier in
balconies, or to compensate for the effect of the watts.
inverse square law, causing too large a variation in Similarly, all loudspeakers are designed to present
direct SPL. at their terminals an impedance ZL, related to the
designed loudspeaker line voltage V and the rated
power PRof the loudspeaker by the equation:
PR = V2/ZL
32
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BSI 11-1998
This is normally achieved by including a Circuits for signals of low level (in the order of
transformer between the speech coil(s) of the millivolts), such as those obtained from
loudspeaker drive unit(s) and the input terminals. microphones, are generally more susceptible to
Loudspeakers are marked with their rated powers, electrical interference from adjacent circuits than
and any number and variety of loudspeakers can be circuits for signals of high level, such as
connected in parallel to the output of one amplifier, line-level (1 V approximately) and loudspeaker
provided that the sum of the loudspeaker powers circuits (up to 100 V).
does not exceed the rated power of the amplifier. Circuits that are likely to generate interference in
Furthermore, any loudspeaker can be substituted adjacent sound system circuits are those which
for any other, provided the same condition is met. carry relatively high levels of alternating current,
Control of sound level from a loudspeaker is particularly when those currents are of an
achieved by providing taps on the transformer impulsive nature or are of a relatively high
windings, or the equivalent, so that the turns ratio frequency. Examples of such circuits are those used
can be changed, thus changing the value Z of the for impulse clocks, bells, alarms, signalling,
impedance at the terminals, and hence the power P audio-frequency, data transmission, telephone
absorbed for a given loudspeaker line voltage V: circuits, thyristor control and audio-frequency
induction-loops (AFILS). In some cases, such as
P = V2/Z
thyristor controls, interference suppression at the
NOTE It is conventional to refer to power in this context, and
thus to assume that the impedances are pure resistances.
source is necessary. In other cases, notably AFILS,
the interfering effect can often be eliminated only by
Voltage line distribution is more suitable for attention to the system suffering the interference
installations having long cable runs, flexible (see BS 7594).
loudspeaker switching or a large number of
loudspeakers. However, in general each The probability of electrical interference between
loudspeaker requires its own transformer, which is sound system circuits and other circuits is generally
an additional cost. Individual or group volume reduced by segregation of the various classes of
controls can use tapped transformers, so that circuits. For recommendations with regard to the
unnecessary power losses are minimized. However, proximity of various engineering services, see 6.2 of
each transformer tends to decrease the low BS 8313:1989. Cables connected to
frequency response of the system and increase low telecommunication systems should be installed in
frequency distortion. accordance with BS 6701.
NOTE Loudspeaker cables are considered in 9.16.1. Interference, remaining after normal screening of
sound system cables and equipment has been
5.9 Sensitivity to interference carried out, and due to external electric or magnetic
(electromagnetic compatibility fields, may sometimes be reduced by screening the
(EMC)) source. Attention should be given to the earthing
arrangements of the sound system; it is likely to be
Attention is drawn to the fact that individual items necessary to break any earth loops, without
of equipment used in a sound system are within the compromising safety, or to minimize the area of any
scope of European Commission (EC) requirements loops, so as to reduce circulating currents produced
for EMC and that they should therefore conform to by interfering magnetic fields.
the relevant British Standards. Additional
It is highly desirable, in order to avoid the
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
considerations apply to the system as a whole. The

production of potentially interfering out-of-band
loudspeaker cables act as an antenna (possibly an
signals, that hard clipping of signal waveforms
extensive one) connected to amplifier(s) whose
cannot occur in the system, neither at the final
passband usually extends above the audio
amplifier output or at any intermediate stage.
frequency range and may send and/or receive
Furthermore, the use of final amplifiers with power
interfering signals.
bandwidths greatly exceeding the system
It is very difficult to prevent low radio frequency requirements (which do not exceed 20 kHz under
signals, picked up by the cables, from reaching the any circumstances) should be avoided unless they
amplifier, which should thus itself have adequate are provided with low-pass filters at their outputs.
immunity from interference of this type. VHF It is also necessary to ensure that the
signals may be filtered by means of ferrite-cored high-frequency content of any tone signals is
inductors and low-inductance capacitors: standard sufficiently low, for example, that the total power
suppressor inductors should be selected for low level above 5 kHz is below 40 dB referred to the
resistance and adequate current rating, and the signal power.
effect of their inductance on the system frequency
response should be taken into account.

BSI 11-1998 33
5.10 Preferred matching values for 5.10.2.3 Feed for the public switched telephone
equipment network or similar
5.10.1 Interconnection within the system Attention is drawn to legislation which requires the
feed for the public switched telephone network to be
The preferred matching values for the equipment derived from type-approved interface equipment
covered in 5.10.2 are given in the following which conforms with the requirements of
publications: BS EN 41003 and BS 6305 (and/or other
a) see BS 6840-11 and BS EN 60268-12 for appropriate standards). There are additional
connectors; requirements set by the certification body, which is
b) see BS EN 60268-12 for phantom feeding; the British Approvals Board for
Telecommunications (BABT), and it is
c) see BS EN 61938 for the following:
recommended that BABT be consulted at an early
1) d.c. power supply voltages; stage in the design of interface equipment or in case
2) microphones, output impedances and levels; of doubt.
3) disk record playing unit, output impedance
and level; 5.11 Building design requirements
4) tuners, output impedances and levels; 5.11.1 Access and future extensions
5) line amplifiers, input and output Careful consideration should be given at the design
impedances and levels; stage to the possibility of future extensions of the
6) tape recording and reproducing, impedances sound system and the need to provide easy
and input and output levels; maintenance and protection against damage. In
particular, provision should be made for the
7) auxiliary units, impedance;
installation of additional cables.
8) loudspeakers, impedance and voltage line
5.11.2 Lead-in and distribution points, cable
operation;
holes and ducts
9) headphones, impedance.
5.11.2.1 Internal cable ducts
5.10.2 Interconnection with other systems
Ideally, it should be possible to run cables from any
5.10.2.1 Feed to or from radio or television position in a building to any other position through
broadcasting concealed ducts, chases, conduits and above
This should be in the form of a balanced floating suspended ceilings. Reference should be made to
signal, with a source impedance not exceeding 75 , BS 8313 for the accommodation of pipes and cables.
presented on a 3-contact XLR-type fixed male 5.11.2.2 External systems
connector (BS 6840-12). The signal should have a
maximum level of + 8 dBu (2 V). Preferably, it Facilities may be required for leading-in a service
should be monitored on a PPM type IIa from an external system, which may be either
(BS 6840-10), to peak at PPM6, with PPM 4 = 0 dBu overhead or underground. Separate pipes or
(alignment or line-up level). conduits are desirable for each service to be led into
the building.
5.10.2.2 Feed for consumer entertainment
Where cables enter an external wall, it is important
equipment
that they should be enclosed in a short length of pipe
This should preferably be in the form of an made of non-hygroscopic material, cemented into
unbalanced floating signal (see note), with a source the wall, sloping downwards towards the outside
impedance not exceeding 1 k, presented either on and sealed to prevent entry of water, dust or vermin.
a fixed female connector of either the phono type or This also applies to spare pipes, so fitted but not
the 5-contact 180 circular DIN audio connector used. Pipes through cavity walls should penetrate
(BS 6840-11). The signal should have an absolute both leaves and be sealed at each end of the surface.
maximum level of 2 V. An average level
below 200 mV is unlikely to be sufficient.
NOTE It may be necessary not to connect the earths of the
sound system and the consumer equipment, to prevent an earth
loop being created. This can be achieved by supplying a
transformer-coupled or electronically-floated signal, one pole of
which is earthed only to the consumer equipment.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
34 BSI 11-1998
When holes are made in walls for the passage of Equipment should conform to BS EN 60065 and/or
cables and ducts, care should be taken to ensure BS EN 60950 (see note) whichever is appropriate.
they are properly fire-stopped to the satisfaction of Equipment which includes a connection to a public
the relevant authority. Moreover, care should be telecommunications network should conform to
taken to ensure that such holes do not significantly BS 6301.
degrade the sound insulation between one enclosure NOTE BS EN 60065 is the appropriate standard except for
and another. Where high standards of sound equipment whose main purpose is data processing and any sound
insulation are required, fire stops may not be system function which is purely of the nature of control. For
example, a microcomputer used to control zoning of a sound
adequate and special precautions may be necessary system should conform to BS EN 60950, but a digital signal
(see BS 2750, BS 5821, BS 8233 and 5.11.3). processor should conform to BS EN 60065.
5.11.2.3 Distribution points Immediate access to main power switches and fuse
(or preferably, miniature circuit-breaker) boxes is
A distribution point should be provided at or near
essential, particularly if continuity of operation of
the entry of the external cables for joining these to
the system is necessary but a stand-by power supply
the internal wiring and for testing. The space
is not justified.
provided should be adequate to permit extensions of
the various services and for housing any auxiliary Stand-by power supplies should be correctly rated,
equipment that may be necessary. In larger and installed in accordance with the manufacturers
buildings this space should be in an equipment instructions so that these ratings are not
room, probably shared by other services. The compromised. Ratings should be checked for
position chosen for the equipment room should be continued adequacy whenever any modification is
related to the principal cable runs. made to the system.
Sub-distribution points on each floor may also be Equipment operated from modern types of primary
required. or secondary battery may cause fire and/or personal
injury if the batteries are incorrectly installed or
5.11.3 Sound insulation
become short-circuited under fault conditions.
It is important to remember that the sound There is at present no British or international
insulation performance of a building is usually standard dealing with this matter. Equipment
dominated by the weakest element. Thus the first manufacturers should therefore be prepared to give
step in improving sound insulation is to seal any written assurances to the system designer on the
apertures. Where apertures are necessary, for safety of their products in this respect.
example, to provide ventilation, special sound Low-level signal cables and loudspeaker signal
attenuating measures may be required, such as duct cables should be segregated from each other and
silencers, baffles or barriers. from category 1 circuits in accordance
The results of laboratory tests of sound insulation of with 528-01-03 to 528-01-08 of BS 7671:1992. If
proprietary materials and constructions are often used for fire or emergency alarm purposes they have
obtainable from the manufacturer. These are very to be regarded as Category 3 circuits. They should
useful for comparison, however, laboratory tests are have adequate cross-sectional area to carry not just
carried out under idealized conditions and the the normal design current, but the maximum
performance may not be attained in practice. prospective current under the worst-case single
NOTE Data on the sound insulating properties of many fault conditions. Cables carrying voltages
constructions measured in use can be obtained from BS 8233 and above 50 V (d.c or r.m.s.) should preferably be
from publications of the Building Research Establishment and
the BBC.
chosen from types suitable for use as mains supply
cables but distinctively coloured and suitably
5.12 Safety, reliability and security of permanently marked to distinguish them, unless
information enclosed in separate conduit or trucking which is
itself coloured or marked (for colouring
5.12.1 Electrical safety see BS 1710).
Mains power supplies should be designed and 5.12.2 Mechanical and environmental safety
installed in accordance with BS 7671. Some local
Observance of the constructional requirements in
authorities may impose additional requirements
BS 7671 should give a satisfactory degree of safety
under their conditions for licensing places of public
for fixed wiring and supply equipment. Temporary
entertainment etc.
installations are often installed under time pressure
and difficult working conditions. Such installations
should therefore be inspected, if possible, by a
qualified person with the authority to require
improvements to be made where essential.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BSI 11-1998
35
Where the function of the equipment permits, it 5.12.4 Climatic conditions

should be installed in a position easily accessible to It is essential to ensure that all equipment will
authorized persons but protected from unauthorized withstand any climatic conditions that may be
access. If there are several items of equipment close anticipated in normal use. Precautions to be taken
together, they should be installed in a rack or during transit and storage should be clearly defined
enclosure. in the system specification and communicated to the
Equipment such as loudspeakers and microphones, appropriate persons (see BS 7527). All items of
which because of their function have to be installed equipment should have an IP rating
in places difficult for access, should be securely fixed (see BS EN 60529) suitable for their working
in place, but not so as to make them very difficult to environment.
remove for replacement or servicing. In particularly
difficult cases, a description of the means of access 5.13 Stand-by facilities
should be included in the system documentation
Failure of the system in some installations may
(see 8.10).
have serious consequences, and some method of
For suspended equipment, the provisions of 17.6.6 quickly restoring the service may be necessary; the
of BS 4533-102.17:1990 may be applied in the acceptable delay for this will depend on the
absence of any other conflicting standard. application. Spares of some or all of the units of the
Equipment should not be installed in a position equipment should be provided, either to replace
where damaging external influences, such as dust, defective units physically, or to be arranged so that
moisture, or strong magnetic and/or electrical fields, they can be switched or patched manually or
might cause an immediate safety hazard or automatically. The whole equipment may be
longer-term unreliability. duplicated and both sets of equipment operated
All cables should be adequately protected against simultaneously, or with one set on stand-by for
mechanical damage under the worst likely changeover in the event of a fault. The method
conditions of use envisaged. Fixings of unenclosed adopted depends on the importance attached to
cables should be of the correct type, and spaced so as system reliability, the speed of resumption of service
to prevent significant sagging. and on the economic considerations. (See also
BS 7443).
Special care is needed when installing cables in
vertical ducts, to ensure that fire and smoke
5.14 Commissioning tests and system
barriers are not breached.
data
In some installations, the use of special cable with
low smoke, low toxicity emission may be justified. In The System Designer should be fully involved in the
other cases, the use of fire-resistant cables (mineral commissioning test and should specify the details
insulated copper sheathed (MICS) or given in 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3. See also 6.4.
silicone-insulated) may be necessary.
5.15 Security of information
5.12.3 Reliability
A sound system may be used to inform an audience,
The basis of reliability is to:
for example at a sales conference, of information
a) choose correctly rated equipment; which is commercially, or otherwise, sensitive. Care
b) install it correctly; is then necessary to ensure that acoustic signals are
c) keep it cool, by ensuring adequate ventilation; not transmitted, for example, through the building
structure or air-conditioning system, to locations
d) set up a regular inspection and maintenance
where they might be heard by unauthorized
programme, with the accent on inspection, rather
persons. Radio (wireless) microphones should not be
than disturbing the equipment for unjustified
used in these circumstances.
maintenance work.
The magnetic fields created by the loudspeaker
The quality of materials and finishes, and the
wiring may also be detected at a distance, and direct
performance of all components, apparatus and
connection might be made to wiring passing, for
equipment should be adequate to ensure
example through a duct, outside the area where the
satisfactory operation of the system throughout its
system is operating. Choice of suitable cables and
design life.
wiring routes can do much to minimize these
possibilities, but it is not now possible to make any
sound system immune to breach of security.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
36 BSI 11-1998
5.16 Wiring and installation 5.17 Earthing

The System Designer should ensure that the 5.17.1 General
installer is specifically instructed on the following Attention is drawn to BS 7671 (previously published
points. as IEE Regulations for Electrical Installations). The
a) All mains equipment except class II and recommendations given in BS 7430 should also be
class III equipment (see BS 2754) and each observed.
equipment rack should be earthed.
5.17.2 Use of Class 1 and Class 2 equipment
b) Screened cables interconnecting equipment
Under certain circumstances a safety hazard can
should be earthed at one point only to prevent the
occur if Class 1 equipment (with a 3-core mains
generation of earth-loop currents which may give
lead) is mixed with metal cased Class 2 (double
rise to hum or other electrical interference noise
insulated) equipment (with a 2-core mains lead). It
on the system.
is essential that the Class 1 equipment is properly
c) Precautions should be taken to minimize earthed.
electrical interference between audio circuits or
between other circuits and audio circuits, and to 5.17.3 Radio receiver
minimize the risk of dangerous voltages The recommendations of BS 6330 and BS 6651
occurring on audio circuits. should be followed in regard to the earth connection
d) Microphone and low signal level cables should for the radio receiver and the protection of antennas
be screened and physically separated from (aerials) against atmospheric electricity and
loudspeaker lines. lightning.
e) Audio cables should not be run with cables at 5.17.4 Earth loops
extra low, low, or medium voltage, in accordance The connection of several pieces of equipment to the
with BS 7671 (see 5.12.1). Microphone cables safety earth conductor of the mains supply may
should run at least 300 mm and cause circulating currents in the signal circuits that
preferably 1 000 mm from loudspeaker lines and could result in audible hum being introduced into
power wiring. Loudspeaker lines should run at the sound system (see note). To prevent this effect
least 150 mm and preferably 300 mm from without compromising the safety of the installation,
telecommunications wiring. A minimum loops should be eliminated only by introducing
separation of 500 mm should be observed breaks in the screening or associated continuity
between signal cables and mains cables, which conductors of signal circuits. It is essential that the
may need to be increased to 1 000 mm for cable safety earth conductor in all mains cables is always
supplying thyristor-controlled circuits or properly connected.
fluorescent luminaires. NOTE Interference from an AFILS (see 2.4) may also occur
f) Mains supplies to sound system equipment under these conditions.
should all be on the same phase and should not be 5.17.5 Low noise and low impedance
shared with inductive circuits, technical earths
thyristor-controlled or motor-driven equipment. A technical earth is used primarily to provide an
g) The installation of equipment in any independent locally referenced earth. The incoming
potentially explosive atmosphere should be mains earth (provided by the electricity supply
avoided. authority) may be referenced at some distance from
h) When telephone lines form part of a sound a building and may be far from clean. Technical
system, special safety requirements apply earths are of particular importance where elements
(see 5.10.2.3 and BS EN 41003). associated with a sound system are located
i) Distribution cables should conform to the throughout areas of a building, for example in
following standards: theatres, concert halls, conference centres, etc. The
cost of providing the facility can be high and careful
1) low-level signal and control cables, BS 4808; consideration therefore has to be given to its need.
2) loudspeaker cables, PVC insulated, PVC Having installed a technical earth, great care also
sheathed conforming to BS 6004. MICS or has to be taken over the equipment connected to it
conducted loudspeaker cable systems may also in order to obtain the benefit which the earthing
be used, but where a sound system installation facility affords. It is essential that the equipment
is used for emergency communications, cables has separate technical and mains earth connection
should be of a fire/or damage-resistant type, points, i.e. mains earth is connected only to the
MICS or low smoke zero halogen (LSOH) mains transformer screen and not to the chassis of
(see 9.9.4 and 9.16, BS 5839 and BS 7443). the equipment.
BSI 11-1998
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37
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The technical earth point usually comprises a large 5.18.3 Use of electronically generated signals
horizontal plate (or a number of parallel vertical In many installations, particularly those associated
rods) placed deep enough to avoid dry soil with factories, audible signals, often of a coded
conditions. The plate (or rods) should be copper or a nature, may be required for staff location or to
copper alloy such as marine bronze. Coated steel is indicate factory starting and stopping times for job
suitable for use on a temporary basis only. progressing. A tone generator may be used to
Where rods are used, these should be connected in a provide the sound signal and may provide one or
star format with the earth cable taken from the more frequencies which should be sufficiently stable
meeting point of the connections. Separate earth and chosen as to be easily distinguishable aurally.
cables should be run to each equipment location. As an alternative, tones may be recorded on
Where a number of equipment racks are installed in magnetic tape or in digital storage.
a single location, these should be earthed to one For life safety application a recorded message can
another with a single connection being made to the provide, for example, tone signals, information
technical earth. Where racks are within a close about the emergency, and instructions for
distance of one another, the technical earth may be evacuation.
extended to the furthest rack.
The use of digitally-recorded tones or speech (as
It is essential to ensure that at no time do mains opposed to digitally-generated speech) rather than a
earth and technical earth come in contact with one tape recording is preferred from the point of view of
another otherwise the benefit of the system will be long-term reliability. Reproduced speech quality can
totally lost. be comparable to that provided by tape systems, or
Where a technical earth is not practical, a clean better and has the advantage of instant reset and
earth may be used to protect the audio circuits from repeat. The digital memory used may be EPROM,
interference in the earth connector. In this floppy disk or hard disk, or may use programmable
technique, a clean earth distribution system is RAM with battery back-up
provided, separate from the general mains earth Messages and tones in simple digital systems range
distribution system. These systems are connected from approximately 10 s capability initiated by a
together only at the earth terminal of the incoming simple contact closure, to more sophisticated
mains supply to the building. This is permissible systems which offer several outputs. Each of these
only if the resistance between the general earth may select any message contained in the memory,
system and the clean earth system is sufficiently all messages starting at the beginning even if
low to ensure that an equipotential zone is previously selected by another output.
maintained (see BS 7671).
5.19 Sound for films
5.18 Use of sound systems for fire
NOTE Not all sound records are on the film base carrying the
alarm warnings and emergency picture.
purposes 5.19.1 Cinema (Safety) Regulations
5.18.1 Use of sound systems for fire alarm Attention is drawn to the Cinemas Act 1985 [5]
warnings which consolidates all previous legislation about
If a system is to be used to provide audible fire alarm film exhibition (as it is now called). It continues in
warnings (tone signals) and is to become part of the force under the Cinematograph (Safety)
building safety and emergency warning/evacuation Regulations SI 1955/1129 [6], later referred to as
equipment, conformity to BS 5839-1 and BS 5839-4 the principal Regulations. These require that a
is normally required by licensing authorities. competent operator, who has attained the age
Functional surveillance (see 1.3.34) is normally of 18 years, shall be in charge of, and present in, the
necessary. projection room. The said operator may leave the
NOTE Further relevant parts of BS 5839 are under preparation projection room for a short period in case of need so
5.18.2 Use of sound systems for emergency long as an assistant, being a person who has
purposes attained the age of 17 years, is left in charge of, and
present in, the projection room and the operator
If a system is to be used for voice announcements for remains on the premises.
emergency purposes, such as the transmission of
evacuation or warning messages, reference should
be made to BS 7443. Functional surveillance
(see 1.3.34) is normally necessary.
38 BSI 11-1998
These Regulations, as amended by Maximum sound pressure levels that the different
SIs 1958/1530; 1965/285; 1976/1315; and 1982/1856 formats require are as given in Table 3.
(not consolidated) have the effect that provided Table 3 Maximum sound pressure levels for
automatic control of projectors (ACOP) is Dolby formats
provided against the untoward occurrence of certain
Dolby format Maximum sound pressure level
events, staff are permitted to be absent from the dBC
projection room for specified maximum periods of
Stereo A type 91
time.
SR 93
The following are the events referred to.
SR.D 103
a) If the film breaks, the projector speed falls
below half the intended rate, or the screen Crest factors of some waveforms may require a
illuminant fails, then power is removed from the further power margin of 3 to 9 dBC. Maximum
lamp and from the projector motor and an alarm sound pressure levels are shown in Figure 5.
is sounded. This protection permits absence of not
5.19.4 Stereophony in the cinema
more than 15 min;
b) If, in addition, smoke or fire detection is also In the arrangement most frequently used today,
provided in the projection box, absence without three loudspeakers are placed behind the perforated
limit is permitted. sound screen (Left, (L), Centre, (C), Right (R)) and
ambient or surround loudspeakers, all served by a
5.19.2 Electro-acoustic response single channel, are attached to the side and rear
If sound on film is to be reproduced through a sound walls of the cinema. These four channels are created
system intended also for other purposes, reference from the two carried on the film by the stereo
should be made to BS 5550-7.4.1 variable area (SVA) sound track by a matrix which
The B-chain of a motion-picture reproduction by combining L and R signals forms the C signal and
system extends from the input terminals of the also forms the surround signal. SVA provides a
main fader to the listening area of the room or direct replacement of the four magnetic tracks
auditorium. originally used by Cinemascope, and can be read
without the need of contact and consequent wear.
The electro-acoustic response at a given position is Noise reduction by proprietary
the sound pressure level expressed in decibels with compression-and-expansion techniques, is generally
respect to an arbitrary reference pressure. used (Dolby A, Dolby SR).
Determination of the response for an entire
listening area requires multiple measurements and The final mix of the sound track made during the
averaging as described in A.4 and A.5 of production process is balanced while listening by
BS 5550-7.4.1. means of the sound system to be used in its
exhibition. A coding matrix is then used to produce
5.19.3 Sound levels when showing films using the sound negative to be used to make show prints.
Dolby systems
Magnetic sound tracks are now found only on 70 mm
Dolby level is defined by the recorded level of film where they provide discrete signals for OL, IL,
specially made photographic or magnetic sound C, IR, OR and surround.
tracks recorded on motion picture film: 50 %
35 mm Dolby SRD (spectral recording digital)
modulation of variable area photographic
provides six discrete channels, Surround Left, L, C,
or 185 nWb/m respectively1).
R, Surround Right and Subwoofer, from a sound
Replay gain of the pre-amplifier is adjusted by track located between successive perforations and
playing. Dolby test films so that the specified parallel to the conventional photographic sound
indication is seen on the meter or array of LEDs on track. In this way a single inventory of prints can
the processor; output level to the power amplifiers is provide sound reproduction at the best quality for
then set by switch or variable control as appropriate which the individual cinema is equipped.
to provide adequate drive.
An internal signal generator providing Dolby level
should then be used, channel by channel, to set the
sound pressure level at specified locations in the
cinema at 85 dBC from any Dolby format.
1) Further
information can be obtained from Dolby Laboratories Inc., Interface Business Park, Binknoll Lane, Wooton Bassett,
Swindon SN4 8QL (telephone 01793 842100)
39
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BSI 11-1998
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 5 Sound from film maximum sound pressure levels, types A, SR and SR.D
5.19.5 Noise reduction and other processing 5.20 Design considerations for
systems auxiliary systems for auditoria
Proprietary noise reduction systems can be 5.20.1 Performance relay
incorporated in order to show films requiring their
use; the respective proprietors specify Also known as show relay, performance relay
measurements that the completed film sound involves the provision of a constant feed of the
system has to achieve if such films are to be performance via fixed microphones. This relay
optimally reproduced. should be available in every non-public space from
which it is not possible to hear the performance
Such systems include Dolby A, Dolby SVA, Dolby clearly. These microphones may also be used to
Stereo SR, Dolby Stereo SR.D2), THX and Kintek.
provide a feed to the induction loop for the hard of
hearing (AFILS) (see BS 7594), provided that the
signal is sufficiently free from reverberation and
unwanted noises.
In a multi-auditorium complex, relays of all
auditoria should be wired to all points. Selection can
either be accessible or restricted as required.
2) Further information can be obtained from Dolby Laboratories Inc., Interface Business Park, Binknoll Lane, Wooton Bassett,
Swindon SN4 8QL (telephone 01793 842100)
40 BSI 11-1998
Whilst such relays cannot be expected to be of first 2) in the amplitude domain, i.e. non-linearity
class quality, it is important that the sound is both distortion (see note);
clear and consistent in level. The use of an audio 3) in the time domain, i.e. reflections,
compressor is recommended. reverberation and echoes.
5.20.2 Paging NOTE While there is theoretically a relationship between the
values of harmonic and intermodulation distortion produced by a
The paging system should reach every space in the given non-linear amplitude characteristic, harmonic distortion
building including toilets, plant rooms, corridors, itself hardly affects intelligibility whereas intermodulation
stores and offices. It acts as the primary staff and distortion is often very destructive. It is therefore appropriate to
consider intermodulation distortion, rather than harmonic
artiste location system, public instruction system distortion, as the preferred measure of system linearity below the
and may act as the sound system for emergency onset of gross non-linearity (overload).
purposes (see BS 7443).
5.21.2 Estimation of intelligibility
Paging access points should be provided for the
The intelligibility of speech in a space can be
stage manager, and may be provided for the stage
estimated, using the theory of the Speech
door keeper, the main telephone switchboard, the
Transmission Index (STI), from the equation:
front of house manager and each rehearsal room.
The control circuits should ensure that the stage
manager has the ability to override any other user,
but indicate to the other user that an override has where
operated.
Great care is required in the design of the stage
managers circuits in a multi-auditorium complex
limited to the range of 15 dB and averaged over 14
where more than one stage manager may use the
values of modulation frequency F and the seven
system simultaneously. The design should be
octave-band centre frequencies f of the noise carrier
carried out in consultation with a stage manager
(see BS 6840-16), and
who has operational experience of this type of
building.
Each loudspeaker should be provided with a volume
control to regulate the sound level of the show relay, where
which does not affect the sound level of the paging m(Ff) is the modulation reduction factor at
signal. Where more than one show relay feed modulation frequency F and
appears at a loudspeaker a selection switch is octave-band centre frequency f;
necessary. This may be made either user-accessible,
or require a tool which is available only to selected T(f) is the reverberation time in the
staff. octave-band centred on frequency f,
for 60 dB decrease in level;
5.21 Intelligibility and its estimation NOTE Where the decay rate is not uniform, T(f) should be
based on the early decay characteristic.
and measurement
(f) is the signal-to-noise ratio in decibels in
5.21.1 The concept of intelligibility the octave band centred on frequency f.
In order for a listener to understand a speech
message, it has to: Methods of calculating T(f) and estimating (f) for a
given space and occupancy can be found in many
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a) be sufficiently loud in relation to any other

