PH6041 Advanced Mathematical Methods for Physics

Lecture 1: 170214

Advanced Linear Algebra(non-elementary)

(Muli) Linear Algebra
(Tensor) Algebra

At first, in general, a little abstract.

Linear Algebra
Linear space a.k.a (also known as) vector space.
Vectors and Scalars , V

Vectors : can be added.

Scalars : R = real or sometimes C = complex, K
Technically elements of a field can add, multiply, divide.
Scalars will be for us (almost always) real.
V : Linear vector space.
K : scalars

K V V

(, v) 7 v scalar multiplication
V V 7 V
(v1 , v2 ) 7 v1 + v2 adding vectors

axioms :
(v1 + v2 ) = v1 + v2
( + )v = v + v
()v = (v)

zero vector :

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v+0=v

additive inverse: v s.t. v + (v) = 0

commutative and associative:

v1 + v2 = v2 + v1 , v1 + (v2 + v3 ) = (v1 + v2 ) + v3

Examples of linear spaces:

(a) displacement in space
(b) velocity
(c) force
(d) real valued functions on [0, 1]

(f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x)

adding function adding real numbers

(e) space of operators

(f) wave functions
(g) matrices

Our main topic of discussion

L(V, W, ...; |{z}
Z )
| {z }
domain range

= the set of Linear maps from V W ... Z

where V , W, ..., Z are linear spaces.
Multi-linear functions

dimV could be finite (usually we want finite), may be infinite in general.

= the maximum number of linearly independent vectors

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if dim V = dim U < , then V and U are isomorphic.
the main exception: function spaces

can combine linear spaces with the same scalar:

L
U V : direct sum
V = (u, v) s.t. u U, v U
L
U
with
L
U V U V
add
(u1 , v1 ) + (u2 , v2 ) = (u1 + u2 , v1 + v2 )

(u, v) = (u, v) multiply

functions f : M N no linear structure in general

consider f : M V linear space V : Range, target space

Let F (M ; V ) := {f | f : M V } has a linear space structure inherited from V

(f + g)(m) := f (m) + g(m)

F (M ; V ) V
(f )(m) := f (m)

this makes F into a linear space.

Linear function L(V ; W )

(v| 1 + v ) = (v1 ) + (v2 )
{z 2} | {z }
V W

(av) = a(v)

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given V consider
V := F (V ; K ) := {f : V K }
here f is a linear function.
Since K is a linear space.
V is naturally a linear space called the dual space of V .

Example :
Dirac notation : bra h | and ket | i , h | i : scalar

Row and Column vectors :

(a1 , a2 , ..., an )(b1 , b2 , ..., bn )T = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + ... + an bn K
(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) V and (b1 , b2 , ..., bn )T V

if dimV , V < , dimV = dimV ,

then V is isomorphic to V (in many different ways, there is no special isomorphism)
if dim V = , then V and V are not isomorphic ! (in general).

Consider V
the double dual := the set of linear functions on V into K
= the set of K valued linear functions on the set of linear functions of V .

for finite dimensions dim V = dim V = dim V

V V and there is a special (natural, canonical) isomorphic (auto-isomorphic).

(v) = h | vi
V , vV
given v V there is a unique special element V call it v
v () := (v) = h | vi
essentially one just switches from considering as the function and v as the argument
to viewing v as the function and as its argument.

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But the situation is different in infinite dimensional spaces.

Example:
let V = F [0, 1] < be the continuous functions on the interval [0,1].
for every function g V one can define an element in V by
R1
g (f ) = 0 g( )f ( )d
thus via g g F (0, 1)
one has a one-to-one map: V V

However V also contains more linear functions which are not of this