sounds present at the same time, i.e. it has to be text-books.
audible; 5.21.3 Measurement of intelligibility
b) be sufficiently free from distortion of all kinds, Only the STI approach allows the estimation of
i.e. it has to have clarity. intelligibility over the frequency range 125 Hz
Audibility depends not only on the relative sound to 8 kHz, even for a space and application which
pressure levels of the wanted and unwanted sounds, does not exist, and it can be used for on-site
but also on their spectral distribution and their measurements of intelligibility. Other methods of
variation with time. An intermittent unwanted measuring intelligibility on site exist and do not
sound may be more destructive of intelligibility than suffer from the same limitations as the STI and
a continuous sound. RASTI methods (see BS 6840-16). A survey of
methods of measurements is given in ISO TR 4870.
Clarity is affected by distortion of all kinds:
1) in the frequency domain, i.e. narrow or uneven
frequency response;

BSI 11-1998 41
Section 6. Installing the system
6.1 General It is of great importance that the mounting of

loudspeakers is done in a manner which minimizes
To reduce installation work to a minimum, as much
the risk of injury to anyone using the facility. The
as possible of the assembly and wiring of the
method of fixing should take into account the weight
equipment should be carried out in the factory. The
of the loudspeaker and the suitability of the surface
work to be done on site consists of: or structure to which it will be attached.
a) meeting structural requirements during Manufacturers and suppliers of loudspeakers can
building operations; often provide approved and tested supports for their
b) installing internal and external cabling and products.
wiring; The effects of influences such as corrosion of metal
c) installing the connectors for microphones and parts, metal fatigue, vibration and wilful
loudspeakers; interference should be considered and allowed for.
d) installing the amplifying and control Loudspeakers mounted out of doors are also subject
equipment and loudspeakers; to wind loading, which increases the stresses on the
mountings. Even where their use is not mandatory,
e) installing aerials and feeders (see BS 6330). consideration should be given to the use of
secondary safety mounting straps, chains or wires
6.2 Liaison with the System Designer capable of carrying the shock load of the
The System Designer is responsible for the loudspeaker if the main mounting were to fail
planning, design and specification of the system and (see 5.12.2). In the case of particularly heavy
is usually involved in commissioning and loudspeakers or unusual building structures, the
verification of system performance. The installer advice of a qualified structural engineer should be
should take care to ensure that: sought and taken.
a) the specification and requirements of the Where loudspeakers are mounted out of doors or in
System Designer are understood; humid or corrosive environments, additional
b) the necessary skills, personnel and equipment protection may be needed to prevent damage to the
to carry out the installation according to the loudspeaker housing or components. Outdoor
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
specification are available; mounted units, such as large horns, may need to be
protected against the ingress of nesting birds.
c) difficulties and problems related to the
installation, and which may affect the Loudspeakers mounted flush in ceilings should be
performance of the system or conformity with the fitted with rear covers for safety reasons and, where
specification, are referred to the System Designer appropriate, to maintain the fire rating of the
at the earliest possible stage, so that they may be ceiling.
resolved without compromising the progress of 6.3.3 Installation of equipment
the installation or the performance of the system. 6.3.3.1 Equipment should be installed at a late
stage in the project to minimize risk of damage and
6.3 Installing the equipment loss, and in any event not until the building work
6.3.1 Wiring and preferably the decoration work in the
It is often necessary to install wiring into ducts, immediate vicinity have been completed. It is
conduits and chases at an early stage of building essential to protect the equipment from dust and
construction. The ducts should be dried out before moisture until all construction and decoration work
wiring is begun. Care should be taken to protect is complete.
cable tails from damage and moisture ingress. 6.3.3.2 The equipment should be protected against
Surface wiring should be installed immediately unauthorized access or adjustment, and vandalism
prior to the final decoration. It is essential that all or theft.
cables are exactly as specified by the system 6.3.3.3 Amplifiers should be positioned so that there
designer. is no restriction to the free flow of air over cooling
6.3.2 Loudspeakers devices, and the accumulation of dust and rubbish is
minimized.
Loudspeakers should be installed at a late stage in
the project, consistent with the availability of
necessary access equipment, as is recommended
in 6.3.3.
42 BSI 11-1998
6.3.4 Microphones 6.3.6.5 Internal walls

Installation instructions should be explicit in terms Surface wiring should be taken through walls via
of mounting position and method and the aiming of insulated sleeves of adequate size. Sharp edges at
the microphone. If it is necessary to use different the cable entry and exit should be avoided, either by
types of microphone in one system, it should be clear bushing or by fitting the sleeve with its ends short of
where each type should be sited. Care should be the surface and rounding the plaster or other
taken that future attention to other equipment or surface material. Where the number of cables is so
fittings is unlikely to disturb the microphone. large as to render the use of a sleeve impracticable,
Where necessary, mountings should include safety a rectangular hole should be made and lined with
chains. fire resisting materials.
6.3.5 Power supplies 6.3.6.6 Floors
It is essential that the installation of any apparatus Similar considerations apply to holes in floors as for
and wiring connected to the electricity supply internal walls. The sleeve or lining should extend at
system conforms to BS 7671:1992. least 300 mm above floor level.
6.3.6 Circuits 6.3.6.7 Vertical ducts (risers)
6.3.6.1 Segregation of circuits In multiple-floor buildings, vertical ducts (risers)
Sound system cables should be regarded as are necessary. These should be continuous
segregation Class 2 (or Class 3 if part of a throughout the height of the building and their
fire/emergency alarm system), and should be number and position should be such as to allow
segregated from Class 1 (power) cables in convenient lateral distribution on each floor. In
accordance with BS 7671:1992. general, vertical ducts, chases, conduits, etc. should
be not more than 30 m apart. Provision for the
6.3.6.2 Overhead distribution systems
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
support of cables at frequent intervals is necessary.
The normal method of terminating overhead (See also BS 8313).
circuits is by various types of bracket fixed to the Where floor distribution boxes are required, they
wall, eaves or chimney, or by a wall spike. This should be located within or adjacent to the vertical
fixture should be fitted during building operations. ducts. It is essential that sound system cables are
The lead-in to the building should be made at a not run in lift wells (see BS 5655-1).
point conveniently near to the fixture for the It should be noted that very high air temperatures
overhead wires, having regard to the position of the may occur at the top of a long vertical duct.
apparatus. Precautions should be taken at outlets to limit the
Where overhead facilities are necessary initially, possibility of the spread of fire (see 12.5 of
alternative provision should be made for an BS 8313:1989).
underground lead-in at a later date. NOTE Attention is drawn to the appropriate Building
Regulations or Standards.
6.3.6.3 Underground distribution
6.3.6.8 Horizontal ducts
The lead-in from an underground distribution
system should be via a pipe or conduit through the A main horizontal duct linking with the vertical
outer wall of the building, linking up with the ducts is usually necessary at each floor level.
internal duct system. The pipe or conduit should be Horizontal ducts are required between the main
fitted during building operations and additional distribution points to the various rooms and within
precautions taken to prevent entry of gas. individual rooms. This can be achieved by using one
of the following:
6.3.6.4 Antenna (aerial)
a) ceiling void distribution provided by trays,
If an antenna lead-in is required, a length of rigid trunks or conduits above false ceilings;
plastics pipe should be fitted through the wall,
sloping downwards towards the outside to prevent b) floor distribution may be provided via
the entry of rain. It should be located as near as underfloor ducts or conduits, floor-chases, hollow
possible to the antenna, having regard to the detachable skirtings, wall grooves with
position of the apparatus. detachable covers, or in hollow ceilings of the
level below;
c) distribution within rooms where the most
convenient method of wiring is behind detachable
skirting-board or suitably designed mouldings.
BSI 11-1998
43
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6.3.7 Distribution and junction boxes 6.3.8 Assembly and mounting of apparatus
6.3.7.1 Location 6.3.8.1 General
Boxes should be fitted in dry, accessible and, All permanent equipment should be securely
wherever practicable, well-lit situations. Where a installed in such a manner as to ensure convenient
hinged cover is provided, the box should be located access at both back and front for maintenance.
so that the cover may be fully opened. Boxes fitted Entry by unauthorized persons should be guarded
in damp situations or in under-floor ducts or chases against and locks should be fitted where necessary.
should be of the waterproof pattern. If cables Where the equipment is provided with an additional
conforming to BS 6004 are used, boxes should be protective enclosure, it is important to ensure that:
labelled to indicate that they contain sound system a) the equipment is adequately ventilated to
cables and not power cables. prevent overheating or excessive cooling and
6.3.7.2 Wiring moisture condensation;
Large distribution boxes should provide separate b) there is some form of visual indication when
terminals for incoming and outgoing cables, with the equipment is working that is not obscured by
cross-connection or jumpering facilities. Cables the enclosure.
should normally be installed with tails of All controls of the pre-set type should be either
approximately 2.5 m. Wires should be left with mounted behind cover plates that can be removed
adequate slack and terminated on screw terminals. only with a tool or designed for adjustment only with
The ends of two conductors should not be placed on a tool, for example, a screwdriver. Alternatively
the same terminal unless the terminal is suitably such controls may be disabled electronically. The
designed for this purpose. Spare conductors that are operational controls required for normal use should
not wired to terminals should be left long enough to be as few as possible and of adequate strength to
reach any terminal. Slack should not be coiled, as withstand rough usage.
this may lead to an unacceptable temperature rise. 6.3.8.2 Simple installations
Preferably all cables should be identified as
appropriate by function and reference number, for For simple installations, equipment is generally not
example, loudspeaker cable 15. permanently fixed and all external connections are
made by means of flexible cables and connectors.
6.3.7.3 Identification
The connectors should be so positioned as to keep
Junction and distribution boxes should each be flexible cable lengths to a minimum and to avoid
identified by function and reference number on the causing obstructions.
outside of the box. A card should be fixed to the
6.3.8.3 Comprehensive installations
inside of the lid of each box, and details of the
cabling and terminals marked on it. Where a number of items of equipment are
permanently installed together they should be
6.3.7.4 Cables and wiring (external)
mounted in a cabinet or rack. The rack should be
Wires or cables run on external walls or buildings arranged to take panels of a uniform width. The
should preferably be not less than 3 m above ground method of mounting equipment in racks depends
level. Where a height of 3 m is unattainable, upon the quantity of apparatus to be mounted, the
adequate protection against accidental damage or need for ventilation and the accommodation
unauthorized interference should be provided. available, bearing in mind that operational controls
Cables crossing above private or public highways should be mounted at a height that can be reached
are subject to special height and other conveniently. Racks should be accommodated in a
requirements. designated area, enclosure or room. Cabling within
the rack should be neatly fixed and segregated, and
arranged to allow individual units to be removed for
examination, or accessed from the rear of the rack.
The external finish of the metalwork should be
durable. Switches or patching facilities should
where possible be provided to enable the
maintenance engineer to isolate any faulty section
of the equipment, so facilitating maintenance and
avoiding danger. These arrangements should
enable the equipment not being serviced to continue
in use.
44 BSI 11-1998
6.3.8.4 Accommodation of equipment Higher levels of interference, particularly that

Accommodation provided for all equipment, associated with thyristor control circuits used in
portable items and accessories, and its immediate lighting circuits, and small motors, or due to
surroundings should be kept clean, dry and at a exceptionally long cable runs, can be minimized by
moderate, equable temperature. It is essential that using a carefully balanced double pair (starquad)
manufacturers ratings are observed. cable.
Suitable provision should be made for the safe
storage of discs and tapes, portable equipment and
accessories, maintenance spares and special
components, and also for plans, drawings and
maintenance records.
6.4 System data

The installer should, in conjunction with the System
Designer, provide the details given in 7.3.
6.5 Microphone cables

Microphone cables carry very low-level signals that
are susceptible to electrical interference. To
minimize this it is essential that only twisted pairs
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
are used, screened with closely lapped or braided

copper wires and sheathed overall with plastics
material to prevent mechanical damage or electrical
interference arising from accidental contact with
metal objects. For suitable types see BS 4808. In
some cases cables with conductive plastics
screening can be used, which may be particularly
effective in reducing some forms of interference.
Flexible microphone cables should have low
handling noise characteristics. Microphone cables
should not be run close to mains or other high level
cables. Where microphone cables cross other cables,
this should be at right angles.

BSI 11-1998 45
Section 7. Commissioning the system
7.1 Installation audit f) Loudspeakers and associated equipment

should be checked as follows:
Procedures should be obtained from the System
Designer for verifying that design requirements 1) that the type and impedance are as
have been met in respect of the following specified;
parameters: 2) that the polarity (phasing) of the
a) location of equipment; connections at all points is correct;
b) power supply; 3) that the adjustment of controls and the
means (such as transformer tappings) for
c) connections between components of the system;
adjusting the power input are as specified;
d) cabling specifications for interconnection of
4) that the provision, connection and
wiring.
adjustment of separate cross-over networks or
equipment are as specified;
7.2 Equipment audit and testing of the
system 5) that the mounting and position are as
specified and provide the required coverage.
NOTE Methods for setting up the amplification equipment and See also 5.12.2
testing of the system for conformity with the minimum
acceptable operating performance should be specified by the 7.2.3 Subjective testing
System Designer.
7.2.3.1 The installation should be configured in its
7.2.1 Procedures most comprehensive mode, i.e. with all microphones
Procedures should be agreed between the System capable of operation, and all auxiliary sources (disc
Designer and the persons responsible for players, tape recorders, etc.) connected. Any other
commissioning the system to verify that design equipment (such as heating, ventilating and
requirements have been met. air-conditioning equipment) which might adversely
7.2.2 Visual inspection affect the effectiveness of the system should also be
in operation.
The following visual checks should be made.
7.2.3.2 A functional test should be carried out to
a) The general standard of workmanship should
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
check that the system operates satisfactorily from
be checked, paying particular attention to the all microphones and all auxiliary sources.
security of fixings and the neatness and quality of
7.2.3.3 Tests for intelligibility and general sound
cable terminations.
quality, together with freedom from reverberation
b) Microphones should be checked as follows: and interference, should be carried out by persons
1) that the type and impedance are as with normal hearing (see BS 5330). The extent of
specified; this testing is subject to agreement between the
2) that the mounting and the positioning are as system designer, contractor and the purchaser.
specified and provide the required coverage; Where more than one configuration is available
3) that the installation is as specified and the each different layout should be checked as follows:
adjustment of radio microphone receivers and a) that the microphone position and aiming are in
antennas has been correctly carried out. accordance with installation instructions;
c) Recorded and broadcast programme sources for b) that the signal from each microphone is as
example, radio tuner, cassette player, compact specified for level and freedom from interference
disc player, should be checked for: and avoidable reverberation;
1) compatibility of interface signal levels; c) that the signal at the mixer output is as
2) correct installation; specified for level and subjective quality;
3) provision of efficient antennas d) that the coverage and sound quality of the
(see BS 6330). loudspeakers is as specified.
d) Tone signal sources should be checked for:
1) compatibility of interface signal levels;
2) correct installation.
e) Amplification equipment should be checked
for:
1) adjustment of input controls;
2) adjustment of output controls (if any);
3) adjustment of frequency response controls.
46 BSI 11-1998
7.2.4 Electronic and electroacoustics testing 7.4 Verification of the performance of

Electronic and electroacoustics testing should be the completed system
carried out to diagnose and correct any fault found Tests of the completed installation to verify that the
during the testing in accordance with 7.2.2. These system performs satisfactorily should be specified in
tests should also be carried out to verify any the contract and cover:
objective performance requirements, for example
sound pressure levels, included in the systems a) objective tests;
specification. It is a matter of judgement in each b) subjective checks using persons with normal
case whether the cost of this testing is justified if the hearing.
subjective tests do not disclose any apparent When the subjective checks do not provide
problems. However, it may be necessary to check confirmation of the objective tests, the System
every cable in the system for correct transmission Designer should be held responsible for identifying
and termination. Automatic test equipment can all essential measures necessary to overcome the
reduce test times considerably. unacceptable areas. The contract should, therefore,
The electronic and electroacoustics tests require include adequate provisions for properly defining
specialized skills and equipment. Lists of the System Designers responsibility for the
consultants may be obtained from PLASA and ISCE preparation of remedial proposals and their
(see annex E). implementation.
7.3 Completion of the installation

When the installation is completed, the following
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information should be supplied to the client in the

quantities agreed:
a) operation instructions for the system as a
whole;
b) drawings indicating the position of the various
items of equipment;
c) diagrams showing the routeing of all cables and
wires together with their sizes, junction boxes
and distribution cases;
d) drawings showing the electrical
interconnections of the various items of
equipment;
e) manufacturers operation and maintenance
handbooks for the various items of equipment,
together with the equipment type and serial
numbers;
f) a schedule of recommended spare parts;
g) certificates of conformity with any relevant
standards, such as BS 7443 or statutory
requirements.

BSI 11-1998 47
Section 8. Operation and maintenance of the system
8.1 Provision of information for 8.3 Training operators and staff

management personnel Those responsible for the administration of facilities
Management and supervisory staff (such as the with a sound system should appoint and arrange
caretaker) of an auditorium, hall or other facility training for a member of staff to be responsible for
need to be informed that a sound system is the routine testing of all associated equipment. This
available. The management may change from time member should establish and maintain contact with
to time, so the information needs to be made the service personnel of the supplier, so as to
available for each successor. It is important that arrange for the repair of faulty equipment. It is
this information is in a permanent form and should recommended that the name of the member of staff
be mounted in the box office, an office adjacent to appointed to this responsibility and the telephone
the area of use, or other location where it will be number of the servicing personnel should be clearly
readily and easily visible. displayed in a suitable place.
The notice should cover the following points:
8.4 Training of announcers
a) that a sound system is installed;
Training of announcers may be necessary to ensure
b) the cable routeing for the system and the
that speech is clearly understood. Common faults
position of all input and output connectors for
include:
microphones and loudspeakers);
speaking too quickly;
c) how to use the system (see 8.2).
slurring of consonants.
8.2 The operating technician or Strong regional accents may be difficult to
operator understand, especially by foreigners. Special
training may be desirable where announcements
The operating technician or operator (who may be a
are made in a foreign language.
non-technical person) should have the benefit of a
permanent notice fixed close to the control points. Suitable training can be provided by staff at a school
of dramatic art or by professional elocutionists.
This information should be supplied in a permanent
form, on the principle that the person(s) who is
8.5 Guidance for microphone users
involved with the system installation are unlikely to
be there permanently. The instruction manual (other than announcers)
provided by the installer is vulnerable to loss or Some users of the microphone(s) may not be trained
destruction and, therefore, consideration should be personnel and basic instructions should be given. It
given to providing more than one copy when the should be possible to attach simple directions to the
system is procured. microphone. For example; speak here adjacent to
If possible, operating instructions should be in the capsule, or press to speak close to the switch.
terms that can be understood by all levels of staff. If
practicable, the instructions should be printed on a 8.6 Routine testing and preventive
card which is readily accessible, for instance fixed maintenance
adjacent to the equipment. An example is given 8.6.1 Daily/prior to use
in annex F.
Routine testing and preventive maintenance is
The operator should be provided with indicators, for
normally carried out by the system operator on a
example lights or meters, to show: daily/prior to use basis or other specified frequency
a) when the mains power is switched on; as follows.
b) if a signal is present at the output of the power a) Check that the amplifier ventilation holes are
amplifier; clear and no unauthorized articles are stacked on
c) if a signal is present at the output of the mixer. it.
All but the simplest systems should include level b) Check mains and loudspeaker leads (where
metering for all channels. Preferably, metering accessible) for damage, fraying or incorrect
should have quasi-peak measuring characteristics. location which could affect safety.
c) Check microphone and other signal cables.
Flexible leads should not be allowed to become
tangled or kinked, and terminating plugs and
sockets should be treated with care. Worn or
damaged leads and plugs should be replaced
without delay.
48
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BSI 11-1998
d) Test the system. 8.8 Provision for spares

8.6.2 Monthly The main considerations for spares provisioning
Monthly maintenance should comprise the are:
following actions. a) expected failure rate;
a) clean dust and grime from the system b) acceptable probability of being out of stock;
equipment; c) repair turn-around time;
b) clean connectors, for example jack plugs, to d) cost of each spare;
remove dirt and grease;
e) standardization on parts;
c) test discharge rechargeable (secondary)
batteries using appropriate test equipment to f) lead time on ordering (linked to items b) and c)).
verify that their rated capacity is being In practice most operators normally keep only those
maintained. spares needed for regular maintenance of the
8.6.3 Six-monthly or annually equipment, for example cleaning equipment, fuses
and perhaps enough supplies to repair broken leads.
Check and remake as necessary all leads that are
Specialized internal electronic components are not
heavily used (or abused) to improve reliability.
normally required by the operator, these being
NOTE Leads with moulded plugs can fail with little or no supplied by technicians or the manufacturer.
warning, as their internal condition cannot be accurately
assessed. Equipment exported to foreign countries is subject
to different requirements, for example technicians
8.7 Maintenance should have sufficient basic knowledge and
8.7.1 Corrective maintenance knowledge of the particular system to be able to deal
with any fault and should be supported by a
Corrective maintenance should be carried out if the comprehensive stock of spares.
preventative maintenance routines indicate a
malfunction, or if one occurs during normal use. 8.9 Personnel considerations
Some installation contractors offer maintenance
contracts. Third-party maintenance or maintenance The maintainability of a sound system is influenced
insurance schemes should be approached with by the following aspects:
caution, and expert advice sought before a) the number of in-house staff trained to
commitment. maintain the system equipment. This needs to be
On a simple level, corrective maintenance can take reviewed regularly to allow the early training of
the form of operator replacement of easily replacement staff where necessary;
diagnosable malfunctioning components, for b) the skill level of in-house staff;
example a fuse or microphone. At a deeper c) the adequacy of training given by the installer
diagnostic level, a technician is required, and or manufacturer.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
depending on his expertise/knowledge/training on

the particular system and how much 8.10 Maintenance manuals
manufacturers information is available (usually in
the form of a maintenance manual), he should be Field reliability and maintainability depend to a
able to investigate the malfunction more large degree on the maintenance instructions
thoroughly. The technician should carry relevant available, and apart from any manufacturers
spares or have rapid access to them. training that may be provided, a maintenance
manual should be available.
8.7.2 Workshop maintenance
To maximize its usefullness to the technician or
The equipment should be returned to the supplier operator, the manual should be complete, accurate
when fault conditions exist which cannot be solved and contain no unnecessary theory. Its main use is
by in-house, local or field technicians. This reflects as a diagnostic tool and it should outline in logical
to a large extent how much information the sequence all tests necessary to identify the cause of
manufacturer has supplied in the form of a a fault (usually by a process of elimination). The
maintenance manual. Workshop maintenance format of the manual may vary from a simple card,
should be avoided if possible because equipment designed to be kept in close proximity to the
down time is longer and cost is higher. A deeper equipment, to a large manual of one or more
diagnostic capability is available at the volumes, in one or more languages.
manufacturer, together with full system
information.

BSI 11-1998 49
Wherever possible the layout of the manual should NOTE 1 Generally different instructions will be required for
permit the location of diagrams and tables, etc. three different levels of maintenance to cover the
qualifications of the allocated staff involved, i.e. operator,
opposite or adjacent to the relevant text for ease of technician (in-house), workshop technician.
reference. f) the list of test equipment required for each level
The manual should cover the following aspects: of maintenance;
a) a description of the system installed together g) a detailed breakdown of supporting spares
with a detailed breakdown of the major recommended for each level of maintenance;
component parts, i.e. microphone type, amplifier h) permitted modifications;
type, and manufacturer, etc. Details of power
supply requirements should also be included; i) safety hazards and precautions applicable for
each level of maintenance;
b) a schematic layout of the system installation,
identifying the position of the system wiring, j) the procedure for amendment of the manual to
microphone(s), junction boxes, amplifier and any reflect any permanent changes of equipment
other equipment. The layout should, if required, items or servicing procedures.
be detachable from the main manual to permit its NOTE 2 The provision of a manual does not automatically
guarantee the correct diagnosis and repair of defects, as the skill
location near to the system equipment if of the operator/technician also affects the likelihood of success.
required;
c) the method of operation of the system and its 8.11 Recording of technical
components. A copy of the operating instructions information
mounted on card may also be of value for display
A layout for the recording of technical information
and use by operating staff;
should be provided, to permit the documentation of
d) instructions for the reporting of system failure all actions carried out on the installed system and
when corrective maintenance by in-house staff its component parts. It should provide for:
does not rectify the situation (in-house reporting
procedures should be detailed by the user a) preventive maintenance inspection
requirements and their completion;
management);
b) fault identification and subsequent
e) preventive and corrective maintenance
rectification;
requirements;
c) modifications or other changes to the system.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
50 BSI 11-1998
Section 9. Equipment
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9.1 General considerations c) architectural constraints relating to the

acoustics of the space and any limitation it
9.1.1 Reliability
imposes on the system, for example extended
There is more to reliability than choosing correctly reverberation time, presence of echoes, curved
rated equipment from the manufacturers literature surfaces and aesthetic conditions;
and installing it according to the manufacturers d) environmental conditions relating to any
instructions. In practice, the most widely used (and matter which would affect the operation or
most accurate) indicator is the manufacturers track performance requirements of the loudspeaker, for
record. With certain types of equipment the best example high noise levels, high temperature and
way of ensuring reliability is de-rating. In either humidity, atmospheric pollution and hazardous
case, there is likely to be a cost penalty. The conditions.
designer has to be capable of explaining to the
purchaser why the lowest initial cost may not be in Unfortunately, the necessary technical information
his best interests. Good design also has to take into is not available, or is unreliable, for many
account that air conditioning fails more often than loudspeakers at present on the market. A short-list
amplifiers and that temperatures in equipment of relevant characteristics and references to
rooms do sometimes rise to above 35 C in summer. standard methods of measurement is therefore
given in annex G, and manufacturers are
9.1.2 Maintainability encouraged to provide at least this minimum of
This can be judged by examination of the equipment reliable data.
itself, construction, layout, use of non-standard 9.2.2 Characterization of loudspeakers
components, etc., but the manufacturers guarantee
of spares after a model ceases production is of great 9.2.2.1 Loudspeakers may be characterized by the
importance. Without such a guarantee, equipment following:
that cannot be maintained by a competent engineer a) directionality;
using readily available components should not be b) sensitivity;
considered. In some cases, equipment which is not c) frequency response;
considered to be maintainable, either for cost or
availability reasons, may be specified for d) power handling;
non-critical applications. In this case, it is essential e) impedance;
that the situation is clearly explained to the f) distortion;
purchaser. g) size.
9.2 Loudspeakers 9.2.2.2 There can be no hard and fast rules with
regard to the selection of the loudspeaker as there
9.2.1 General may be a large number of factors to be considered.
It is essential for successful sound system design The following are, however, some basic guidelines.
that the right type of loudspeaker is chosen. A a) As the reverberation time of the space
proper choice takes into account not only the increases, the loudspeaker is generally required
characteristics of the loudspeaker (sensitivity, to be more directional, so as to reduce the acoustic
maximum sound pressure level, axial and power radiated into the reverberant space.
directional frequency responses and directivity
b) If high ambient noise levels are encountered or
index), but also the acoustic characteristics of the
if high sound levels are required, then the
environment in which it is to be used.
loudspeakers need to be more directional, more
The choice of loudspeakers is influenced by the sensitive and more powerful. This inevitably
following: means larger size.
a) functional requirements relating to the c) If improved system quality is required, this
required sound pressure level and the implies wider, flatter frequency response and
programme content, for example speech, music lower distortion. This generally necessitates a
with extended bass; reduction in sensitivity.
b) operational requirements relating to the use to
which the system will be put, for example hotel
paging system, performance system or
emergency evacuation system;

BSI 11-1998 51
9.2.2.3 The directional properties of most types of Small cabinet loudspeakers are suitable for music,
loudspeaker are very much a function of frequency, speech, and paging systems in areas where the
and comparisons between different products should floor-to-ceiling height is typically 4 m or less. The
take this into account. The variation in useful coverage is normally restricted to a cone
directionality should also be taken into account at of 60 to 90 apex angle.
the design stage. Loudspeakers can be divided into 9.2.3.2 Ceiling loudspeakers
eight types, with different directional
characteristics; Ceiling loudspeakers consist of a moving-coil direct
radiator unit (preferably mounted in a closed-back
a) constant-directivity devices, normally large
enclosure) designed for mounting in a ceiling. A
horns (see 9.2.3.5); device may be incorporated which is intended to
b) column devices relying on wave interference widen the directional response pattern. This is a
for their means of operation, which means that particularly important characteristic at high
their directional properties may be very frequencies (above 3 kHz), in determining the
frequency dependent (see 9.2.3.3); number of loudspeakers required to cover an area
c) re-entrant or folded horn devices which are evenly with good intelligibility. The use of ceiling
directional but where directionality is frequency loudspeakers with open-backed enclosures is often
dependent (see 9.2.3.6); unsatisfactory, due to the excitation of
d) straight, circular or rectangular horn devices reverberation in the ceiling void. Some of the
(see 9.2.3.4); available ceiling loudspeakers are unsatisfactory in
other ways, for example, frequency response. These
e) bi-directional devices, based on the use of the loudspeakers are used for low-level sound
radiation from both sides of a diaphragm or a pair reinforcement or distribution.
of diaphragms (see 9.2.3.11);
Recessed ceiling loudspeakers may be used in areas
NOTE Such devices may be of the horn-loaded or
direct-radiator types. with ceiling heights up to 5 m to 6 m. The coverage
from a ceiling-mounted loudspeaker is generally
f) cabinet loudspeakers (see 9.2.3.1), which have
an identifiable front and which radiate middle less than from a wall-mounted cabinet, because the
and high frequencies mainly into the front throw is limited by the ceiling height. When
calculating the area covered by a ceiling
hemisphere;
loudspeaker, the height of the listeners ears above
g) omnidirectional loudspeakers, which usually floor level should be taken into account. A high
employ a circular cone drive unit with its axis density ceiling loudspeaker installation can form
vertical; for example, ceiling loudspeakers the basis of a high quality sound reinforcement
(see 9.2.3.2). Although described as system with very uniform coverage. When designing
omnidirectional, the directional response in the a high quality sound reinforcement system, the
vertical plane is often more nearly a hemisphere, coverage angle at 4 kHz should be used; typically,
although more truly omnidirectional devices are this is 60 for a 200 mm cone loudspeaker.
available;
9.2.3.3 Column or line-source loudspeakers
h) resonant pipe enclosures (see 9.2.3.10).
Column or line-source loudspeakers consist of a
9.2.3 Types of loudspeaker and their uses series of moving-coil direct radiator units arranged
9.2.3.1 Cabinet loudspeakers in a linear array in an enclosure. There may be a
The term cabinet loudspeaker refers to one or more complementary array of high-frequency units in the
moving-coil direct radiator units mounted in an same enclosure. The rear of the enclosure may be
enclosure. Small types are used for low-level sound rigid, or may consist of a porous structure acting as
reinforcement or distribution. Larger types, which an acoustic phase-shift network, tending to
may incorporate horn-loaded midrange and/or high minimize the amount of rear radiation. Such an
frequency units, are used for music reproduction, for array, set up with the long axis vertical, can have a
example, in discotheques, and in other high-level broad directional response pattern in the horizontal
systems in small auditoria. Another variant is the plane 90 to 120 apex angle and a narrow
bass bin, which, as the name implies, contains one pattern 15 to 20 apex angle in the vertical plane.
or more large direct radiator units designed for However, designing to achieve these characteristics
low-frequency reproduction only, the higher is far from simple, and many examples fall short of
frequencies being supplied by other, often expectations. Nevertheless, column loudspeakers
horn-loaded, radiators (see 9.2.3.4 to 9.2.3.11). can provide an economical solution for low and high
level systems in auditoria, and outdoors if
naturalness of reproduction is required without
high sound pressure levels.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
52 BSI 11-1998
It is also possible to use the line-source principle 9.2.3.5 Constant-directivity (CD) horns
with horn-loaded compression driver units. Such The loudspeaker employs one or more compression
assemblies can provide very high sound pressure drivers connected to horns of arcane shape, which
levels over a wide area hundreds of metres from the are claimed (in some cases, with justification) to give
source. exceptionally wide and/or frequency invariant
It is essential to orient the column loudspeakers directional response patterns. In some designs, the
correctly so that the beams of sound produced are angles of distribution in orthogonal planes may
directed at the listeners. Normally, column differ, so that the product may be specified for
loudspeakers should not be mounted flat against a example as a 90 40 CD horn. They are used in
wall but should be provided with suitable angle high-level systems, both indoors and out.
brackets allowing correct alignment. By directing CD horns are becoming increasingly popular in high
the axis of each column loudspeaker towards the quality sound systems applications, or where high
centre of the area to be covered, a fairly uniform sound pressure levels are required. Their many
coverage is obtained as the nearer listeners are advantages over re-entrant or other horn types
located out of the main beam of sound which extends include the following.
towards the rear of the area. When using repeater
columns, for example, in long churches, the repeater a) They are extremely sensitive, typically
units should be located within 12 m to 15 m of the exhibiting a 1 W/1 m sensitivity of around 113 dB
primary or any other supplementary loudspeakers, SPL for a 60 40 horn;
unless signal delay lines are employed. b) They can provide extremely uniform coverage
as they exhibit a reasonably constant directivity
9.2.3.4 Straight, circular or rectangular
with frequency, for example within 10 over
exponential horns
their operational range of 500 Hz to 16 kHz plus,
The loudspeaker consists of a moving-coil for a well designed large-format device;
compression driver (or more than one) attached to a
c) They exhibit considerably lower distortion
horn flare of circular cross-section, which may
characteristics than a re-entrant horn;
transform to rectangular towards the mouth. This
type is capable of high sensitivity and high sound d) They provide a very much smoother and
pressure levels, but unless very large has limited uniform frequency response. CD horns may be
low frequency response. The high frequency used for high quality sound systems in theatres
response is also more or less uneven and restricted, and concert halls as well as large stadia or
but this is usually tolerable. The directional pattern reverberant exhibition halls. A CD horn usually
is narrow, but depends strongly on frequency. At operates over the range 500 Hz to 15 kHz plus (or
high sound pressure levels, amplitude non-linearity from 800 Hz for the small types). An associated
is usually evident, but can be prevented from low frequency loudspeaker is therefore required
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
compromising intelligibility by good design and to form a complete system operating from well
attention to the spectral distribution (frequency below 100 Hz, for example 50 Hz, to over 15 kHz.
response) of the applied signal. Straight horns are A cross-over unit is therefore employed to block
typically used for high level sound reinforcement low frequencies being fed to the horn and high
and distribution outdoors. Derivative types also frequencies to the bass driver. The cross-over
exist, such as units equipped with two horns facing may either be active or passive, depending on the
in opposite directions, which are used where this particular application and system configuration
bi-directional distribution is thought to be required, desired;
for example, on railway station platforms e) The controlled dispersion of a CD horn ensures
(see 9.2.3.11). Another derivative type has a that high frequency beaming and hot spots do
basically square mouth divided into two rows of not occur, but instead a uniform distribution of
more or less square sections, and the name sound is created at all frequencies within the
multicellular is applied to this as well as to the working range of the horn. The controlled
rather different types described in 9.2.3.7 radiation of the CD horn also enables it to work
and 9.2.3.8. well in acoustically difficult and reverberant
spaces, allowing the sound to be directed onto the
absorbing audience or congregation and away
from the reflective room surfaces.
BSI 11-1998
53
9.2.3.6 Concentric folded or re-entrant horns 9.2.3.9 Folded horn cabinets

The inconvenient length of a straight exponential Folded horn cabinets should be distinguished from
horn is reduced by folding the axis. This results in the more modest (and less costly) cabinet type
loss of bandwidth and uniformity of frequency described in 9.2.3.1. They consist of one or more
response and, often, an increase in amplitude horn-loaded drivers mounted in an enclosure. The
non-linearity which should be taken into account at low-frequency driver is horn-loaded by structures
the design stage. Even so, such products can be very forming part of the enclosure (designs differing
effective, especially for systems mounted on widely in detail), while mid-range and
vehicles, and can also be used for speech-only high-frequency drivers are provided with discrete or
reinforcement and distribution in noisy situations integral horn flares. Such systems are used for very
both indoors and outdoors. They are often used for high level reinforcement in large auditoria and
emergency sound systems. Extreme restriction of stadia, and have higher sensitivities than
the spectral distribution of the applied signal, so as direct-radiator types.
to follow broadly the measured frequency response Both two-way and three-way designs are available
of the loudspeaker, is very advantageous in in a range of sizes, power handling capabilities,
reducing distortion and making best use of the frequency ranges, and dispersion patterns. Power
output capability of the amplifier. ratings range from around 100 W to 400 W. Some
NOTE Restriction of the frequency response, as described models employ dedicated control units, which may
above, is in a sense the opposite of equalization (see 9.8), so in incorporate equalization filters, cross-overs, and
this case equalization should not be employed to widen the
system bandwidth. However, equalization may be employed with signal limiters to avoid potential loudspeaker
advantage, within the effective frequency range of the overloads.
loudspeakers, in order to combat irregularities in the frequency
response. These loudspeakers may either be portable,
Re-entrant horn loudspeakers have a restricted transportable, or permanently installed. Weather
frequency response and are used mainly for speech. resistant models are also available for outdoor use.
They are more efficient than either the cabinet or The loudspeakers may be used in almost any high
column loudspeaker and are therefore suitable for quality sound system for both speech and music
use in areas with high background noise levels, purposes, where highly uniform or directional
large enclosed areas, and outdoors. The coverage control across a wide frequency range, for example
angles of horn loudspeakers vary considerably but from 500 Hz upwards, is not required. They
typically are between 40 and 80. therefore find application in clubs, discotheques,
theatres, auditoria, assembly halls, and leisure
9.2.3.7 Radial horns centres. Care needs to be exercised, however, when
A radial horn loudspeaker has the moving-coil employing them in reverberant spaces, for example,
driver(s) attached to a horn flare which is of concert halls. Their directional characteristics
constant dimension in one direction but flares in the generally make them less suitable for use in highly
perpendicular direction. Various advantages, which reverberant spaces, unless located close to the
include ease of manufacture, are claimed for this listener or arrayed to provide additional directional
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
principle, and such units are typically used in high control.

level reinforcement and distribution systems. The 9.2.3.10 Resonant pipe enclosures
directional response pattern in the plane
perpendicular to the parallel faces of the horn flare Resonant pipe enclosures have recently enjoyed
tends to be broad, but may degenerate into several some popularity. A large drive unit is mounted
narrow lobes at high frequencies, due to wave approximately one-third the way along a circular
interference effects across the mouth of the horn. tube. Such a device can offer high sensitivity and
This effect can be reduced by dividing the mouth high sound pressure levels over a restricted range of
into a number of sections. low frequencies, provided that the drive conditions
are carefully adjusted. The manufacturer normally
9.2.3.8 Multicellular horns provides full information on this. Such products are
In most cases, and particularly in describing used in large auditoria and stadia.
American products, the term multicellular horn is
applied to horns which have a rectangular mouth
aperture of large aspect ratio, divided into two or
more cells by partitions. Claims are made for the
width and uniformity of the directional response
pattern of these devices, which are used in
high-level systems.
54 BSI 11-1998
9.2.3.11 Bi-directional enclosures and horns 9.3 Loudspeaker volume controls and
Bi-directional and wedge loudspeakers may either override circuits
be directly mounted on a wall or ceiling, or 9.3.1 Volume controls
suspended below a high ceiling by a chain or wire.
The loudspeaker produces two cones of sound (60 9.3.1.1 It is often convenient or necessary to be able
to 90). Directly under the loudspeaker, a dead spot, to control locally the sound level produced by one or
where the sound pressure level is very low at some a group of loudspeakers. This technique should be
frequencies, can occur. used with care, however, as it can make the system
difficult to operate, and the volume controls may be
9.2.4 Measurement and specification of adjusted by unauthorized persons.
loudspeaker characteristics
In particular, it is essential that a volume control is
Loudspeakers should be measured and their not sited where a person adjusting it cannot
technical specifications presented in accordance properly hear the loudspeaker(s) it controls.
with BS 6840-5. See also annex G.
Loudspeaker volume controls are basically of two
Measurement of large enclosures and horns in an types, resistive and transformer. Resistive types can
anechoic chamber may be impracticable due to the further be divided into continuously-variable and
limited number of very large chambers and the high switched types. The use of a simple variable series
cost of using them. Open air measurements are resistor is not recommended, because this may lead
more practicable than is generally realized.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to noticeable distortion at low volume levels.
9.2.5 Performance 9.3.1.2 A continuously-variable resistive control
Objective measurements on loudspeakers are of may be a simple potentiometer (of adequate power
irreplaceable value, but have limitations. The rating) or a special type with two resistive elements,
evaluation of results requires special knowledge and forming a variable L-network. Such controls result
experience in order to determine their subjective in some power loss and some impedance
significance. mis-matching, which may result in changes in
frequency response. This is most noticeable with
Major irregularities in the frequency response
loudspeakers having large magnet systems and
characteristics, both on axis and off axis, should not
two-way (woofer/tweeter) and multi-way systems
occur. Large variations of the input impedance as a
function of frequency should also be avoided, having simple dividing (crossover) networks. If used
especially reductions below the rated value, since with loudspeakers having inexpensive magnet
systems, an increase in distortion may occur at low
these increase line losses and may affect the system
volume levels. This effect is due to non-linearity of
frequency response.
the driver system and can be reduced by adding a
The relative significance of the various fixed resistor so as to prevent the volume being
characteristics listed in annex G depend on the reduced too far, and adding a switch to the control if
particular application of the loudspeaker, and it is required to be able to silence the loudspeaker(s).
cannot be generalized. In addition, or as an alternative, measures should
It is essential that objective measurements of be taken to reduce the level of signals below the
loudspeakers are supplemented by listening tests main (bass) resonance frequency of the loudspeaker,
(see BS 6840-13), under as near practical operating which produce little useful sound output.
conditions as possible. The relative importance of The resistance of the potentiometer should normally
naturalness, intelligibility, high sound pressure be four times the rated impedance of the
level and high sensitivity vary with the application, loudspeaker reflected through the line transformer
and positive decisions on these should be made if the attenuator is in the primary circuit. This gives
before the tests are conducted, so as to provide a a power loss of just under 1 dB at maximum setting,
firm base for the measurements. and a maximum source resistance (at 6 dB
Loudspeakers are affected by the acoustic attenuation) equal to the rated impedance. The
environment and peaks in their response coupled effects of this value of source resistance on
with the room acoustic characteristics can cause distortion are usually negligible, but changes in the
acoustic feedback in sound reinforcement systems. frequency response of multi-way systems may be
Correct selection, placement, and equalization of very significant, in which case a transformer-type
the loudspeakers is essential. control should be used (see 9.3.1.4).
BSI 11-1998
55
9.3.1.3 Switched resistive controls can be based on The relay power supply should be tolerant of brief
the same circuit configurations as short-circuits (such as may happen during
continuously-variable controls, but it is also possible maintenance), and the technique mentioned above
to use more complex configurations which cause less can help to achieve this. The continuous
power loss and less impedance mis-matching. short-circuit current should be limited to a value
Switched controls should normally have steps of which does not damage the power-supply or cables.
approximately 3 dB (2 : 1 power ratio); smaller steps Failure of the power supply should cause an
have little audible effect. indication at the control point.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9.3.1.4 Transformer controls may employ a tapped Another technique which may be employed is a
auto transformer or line transformer. In the latter three-conductor system, in which the earthy ends of
case, the secondary winding should be tapped. the volume controls (of the resistive type, but the
While generally larger and more expensive than technique is not applicable to volume controls using
resistive controls, transformer controls give less auto-transformers or tapped line transformers) are
power loss and better impedance matching, with all connected to a return conductor separate from
less chance of distortion at low volume levels. that to which the earthy ends of the loudspeaker
voice-coils or the line-transformer primary windings
9.3.2 Override circuits are connected (see Figure 6). The separate return
Where local volume controls are provided, it may be conductor is then connected to the earthy output
necessary to be able to override these from a remote terminal of the amplifier via the contacts of a
point. This is often achieved by providing each switch, or the normally-open contacts of a single
volume control with a relay which switches the relay which is de-energized in the override mode.
attenuation to a lower value or to minimum. It should be noted that each loudspeaker is thus
It is recommended that such systems should use a connected in series with part of the volume control,
fail-safe mode of operation, whereby the presence and does not operate at true full volume. An
of a control current is necessary for the volume improvement may be obtained if, instead of simply
control to function. In this way, failure of the control disconnecting the volume control return line from
voltage disables the volume controls. the amplifier earthy output terminal, it is connected
instead, by means of a changeover switch, or contact
In order to reduce the standing current required to
set on the relay, to the live output terminal. This
energise the relays, the control voltage may be
reduces the resistance in series with each
applied through a parallel resistor-capacitor circuit,
loudspeaker, but cannot eliminate it completely.
so designed that a large current is available to pull
The use of attenuators of less than four times the
the relay in, while a smaller current, sufficient to
(reflected) resistance of the loudspeakers entails
hold the relay, flows continuously. With suitable
greater power loss but reduces the residual series
relays, a reduction of standing current to 25 % of
resistance.
pull-in current is possible. This technique may be
applied individually to each relay, or to groups, or to
all of them.
Figure 6 Diagram showing the floating-return technique for disabling local

loudspeaker attenuators in an emergency
56 BSI 11-1998
9.4 Headphones and headsets 9.5 Power or final amplifiers

9.4.1 Types of headphones It is difficult to give any general advice about the
A classification of headphone types is given in choice of amplifier for a particular application,
BS EN 60268-7. A headset is a headphone equipped beyond advising that it is generally false economy to
with a microphone. specify an amplifier with too small a value of rated
output voltage or power. The operation of such an
9.4.2 Specification of headphones amplifier in clipping conditions results in audible
A comprehensive list of characteristics which should distortion and also alters the spectral distribution of
be specified is given in BS EN 60268-7, and a energy in the signal, which is likely to result in
short-list of minimum length, which all damage to high-frequency drivers in the
manufacturers should find practical to use, is given loudspeaker systems. However, the over-generous
in annex H. provision of amplifier power may cause problems
9.4.3 Applications of headphones and safety with damage to low-frequency drivers, so that either
considerations a judicious choice of amplifier should be made or
protective devices included in the loudspeaker
Headphones are used: systems. It should be noted that many amplifiers
a) to allow private listening, for example by a can deliver much more than their rated output
sound system operator, without disturbing other powers for short time intervals, and information
people; should be provided by the manufacturers on this. A
b) to pass information, for example cues, to an list of characteristics that should be specified for
operator or performer. Different signals may be amplifiers is given in BS 6840-3, which may be
presented to the two ears for this purpose; considered too long for convenience. A basic list is
given in annex J, whose use should be practicable
For the safe use of headphones, precautions should
for all manufacturers.
be taken to avoid possible exposure of the user to
excessive sound pressure levels from the following: The signal presented to the power amplifier is
normally at a level of 1 V (+ 2.2 dBu)
1) acoustic shock, i.e. impulsive noise due to
(see BS 6840-5) or 0.775 V (0 dBu) (see 1.3.19). The
operational or fault conditions.
input should normally be balanced where a
NOTE The limiting value of sound pressure level permitted substantial distance separates the pre-amplifier (or
for telephone equipment by BS 6317 is 118 dB (20 Pa).
control unit/mixer) from its power amplifier.
2) long-term exposure. Attention is drawn to the Alternatively unbalanced inputs may be used where
Noise at Work Regulations 1989 [1] which apply the distance/cable run is short.
to all persons at work. The matching
arrangements given in BS EN 61938 should be Amplifier outputs may be designed either to match
observed in order to control maximum sound low impedance loads (to suit 2 to 8
levels. loudspeakers), or to be suitable for voltage line
operation (see 1.3.20).The majority of systems
It is also desirable to ensure that the user is employ voltage line operation to reduce line losses
protected from injury caused by falling over the and for ease of connection, each loudspeaker being
connecting lead or having the headphones wrenched simply connected to the transmission line in a
off due to someone else falling over the lead or the parallel arrangement via its individual tapped
user walking away from the equipment to which the matching transformer.
headphones are connected. The use of cordless
headphones may be appropriate in some cases. Power amplifiers should be protected against open
or short-circuiting of the amplifier output terminals
and thermal overload.
When calculating the amplifier power
requirements, consideration should be given to the
peak-to-mean ratio of the amplitudes (see 9.6) of the
input signals, together with an allowance for cable
losses (see 9.16.1).
Where a number of power amplifiers are located
together, care should be taken to ensure that the
mains or stand-by power supply can adequately
cope with the initial switch-on surge. It is common
practice in large installations to employ an
automatic sequential switch-on, thereby limiting
the inrush current requirements.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BSI 11-1998
57
9.6 Pre-amplifiers 9.7 Automatic gain control (AGC),

The pre-amplifier (control unit or mixer) amplifies compression, limiting, noise grating
low-level signals and combines or selects them as and voice control
required before power amplification takes place. 9.7.1 It is necessary to distinguish carefully between
Pre-amplifiers may have inputs for either these rather similar techniques, because incorrect
microphone level or line level. Tone control or basic application can have serious consequences. For this
equalization facilities may be incorporated, as reason, the following descriptions amplify and
either user-operated or pre-set controls. clarify the treatment in BS 6840-8.
The pre-amplifier may also incorporate a AGC is a technique which automatically controls
compressor/limiter stage and/or automatic gain the gain of an amplifier so that the output voltage
control to help maintain a more constant signal remains practically constant even though the input
level, compensating for different voice levels. voltage varies (above a certain threshold value). To
Compression reduces the peak-to-mean ratio of be effective, the system should have a fast attack
speech and so can be used to reduce the headroom time, of the order of 100 ms, with a peak detector.
requirements of the power amplifier loading. A The release time should be much longer, of the order
compression ratio of 2 for example reduces the of several seconds. An AGC unit as a separate item
peak-to-mean ratio by 6 dB, for example, from 10 dB of equipment can be referred to as a leveller.
to 12 dB to 4 dB to 6 dB, whereas a compression Compression is a technique which changes the gain
ratio of 3 is equivalent to a 9 dB reduction. of an amplifier (above a certain threshold input
Compressors/limiters may either be incorporated voltage) from a constant value to a value
into each pre-amplifier input or alternatively a proportional to a fractional power, for example, the
single unit may be connected between the out-put of square root, of the input voltage. The attack time
the pre-amplifier and the input to the power may be short enough to follow the rectified signal
amplifier. waveform approximately, for example 50 ms, while
Each microphone or system input should be capable the release time is normally much longer, up to a
of being individually controlled. Microphone inputs few seconds.
should ideally be provided with tone controls or Limiting is a fast-acting technique, in which the
equalization facilities which are separate from those peaks of the output voltage are removed. This may
for music or other auxilliary inputs. In live sound result in much distortion, but there are techniques
reinforcement applications, it is generally not which produce reasonably acceptable amounts of
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
possible to pre-set the input level controls as the distortion, for example soft clipping.
gain required depends on the voice level of the
Noise gating is a technique which considerably
person speaking and the additional acoustic
reduces the amplifier gain (perhaps slowly) when
damping provided by the audience. In reverberant
the input signal falls below a threshold level for
rooms with little natural sound absorption by carpet
several seconds.
or acoustically absorbent finishes, the audience can
significantly affect the degree of gain available Voice control is a technique which holds the
before feedback. Outputs for recording or feeds to amplifier gain at a low value until a signal
other areas services, for example, simultaneous exceeding a threshold level is received, when the
interpretation systems or AFILS, may also be gain is rapidly increased to a preset value.
required. Wherever possible, a sound reinforcement NOTE The technique is also often described as automatic
system should be controlled by a trained operator. microphone mixing or automatic microphone control.
Paging and announcement systems where the 9.7.2 AGC is useful in microphone amplifiers, to
microphone is not in the same acoustic space as the compensate for quiet or distant talkers, while
loudspeakers can be pre-set, though some compression or limiting may be used to reduce the
compensation for different voice levels may be peak-to-mean ratio of programme signals so as to
required. The use of either an automatic gain reduce amplifier demands. This should not be
control (AGC) or compressor is however preferable. carried too far. A peak-to-mean ratio of about 9 dB
should be preserved, in order to prevent speech
sounding too strident.
9.7.3 Noise grating is useful if acoustic noise is
relayed by the system at a level which is annoying
in the absence of wanted signals. Voice-control is
useful in that it enables some systems to operate
satisfactorily without the need for an operator to
switch microphones on and off.
58 BSI 11-1998
9.8 Equalizers 9.9 Power supplies

All sound reinforcement systems should be properly 9.9.1 A.C. mains
equalized in order to obtain a smooth response, All mains operated sound system equipment should
natural-sounding reproduction, and optimal gain be designed for use on standard 240 V,
before feedback. A one-third octave band equalizer single-phase, 50 Hz mains (see note) or for the local
should be used in preference to the less electricity supply, if different. The equipment
discriminating octave band type. In certain cases, should continue to operate satisfactorily with a
control may, with advantage, be divided among even variation of mains supply of 10 % of the normal
narrower bands, especially at low frequencies. The voltage and 1 % of the normal frequency. If the
equalizer controls should be disabled or rendered mains voltage is likely to vary by more than 10 %,
tamper proof once the system has been it may be necessary to add a voltage-regulating
commissioned. device.
The equalizer is used to help compensate both for NOTE Attention is drawn to the change in the UK from 240 V
deficiencies or irregularities in the response of the + 10
to 230 V 6 in 1995 and the further change to 230 V 10 %
system loudspeakers and/or the acoustic
in 2003.
characteristics of the space that they are serving.
9.9.2 Batteries
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The response of most horn loudspeakers for example
begins to roll off above 3 kHz to 4 kHz whilst the Where it is essential that operation of the sound
response of many cone loudspeakers begins to roll system continues in the event of a mains failure, or
off above 5 kHz or 6 kHz; the equalizer may be used where a mains supply is not available, rechargeable
to extend and flatten the response of the batteries are normally used. These can either drive
loudspeakers. the equipment directly, or by means of a convertor
In difficult acoustic environments, for example, designed to provide an a.c. mains supply from the
those with long reverberation times and/or high batteries.
ambient noise levels, the equalizer is used to shape NOTE For preferred voltages and voltage ranges,
the spectrum of the broadcast sound either to help see BS EN 61938.
reduce reverberant excitation or to accentuate the Care should be taken to house batteries correctly.
frequencies most important to intelligibility, For acid-filled batteries, adequate ventilation
i.e. 1 kHz to 5 kHz. However, a system limited to should be provided, and, to avoid the risk of
this bandwidth could not be satisfactory (see 5.3 contamination by battery acid or fumes, such
and Figure 4). batteries should not be housed with other
equipment.
Where differing types of loudspeakers are employed,
or where a number of acoustically different areas While the a.c. mains supply is present, the batteries
are served by the system, a number of equalizer may be trickle-charged from circuitry within the
channels may be required. In addition, care should amplifier or from a dedicated battery charging
be taken with the routeing of such signals, as the system.
equalization filter curve set for one type of 9.9.3 Power supply for control circuits
loudspeaker may not be suitable for another.
Where relays or integrated circuits are fitted for
Furthermore, the curve set for a reverberant hangar
remote control facilities, they should be operated
or noisy workshop is unlikely to be suitable for office
from a low voltage supply, below 24 V r.m.s.
areas for other less reverberant spaces. In large
or 34 V d.c. (See BS EN 60065).
systems, several equalizers and level controllers
may be required as each difficult area should ideally 9.9.4 Mains supply cables and connections
be individually treated. It is essential that cables carrying mains supply
voltages conform to BS 7671. Cables conforming to
BS 6004 and BS 6500 are generally suitable for
these purposes. Fire resistant cables conforming to
BS 7211 are needed in many installations. For
hazardous conditions, it may be necessary to specify
armoured or metal-clad cables conforming to
BS 6207 or BS 6346.
BSI 11-1998
59
Large installations should preferably be served 9.10.1.3 Type of generating element

from a separate sub-circuit reserved for the sound The two most widely used types of microphone
system. The equipment supply mains should be element are the dynamic (moving coil) and the
terminated either at a switched two-pole and electret.
earthing-contact socket outlet suitable for a fused
plug, or at a switch-and-fuse (which may be a a) Dynamic microphones are generally extremely
switched spur outlet or an isolator) of adequate robust and offer a wide range of performance
capacity to meet the ultimate load, located near the characteristics which are little influenced by
point at which the equipment (or power plant temperature and humidity, making them
serving the control equipment) will be installed. potentially suitable for both indoor and outdoor
use. Good quality moving coil microphones are
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Switched socket-outlets (for use with inspection able to offer a wide frequency response but this
lamps, test gear, soldering irons, etc.) should be may be deliberately tailored to a particular
provided for maintenance use in the equipment characteristic to aid intelligibility, for example by
room and also at the control positions. These outlets applying low frequency cut-off.
should not be connected through the
switch-and-fuse supplying the main sound system. b) Electret microphones are capable of providing
a very smooth and extended frequency response
9.10 Microphones at a higher output level than the dynamic type.
They do, however, require their own external
9.10.1 Types of microphone power supply to operate and are generally not as
9.10.1.1 General robust as the dynamic microphone, but their
higher sensitivity enables very small electret
A wide variety of microphone types and
capsules to be made which can be employed in a
characteristics are available. They may be classed
number of special types of microphone. Some
by their directional response, type of generating
models have an internal battery, but are best
element and physical characteristics.
avoided in professional installations due to their
If a microphone is placed very close to a loud source continual maintenance requirements. They are
of sound, it may be necessary to include an however, very convenient for portable use.
attenuator between the microphone and the
9.10.1.4 Physical characteristics
pre-amplifier, in order to prevent the latter being
overloaded. Such attenuators need careful design to 9.10.1.4.1 Lavalier microphones are small, usually
preserve the correct impedances and circuit balance dynamic, with an omni-directional response,
(see annex K for further information). designed for speech pick-up from lecturers, etc. and
are fitted with a neck cord, to be worn by the person
9.10.1.2 Directional responses
speaking.
Microphones of the following types are available.
9.10.1.4.2 Tie-clip microphones are small and
a) Omni-directional microphones pick up sound lightweight, usually electret, which may be clipped
equally from all directions, and should therefore to the clothing of the person speaking by a clip or
not be used when discrimination is required lapel badge. These are generally omni-directional
against either reverberant sound pick-up or but uni-directional types are available.
unwanted sound or noise pick-up;
9.10.1.4.3 Boundary-layer (pressure zone)
b) Directional microphones do not pick up sound microphones are based on a small, usually electret,
equally from all directions. They may therefore be capsule fitted onto a special mounting plate. They
used in situations where it is desirable or are most useful for recording purposes or sound
necessary to discriminate against sounds pick-up of more than one person. The form and
arriving from a particular direction or to reduce mounting arrangement can substantially reduce the
reverberant sound pick-up (see 9.10.2). reverberant sound pick-up of conventional
NOTE Although the term unidirectional is used in microphones.
describing microphones, no practicable microphone can really
be described in this way, over the whole audio frequency 9.10.1.4.4 Noise-cancelling microphones are used in
range. See, for example, Figure 10 to Figure 12. high noise environments. These microphones are
Idealized directional responses of omnidirectional highly insensitive to indirect sound pick-up and
microphones and a selection of directional require a close speaking distance. Generally, the
microphones are shown in Figure 7 to Figure 13. frequency response is limited, and optimized for
The properties of the hypercardioid and speech.
supercardioid responses are explained in 9.10.2.
60 BSI 11-1998
9.10.1.4.5 Radio microphones may be in the form of The further a microphone is located away from the
either a small tie clip and pocket transmitter or an sound source, the weaker the wanted signal
all-in-one hand-held or stand-mounted unit. They becomes. This effectively reduces the signal-to-noise
require a separate receiver unit tuned to the ratio and also reduces the direct-to-reverberant
microphone transmission frequency, but allow sound pressure level ratio. In order to maintain an
freedom of movement. They should not be used acceptable direct-to-reverberant signal ratio, the
where a secure transmission is required. maximum microphone distance should be limited to
9.10.2 Distance between the microphone and approximately 6 m to 10 m, even in quiet auditoria
the source of sound with trained speakers and assuming a microphone
having a cardioid directional response. The use of a
When a microphone is used very close to the sound highly directional shotgun microphone can extend
source, be that orator or singer, there is a bass the range up to 15 m for sound effects only. The
frequency increase (proximity effect) which may or effects of reverberation, however, are additive to
may not be desirable. Close talking or singing into a noise, and tend to reduce the distance still further.
microphone increases the chances of the explosive For effective speech intelligibility, a
phona (such as Ps or Ss) producing a popping direct-to-reverberant ratio of greater than 0 dB is
effect. Careful choice of microphone can help in necessary. For hearing impaired listeners, a
reducing the adverse effect and a certain amount of direct-to-reverberant sound pressure level ratio of
equalization may also be beneficial specific to each at least + 4 dB to + 6 dB is usually required, but this
user. A trained operator is usually required under is highly dependent upon a number of factors
such circumstances if a poor or mediocre result is to including size, shape, volume and reverberation
be avoided. time of the room, and the characteristics of any
It is not possible to give numerical design reflecting surfaces. The only rule that can be
procedures for determining the maximum reliably given is that the microphone should be
permissible distance between a microphone and the located as close as possible to the wanted sound
wanted source of sound. Two primary factors should source. For example in an auditorium with a volume
be jointly taken into account, i.e. general noise and of 3 000 m3 and a reverberation time of 1.5 s, the
room reverberation. maximum acceptable distance with two cardioid
microphones operating may be as little as 4 m
to 5 m.
The direct-to-reverberant sound pressure level ratio
K should be calculated from the following equation:
( QV ) -
K = 10 1g ----------------------------------
2
314D ( RT )
where
Q is the directivity index of the microphone;
V is the volume of room (in m3);
D is the distance between sound source and
the microphone (in m);
RT is the reverberation time of the room (in s).
NOTE Except for large auditoria and places of worship, the
reverberation time of most rooms is likely to be between 1 s
and 2 s.
It should be realized that the above equation
assumes a diffuse, statistical sound field to exist and
does not take into account the effects of local
reflections, or non-exponential sound decay within
the room. However, the equation can be used to
obtain an initial estimate of the likely maximum
usable microphone distances. The ratio K is
decreased by a factor of 3 dB each time the number
of microphones in operation is doubled. For
example, using two microphones instead of one
reduces the direct-to-reverberant sound pressure
level ratio by 3 dB.
BSI 11-1998
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
61
Since the expression for K includes the directivity Figure 14 shows the relative distances from the
index Q of the microphone, the directional source of sound at which different types of
characteristic of the microphone affects the distance microphone can be operated, for a given
from the source of sound at which a given direct-to-reverberant sound pressure level ratio. It
direct-to-reverberant sound pressure level ratio is is important to minimize the actual distance in all
achieved. The directional characteristics (somewhat cases, but with a minimum distance of
idealized) of some common types of microphone are approximately 300 mm, below which breath noise,
shown in Figure 7 to Figure 13. The hypercardioid coloration and large variations in signal level with
characteristic gives the minimum relative random small changes in distance can lead to degradation of
energy efficiency of all simple microphones, while intelligibility. Figure 15 to Figure 18 show typical
the supercardioid characteristic gives the maximum examples of good and bad microphone siting. The 3
ratio of front to random energy efficiency. It should to 1 rule is an empirical rule which indicates that
be noted that the directional characteristics of the separation between microphones should not be
highly-directional interference-tube (shotgun or less than 3 times the distance of the microphones
rifle) microphones vary considerably with frequency from the sound source (see Figure 15 and Figure 16).
(see Figure 11 to Figure 13) and they may therefore Figure 19 shows that the sound wave reflected from
pick up considerable low-frequency reverberation. a desk top can interfere with the direct sound. This
This can be reduced by the careful use of effect can cause considerable uneveness in the
equalization (see 9.8). frequency response above 1 kHz, which can be
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A type of microphone which has low sensitivity to minimized by positioning the microphone at
reverberant sound is the boundary-layer least 150 mm above the surface. It can be helpful to
(pressure-zone) microphone, in which the cover the part of the desk top around the
microphone capsule is mounted very close to a plane microphone with a layer of soft material, preferably
reflecting surface, supplied as part of the at least 25 mm thick.
microphone. These microphones are designed to be 9.10.3 Electrical characteristics
placed in contact with a large flat surface, and owe
The output from a microphone is generally of the
their reduced sensitivity to reverberation to the
order of a few millivolts. A pre-amplifier with a
confinement (by the large flat surface) of the considerable degree of gain is therefore necessary,
directional response in three dimensions to typically 60 dB to 70 dB. Particular care should be
half-space, instead of the full-space which applies to
taken to ensure that microphone circuits are not
other types of microphone. The basic directional
subjected to either RF or other forms of electrical
characteristic of the microphone capsule may be
interference.
omni-directional, in which case the
three-dimensional directional characteristic is a Microphone circuits should be low impedance and
hemisphere, or a cardioid, giving a balanced, cables should be segregated from other
three-dimensional pattern in the form of a services, by at least 300 mm or by the use of
half-cardioid of revolution. dedicated and compartmentalized trunkings or
conduits.
In small to medium sized meeting rooms, a
boundary-layer microphone located centrally at the 9.10.4 Microphone mountings
meeting table may often prove more effective than When mounting microphones on lecterns or table
four or five simultaneously operating cardioid table tops, consideration should be given to the use of
microphones, as a more uniform and less coloured shock/vibration isolating mounts to reduce
sound pick-up will occur. However, the maximum unwanted noise or vibration pick-up.
distance over which such a device may effectively
operate under such circumstances is likely to be
only approximately 3 m. At larger distances than
this, a greater number of local microphones may
need to be employed, to improve the
direct-to-reverberant sound-pressure level ratio,
with the absolute minimum number of microphones
being in operation at any given time.
62 BSI 11-1998
9.11 Reproduction from analogue disk

records
9.11.1 Properties and care of analogue disk
records
Analogue audio disk records are progressively being
superseded by digital compact discs. Analogue disks
are subject to wear and subsequent reduction in
performance and may need to be replaced after
prolonged use. However, because some programme
material is available only on analogue disks, it may
be necessary to provide an analogue disk playing
unit. The surfaces of analogue disks should be kept
as clean as possible and disks should therefore be
handled only by their edges. Proprietary anti-static
cleaners are effective and should be used. Disks
should be stored at a moderate temperature, in a
dry atmosphere and they should be well protected
from dust. To prevent warping disks should be
stored vertically in compartments holding
approximately 10 to 20 disks. (See also section 8).
Figure 7 Horizontal directional response of an omnidirectional microphone with its

axis vertical: decibel scale
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BSI 11-1998
63
Figure 8 Directional response of a cardioid microphone: decibel scale
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64 BSI 11-1998
Figure 9 Directional response of a hypercardioid microphone: decibel scale
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BSI 11-1998
65
Figure 10 Directional response of a supercardioid microphone: decibel scale
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66 BSI 11-1998
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 11 Directional response of a highly directional shotgun (rifle) microphone

where f = 250 Hz and barrel length is 275 mm

BSI 11-1998 67

where f = 2.5 kHz and barrel length is 275 mm
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Copyright

where f = 10 kHz and barrel length is 275 mm
69
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BSI 11-1998
Figure 14 Relative operating distances of microphones for equal direct-to-reverberant

signal ratios
Figure 15 Two methods for positioning microphones on a conference table. The top
view observes the 3 to 1 rule using cardioid microphones. The bottom view shows
alternative placement using two omnidirectional microphones
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
70 BSI 11-1998
Figure 16 The 3-to-1 ratio for microphone

positioning Figure 17 A reduced distance ratio using
angled microphones
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Figure 18 Illustrations of good and bad microphone placement
BSI 11-1998
71
Figure 19 Optimization of the height of the microphone above the table

9.11.2 Analogue record disk playing units c) the recommended load impedance and
A disk record playing unit should preferably be a equalization network if required, including any
fixture. If it is portable, it should be provided with a precautions, for example maximum capacitance;
substantial vibration-free table on which it can be d) the recommended stylus force;
set up level. The connecting leads should be kept e) the stylus material;
short, to minimize the possibility of picking up hum
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
f) channel separation expressed in decibels at one
or other electrical noise. A lid to exclude dust and a or more frequencies.
means of removing dust should be provided.
Turntable speeds of 33 1/3 r/min and 45 r/min 9.12 Reproduction from compact disc
should be provided. Twin turntables are essential if
continuity of programme is desired; groove locators
digital records
and instant start facilities may also be 9.12.1 Properties and care of compact discs
advantageous (see BS 7063). (CDs)
9.11.3 Pick-up arm CDs are superior to analogue disk records with
The pick-up arm should be compatible with the respect to background noise, distortion, wow and
cartridge with which it is to be used. It should be flutter and wear-resistance. Track and cue selection
fitted with a calibrated stylus force adjustment and is rapid and precise. They are robust but require
provided with a bias compensation device if some care in storage and handling. It should be
necessary. noted that the active side is the reverse of the
printed side, and therefore it is this unprinted side
9.11.4 Cartridges to which attention should be paid in terms of surface
A professional type cartridge fitted with a diamond dirt, liquids, scratches, etc. Dirt or scratches may
stylus should be used. cause playing problems, so discs should be replaced
Where accurate selection of a particular track or cue in their protective boxes after use.
on a disk is required, a cartridge with an easily 9.12.2 Compact disc playing units
visible cue-mark or stylus tip should be chosen. The The differences in sound quality among CD players
cartridge may also need to be suitable for are small but the facilities available and ease of use
back-cueing (reverse rotation of the disk). vary considerably. Features to be considered
The following information should be supplied with (see BS EN 60908) include:
the cartridge: a) single (see note) or multi-disc loading;
a) a frequency response curve measured in b) track selection by direct access key pad
accordance with BS 7063; (see note);
b) the output voltage measured in accordance c) one or two search speeds;
with BS 7063;
72 BSI 11-1998
d) selection of coded index point during play 9.13.2 Analogue tape recorders
(see note); When speech or music is to be recorded on tape for
e) simultaneous display of track number and subsequent reproduction, a tape recorder is
elapsed time; required. In some equipment, the same magnetic
f) display of index number (see note); head is used both for recording and playing back,
g) display of elapsed playing time on the disc but advantage can be obtained by having separate
(see note); heads. The recording can then be monitored as it is
being made, by playback from the tape itself.
h) display of remaining time on the disc;
9.13.3 Open reel-to-reel systems
i) display of remaining time of the current track;
The standard speeds of reel-to-reel systems
j) calendar style display showing total number of
are 38.1 cm/s, 19.05 cm/s, 9.53 cm/s and 4.76 cm/s.
tracks and which have been programmed;
In general, the higher the tape speed, the better the
k) inclusion of track in programme more than possible high frequency response and
once; signal-to-noise ratio, and the effect of flutter is
l) review of programme contents before and reduced. The higher speeds are used for high quality
during play; music reproduction and the lower speeds for
m) additions to programme content during play; background music and speech. The playing time
obtainable depends upon the diameter of the tape
n) play of tracks in random order; spool that the machine can accommodate, the length
o) automatic sampling of short section of each and thickness of the tape, the tape speed, and the
track before programming; number of tracks that the tape can accommodate.
p) favourite track selection, that is recognition of The 19 cm spool holds 380 m of standard (6.25 mm)
the disc so that earlier programming of tracks tape (see BS EN 60094-1) and will play for 0.5 h per
will be repeated on subsequent playing; side at 19.05 cm/s with tape of normal thickness.
q) programming to omit specific tracks; Much longer playing times are possible with the
thinner tapes that are now available, and by the use
r) continuous repeat play between any two points of multiple tracks, the latter requiring special
on the disc (see note); machines.
s) digital output; Continuous playing of music can be provided from
t) search for maximum peak level; machines capable of handling long lengths of tape,
u) pitch adjustment; with an automatic reversing mechanism.
v) range of facilities on remote control (see note). 9.13.4 Cartridge systems
NOTE The features marked are those which are normally These are endless loop tape systems, totally
required as a minimum.
enclosed and requiring special playing equipment.
There are several different systems in use.
9.13 Reproduction from tape systems
9.13.5 Cassettes
9.13.1 Properties of tape recordings
Cassettes conforming to BS EN 60094-7 are
Tape recordings can conveniently provide long convenient for the occasional reproduction of
playing times and can have a long life without recorded information but for the continuous
significant deterioration of performance. They are reproduction of background music a special player is
reasonably robust and are not easily damaged by necessary. Cassette systems have the advantage
accidental mishandling during transport and that recording equipment is widely available.
storage. Playing times up to 1.5 h per side can be achieved
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Magnetic tape should always be kept well away though not all equipment is suitable for the thinner
from any apparatus likely to produce magnetic tapes used in C120 and C180 cassettes. Endless loop
fields, such as power transformers, loudspeakers, cassettes are also available, but playing times are
electric motors or fluorescent lighting. restricted to typically 6 min.
9.13.6 Digital cassette systems
Digital cassette systems can provide sound quality
comparable with that of a compact disc, with the
added advantage of easy direct recording on site.
Information on the DAT (digital audio tape) cassette
can be found in BS EN 61119 and BS 7851.
BSI 11-1998
73
9.13.7 Information which should be supplied 9.14.2 Most currently available systems store the
by the manufacturer messages in digital form. The audio signal is
The following information should be supplied with sampled at a frequency rather more than twice the
tape systems (for analogue systems, see BS 6288-2, highest audio frequency required to be stored, and
BS 6288-3, BS 6288-6, BS 6288-8 and BS 6288-9, the samples are digitized and stored in that form.
and for digital systems (DAT), see BS EN 61119: The resolution (the number of bits used for the
digitization) controls the signal-to-noise ratio. For
a) frequency response data using a stated example, an 8-bit system gives a signal-to-noise
standard test tape at stated speed(s); ratio of approximately 20 log 28 = 48 dB. The data
b) harmonic distortion data using the tape rate is the product of the sampling frequency and
recommended by the equipment manufacturer the resolution. For example, a system having a
run at the same speed as in a); maximum stored frequency of 6 kHz could use a
c) the rated output voltage when using the sampling frequency of 14 kHz, and for 8 bit
recommended tape and speed as in b); resolution the data rate would be 8 14 = 112 b/s.
d) the rated load impedance; For digital systems, volatile storage is provided by
e) the number and position of tracks; random access memory (RAM) devices, while
permanent storage is provided by read-only memory
f) cross-talk between channels; (ROM) devices. Re-programmable memory is
g) input sensitivity and impedance; available in the form of erasable-programmable
h) the signal-to-noise ratio; read-only memory devices (EPROM), which are
erasable (either by ultra-violet radiation
i) recommended types of tape.
(UVEPROM) or electrically (EEPROM) and
9.14 Solid-state storage and recovery reprogrammable in a fixture separate from the
equipment in which they are used. Flash EPROMs
of speech signals and EEPROMs can be re-programmed in situ RAM
9.14.1 It is possible to use solid-state devices can provide non-volatile storage if provided
(semiconductor) storage devices to store speech with a permanent power supply (battery back-up),
signals, which may be recovered and reproduced and have the advantage that the stored information
many thousands of times without damage to the can be easily and quickly changed. It is also possible
stored information and with high reliability. Where to store digitized speech on magnetic or
a series of messages is stored, the time required to magneto-optical disks.
locate and recover a particular message is much 9.14.3 Solid-state devices which can store speech
shorter (for example, less than 1 ms) than for signals in, effectively, analogue form are now
storage using a magnetic medium. available.
The cost of solid-state storage naturally depends on 9.14.4 The following information should be supplied
the amount of storage required, which in turn is by the manufacturer with the system:
affected by:
a) type of storage device;
a) the total duration of all the speech signals to be
b) frequency response;
stored;
c) signal-to-noise ratio;
b) the highest audio frequency to be stored;
d) storage time;
c) the quality required of the reproduced signal,
usually expressed initially as signal-to-noise e) sampling frequency;
ratio. f) resolution;
Solid-state storage can be economically justified, in g) output source impedance;
various applications, for storage capacities from a h) source emf;
few seconds to a few hours. The storage may be
i) rated load impedance;
volatile, so that when the equipment is switched
off, the stored signals are lost, or non-volatile, j) nature of output (floating, balanced or
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where the signals are retained, in permanent unbalanced);

(unalterable) form, or alterable form. In the latter k) auxiliary equipment required for
case, alteration may require re-programming of the reprogramming (if any);
storage devices, or it may be possible to change the l) power supply requirements.
stored information while the system is in operation,
in which case the storage device may require a If the user can record messages, the following
permanent power supply such as a long-life battery. additional information should be supplied:
1) rated source emf;
74 BSI 11-1998
2) rated source impedance; For an installation where all the loudspeakers are
3) input impedance; located near to their respective amplifiers, and
when the loudspeakers have similar rated
4) nature of input (floating, balanced or
impedances and are required reproduce similar
unbalanced).
output levels, it is reasonable to connect them
directly to the output of an amplifier designed to
9.15 Radio and television sound tuners match a low value of rated load impedance, for
9.15.1 Radio tuners example 4 . However, the loop resistance of the
These should cover the low-frequency (LF), wiring should be sufficiently low for the voltage loss
medium-frequency (MF), and very high-frequency to be not more than 10 %. For the purposes of
(VHF) broadcasting bands, in order to offer calculating this resistance, impedances can be
reception of all UK domestic sound broadcast regarded as resistive.
programmes. It is important that adequate For voltage-line systems, it is recommended that the
antennas are installed (see BS 6330). Preferably, cross-sectional area of the conductors should be so
pre-set tuning, with the tuning information stored chosen that, with the full loudspeaker load
in non-volatile memory, should be provided. Twelve connected, the calculated line voltage loss at the
or even more presets may be required for the VHF extremities of the line wiring should not normally be
band alone, to avoid the need for occasional more than 10 %. For the purposes of calculating line
re-tuning. voltage, impedances of loudspeakers can be
9.15.2 Television sound tuners regarded as resistive and the effects of frequency
and cable capacitance normally ignored. For long
The recommendations given in 9.15.1, with the cable runs, however, the effect of the extra load on
exception of band coverage, apply. Continuous the amplifier due to cable capacitance should be
coverage of ultra high-frequency (UHF) bands IV taken into account.
and V should be provided. Facilities for the
The cross-sectional area of the conductors should be
reception of super high-frequency (SHF) signals
chosen to conform to the above recommendations
should be provided, if required.
and the cable construction chosen to provide
NOTE The term television sound tuner includes tuners which
also receive vision signals.
adequate mechanical strength and resistance to
damage.
9.16 Cables PVC-insulated (non-armoured) cables conforming to
NOTE For safety considerations, see 5.12.
BS 6004 are suitable for use in underground ducts
or conduits.
9.16.1 Loudspeaker cables
9.16.2 Record playing unit signal cables
The pairs of conductors for carrying the amplifier
outputs to the loudspeakers should be twisted if For units without a pre-amplifier (head amplifier),
they are to be installed close to other cables. This is these cables carry very low voltage signals that are
essential if these cables unavoidably run near usually electrically unbalanced. Extremely good
microphone or other low-level signal cables which screening is required, and the total capacitance of
should be screened. the cable may be critical in obtaining the correct
frequency response. Cable lengths greater than 1 m
Conductor insulation should be coded to enable
should be avoided. Separately screened connections
connection to each loudspeaker to be made in the
should be used for the two stereo channels.
correct polarity. Where a sound system is likely to
be used for emergency communication purposes, the 9.16.3 Line-level signal cables
cable should have additional protection, for example Line-level cables carry signals in the order of 1 V
steel conduit, or be of a fire and damage resistant and are normally fed from a low-impedance source,
type, for example LSOH (see BS 7211) or, MICS and feed a load impedance of 600 to 10 k. Both
(see BS 6207). (See also BS 7443). balanced and unbalanced modes may be used, but
for cable runs of approximately 5 m or more,
balanced operation should be seriously considered.
Cables should be screened and those for balanced
circuits should have twisted wires.
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BSI 11-1998
75
9.16.4 Signalling and remote control cables 9.16.6 Identification and documentation
All signalling and remote control systems should All cables forming part of a sound system
operate at low voltage not exceeding 24 V r.m.s. installation should be uniquely identified with a
or 34 V d.c. Suitable cables including multi-core cable code, and a record should be kept of all cables
types are specified in BS 4808. Conductor sizes listing cable code, type, source and destination and
should be chosen to prevent unacceptable voltage circuit(s) carried by that cable.
losses on long cable runs.
9.16.5 Antenna (aerial) systems
Recommendations for the installation of suitable
antenna (aerial) systems are given in BS 6330.
Cables suitable for use at radio frequency are
described in BS 2316.
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Copyright
Section 10 BS 6259:1997
Section 10. Special considerations for sound systems

for emergency purposes
It is not possible to give a full treatment of the BS 5839, Fire detection and alarm systems for
special considerations necessary for sound systems buildings.
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for emergency purposes and, therefore, reference BS 5839-1:1988, Code of practice for system design,
should be made to the following British Standards installation and servicing.
where they are applicable.
BS 5839-4:1988, Specification for control and
BS 5588, Fire precautions in the design and indicating equipment.
construction of buildings.
BS 7443:1991, Specification for sound systems for
BS 5588-2:1985, Code of practice for shops (A.4.3). emergency purposes.
BS 5588-3:1983, Code of practice for office BS 7827:1996, Code of practice for designing,
buildings A.4.3). specifying, maintaining and operating emergency
BS 5588-6:1991, Code of practice for places of sound systems at sports venues.
assembly (24.1 and 24.2 of section 7).
BS 5588-10:1991, Code of practice for shopping
complexes (7.8, 7.9, 13.2, 17.1.1 d), 17.1.2, 17.2.2,
17.3, section 25, 37.3, 39.2).

BSI 11-1998 77
BS 6259:1997
Annex A (informative) A.1.11 main contractor

Example of a plan of work for Project The prime contractor engaged by the client to
Team operation suitable for large undertake a contract of which the sound system is
projects (see 4.5) an element.
NOTE The information in this annex has been taken from Plan A.1.12 practical completion
of work for project team operation model procedure for design A stage very close to the end of a project, when no
team operation, published by RIBA Publications [7].
defects are apparent and only very trifling items
A.1 Definitions remain outstanding.
The following definitions apply only to this annex. NOTE It is advisable to avoid the use of this term, if possible,
because of the difficulty of establishing a precise relationship
A.1.1 plan of work between the definition and the actual state of the project when
The plan agreed between the client and the project the practical completion stage was said to have been reached,
team leader which defines the logical and possibly a long time after the event.
contractual stages in the work to be undertaken. A.1.13 key dates
A.1.2 project team Those dates agreed by the project team leader to be
The group of companies or individuals engaged to measurable milestone dates in the completion of the
oversee design and undertake the plan of work. works.
A.1.3 project team leader A.1.14 installed works
The individual responsible to the client for the That element of the equipment described in the bills
design and supervision of the works to be of quantity which have been installed.
undertaken by the sound system installer. A.1.15 training
A.1.4 end of stage information The training of qualified staff in the operation and
The information required at the end of each stage in maintenance of the installed equipment.
order to commence the next stage. A.2 Plan of work: Project team operation
A.1.5 building acoustic consultant This clause aims to define a systematic plan of work
The individual responsible to the client for for the project team.
surveying/prediction/specification of the acoustic It has to be understood from the outset of any project
performance of a building and its services. that there may well be a need for adaptation of this
A.1.6 system acoustic consultant model procedure to suit particular circumstances
and the need for careful monitoring of consequences
The individual responsible for the when the logical sequence of events is disturbed.
surveying/prediction/specification of the acoustic
performance of a sound system within a defined The procedures are illustrated in Table A.1
acoustic space. to Table A.11:
A.1.7 system electronic designer Table A.1: Outline plan of work,
stages A to I
The individual responsible for the design of the
sound system within the functional and acoustic Table A.2 to Table A.8 Detailed plan of work for
performance requirements agreed between the the project team, stages
client and his consultants. A to F
A.1.8 sound system installer Table A.9 to Table A.11 Outlining post-contract
activities, stages G to K
The contractor employed to undertake the works
described in the contract documentation. A.3 Assumptions
A.1.9 sub contractor In developing the model, the following assumptions
A company or companies employed by the sound were made:
system installer to undertake an element of the a) The model assumes a project cost (excluding
work for which he has been engaged. building works, but inclusive of the cost of all
A.1.10 on costs works described in this code of practice) of no less
than thirty thousand pounds.
Those costs incurred by the client as a result of the
works undertaken by the sound system installer,
but not forming a part of the sound system
installers contract.
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BS 6259:1997
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b) The sound system is permanent in nature. d) All the decisions noted or implied in the plan
Either it is part or the whole of a fixed have to be taken in fact or by implication. Where
installation, or it is an element or sub element of the nature of the project, the design problem, the
a mobile audio system. Permanent therefore client or the standard of works are familiar, for
refers to the permanence of the systems example, a second language laboratory for the
engineering rather than the permanence of same client, it is only necessary to check that the
location. procedures do in fact cover all that has been
c) The project team leader is responsible for decided, and progress may be greatly speeded.
leading the client and the project team. e) Most of the detail actions to be taken under the
d) The project team leaders field of action may general notes of the plan are considered to be
vary according to the time of their appointment; matters of normal good practice of a participating
the model assumes the earliest possible profession, and should be planned and carried out
appointment. in the light of all the circumstances of every
project.
e) This type of project involves the common stages
set out in Table A.1, each having the objective of f) Where designers other than the project team
launching the next. leader (for example, a building acoustic
consultant, a sound systems acoustic designer, a
f) The responsibility for ensuring that the end of
systems electronic designer or other specialist
stage information is complete and has been
engineers) are required, they should be
certified as accurate is that of the project team
introduced at stages C or D at the latest; carry out
leader.
all the necessary studies; and participate in
g) The cycle of work in each of these stages is: appropriate decisions with other designers.
1) stating the objective and assimilation of g) Whilst it is recognized that a contractor
relevant facts; appointed solely to undertake the installation of
2) assessment of resources required and the designed works need not be appointed until
setting up of appropriate organizations; after the normal tendering procedure, when they
3) planning the work and setting timetables; can be appointed early in the design stage, there
are opportunities among other things for:
4) carrying out the work;
1) forward planning and organization of the
5) completion and submission of the sound system before completion of the contract
appropriate end of stage information. documents;
A.4 Considerations
2) the development of good communications
The following considerations should be noted. and understanding between the project team
a) This plan of work represents an outline method leader and the sound system installer (SSI);
of working only. It will need filling out for every 3) (The model therefore assumes early
project. The action required will also need to be selection of the SSI to indicate the nature and
modified to suit larger or smaller projects. timing of the contribution that is possible.
Modifications to this model plan of work should, When the SSI is not available his possible
in preference, be agreed between the project contributions should be made good by other
leader and the client prior to commencement of means.)
the plan of work.
A.5 Working to the plan
b) The plan of work represents a logical sequence
The following is a brief description of the main
of action that has to be taken in order that good issues involved in working to the plan.
decisions can be made at times that will not
prejudice progress. It is inevitable that, in practice, circumstances will
occasion a number of departures from the logical
c) Nothing prevents actions being taken or
course indicated in the model plan, some of which
decisions being made earlier than shown; but it
can be planned for and some of which will be
must be noted that if action or decisions are taken
unforeseen. The greater the number of unplanned
too early, subsequent events may prove the work departures the greater the risk of loss of control or
to have been abortive. Success depends on all abortive work.
concerned taking the required action at the
corrective times.

BSI 11-1998 79
BS 6259:1997
The project team leader may not always be The meetings shown in the plan of work are the key
appointed as early as desirable. It is essential that meetings only. Numerous other meetings, other
the first task in such cases is to see that any day-to-day contacts, will be necessary, particularly
omissions on the part of the client up to the time of during stages D and E. At these meetings, which
his appointment are made good; that the client is will normally be for the purpose of exchanging
well informed and organized to provide the information or reaching decisions on specific issues,
necessary information at appropriate times to it is important to steer the middle course between
enable sound decisions that will be adhered to, and too many or too few people present. In the former
is made to understand the probable consequence of case, there will be waste of time and gradual loss of
any failure on his part. From then on the project interest; in the latter, the outcome of such meetings
team leader may have two distinct functions: may later have to be modified when others point out
the management function: to ensure that the factors that have been ignored. This can lead to
project as a whole is well run, and to coordinate abortive work on the part of some and loss of
the process of design; confidence in those who were not consulted. It is
usually safer to err on the side of inviting too many
the design function: to contribute and/or
to the meeting rather than too few. Loss of
coordinate the design skills.
confidence is more serious than loss of time.
The plan of work shown in Table A.2 to Table A.7
The plan of work shows that the brief should be
sets out in column 2 the key tasks of the project
frozen at the end of stage D, and that the design
team leaders management function. The
should be frozen at the end of stage E. This counsel
responsibilities here are to foresee, as far as
of perfection will rarely be fully observed in practice,
practicable, all problems that are likely to arise; to
but it cannot be over-emphasized that the more this
make arrangements to ensure their solution in good
aim is disregarded, the greater the disorganization
time; and to take the necessary action on unplanned
and abortive work is in later stages. The plan of
eventualities.
work is essentially a planning and coordinating tool
In this role of leader the project team leaders that needs to be adapted to particular
responsibility is total: to ensure that information is circumstances and should never become a
available; to ensure that everyone understands the straitjacket imposing inappropriate procedures.
responsibilities; to ensure that communications are
A.6 Outline plan of work
good; to ensure that optimum decisions are reached
at the appropriate time, and so on. In this role the The outline plan of work is given in Table A.1.
project team leader needs to adapt the plan of work
to suit the relevant administrative procedures of the
client, of his own office, and of the other members of
the design team.
In column 3 are the tasks of the project team leader
in his second role and of other members of the
design team. In column 4 are noted that tasks of the
contractor if he is appointed during the early stages
of design. The key issue here is for each member of
the team to realize that his contribution is only part
of the whole. In order to get the best practicable
design for the whole in the circumstances, his
particular contribution may have to be less than he
would wish to make as an individual. This attitude
is best ensured by all members of the team being
appointed at the outset; and, following through the
whole design process, contributing general views
and advice in stages B and C (Feasibility and
Outline Proposals); more particular propositions in
stage D (Scheme Design); and firm and final
decisions in stage E (Detail Design).
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BS 6259:1997
Table A.1 Plan of work

Stage Purpose of work and Tasks to be undertaken People directly involved Usual
decisions to be reached terminology
A. Inception To prepare general outline of Identify client organization for Client organization. Project Briefing
requirements and plan future briefing. Consider Team Leader
action requirements, appoint project
team leader
B. Feasibility To provide the client with an Carry out studies of use Clients representatives, Project
appraisal and recommendation requirements, site conditions, Team Leader, Building and
in order that he may determine planning, statutory obligations, System Acoustic Consultant,
the form in which the project is design, and cost etc., as System Electronic Designer,
to proceed, ensuring that it is necessary to reach decisions according to the nature of the
feasible, functional project
technically and financially
C. Outline To determine general approach Develop the brief further. Carry Clients representatives, Project Sketch plans
proposals to layout, design and out studies on the user Team Leader, Building and
construction in order to get requirements, technical System Acoustic Consultant,
authoritative approval for the problems, planning, design and System Electronic Designer, as
client on the outline proposals cost, as necessary to reach required
and accompanying report decisions
D. Scheme design To complete the brief and Final development of the brief, Clients representatives, Project
decide on particular proposals, full design of the project by Team Leader, Building and
including outline specification, project team leader, preliminary System Acoustic Consultant,
and cost, and to obtain all system schematic using BS/ISO System Electronic Designer, all
approvals standard symbols, prepare cost statutory and other approving
plan and full explanation authorities
report. Submission of proposals
for all approvals
Brief should not be modified after this point.
E. Detailed design To obtain final decision on Full design of every part of and Project Team Leader, Working
every matter related to design, component of the sound system. Building and System Acoustic drawings
specification, construction and Complete cost checking of Consultant, System Electronic
cost design Designer, Sound System
Installer (if appointed)
Any further changes in location, size, shape, or cost after this point will result in abortive work.
F. Bills of quantity To prepare and complete all Preparation of Bills of Project Team Leader, Sound
information and arrangements Quantities and tender System Installer (if appointed)
for obtaining tender documentation
G. Project To enable the contractor to Prepare workshop drawings for Project Team Leader, Site operations
planning programme the work in approval by Project Team Contractor, Subcontractor
accordance with contract Leader Sound System Installer
conditions
H. Sound system To follow the plan through to Off site assembly and testing, Project Team Leader,
installation practical completion of the installation and installer Contractor, Subcontractor
sound system installation commissioning Sound System Installer
I. Completion To hand over the sound system Project team leader Project team leader, contractor,
to the project team leader for commissioning: agree and subcontractor sound system
use by the client, remedy any carry out the remedial works installer
defects, settle the final account, as required
and complete all work in
accordance with the contract
A.7 Stage A: Inception

The detailed plan of work for stage A is given in Table A.2.
The objectives of this stage are to interface with the client organization, to decide outline requirements and
to set terms of reference for stage B (feasibility).
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BS 6259:1997
Table A.2 Stage A: Inception

Stage Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5
Client function Project team leader Project team leader Sound system Remarks
installer
Management function Design function
Acceptance 1. Consider the need for

a sound system
2. Appoint Sound
System Project Team
Leader
Action 2a. Accept appointment

from client
2b. Obtain general

background information
2c. Introductory meeting

with client
2d. Inform client of job

responsibilities,
professional practice,
fees, contracts, etc.
3. Commence exchange 3. Open discussion with
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with Project Team client organization;
Leader and note and act receive instructions to
on his advice and examine feasibility of
opinion project
3a. Check with client the

action he has taken
under actions 1 and 2;
initiate any further
actions required
3b. Obtain initial

statement of
requirements, including
time scale and financial
limit (if any)
3c. Establish with client

preliminary details of
project
3d. Obtain site plan and

make site visit
3e. Approach Sound 3e. Consider the range

System Acoustic of consultants advice
Consultant, System likely to be required
Electronic Designer e.g. M & E, Civil and
regarding appointment Structural, Quantity
Surveyor, etc. if
appropriate
4.Discuss terms of
appointment of
consultant
Hand over to 5. Appoint, agree to the

next stage. appointment of
remainder of design
team for stage B, as
advised by the Project
Team Leader.
5a. Prepare general 5a. Assimilate

directive, including preliminary details for
statement of first brief.
requirements, time and
cost (first brief) so far as
developed for stage B.
82 BSI 11-1998
BS 6259:1997
A.8 Stage B: Feasibility

The detailed plan of work for stage B is given in Table A.3.
The objectives of this stage are to provide the client with an appraisal and recommendation, in order that
he may determine the form in which the project is to proceed, ensuring that it is feasible and functional,
technically and financially.
Table A.3 Stage B: Feasibility
Management function Design function installer
Acceptance 1. Contribute to meeting. 1. Organize design team. 2. Contribute to meeting: Items for agenda for
Note items on agenda in Call a meeting to discuss note items on agenda in meeting:
column 5 directive prepared in column 5 1. State objectives
stage A. Action hand over and provide
documentation. information:
Establish responsibilities a) First brief;
and prepare plan of work requirements;
and timetable. See completion time;
column 5 for items for cost
agenda meeting
Action 2. Provide all information 2. Elicit all information 2. Carry out studies on site b) Site data
required by the Project relevant to stage B by use information, local 2. Determine
Team Leader. Make questionnaire, user conditions, intended use etc. priorities.
decisions on all matters study, etc. appropriate to stage B, e.g.:
3. Define roles of
submitted for decisions Maintain and coordinate a) establish facts about
team members and
relevant to stage B progress through this environmental noise
methods of
stage pollution;
communicating and
b) establish contact with reporting.
environmental health
4. Agree sources
officer;
and presentation of
c) assemble cost information cost information.
on similar projects;
5. Agree check list of
d) consider special site actions to be taken.
problems, access etc.;
6. Agree timetable.
e) check services location
and capacities.
3. Call progress meeting 3. Attend progress meeting,
report on 2 above
4. Carry out whatever
design work is necessary to
show feasibility.
5. Prepare report to
client on feasibility of
project
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6. Receive feasibility 6. Present feasibility

report, discuss and report and
consider recommendations to
client and discuss
7. Decide to abandon, 7. Receive further
modify or proceed with instructions
project, instruct Project
Team leader accordingly
8. Confirm existing 8. Recommend
appointment; option to appointment of a Sound
appoint contractor as System Installer if so
recommended by decided. Advise on tender
Project Team Leader procedure, and contract
arrangement, assist in
installer selection
Hand over Agree timetable, working 9. After consulting with
to next stage method for subsequent other team members,
stages, tender procedure prepare directive for
and contract stage C, including future
arrangements timetable and working
methods, tender
procedure and contract
arrangements

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A.9 Stage C: Outline proposals

The detailed plan of work for stage C is given in Table A.4.
The objectives of this stage are to determine general approach to system design work, in order to obtain
authoritative approval from the client on the outline proposal and accompanying report.
Table A.4 Stage C: Outline proposals
Acceptance 1. Contribute to 1. Organize design team. 1. Contribute to Items for agenda for
meeting: note items Call meeting to discuss meeting meeting:
on agenda in column 5 directive prepared in 1. State objectives and
stage B: establish provide information:
responsibilities, prepare a) brief as far as
plan of work and developed
timetable for stage C.
See column 5 for items
for agenda for meeting
Action 2. Provide all further 2. Elicit all information 2. Develop the brief b) site plans and other
information required relevant to stage C by further. Carry out data
by the Project Team questionnaire, studies on the user c) re-state cost limits
Leader. Make discussion, visits, requirements, or cost range based on
decisions on all observations, user technical problems, clients brief
matters submitted for studies, etc. Maintain planning, as necessary d) timetable
decisions relevant to and co-ordinate progress to reach decisions for
stage C throughout this stage the presentation of 2. Determine priorities
outline proposal, 3. Define roles and
Outline design responsibilities of
implications of client team members and
cost range or cost methods of
limit. communicating and
Generate outline reporting
performance
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specification and
functional specification
for each element of the
proposed sound system.
3. Prepare outline The report includes:

proposal report for a) the brief as far as it
client has been developed
b) an explanation of
the major design
decisions
c) firm estimate of
project cost, with
details of all on costs
that will result
Hand over to 4. Receive architects 4. Present report to

next stage report; consider, client; discuss and
discuss and decide obtain decisions and
outstanding issues. further instructions
Give instructions for
further action
84 BSI 11-1998
BS 6259:1997
A.10 Stage D: Scheme design

The detailed plan of work for stage D is given in Table A.5.
The objectives of this stage are to complete the brief and decide on particular proposals, cost and obtain all
necessary approvals.
Table A.5 Stage D: Scheme design
Acceptance 1. Contribute to 1. Organize design team. 1. Contribute to 1. Contribute to 1. The objective of this
meeting: note items Call meeting to discuss meeting: note items meeting: note items stage implies full
on agenda in directive prepared in on agenda in on agenda in acoustic,
column 5 stage C: establish column 5 column 5 environmental
responsibilities, prepare services and visual
plan of work and design, outline
timetable for stage D. specification and
See column 5 for items costing
for agenda for meeting
2. Determine priorities
2. Prepare report, 2. Assist Project Team 3. Define roles and

including fully Leader in preparation responsibilities of
developed brief, of draft cost plan, team members and
explanation of including detailed
scheme design, estimate of methods of
outline specification, preliminaries communication and
costing and future reporting
time table
4. Agree plan and
timetable.
5. Agree specification
form.
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Possible point for

competitive tenders
for sound system
installer works, based
on system
performance
specification, scheme
diagrams, etc.
Hand over to 3. Receive Project 3. Present report to

next stage Team Leaders report; client; discuss and obtain
give full decisions and further
consideration, discuss, instructions
make views known
and make decisions
4. Approve scheme 5. Obtain all necessary

5. Note necessity to approvals
freeze ideas at this
point
THE BRIEF SHOULD NOT BE MODIFIED AFTER THIS POINT.

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A.11 Stage E: Detail design

The detailed plan of work for stage E is given in Table A.6.
The objectives of this stage are to obtain final decisions on every matter related to design, specification,
construction and cost of any and all parts of the sound system and documentation thereof.
Table A.6 Stage E: Detail design
installer
Acceptance 1. Organize design team 1. Contribute to 1. Contribute to Items for agenda for
and review progress, meeting: note items on meeting: note items meeting:
brief, the clients agenda in column 5 on agenda in column 5
decisions (see column 5 1. State objectives and
for items for agenda for provide information
meeting)
Action 2. Review costs in the 2. Clear minor design 2. Determine priorities

light of stage D changes with client and timetable
3. Generate detailed
design documentation,
equipment layouts,
system block, system
riser diagram, system
functional description
4. Prepare production
information, panel
layouts for socket boxes,
etc.
5. Carry out cost

engineering analysis and
cost checks
6. Review and confirm Possible point for

completed design competitive tender for
drawings sound system
installation works
based on detailed
specification, scheme
drawings, etc.
ANY FURTHER CHANGE IN SYSTEM BLOCK SCHEMATIC OR EQUIPMENT LAYOUT AFTER THIS
TIME WILL RESULT IN ABORTIVE WORK.
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A.12 Stage F: Bills of quantity

The detailed plan of work for stage F is given in Table A.7.
The objectives of this stage are to prepare and complete all documentation and arrangements for obtaining
tender.
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Table A.7 Stage F: Bills of quantity

installer
Acceptance 1. Organize design team 1. Contribute to 1. Contribute to Items for agenda for
and review progress, meeting: note items on meeting: note items meeting:
brief, the clients agenda in column 5 on agenda in 1. State objectives
decisions (see column 5 column 5 and provide
for items for agenda for information
meeting)
Action 2. Maintain and 2. Advise the 2. Determine

coordinate progress necessary parties of priorities and
the details if any on timetable
costs, i.e. riser
diagrams and cable
schedules, equipment
room construction etc.
3. Agree with client 3. Supervise the

criteria for the selection preparation of a set of
of tenderers, B of Q from the stage
i.e. competitiveness, E information
technical competence,
management skills,
financial size
4. Recommended short 4. Correct drawings to

list of tenderers, obtain conform to B of Q and
clients agreement and stamp contract
issue invitations drawings
Continue to make 5. Obtain quotation

decisions if required. from subcontractors
Agree tender list for PC items in B of Q
6. Assemble drawings
to issue with tender
documents
Hand over to 7. Issue tender

next stage documentation

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A.13 Stage G: Project plan

The detailed plan of work for stage G is given in Table A.8.
The objectives of this stage are to enable the sound system installer to programme the work in accordance
with the contract conditions and to prepare the necessary work shop drawings for approval by the project
team leader.
Table A.8 Stage G: Project plan
installer
Acceptance 1. Evaluate bid
responses
1. Advise client on bid
responses
2. Prepare a set of
contract documents
3. Appoint Sound
System Installer
4. Check contract 4. Check contract
documents and sign documents and sign
Action 5. Prepare list of critical 5. Appoint project
dates for Sound System staff and make clear
Installers programme areas of
responsibilities.
Arrange insurance and
check clients
insurance if
appropriate
6. Contribute to 6. Hold first project 6. Contribute to Agenda for meeting
meeting meeting meeting section 6;
7. Prepare programme 1. Define rules and
of works, key dates, responsibilities
site layout, etc. for 2. Define methods of
inclusion (where
appropriate) in main communication
contract programme 3. Provide information
8. Ensure the a) Date of hand-over of
completion of site for work to
workshop drawings commence
and their approval
b) Issue drawings and
other production
information.
c) Outline site
restrictions.
4. Agree priorities and
timetables
5. State financial
arrangements, off site
valuations etc.
6. Agree insurance,
bonds, etc.
7. Agree arrangements
for site meetings
8. Agree arrangements
for quality controls
9. Ensure that sound
system installer has
timely approval of their
shop drawings
88
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Table A.8 Stage G: Project plan

installer
Hand over 10. Hold second project 10. Contribute to Agenda for meeting
to next meeting, at or about the meeting action 10:
stage commencement of work 1. Confirm
on site: confirm all outstanding items
procedures for stage H. from 1st project
Operating on site meeting
2. Settlement of queries
3. Detailed
examination of
programmes, including
key dates for the supply
of outstanding
information
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BS 6259:1997 Annex A
A.14 Stage H: Operation on site

The detailed plan of work for stage H is given in Table A.9.
The objectives of this stage are to follow plans through to practical completion of the sound system
installation.
Table A.9 Stage H: Operation on site
installer
Management Design function

function
Acceptance 1. Hand over site to 1. Take possession of Basic agenda for site
Sound System Installer site from client meetings
Action 2. Hold regular site 2. If, unavoidably, a 2. Attend site meetings 1.Agree accuracy of
meetings. See column 5 number of design previous minutes
for basic agenda for decisions are 2. Check work done
meeting. Minute outstanding, during and record progress
previous meeting (with stage H, design
action column) provide meetings will be 3. Compare progress
agenda for each meeting required, to be held with programme, not
after the first separately from site effect on completion
meetings date, and decide
action
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3. Attend Sound System 3. Hold regular 4. Review:

Installers progress progress meetings a) Communications
meetings as required and organization
4. Honour interim 4. Continue general 4. Carry out off site b) Site problems
valuations within the supervision of sound and installation works c) Information
contract period system installation, in accordance with the required
Administer the terms agreed programme of d) Material supply
and conditions of the work position
contract, e.g. e) Sub-contracts and
a) ensure instructions suppliers
and drawings are issued
from time to time 5. Consider variations
b) agree payment
applications with client 6. Agree date for next
or his representative meeting
c) adjudicate claims on
behalf of the client
d) Ensure that the
rights and duties of both
the client and sound
system installer are
fulfilled
e) authorize day works
as required, etc.
5a) Keep client informed 5a) Maintain

of progress programme and
b) Keep client furnished progressing action:
with running financial adjust programme as
statements necessary
c) Obtain client b) Provide Project
approval to any increase Team Leader with
in costs necessary information
for interim accounting
procedures
90 BSI 11-1998
BS 6259:1997
Table A.9 Stage H: Operation on site

installer
6. Initiate action for 6a) Coordinate Commissioning

commissioning and commissioning and
Agree the required
testing at appropriate testing
Mechanical and
time (see remarks)
b) Finalize testing and Electrical conditions
commissioning for commissioning air
requirements conditioning etc.
Advise client of the
6c) Witness Sound 6c) Witness c) Carry out likely noise levels and
System Installers commissioning tests and commissioning and duration.
commissioning tests if arrange for client to be testing procedures
desired represented directly if
required
7. Make arrangements 7. Correct all defective

for training of clients materials and
operating and workmanship
maintenance staff
Hand over to 8. Make progress on 8. Prepare material for

next stage preparation of owners owners manual and
manual and as-built as-built drawings
drawings to be ready for
practical completion
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A.15 Stage I: Completion

The detailed plan of work for stage I is given in Table A.10.
The objectives of this stage are to hand over the building to the client for occupation; remedy any defects;
settle the final account; and complete all work in accordance with the contract.
Table A.10 Stage I: Completion
installer
Acceptance 1. Carry out inspection 1. Carry out
of Sound System precompletion
Installers work, and inspection
advise client on state of
work. Prepare report
noting items requiring
attention
Action 2. Two weeks before 2. Continue training of
date of practical clients maintenance
completion, instruct and operating staff
Sound System Installer
to ensure sound system
is ready for inspection
3. Inform client he needs
to insure building
contents
4. Inspect Sound System
Installers works and list
outstanding works.
Circulate copies of list
5. Attend meeting to 5. HOLD HAND OVER 5. Make arrangements Agenda for meeting:
take over sound MEETING. See column 5 for and collaborate in Action 5
system for use for agenda for meeting Project Team Leaders 1. Inspect/listen to
inspection
sound system
6. Honour certification 6. Issue certificate of 2. Sound system
practical completion installer to hand over
keys/passwords
a) Request Sound System
Installer submit 3. Project Team
remaining invoices, Leader hands over
accounts, day-work owners manuals,
sheets, etc. statutory approvals,
as-built drawings
b) Notify client on
implications of 4. Project Team
outstanding claims Leader explains
procedure for
reporting defects
during defects liability
period, and method of
correction
7. Determine necessary NOTE During

action on urgent defects meeting, action 5,
and instruct Sound client was informed of
System Installer
contractors liability
accordingly
to correct defects due
b) If client wants to faulty workmanship
modifications outside and materials
scope of original design
and specification, advise
accordingly and make
separate contract
arrangements
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Copyright
BS 6259:1997
Table A.10 Stage I: Completion

installer
Action 8.Contribute to 8. Organize feedback Contribute to If full use of the

feedback reviews meeting with client feedback reviews sound system is
operators jeopardized, Sound
System Installer will
be asked to give it
immediate attention;
otherwise it may be
reasonable to wait
until the end of the
defects liability period.
Client should also
have been warned that
teething troubles are
not unlikely, and that
sound systems need
trained operators and
considerable tuning
9. Inspect sound system

well before end of
defects liability period;
check to ensure
incomplete work has
been completed; and
prepare schedule of
defects
10. Agree programme

of remedial works and
complete
11. Final inspection of

works
12. Issue certificate of

making good defects
13. If appropriate issue

certificate of release of
residue of retention fund
14. Issue final certificate

of completions
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Annex B (informative)
Project checklist
A project checklist recommended for use for the installation of all sound systems is given in Table B.1
Table B.1 Project checklist for sound system installation
Stage Initial approach Notes
Declaration The proposers status should be declared to the client For example Contractor, Consultant, installer,
distributor, etc. Confusion can arise where a company
claims to offer consultancy and contracting services
simultaneously
The proposer should declare to the client on what Some contractors would carry out design free of
financial basis the work would be carried out charge (i.e. the charge for design is absorbed in the
charges for equipment and installation), while clearly
consultants would make a charge. The client should be
left in no doubt as to the basis of the operation
The proposer should declare to the client what services For example design, design and build, supply only, or
are offered supply and install
The proposer should declare any vested interests This is really applicable in two cases:
a) when the consultant is really a contractor and
expects, if the design is adopted, to carry out the
installation;
b) when a contractor is also a distributor and hence the
client might expect any design to employ preferred
products
Discussion The proposer should discuss with the client the basis of Note that the clients perceived needs may be different
the clients perceived needs and the clients expectation from his actual needs
The proposer should discuss with the client the basis

for their ongoing co-operation and define precisely the
proposed contractual relationship
The proposer and client should discuss the project in This estimation is required to avoid wasting either the
hand, in broad terms and arrive at a pre-design budget clients or the proposers time. It is not intended to be
estimation binding but to provide approximate figures
The proposer and the client should discuss:

the site;
the approximate number of visits required by the
proposer;
what is to be achieved by each visit
Accreditation The proposer should provide references and This may include a brochure and information on
accreditation to the client similar projects, with photographs and client lists
Proposal The proposer should provide a succinctly written It is recommended that the proposal includes the
proposal following:
This proposal covers the following aspects of the
system: (as applicable):
1. design;
2. supply of equipment;
3. installation;
4. etc.
Site visits The proposer should visit the site, preferably If the system is intended to be used for a particular
accompanied by the client event, for example, theatre, football, factory paging,
the visit should be made so that the facility or
operation can be observed under typical conditions
In some cases measurements should be made, such

measurements may include noise levels, ambient noise
levels, reverberation times
A survey should be made of all areas under It is important to look at all areas. For example when
consideration and their usage confronted with a series of rooms, it should not be
assumed that they are all the same, even if it is so
implied
Access and working conditions should be discussed Any disruption to the day to day operation should be
with the client clearly defined
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94 BSI 11-1998
BS 6259:1997
Table B.1 Project checklist for sound system installation

Stage Initial approach Notes
Design proposal A non-technical design proposal should be produced This document should clearly state the design
by proposer objectives and how they are to be achieved
Clearly indicate the design concept
Any constraints on the design should be clearly

defined for example budgetary, architectural,
environmental
The extent to which the design will meet the clients

expectations should be clearly explained
System specification A specification should be provided by the proposer Specifications should be succinct, precise,
unambiguous and in accordance with relevant British
Standards
Contractors offer The proposer should either state that his submission For low-budget projects, where the cost of preparing a
conforms to the system specification, or alternatively, full specification could not be justified, the proposer
in the event that the submission does not conform, should clearly state that the offer will meet the
then the proposer should clearly state the clients expectation
implications
The submission should be succinct and should detail The submission should be in two parts.
the equipment in a list or offer Part 1: the offer;
Part 2: with supporting documentation as required,
such as data sheets. The equipment list should give
manufacturers names and model numbers. When the
equipment is to be specially made, the word custom
should be used
The submission should include an implementation

plan
The offer should include and detail all conditions that If the client is to provide storage services, materials,
will be met by the proposer and that should be met by labour or access equipment, this should be clearly
the client stated including timings
The submission should detail all warranties
The submission should state the expiry date of the

offer
Contract A written contract should exist between the proposer The contract should include a recovery plan in the
and client. The contract should detail and include the event of non-performance by either party
specification and offer, together with any conditions
and indemnity required
Contract execution The contract should be executed in accordance with Deviations should be noted in due time and advised in
the implementation plan (see 4.5) and with the writing
minimum disruption to the client
The proposer should provide system documentation See 7.3

in accordance with the contract
Other The proposer should as a matter of course, offer or

consider the following:
a) staff training; See 8.3
b) maintenance See 8.7
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Annex C (informative) h) airport terminal;

Design check list i) church or cathedral;
C.1 General j) swimming pool or ice rink;
A checklist is a useful discipline in design. The k) shopping mall.
questions in C.2 to C.15 should be resolved as part Consideration of the above will allow judgements to
of the design process. be made about the system fidelity and quality of
C.2 Uses sound.
Which of the following uses, in priority order, is the C.5 Acoustic considerations
system to cater for: Acoustic considerations relate to the natural
a) general paging and announcements; acoustics of the spaces served, which affect the
b) emergency announcements; perceived performance of the system. These include
the following:
c) speech reinforcement;
a) ambient noise levels:
d) playback of background music;
1) are they too high;
e) reinforcement of live music;
2) do they vary;
f) relay of broadcasts (from other areas/services
including radio); 3) are they broadband or tonal in character;
g) use in conjunction with other audiovisual (A/V) 4) are they primarily low or high frequency in
character; or
systems including film and video media?
5) are they intermittently high?
In addition the system should conform to the
relevant British or International/European b) reverberation:
standards and any local regulations. A selection 1) is the space highly reverberant, i.e. a
from the above list of the range of features will reverberation time of > 2.2 s; or
decide the overall quality of system. 2) is it moderately live, i.e. a reverberation
C.3 Operator time of 1.5 s to 2.2 s; or
Who will operate the system; will it be: 3) is it acoustically fairly dead, i.e. a
a) a full-time, trained sound operator; reverberation time < 1.5 s?
b) part-time operator and/or semi-trained staff, c) surfaces:
for example receptionist or caretaker; are there highly reflective or curved
c) personnel with some limited operational surfaces within the space/building?
training, for example security staff, local C.6 Environmental considerations
management; (see BS 7527)
d) anybody, for example actors, musicians? The following environmental considerations should
Answers to these questions should help decide on be taken into account:
the type and complexity of controls and the security a) climatic conditions:
of the system against inadvertent misuse. 1) normal humidity, and maximum likely;
C.4 Quality of system 2) temperature range;
Quality in this context means suitability for 3) wind forces;
purpose and environment and required speech
intelligibility. This is best defined by considering 4) direct exposure of equipment (particularly
division by building type, i.e. what area does the loudspeakers) to moisture, rain, and snow.
installation serve? b) atmospheric:
For example: 1) likely air pressure range;
a) underground station; 2) any acidity;
b) plant room; 3) any other pollution aspects.
c) hotel foyer; c) security:
d) hotel function room; 1) potential for vandalism;
e) conference room; 2) access for tampering by unauthorized
f) theatre auditorium; personnel.
g) sports stadium;
96
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C.7 Loudspeakers k) Will cable access be adequate, if the system is

The following loudspeaker aspects should be extended in the future?
considered: C.9 Cable routes and cable types
a) choice: The following cable aspects should be considered.
1) appearance important, or not; a) Are there any special requirements for the
2) loudspeakers capable of providing adequate cable route, or cables, between main equipment
sound levels; and input lines or output cables?
b) locations: b) Does the cable route pass through restricted
access areas?
1) locations to allow appropriate maintenance
access; c) Are special new conduits, trunkings, or ducts
required?
2) security of loudspeakers;
d) Do cable routes cause a maintenance problem?
3) adequate field of coverage;
e) Are cable route lengths permissible for the
4) loudspeakers selected and the distance from
equipment selected, for example will excessive
the listener adequate for clarity and
voltage drops occur or are repeater stages needed
intelligibility;
for digital signals?
c) fixings:
f) Do cable routes pass close to likely sources of
1) loudspeakers to be suspended above the interference or interference-susceptible areas,
audience or normal buildings users/occupants; equipment, or other cables?
2) need to remove from view on occasions; g) Are selected cable routes secure/vandal proof?
3) structural strength and safety (for large h) Is the cable type suitable for the task, for
arrays). example screened, fire-proofed, mechanically
d) connections: cable fixings/connections to the strong and protected?
loudspeakers via plug and sockets or permanent i) Is the cable type suitable for the environment?
connectors;
j) Is the cable adequately sized?
e) distribution system: signal distribution to be
k) Does the cable require any special
via voltage line (high impedance) or low
identification or markers?
impedance, for example 8, network.
l) Are the cable terminations suitable for load,
C.8 Equipment locations and housings
environment, and signal type?
The following equipment location aspects should be
m) What cable termination identification system
considered.
is to be adopted?
a) Does the main equipment need to be in a
C.10 Input and control requirements
secure, or fire resistant/rated, room?
The following input and control aspects should be
b) What environment does the equipment need to
considered.
be in, for example temperature, humidity?
a) How many inputs to the system are needed?
c) Should equipment be centralized or
decentralized to satellite racks/units? b) Where are they to be located?
d) Does equipment need to be rack-mounted and c) Are inputs to be at line or microphone level?
how much space is required? d) Are inputs to be balanced?
e) Can servicing be from the front or is side or e) Are there any electrical isolation requirements
rear access required? between inputs, outputs, or other system
f) What are the power requirements for the equipment?
equipment? f) Who is to control the system or have access to
g) Will the equipment produce a significant heat the system?
load and require ventilation/air conditioning? g) Are individual inputs to be separately
h) What is the floor loading requirement? controllable or fixed in level?
i) Are there maximum cable run distance h) Will input or system configurations change?
restrictions on any items of equipment? i) Are any remote control facilities required?
j) Do equipment racks require locking doors, or j) Are inputs to be prioritized, if so, what are the
are tamper-proof security covers required for system priorities?
certain items? k) Is the system to be zoned? If so:
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1) how many zones are required? C.14 System commissioning

2) are zones to follow designated fire zones? Verify the following aspects for commissioning of
3) are different but simultaneous inputs the system:
required to be routed to different zones? a) is there adequate time within the installation
4) is message stacking required? programme for the appropriate system
commissioning?
l) Do different inputs need to address different
zones or groups of zones? b) who will carry out the commissioning?
m) Is a mimic display or control panel required to c) are a formal series of acceptance tests to be
help inputs/zones/signal routeing, etc? carried out?
n) Does the system need to interface with other d) what commissioning procedures are to be
audio or control systems? adopted?
o) Is the system to provide part of a fire alarm or e) what documentation is required?
emergency announcement/evacuation system. If C.15 Maintenance and operation
so, is the system to include the control logic or will Verify the following aspects for maintenance and
it receive logic control signals from the operation of the system:
FA/VA/evacuation system?
a) how detailed should the operators manual and
p) Does the system require monitoring? maintenance manual be?
q) What type of microphones are to be used on the b) is a simple user guide required?
system?
c) how many copies of the manuals are required?
r) What facilities do any remote microphone or
d) is a maintenance contract required?
paging stations require?
e) what spares should be provided with the
C.11 Statutory requirements
system installation?
Verify the applicability of the following statutory
requirements. Annex D (informative)
a) Does the system have to conform to any BS, Basic concepts for electronics and
IEC, or IS0 performance criteria, design or safety acoustics
standards, EMC standards, or codes of practice?
D.1 Electronics
b) Does the system have to conform to any local
authority requirements, Building Regulations, D.1.1 General system characteristics
fire, police, or licensing authority requirements? The performance of a sound system is determined by
c) Does the system or any part of the system a number of system characteristics that are
require a licence, and what are the licence composed of combinations of the characteristics of
conditions/requirement? the pieces of equipment which make up the system.
The most important system characteristics are gain,
C.12 Budget
overload margin or headroom, distortion, noise
Verify the following financial aspects for the project: level, dynamic range and duty cycle.
a) what is the financial budget? D.1.2 Gain
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
b) is it adequate, to cover both supply and full A person trying to make an announcement in a
installation? crowded room may be able to produce a sound
c) has due allowance been made for associated pressure level of 50 dB (20 Pa) at a point at the far
costs, such as builders work, conduits, and site end of the room, which is too low to be heard. If a
attendances, commissions, discounts to main sound reinforcement system is used, by speaking
contractor? into the microphone, the voice could be reproduced
d) is there any overlap with electrical engineering at a level of, for example, 80 dB (20 Pa) at the same
subcontract works and costs? point, and would be easily audible. The system gain
is then 80 dB 50 dB = 30 dB, and could be
C.13 Time scale calculated from the microphone sensitivity, the
Consider the following time scale aspects for the amplifier voltage gain and the loudspeaker
project: voltage-sensitivity (together with the room
a) what is the time scale for the project? dimensions).
b) is it adequate and practicable?
c) what factors and restraints could affect
satisfactory completion on time?
98 BSI 11-1998
BS 6259:1997
D.1.3 Amplifier voltage gain and the Recommended values for maximum source
loudspeaker voltage sensitivity electromotive force (e.m.f.) (maximum input voltage
The amplifier voltage gain and the loudspeaker that the amplifier will accept) are given in
voltage sensitivity are not often included in BS EN 61938, but they should be regarded very
specifications but can be calculated from the much as minimum values and a preamplifier with
information that is normally provided. If the higher rated values should be chosen or specified if
microphone or loud-speaker or both are directional, possible.
this has to be taken into account in the calculation. For disk record reproduction, while objective tests
It is important that sufficient gain is available in the show that an overload margin exceeding 40 dB is
system without the need to set any gain control necessary under the worst conditions, in practice an
(volume control) at or near its maximum gain overload margin of 30 dB produces little audible
setting. It is usual to allow sufficient gain so that the effect.
gain control (or the master gain control if there are D.1.5 Distortion
both master and channel gain controls) is never set D.1.5.1 General
to an attenuation of less than 10 dB.
Distortion represents the difference in wave form
In a sound reproduction system, the system gain between the original signal and the reproduced
cannot be expressed in the same way as shown signal and is undesirable because it degrades the
above for a sound reinforcement system, because, naturalness of the reproduction, and, if severe, the
even if the original signal is a person speaking, in intelligibility of speech.
the absence of the sound reproduction system, no
Distortion due to the overall response of the system
sound at all would be produced in the listening area.
not being sufficiently independent of frequency
In this case, the system gain should be sufficient to (not-flat frequency response) is usually more
produce rated output power or voltage from the tolerable than non-linearity distortion due to
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
amplifier with the (master) gain control set at an deficiencies in microphone, amplifier and
attenuation of about 10 dB, with the smallest likely loudspeaker performance. It can be often corrected
input signal, i.e. a low-modulated disc or tape by means of a graphic equalizer (see 9.8) or similar
record, being reproduced. device, although large amounts of frequency
NOTE It is important to distinguish clearly the concepts of gain response correction can cause amplifier overload or
and output power. loudspeaker damage.
The amplifier can produce its rated output power Modern microphones introduce little non-linearity
only if there is sufficient gain in the system to distortion unless damaged by rough handling.
deliver to the amplifier its rated input voltage. If the
Direct-radiator loudspeakers also introduce little
system will not achieve this, it is said to be gain
non-linearity distortion (if correctly designed)
limited and the full performance of the amplifier
except at low frequencies. It is inadvisable to
cannot be achieved. This condition can be
attempt to reproduce frequencies below
recognized by the necessity to set all gain controls at
about 150 Hz at their correct levels from most
or near maximum, in order to approach satisfactory direct-radiator loudspeakers designed for sound
performance. reinforcement. If extended low frequency
D.1.4 Overload margin or headroom reproduction is essential, large loudspeakers are
A sound system should be designed so that the almost certainly necessary. Loudspeakers designed
achievement of rated output power or voltage from for domestic high fidelity applications are often
the amplifier is not prevented by overloading rather low in sensitivity for convenient use in sound
occurring at some point in the system nearer the systems in large rooms, but can give excellent
source, for example in the preamplifier. This is performance in terms of absence of distortion.
particularly important for microphone Horn loudspeakers, used for outdoor systems and in
preamplifiers. The microphone sensitivity given in very noisy indoor locations, introduce considerable
the data sheet provided with the item represents the non-linearity distortion, especially at lower
output voltage produced by a sound pressure level frequencies. It is essential to follow the
of 80 dB (20 Pa) (sound pressure of 0.2 Pa). manufacturers recommendation regarding
However a vocalist or musical instrument can frequency-response shaping (bass attenuation),
produce an input sound pressure level of up to particularly if music is to be reproduced. In
about 120 dB when very close to the microphone, well-designed horn loudspeakers the distortion
resulting in an input voltage to the preamplifier effects can be controlled so that speech intelligibility
of 100 times that given in the data sheet, and is not impaired.
requiring an overload margin of 40 dB.

BSI 11-1998 99
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The non-linearity distortion in an amplifier is D.1.5.3 Quasi-linear region

dependent on the output voltage or power at which In the quasi-linear region the distortion is low and
the distortion is measured. Figure D.1 shows a varies very little with output voltage. Owing to the
typical graph of distortion versus output voltage and variations with time of the amplitude
four regions are clearly apparent. characteristics of speech and music signals the
D.1.5.2 Noise or crossover region amplifier is working in this region for most of the
At very low output voltages the amplifier time, and it is the distortion in this region that has
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
non-linearity may be very small and the distortion most effect on the quality of reproduction. It is
components in the output may be less than the therefore important to choose or specify an amplifier
electrical noise generated in the amplifier; in this that has low distortion in the quasi-linear region.
case the distortion is of no significance. In some
types of amplifier the non-linearity may not be very
small at low values of output voltage when crossover
distortion is present. This type of distortion
seriously degrades music reproduction and is
usually worse when the amplifier is cold. The best
designs do not exhibit crossover distortion.
Figure D.1 Distortion characteristics of a typical amplifier
100 BSI 11-1998

BS 6259:1997
D.1.5.4 Transition region D.1.6 Noise level and dynamic range

In the transition region the distortion begins to rise All electrical equipment generates electrical noise
as the output voltage increases, and the upper due to movement of the atoms in the wiring and
boundary of this region is the rated components of the equipment. This noise (in a sound
(distortion-limited) output power or voltage, usually system) is amplified and reproduced by the
abbreviated to rated output power or rated output loudspeakers as potentially audible noise (hiss).
voltage. Interference picked up from the mains supply and
The amplifier should be working in this region only from electric lighting, such as fluorescent lighting
during loud programme passages of short durations and dimming equipment, may also be reproduced.
or peaks, and the human ear is quite tolerant of Interference may also occur from local radio
distortion on such peaks. Thus, the distortion at transmitters. Some of these effects can be foreseen
which rated output power or voltage is specified is at the system design stage and on-site testing may
an arbitrary figure often chosen by the be required to ensure that the equipment chosen or
manufacturer and usually between 0.1% and 10 %. specified is sufficiently immune to external
It is not a good guide to the distortion performance interference.
of the amplifier, except insofar as the distortion in To determine the noise level of the system, it is
the quasi-linear region will not be more than the operated with maximum gain (the master gain
value at which rated output power or voltage is control set in its normal position at about 10 dB
specified; however, it may be much less. attenuation) but no signal input. For a type A
In some amplifier designs the transition region is system, the resulting noise from the loudspeakers
very narrow, due to the incorporation of negative should be inaudible to a critical listener at the
feedback. Such amplifiers usually have improved normal listening distance under the lowest likely
performance in the quasi-linear region and a low ambient noise conditions. For a type N system, the
output impedance, but the subjective sound quality noise should be inaudible under normal ambient
is badly degraded if the amplifier is driven only noise conditions, while for a type C system the noise
slightly into overload. If such an amplifier is used, should not be disturbing.
automatic gain control and/or an amplitude limiter The dynamic range of a system is the ratio of the
may be included in the system with advantage maximum sound pressure level obtainable without
(see 9.7). overloading the amplifier to the sound pressure
level due to noise (including ambient noise). It is
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
D.1.5.5 Overload region

usually only important for type A systems, but if
In this region the distortion rises very rapidly
poor dynamic range is experienced with other
indeed as the output voltage increases. In fact, it is
systems, insufficient gain or overload margin may
reasonable to assume that in this region the peak
be present (see D.1.2 and D.1.3). Because ambient
output voltage cannot be increased. Amplifiers
noise affects the dynamic range, it is important to
should not be operated in this region because the
ensure that a satisfactory estimate of the
reproduction is very severely degraded and also
background noise level is made before the system is
because overheating occurs in the amplifier,
designed.
possibly causing safety devices to operate and the
amplifier to cease functioning, either temporarily D.1.7 Duty cycle
(with some types of safety device) or until fuses are Owing to the amplitude characteristics of speech
replaced or thermal cut-outs reset. It is important to and music signals, the average power in such a
note that although the output voltage does not signal is usually about one-tenth of the power in the
increase, the output power increases by a factor of 2 periods of greatest amplitude. Furthermore, there
as the output waveform tends towards a rectangular are often long periods of silence in speech signals
form. and long quiet passages in music signals. As a result
Where the system includes loudspeakers that can be there are time-dependent effects to be considered in
switched on and off, the amplifier is more prone to a sound system design.
overload when the maximum number of On the shortest time-scale, some types of amplifier
loudspeakers is switched on. will produce considerably more output power or
voltage for periods of 10 ms to 30 ms than they will
continuously Such amplifiers tend to sound louder
on speech and music but may perform poorly with
tone signals, such as alarm or evacuation signals.

BSI 11-1998 101
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Tone signals also produce much more severe D.2.2 Design of new buildings
heating effects in amplifiers and loudspeakers in If a sound system is required in a new building,
the time scale 30 ms to 100 s. Continuous or early consideration should be given to its acoustic
constant amplitude tones are particularly critical in design and treatment. This normally requires
this respect and where possible should be avoided, consultation with specialists, but some of the factors
as should signal frequencies much above 1 kHz. to be considered are as follows:
Furthermore, the tone signals should not produce
a) A solid construction reduces the transmission
amplifier output powers between one-third and
of sound to and from the auditorium.
one-half of the rated output power (55 % to 70 % of
rated output voltage) as the heating effects in the b) Concave walls and domed ceilings may cause
amplifier are critical in this range. If the tone undesirable focusing of sound energy.
signals last, or could last, for longer than Irregularities in the room surfaces may provide
about 2 min, either intermittent signals should be desirable diffusion of the sound.
used or the output power restricted to less than one- c) The choice and position of sound reflecting and
third of the rated output power (55 % of rated output absorbing surfaces are important. In many
voltage) to avoid overheating in the amplifier, and auditoria, the audience is the major sound
or the loudspeakers. absorbent and the acoustics depend on the degree
Effects on an even longer time-scale should be of occupancy.
considered where a system is supplied from primary d) The choice of reverberation time and its
or secondary batteries, either permanently or in the variation with frequency depends on the main
case of a mains supply failure. Sufficient battery use of the auditorium, for example speech or a
capacity should be provided for the highest probable particular type of music.
current demand and replacement batteries should D.2.3 Treatment of existing structures
be kept close to those in use so that a rapid
changeover can be made. Where secondary batteries The treatment of existing structures should be
entrusted to specialists in this field. Re-decoration
are used, two sets should be provided, one in use,
or re-furbishment can greatly affect the acoustics,
one as stand-by and/or being charged.
particularly if it involves the painting of absorbent
Where batteries are provided in case of a mains materials, or the replacement of fibrous thermal
supply failure, periodic checks should be made that insulation with expanded plastics.
the batteries will operate the system for the full
period of time required, not just for 1 min or so in a If the existing form and size of the structure are to
be retained, measurements of reverberation time
routine test.
and its variation with frequency can provide a
D.2 Room acoustics useful guide to the alterations required. Listening
D.2.1 General tests are also useful, particularly in the presence of
The acoustical characteristics of the space into an audience.
which the loudspeakers radiate sound should be D.2.4 Considerations where acoustical
taken into account in the design of the sound alterations are impracticable
system. For all systems, the aim is to ensure that If it is not practicable to modify the acoustics by
every listener hears a clear, sufficiently undistorted surface treatment, for example in a church or
reproduction of the original sounds. This aim may railway station, then particular care is required in
be difficult to achieve if the space has acoustic the choice, location and orientation of the
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
characteristics unfavourable for a sound system. A loudspeakers. As a general rule, most of the
basic requirement is that the system be sufficiently radiation of the loudspeakers should be directed
loud in order to overcome masking by ambient noise. towards the intended listeners. As little as possible
For sound reinforcement systems, the loudness of should excite the general reverberant sound or be
the system is usually limited by that part of the directed towards the source of acoustic defects, such
radiated sound which is picked up by the as echoes.
microphones. For other types of system, there is no
such restriction and the design procedure is
correspondingly simplified.
All aspects of acoustical performance demand
experience and imply specialist consultation, but
some of the broader considerations are considered
in D.2.3 to D.2.6.
102 BSI 11-1998

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D.2.5 Acoustic stability The early reflections occurring within about 80 ms

For acoustic stability it is desirable that a of the direct sound are too numerous to be
reinforcement system is operated with a sufficient distinguished separately by the ear, but they
feedback stability margin. Normally, it is necessary enhance the loudness and the clarity of the sound.
to ensure that the system gain can be increased by The later multiple-path reflections become
at least 6 dB before howl-round occurs. With this progressively weaker with time, but their temporal
margin, coloration of speech is usually acceptable. If density increases rapidly, merging into what is
coloration is to be imperceptible, then the stability perceived subjectively as reverberation.
margin should be at least 12 dB. An example of a decay curve obtained using a
It should be noted that part of the sound fed back high-speed level recorder to chart the decay of sound
from loudspeaker to microphone follows paths in a room after a burst of noise is shown
which include reflections from the audience. Thus in Figure D.3. The decay curve is, in some respects,
changes in occupancy, in general, alter the feedback similar to the reflection diagram of Figure D.2, but
stability margin. Usually, the presence of an all the fine structure of the reflections is lost
audience reduces the reflected sound, thus because of the compression of the time axis and the
increasing the stability margin. To some extent, this smoothing circuitry of the level recorder.
is offset by the need to increase the gain to D.2.7.2 Early decay time
compensate for the additional absorption of the One of the important characteristics of the decay
audience. curve is the rate of decay over the first 10 dB.
D.2.6 Acoustical tests in rooms When expressed in terms of the corresponding
Acoustical tests in a room are carried out for two, reverberation time, it is called the Early Decay Time
sometimes quite different, purposes. One purpose is (EDT). In Figure D.3, the EDT is 1.0 s. This is
to obtain data on what the room sounds like to known to be better correlated with the perceptual
performers and listeners, that is, the correlation of attribute of reverberance than the reverberation
objective data and subjective impressions. The time, which is derived from measurements between
second purpose is to obtain an estimate of the the 5 dB and 35 dB points (see Figure D.4).
existing quantity of sound absorption present and NOTE The closer the microphone is to the source, the greater
its variation with frequency. the direct sound is in comparison with the reflected sound, the
steeper the initial slope and the shorter the EDT. This is in
For either purpose, the most common tests involve contrast to the reverberation time, which is normally regarded as
examination of the rates of decay of a sound after a property of the reflected sound only. The reverberation time is
the source is cut off. The structure and significance a global measurement, characteristic of the room as a whole and
not very sensitive to position in the room.
of the different parts of a sound decay curve are
considered in D.2.7.1 to D.2.7.4. D.2.7.3 Double-sloped decays
D.2.7 Early reflections and reverberations In Figure D.3 it can be seen that after the sound has
NOTE There is no agreed time limit which distinguishes early
fallen by about 25 dB, the rate of decay falls, giving
reflections. two distinct slopes to the curve. The second slope is
D.2.7.1 General quite common and may be the result of a
reverberant fly-tower in a theatre, a very
A listener in a room hears first the sound radiated non-uniform distribution of absorbent (as in an
directly from a sound source, then the sounds that empty exhibition hall with an absorbent ceiling), or
have undergone reflection from one room surface, a resonating object nearby Subjectively, the second
followed by the sounds which have undergone slope is unlikely to be noticed because it is usually
multiple reflections. This is shown masked by successive speech syllables or musical
diagrammatically in Figure D.2 for a very short phrases.
impulsive sound similar to that produced by a
handclap, pistol shot, bursting balloon or electric
spark.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BSI 11-1998
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Figure D.2 Reflection diagram for certain positions of sound source and receiver in a
rectangular room of 40 m 25 m 8 m
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure D.3 Level recorder trace of sound decay in a room
104 BSI 11-1998

BS 6259:1997
Figure D.4 Reverberation time measurement

D.2.7.4 Estimation of sound absorption D.2.8 References
If the decay curve is measured with the microphone For other useful information on room acoustics
far from the sound source so that the reverberant see M.Barron [8], K.B.Benson [9] and
field dominates, it may be possible to estimate the H. Kuttruff [10].
total sound absorption in the room. For the estimate
to be valid, the decay curve has to be substantially Annex E (informative)
linear as shown in Figure D.4. Consultants for sound systems
D.2.7.5 Early-to late sound index Lists of consultants may be obtained from the
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The early-to-late sound index (objective clarity) C80 following sources.
(in dB) is a measure obtained by processing the
1. Professional Lighting and Sound Association
impulse response. The basis of the measurement is
(PLASA)
a comparison of the total sound energy received 7 Highlight House
during the first 80 ms with that received St Leonards Road
after 80 ms.
Eastbourne
NOTE The processing is carried out on the pressure waveform East Sussex
and not the smoothed sound level curve.
BN21 3UH
The early-to-late sound index, C80 (in dB), is
obtained from the following equation: Tel: 01323 410 335
Fax: 01323 646 905
2. Institute of Sound and Communications
Engineers (ISCE)
PO Box 258
St Albans
ALl 1QZ
Values of C80 measured in concert halls and opera Tel: 01727 812 312
houses range from approximately 3 dB to + 5 dB. Fax: 01727 841 709
BSI 11-1998
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BS 6259:1997
Annex F (informative) F.4.2 Sheriff

Example of sound system operating Ensure the Sheriffs microphone is functioning by
instructions for a Scottish court speaking into it. Also check that the MUTE button
on the microphone base operates correctly.
F.1 Preliminary checks
Depressing the button whilst speaking should mute
F.1.1 Microphones the reproduced sound in the public seating area,
Ensure the Sheriffs and Agents microphones are jury seating area (if switched on) and the signal
suitably located on their desks. Adjust the position from the induction loop facility.
of the Witness microphone to take account of an F.5 Switching off
average height person standing in the box.
At the equipment rack, switch the following
On each microphone, check the cable is securely switches off:
plugged to the microphone and to its associated a) induction loop amplifier;
connector panel.
b) jury area power amplifier;
F.1.2 Equipment rack
c) public area power amplifier;
At the equipment rack, check the volume is set to
zero. d) mixer unit.
F.2 Switching on Switch the mains isolator adjacent to the equipment
rack to off.
At the equipment rack, first switch on the mains
isolator and then the switches located at the right Annex G (informative)
hand end of the units in the following order:
Basic list of characteristics which
a) mixer unit; should be included in loudspeaker
b) public area power amplifier; specifications, and references to the
c) jury area power amplifier (but only if the area relevant methods of measurement
is to be occupied);
G.1 A comprehensive list of characteristics to be
d) induction loop amplifier (provided the court is specified is included in BS 6840-5, and may
not in closed session). sometimes be considered too long for convenience.
F.3 Mixer unit (volume and tone controls) This extracted list should be short enough for all
F.3.1 Tone controls manufacturers to use for all products. The order in
which the characteristics are listed is that of
Check the treble control is set at
perceived interest to the prospective purchaser,
approximately 1 oclock and the bass control to
rather than that of the list in BS 6840-5.
the 10 oclock position.
G.2 BS 6840-5 recommends that input voltages
F.3.2 Microphones
rather than input powers should be specified. This is
Speak into each microphone. Do not blow into basically because the values of power quoted are
microphones; this can cause moisture to form on the purely notional, being related to the rated rather
microphone capsule and over a period of time result than the actual impedance, and this convention
in distortion/failure of the unit. Also, do not tap the leads to abuses and complications which are causing
microphones; this does not provide an accurate increasing difficulty. For a transition period of
means by which to assess the reproduced sound several years, it is necessary to include both
quality. specifications, until the use of voltage values is
F.3.3 Volume control sufficiently widely accepted.
Adjust the control so when speaking at G.3 The list of characteristics and methods of
conversational speech level, it is adequately loud in measurement to be included is as follows:
the public seating area. Ensure the system is not so NOTE 1 The relevant clause number of BS 6840-5 is given in
loud that it is likely to result in feedback. brackets.
F.4 Sheriffs and agents microphones a) marking of terminals and controls {14};
F.4.1 Agents b) reference plane, reference point and reference
Check the Agents microphones by speaking into axis {15};
each one in turn. As stated in F.3.2, do not blow into c) rated impedance {16.1};
or tap the microphones.
106 BSI 11-1998

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BS 6259:1997
d) for electrodynamic drive units only, total f) rated sound attenuation (if attenuation is
Q-factor, Qt {16.3}, equivalent air volume of a claimed) {3.11};
loudspeaker drive unit compliance Vas {16.4}, g) rated application force {3.12};
resonance frequency fr {19.2}, and design
h) rated climatic conditions {3.8};
data {28}.
NOTE 2 The first three values in item (d) are often known
i) physical characteristics (dimensions, weight,
as the Thiele-Small characteristics. While of greater length and type of cable, types of
importance for low-frequency drive units, their specification connectors) {3.14}.
can also assist the design of filter networks for high-frequency
drive units.
Annex J (informative)
e) short term maximum input voltage and
Basic list of characteristics
power {17.1};
recommended to be specified for
f) long-term maximum input voltage and
amplifiers, and the relevant methods
power {17.2};
of measurement
g) rated noise voltage or power {17.4}.
NOTE 3 The rated noise power used to be called power
The list of characteristics and methods of
handling capacity. measurement recommended to be included is as
h) characteristic sensitivity in a stated frequency follows:
band {20.3}; NOTE The relevant clause number of BS 6840-3:1992 is given
in brackets { }.
i) frequency response (curve) {21.1};
a) output voltage and power (distortion
j) effective frequency range {21.2}; limited) {18.3};
NOTE 4 This is not the same as the rated frequency
range {19.1}, which is an arbitrary choice of the
b) rated total harmonic distortion {22.2}.
manufacturer, including the effect of any specified filter NOTE Manufacturers are encouraged to specify total
circuit. harmonic distortion at 10 dB and 30 dB below rated output, in
addition to the values at or near rated output, and at
k) directional response pattern {23.1}; frequencies, such as 63 Hz and 10 kHz, near the limits of the
l) directivity index (ratio) {23.3}; audio frequency range, as well as at 1 kHz.
m) coverage angle; c) short-term maximum output voltage and

NOTE 5 Coverage angle is not given in BS 6840-5 but is the
power {19.2};
subject of a proposed amendment. d) long-term maximum output voltage and
n) total harmonic distortion {24.2}; power {19.3};
o) rated ambient conditions {25}; e) rated load impedance(s) {18.1};
p) physical characteristics covering dimensions, f) output source impedance (not expressed as
weight, and connector and cable data {27}. regulation or damping factor) {18.2};
g) rated source e.m.f. {17.3};
Annex H (informative) h) rated source impedance {17.1};
List of characteristics recommended
i) input impedance {17.2} and balance --``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to be specified in contracts for (if balanced) {25.1};

headphones and headsets, and the
j) gain-frequency response {21.1};
relevant methods of measurement
k) signal-to-noise ratio {23.1 a)} and hum {24.2};
The list of characteristics and methods of
measurement recommended to be included is as l) rated conditions {3.2.2};
follows: m) physical characteristics covering dimensions
NOTE The relevant clause number of BS EN 60268-7:1996 is and weight {30}.
given in brackets { }.
a) rated characteristic voltage {3.3.3} or rated
input voltage {3.3.1} or power {3.4} and rated
sound pressure level {3.5.1};
b) rated impedance {3.4.1};
c) rated source impedance {3.2};
d) rated frequency response {3.6}, preferably
measured by the diffuse field ear canal sound
pressure level measurement method {3.6.4};
e) rated harmonic distortion {3.7.1};
BSI 11-1998
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Annex K (informative) K.4 It can be shown that, with reference

Attenuators for microphones to Figure K.1, the component values for the L-type
attenuator are given by the following equation:
K.1 If a microphone exposed to a high sound
pressure level is used with an amplifier having a low R1 = Z1 Z2
overload source e.m.f, it may be necessary to R2 = ZlZ2/(Zl + Z2)
introduce an attenuator between the microphone The insertion loss A (in dB) is given by the following
and the amplifier input. Microphones are normally equation:
designed to be loaded with about five times their
rated source impedance (see BS EN 61938). For A = 20 lg(Z1/Z2)
example, a 200 microphone should be used with where:
an amplifier having an input impedance of 1k. Z1 = 1 k;
Similarly, such microphone amplifiers are designed
to give their best noise performance with a source Z2 = 200 ;
impedance of 200 . and the component values and insertion loss are:
K.2 The most noticeable effect of an incorrect load R1 = 800 ;
impedance on a dynamic microphone is a change in
frequency response, while that on an electret R2 = 250 ;
microphone is to change the maximum A = 14 dB.
distortion-limited sound pressure level. It is This value of attenuation is often quite appropriate
therefore necessary to preserve the correct in practice.
terminating impedances when an attenuator is
K.5 The L, T and II-type attenuators may be easily
introduced.
converted into balanced configurations, U, H and
K.3 The attenuator specification should have an O-types, as shown in Figure K.2.
input resistance of 1 k when the output is
terminated in 1 k, and a source resistance of 200
when driven from a 200 source. It can be shown
that these requirements define a simple L-type
attenuator completely, and it is not possible to
specify the insertion loss independently.
Furthermore, this attenuator has the minimum
possible insertion loss consistent with the
impedance requirements. Higher attenuations
require the use of T-type or II-type networks, still
designed to meet the special impedance
requirements of this particular application. The
design equations are therefore different from those
of the impedance-matched cases treated in
textbooks, but are too complex to be given here.
Figure K.1 Basic L-type microphone attenuator
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108 BSI 11-1998

BS 6259:1997
Figure K.2 Attenuator configuration
Annex L (informative)
Bibliography
MAPP, P., Sound reinforcement and public address in BORWICK, J. (Ed.) Loudspeaker and headphone
handbook, pp 319-368, Butterworth, London, 1988.
RANDALL, K.E., MEARES, D.J., ROSE, K.A., Sound insulation of partitions in broadcasting studio
centres: field measurement data, BBC Research Department, Engineering Division, October 1986.
BSI 11-1998
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109
BS 6259:1997
Index cabling schedule 4.5.5 contract placed directly by the

canteens 2.3.4 purchaser 4.7.2.3
absorption, acoustic 1.0.3.5.6 carrier-frequency induction-loop contract, contents of 3.4.2
access and future extensions 5.11.1 systems 2.4.2 contractor, approaching a 3.3.1
cartridge systems 9.13.4 contracts, model 3.4.3
access holes for cables 5.11.2
cassettes 9.13.5 contractual provisions 3.4
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accommodation 4.5.4
acoustic absorption 1.0.3.5.6 cctv systems 2.7 control point 1.3.21
ceiling loudspeakers 9.2.3.2 control requirements C.10
acoustic considerations 1.0.3.5
acoustic considerations for the system C.5 channel 1.3.6 control, user 1.3.8
acoustic feedback 1.3.5 characteristics of loudspeakers 9.2.2 control, pre-set 1.3.9
characterization, acoustic, of the listening custom made equipment 4.5.9
acoustics of a room; reflection diagram
area 3.5.2.2 data, system 6.4
(after Kuttruff) Figure D.2
acquiring a sound system 3.2 checklist, design annex C definitions 1.3
advice, consultancy 3.2.6 checklist, project annex B definitions relevant to a plan of work for a
cinema (safety) regulations 5.19.1 large project A.1
advice, nature of the 3.2.5
advice, professional, independent 3.2.6 cinemas 0.15.2.6 delay, long path 1.3.18
advice, technical, seeking 3.2.3 circuits (particular department stores 2.3.4
recommendations) 6.3.6 design and build 4.7.2.2
advice, technical, sources of 3.2.4
class 1 and class 2 equipment, use design checklist annex C
aerial, see antenna
of 5.17.2 design considerations for auxiliary
airports, 2.3.2
client 1.3.26 systems for auditoria 5.20
ambient noise 3.5.2.4
climatic conditions 5.12.4 design freeze 4.7.2.4
amplifier, typical, distortion
clubs 2.3.3 design principles, recommended, and
characteristics Figure D.1
code of practice, agreement on procedures section 5
amplifiers (cooling) 6.3.3.3
deviations 3.4.1 digital cassette systems 9.13.6
amplifiers, characteristics to be specified
code of practice for installers section 6 directional responses of
annex J
code of practice, observance of 3.4.1 microphones 9.10.1.2
amplifiers, methods of measurement
annex J column or line-source distance and sound pressure level
loudspeakers 9.2.3.3 considerations 5.6
amplifiers, powerful, cooling and
ventilation 2.3.8.3 commissioning date 4.5.8.1 distance between the microphone and the
commissioning of system C.14 source of sound 9.10.2
analogue disk records, properties and
commissioning of the system, distant listeners 1.0.3.5.4
care of 9.11.1
analogue disk records, reproduction recommendations for section 7 distribution and junction boxes, see
from 9.11 commissioning tests and system data 5.14 connecting boxes
analogue record disk playing units 9.11.2 compact disc digital records, reproduction distribution points (provision of) 5.11.2.3
from 9.12 distribution, low impedance (loudspeaker
analogue tape recorders 9.13.2
compact disc playing units 9.12.2 signals) 5.8.2
antenna (aerial) 6.3.6.4
compact discs, properties and care distribution, methods of (loudspeaker
antenna (aerial) systems 9.16.5
of 9.12.1 signals) 5.8.1
application, section 2
competitive tender 4.7.2.1 distribution, voltage line 5.8.3
application, general 2.1
completion of the installation 7.3 documentation of cables 9.16.6
applications of headphones and safety
compression 9.7 documentation of technical
considerations 9.4.3
concentric folded or re-entrant information 8.11
approval of the proposed
horns 9.2.3.6 ducts for cable access 5.11.2
installation 4.5.7
concepts, basic, for electronics and earth loops 5.17.4
attenuator configurations Figure K.2
acoustics annex D earth, technical 5.17.5
attenuator, microphone, basic L-type
Figure K.1 concert halls 2.3.9 earthing 5.17
conditions, climatic 5.12.4 echo 1.3.17
attenuators for microphones annex K
audio-frequency induction-loop confidence signal 1.3.33 echoes 1.0.3.5.7
systems 2.4.1 connecting boxes, cables and wiring echoes and reverberation 5.4
audit of the installation 7.1 (external) 6.3.7.4 electrical characteristics of
connecting boxes, identification 6.3.7.3 microphones 9.10.3
automatic gain control (AGC) 9.7
auxiliary systems for auditoria 5.20 connecting boxes, location 6.3.7.1 electrical safety 5.12.1
background noise level 1.0.3.5.3 connecting boxes, wiring 6.3.7.2 electro-acoustic response 5.19.2
considerations, acoustic 1.0.3.5 electronic and electroacoustic
bi-directional enclosures and
considerations, environmental, for the testing 7.2.4
horns 9.2.3.11
briefing the client 4.6.2 system C.6 electronically generated signals, use
considerations, general, for equipment 9.1 of 5.18.3
broadcasting, radio or television, feed to
or from 5.10.2.1 considerations, acoustic, for the enquiry, initial 4.2
system C.5 environmental considerations for the
budget C.12
constant directivity horns 9.2.3.5 system C.6
building design requirements 5.11
consultants 1.0.4 environmental safety 5.12.2
building, types of, and location 2.3
consumer entertainment equipment, feed equalizer 1.3.11
cabinet loudspeakers 9.2.3.1
for 5.10.2.2 equalizer, graphic 1.3.12
cable routes and cable types C.9
continuously-variable resistive (volume) equalizer, parametric 1.3.13
cables 9.16
control 9.3.1.2 equalizers 9.8
cables, microphone 6.5
contract management 4.7 equipment section 9
cabling plan 4.5.5
contractor 1.3.31 equipment (installation) 6.3.3
110 BSI 11-1998

BS 6259:1997
equipment (protection) 6.3.3.1 infra-red systems, audio frequency 1.0.7 measurement of reverberation time
equipment audit and testing of the input and control requirements C.10 Figure D.4
system 7.2 inspection, site 1.0.5 mechanical and environmental
equipment locations and housings C.8 installation and wiring 5.16 safety 5.12.2
equipment room 2.3.8.2 installation audit 7.1 methods of distribution (loudspeaker
equipment, accommodation of 6.3.8.4 installation of equipment 4.5.8.4 signals) 5.8.1
equipment, assembly and mounting, installer 1.3.30 microphone attenuators annex K
general 6.3.8.1 installing the equipment 6.3 microphone cables 6.5
equipment, comprehensive insulation, sound 5.11.3 microphone mountings 9.10.4
installations 6.3.8.3 intelligibility 1.3.24 microphone placement, good and bad,
equipment, simple installations 6.3.8.2 illustrated Figure 18
intelligibility, concept of 5.21.1
equipment, sound system, approaching a intelligibility, estimation of 5.21.2 microphone positioning, the 3-to-1 ratio
manufacturer of 3.3.2 Figure 16
intelligibility, measurement of 5.21.3
exhibition halls 2.3.5 microphone types 9.10.1
interconnection with other systems 5.10.2
existing sound system, modification microphone, cardioid, directional
interconnection within the system 5.10.1
of 3.2.2 response Figure 8
interference, sensitivity to 5.9
exponential horns 9.2.3.4 microphone, hypercardioid, directional
internal cable ducts 5.11.2.1 response Figure 9
extensions, future 5.11.1
internal walls (penetrating) 6.3.6.5 microphone, omnidirectional, directional
external lines 4.5.6
introduction section 1 response Figure 7
external systems (cables to or
from) 5.11.2.2 lead-in and distribution points, cable microphone, optimization of the height
holes and ducts 5.11.2 above the table Figure 19
factories 2.3.4
level sensing, ambient noise 5.2.2 microphone, shotgun, directional
feed for consumer entertainment
liaison with the system designer 6.2 response, f = 10 khz Figure 13
equipment 5.10.2.2
feed for the public switched telephone limitations 3.5.2 microphone, shotgun, directional
network or similar 5.10.2.3 limiting 9.7 response, f =2.5 kHz Figure 12
feed to or from radio or television limits of frequency response range microphone, shotgun, directional
broadcasting 5.10.2.1 required 5.3 response, f = 250 Hz Figure 11
feedback, acoustic 3.5.2.3 line-level signal cables 9.16.3 microphone, supercardioid, directional
floors (piercing) 6.3.6.6 line-source loudspeakers 9.2.3.3 response Figure 10
foldback 1.3.32 lines, external 4.5.6 microphones 9.10
location of building types 2.3 microphones, angled, to reduce 3-to-1
folded horn cabinets 9.2.3.9
locations for equipment C.8 ratio Figure 17
folded horns 9.2.3.6
loops, earth 5.17.4 microphones, distances for same
frequency response limits 5.3
loudness 5.2 direct-to-reverberent ratio Figure 14
frequency response limits giving a
loudspeaker attenuators, disabling in microphones, installation 6.3.4
subjective balance Table 3
emergency, technique Figure 6 microphones, positioning on a conference
function (of a sound system) 3.5.1
loudspeaker cables 9.16.1 table; two methods Figure 15
functional surveillance 1.3.34
loudspeaker characteristics to be specified mixer 1.3.16
functional testing 7.2.3
modifying a sound system 3.2
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future extensions 5.11.1 annex G
loudspeaker layout and coverage 5.7 multicellular horns 9.2.3.8
guidance for microphone users (other
loudspeaker signal distribution 5.8 music, background 5.2.4
than announcers) 8.5
loudspeaker volume controls and override music, foreground 5.2.5
headphones and headsets 9.4
circuits 9.3 noise grating 9.7
headphones and headsets, characteristics
to be specified annex II loudspeakers (in general) 9.2 noise reduction and other processing
loudspeakers (installation) 6.3.2 systems 5.19.5
headphones and headsets, reference to
methods of measurement annex H loudspeakers, decisions required C.7 noise, ambient 3.5.2.4
loudspeakers, references to methods of offices 2.3.4
headsets 9.4
horizontal ducts 6.3.6.8 measurement annex G open reel-to-reel systems 9.13.3
horns, exponential 9.2.3.4 low impedance distribution 5.8.2 opera houses 2.3.8
low noise and low impedance 5.17.5 operating, monitoring and maintenance of
hospitals 2.3.1
mains supply cables and the system section 8
hotels 2.3.3
connections 9.9.4 operation and maintainance C.15
housings for equipment C.8
maintainability 9.1.2 ordering equipment 4.5.8.2
howl-round, 1.3.5
maintainance monthly 8.6.2 outdoor sports grounds 2.3.6
identification and documentation of
cables 9.16.6 maintainance six-monthly or outdoor systems 5.5
indoor sports premises 2.3.5 annually 8.6.3 overhead distribution systems 6.3.6.2
maintenance and operation C.15 override circuits 9.3.2
induction loop systems 2.4
induction-loop systems, audio maintenance funding 3.6 overspill 3.5.2.1
frequency 1.0.7 maintenance manuals 8.10 paging 5.20.2
information for management personnel, maintenance, corrective 8.7.1 performance of loudspeakers 9.2.5
provision of 8.1 maintenance, workshop 8.7.2 performance relay 5.20.1
information for the operating technician matching 1.3.7 personnel considerations 8.9
or operator 8.2 matching values, preferred, for physical characteristics of
information to be given by the equipment 5.10 microphones 9.10.1.4
manufacturer of a tape system 9.13.7 measurement and specification of pick-up arm 9.11.3
information, security of 5.15 loudspeaker characteristics 9.2.4 pick-up cartridges 9.11.4
infra-red systems 2.5 plan of work for large projects A.2 to A.6
BSI 11-1998
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BS 6259:1997
plan, cabling 4.5.5 routine testing and preventive stereophonic systems 2.6
planning 4.5 maintenance 8.6 stereophony in the cinema 5.19.4
power level, sound 1.3.14 routine testing daily or prior to use 8.6.1 supplier, system, choosing the 3.3
power or final amplifiers 9.5 safety considerations for surveillance, functional 1.3.34, 5.18.12
power supplies 6.3.5, 9.9 headphones 9.4.3 swimming baths 2.3.5
power supply 4.5.3 safety, electrical 5.12.1 switched resistive (volume) control 9.3.1.3
power supply for control circuits 9.9.3 safety, mechanical and system category A 2.2.4
power supply from a.c. mains 9.9.1 environmental 5.12.2 system category C 2.2.2
power supply from batteries 9.9.2 safety, reliability and security of system category N 2.2.3
pre-amplifiers 9.6 information 5.12
system commissioning C.14
schedule, cabling 4.5.5
pre-set control 1.3.9 system data 5.14
prefabricated equipment 4.5.9 schedule, time 4.5.8
system data 6.4
preferred matching values for scope of code of practice 1.1
system designer 1.3.29
equipment 5.10 security of information 5.15
system, commissioning, recommendations
pressure level, sound 1.3.15 segregation of circuits 6.3.6.1 for section 7
principles, design 5.1 sensitivity to interference 5.9 system, quality of the C.4
principles, recommended design section 5 showgrounds 2.3.6 system, sound 1.3.1
procedures to verify that design signal distribution, loudspeaker 5.8 system, sound distribution 1.0.3.3, 1.3.3
requirements have been met 7.2.1 signalling and remote control system, sound
procedures, recommended design cables 9.16.4 reinforcement 1.0.3.2, 1.3.2
section 5 signals, electronically generated, use system, sound reproduction 1.0.3.4, 1.3.4
procedures, recommended, for system of 5.18.3
system, sound, approaching a
planning and contract management site survey 4.6.1 manufacturer of 3.3.2
section 4 site survey and client briefing 4.6 system, sound, types of 1.0.3.1
progressing the project 4.5.2 solid-state storage and recovery of speech system, uses of the C.2
project checklist annex B signals 9.14
systems excluded from the scope 1.1
properties and care of analogue disk sound decay in a room, recorder trace of
systems, categorization of 2.2
records 9.11.1 level Figure D.3
systems, outdoor 5.5
properties and care of compact sound for films 5.19
discs 9.12.1 systems, sound 1.0.3
sound for showing films 0.15.2.6
properties of tape recordings 9.13.1 systems, sound; use for emergency
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sound insulation 5.11.3

purposes 5.18.2
proposal, outline 4.3 sound insulation and reduction of
systems, sound; use for fire alarm
purchasers, prospective, advice to overspill 1.0.3.5.5
warnings 5.18.1
section 3 sound levels expected from the
tape recordings, properties and care
quality of the system C.4 reproduction of music Table 2
of 9.13.1
racecourses 2.3.7 sound levels when showing films 5.19.3
tape systems, reproduction from 9.13
radial horns 9.2.3.7 sound levels, high, exposure to 5.2.7
technical earth 5.17.5
radio receiver 5.17.3 sound pressure level and distance
television sound tuners 9.15.2
radio tuners 9.15.1 considerations 5.6
television, closed circuit (CCTV) 1.3.22
re-entrant horns 9.2.3.6 sound pressure levels required for
termini, passenger 2.3.2
recommendations for commissioning the showing films Figure 5
sound reinforcement, limitations of 1.0.6 terms relevant to a plan of work for a
system section 7
large project A.1
record playing unit signal cables 9.16.2 sound system for a large church block
diagram Figure 2 testing of the system 7.2
recording of technical information 8.11
testing, electronic and
records, written 4.4 sound system operating instructions, as
electroacoustic 7.2.4
reduction of overspill, sound insulation in a Scottish court annex F
sound system, extensive, for a large store, testing, functional 7.2.3.2
and 1.0.3.5.5
block diagram Figure 1 theatre sound systems, category
reliability 5.12.3, 9.1.1 required 2.3.8.5
remote control cables 9.16.4 sound system, functions of 3.5
theatre sound systems (mains
replacement funding 3.6 sound system, limitations of 3.5
supply) 2.3.8.4
reproduction from analogue disk sound system, what is a? 1.0.2
theatres and opera houses 2.3.8
records 9.11 sound systems for emergency purposes,
special considerations section 10 theatres, additional requirements 2.3.8.7
reproduction from compact disc digital theatres, multi-channel sound 2.3.8.6
records 9.12 sound systems, use for emergency
purposes 5.18.2 time scale C.13
reproduction from tape systems 9.13
sound systems, theatre (mains time schedule 4.5.8
requirements, basic, for sound system
supply) 2.3.8.4 training of announcers 8.4
applications Table 1
sound systems, use for fire alarm transformer (volume) control 9.3.1.4
resonant pipe enclosures 9.2.3.10
warnings 5.18.1 types of contract 4.7.2
responsibility for training operators and
spares, provision for 8.8 types of headphones 9.4.1
staff 8.3
restaurants 2.3.3 specialist consultant, approaching a 3.3.3 types of loudspeaker and their uses 9.2.3
reverberation 1.0.3.5.2 specification of headphones 9.4.2 types of microphone 9.10.1
specification of loudspeaker types, cable C.9
reverberation and echoes 5.4
reverberation time 1.3.23 characteristics 9.2.4 underground distribution 6.3.6.3
reverberation time measurement speech 5.2.3 user control 1.3.8
Figure D.4 stand-by facilities 5.13 uses of the system C.2
room, equipment 2.3.8.2 stations, railway 2.3.2 verification of the performance of the
routes, cable C.9 statutory requirements C.11 completed system 7.4
112 BSI 11-1998

BS 6259:1997
vertical ducts (risers) 6.3.6.7

visual inspection 7.2.2
voice control 9.7
voltage line distribution 5.8.3
voltage line principle 1.3.20
voltage, line 1.3.19
volume control override circuits 9.3
volume controls 9.3.1
wiring 4.5.8.3
wiring (installation) 6.3.1
wiring and installation 5.16
wiring, screened 1.3.10
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List of references
Normative references
BSI publications
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, London
BS 1710:1984, Specification for identification of pipelines and services.

BS 2316, Specification for radio-frequency cables.
BS 2750, Measurement of sound insulation in buildings and of building elements.
BS 2754:1976, Memorandum. Construction of electrical equipment for protection against electric shock.
BS 4533, Luminaires.
BS 4533-102, Particular requirements.
BS 4533-102.17:1990, Specification for luminaires for stage lighting, television, film and photographic
studios (outside and indoor).
BS 4808, Specification for L.F. cables and wires with PVC insulation and PVC sheath for
telecommunications.
BS 5330:1976, Method of test for estimating the risk of hearing handicap due to noise exposure.
BS 5550, Cinematography.
BS 5550-7.4.1:1990, Specifications and measurements for the B-chain electro-acoustic response of motion
picture control rooms and indoor theatres.
BS 5588, Fire precautions in the design, construction and use of buildings.
BS 5588-2:1985, Code of practice for shops.
BS 5588-3:1983, Code of practice for office buildings.
BS 5588-6:1991, Code of practice for places of assembly.
BS 5588-10:1991, Code of practice for shopping complexes.
BS 5655, Lists and service lifts.
BS 5655-1:1986, Safety rules for the construction and installation of electric lifts.
BS 5821, Methods for rating the sound insulation in buildings and of building elements.
BS 5839, Fire detection and alarm systems for buildings.
BS 5839-1:1988, Code of practice for system design, installation and servicing.
BS 5839-4:1988, Specification for control and indicating equipment.
BS 6004:1995, Specification for PVC insulated cables (non-armoured) for electric power and lighting.
BS 6207, Mineral-insulated cables with rated voltage not exceeding 750 V.
BS 6207-1:1995, Cables.
BS 6207-2:1995, Terminations.
BS 6288, Magnetic tape sound recording and reproducing systems.
BS 6288-3:1990, Methods of measuring the characteristics of recording and reproducing equipment for
sound on magnetic tapes.
BS 6288-6:1987, Specification for reel-to-reel systems.
BS 6288-8:1989, Specification for eight-track magnetic tape cartridge for commercial tape records and
domestic use.
BS 6288-9:1989, Specification for magnetic tape cartridge for professional use.
BS 6305:1992, Specification for general requirements for apparatus for connection to public switched
telephone networks run by certain public telecommunication operators.
BS 6312:1985, Specification for plugs for use with British Telecommunications line jack units.
BS 6313:1982, Specification for 35 mm microcopying of serials.
BS 6317-1992, Specification for simple telephones for connection to public switched telephone networks run
by certain telecommunication operators.
BS 6330:1983, Code of practice for reception of sound and television broadcasting.
BSI 11-1998
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115
BS 6259:1997
BS 6346:1989, Specification for PVC-insulated cables for electricity supply.

BS 6418:1983, Specification for cordless audio transmission devices using infra-red radiation.
BS 6500:1994, Specification for insulated flexible cords and cables.
BS 6651:1992, Code of practice for protection of structures against lightning.
BS 6701:1994, Code of practice for installation of apparatus intended for connection for certain
telecommunication systems3).
BS 6840, Sound system equipment.
BS 6840-3:1992, Methods for specifying and measuring the characteristics of sound system amplifiers.
BS 6840-5:1995, Specification for safety requirements for mains-operated electronic and related apparatus
for household and similar general use.
BS 6840-8:1988, Methods for specifying and measuring the characteristics of automatic gain control devices.
BS 6840-10:1991, Methods for specifying and measuring the characteristics of peak programme level meters.
BS 6840-11:1994, Specification for application of connectors for the interconnection of sound system
components.
BS 6840-13:1987, Guide for listening tests on loudspeakers.
BS 6840-15:1992, Specification for matching values for the interconnection of sound system components.
BS 6840-16:1989, Guide to the RASTT method for the objective rating of speech intelligibility in auditoria.
BS 7063:1989, Specification for analogue audio disk records and reproducing equipment.
BS 7154:1989, Specification for conference systems: electrical and audio requirements.
BS 7211:1994, Specification for thermosetting insulated cables (non-armoured) for electric power and
lighting with low emission of smoke and corrosive gases when affected by fire.
BS 7430:1991, Code of practice for earthing.
--``,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BS 7443:1991, Specification for sound systems for emergency purposes.
BS 7527, Classification of environmental conditions4).
BS 7594:1994, Code of practice for audio-frequency induction-loop systems (AFILS).
BS 7671:1992, Requirements for electrical installations. IEE Wiring Regulations. Sixteenth edition.
BS 7827:1996, Code of practice for the assessment, preparation of specifications, maintenance and operation
of emergency sound systems at sports venues.
BS 7851:1996, Digital audio tape system (DAT).
DAT logo application rule.
BS 8233:1987, Code of practice for sound insulation and noise reduction for buildings.
BS 8313:1989, Code of practice for accommodation of building services in ducts.
BS EN 41003:1993, Particular safety requirements for equipment to be connected to telecommunication
networks.
BS EN 55014:1993, Limits and methods of measurement of radio disturbance characteristics of electrical
motor-operated and thermal appliances for household and similar purposes, electric tools and similar
apparatus.
BS EN 60065:1994, Safety requirements for mains operated electronic and related apparatus for household
and similar general use.
BS EN 60094, Magnetic tape sound recording and reproducing systems.
BS EN 60094-1:1994, Specification for general conditions and requirements.
BS EN 60094-2:1996, Calibration tapes.
BS EN 60094-7:1994, Specification for cassettes for commercial tape records and domestic use.
BS EN 60268, Sound system equipment.
BS EN 60268-7:1996, Headphones and earphones.
BS EN 60268-12:1995, Application of connectors for broadcast and similar use.
BS EN 60529:1992, Specification for degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code).
BS EN 60721, Classification of environmental conditions.
BS EN 60896, Stationary lead-acid batteries. General requirements and methods of test.
3)
BS 6701:1994 superseded BS 6701-1:1990 and BS 6701-2:1987.
4)
BS 7527 has been partially superseded by BS EN 60721.
116
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BS 6259:1997
BS EN 60908:1993, Specification for compact disc digital audio systems.

BS EN 60950:1992, Specification for safety of information technology equipment, including electrical
business equipment.
BS EN 61119, Digital audio tape cassette system (DAT).
ISO 2603:1983, Booths for simultaneous interpretation General characteristics and equipment.
Informative references
Other references
[1] GREAT BRITAIN. Noise at Work Regulations 1989. London: The Stationery Office
[2] GREAT BRITAIN. Telecommunications (Marking and Labelling) Order 1982 SI 1982/491. London: The
Stationery Office.
[3] GREAT BRITAIN. Health and Safety at Work Act. London: The Stationery Office.
[4] Guide to Health, Safety and Welfare at Pop Concerts and other similar events. The Stationery Office.
[5] GREAT BRITAIN. Cinemas Act 1985. London: The Stationery Office.
[6] GREAT BRITAIN. Cinematograph (Safety) Regulations SI 1955/1129. London: The Stationery Office.
[7] Plan of Work for Project Team Operation, abbreviated and adapted from RIBA Publications Ltd., Plan
of Work, RIBA Handbook, 1973 edition.
[8] BARRON, M. Auditorium acoustics and architectural design. London: E & FN Spon, 1993.
[9] BENSON, KB. Audio engineering handbook. New York: McGrawHill, 1988.
[10] KUTTRUFF. H. Room acoustics. 3rd edition, Applied Science, London.
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BS 6259 The Design, Planning, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of Sound Systems

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BS 6259 The Design, Planning, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of Sound Systems

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BRITISH STANDARD BS 6259:1997

Code of practice for

The design, planning,

Copyright British Standards Institution

Committees responsible for this

The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by Technical

Association of British Theatre Technicians

Association of Noise Consultants

First published as CP 327.300,

The following BSI references

ISBN 0 580 26450 5

Copyright British Standards Institution

Table A.4 Stage C: Outline proposals 84

This British Standard has been prepared by Technical Subcommittee EPL/100/3

1.0 Introduction In order to achieve an appropriate sound quality

Copyright British Standards Institution

A complete sound system may consist of a number of 1.0.3.5 Acoustic considerations

than 1 s becomes difficult to deal with and a solution

1.0.3.5.4 Distant listeners 1.0.4 Consultants

AFILS and IR systems may also be used to transmit 1.3 Definitions

conductors are enclosed within a continuous

Copyright British Standards Institution

c) to facilitate interchangeability; 1.3.27

2.1 General 2.2.4 Category A

2.2 Categorization of systems by sound 2.3 Types of building and location

Table 1 Basic recommendations for sound system applications

Copyright British Standards Institution

Hospitals (See note) * R R * R FA/E Treat patients

Table 1 Basic recommendations for sound system applications

Copyright British Standards Institution

a) Auditorium SM (XS) R (see note) * * * * A/V E/S Paging only under

b) Other public R * * * * * * * FA/E Possible connection

Copyright British Standards Institution

Copyright British Standards Institution

2.3.11 Discotheques 2.3.12.2 The sound system should be category N.

2.6 Stereophonic systems

2.7 CCTV systems

Copyright British Standards Institution

Section 3. Guidance for prospective purchasers

3.1 General 3.2.3 Seeking technical advice

3.2.6 Independent professional (consultancy) 3.3.2 Approaching a manufacturer of sound

with the contractor, providing the purchaser clearly

c) the standard of the workmanship etc.; 3.5.2.3 Acoustic feedback

22British Standards Institution BSI 11-1998

Section 4. Planning and contract management of

4.5.4 Accommodation 4.5.8.3 Wiring

Section 5. Recommended design principles and

Figure 3 Examples of sound system output levels

28British Standards Institution BSI 11-1998

5.2.3 Speech 5.2.4 Background music

loudspeakers, it is helpful to provide a visual dB dB

Copyright British Standards Institution

Copyright British Standards Institution

considerations apply to the system as a whole. The

Copyright British Standards Institution

Where the function of the equipment permits, it 5.12.4 Climatic conditions

5.16 Wiring and installation 5.17 Earthing

a) be sufficiently loud in relation to any other

Copyright British Standards Institution

Section 6. Installing the system

6.1 General It is of great importance that the mounting of

6.3.4 Microphones 6.3.6.5 Internal walls

6.3.8.4 Accommodation of equipment Higher levels of interference, particularly that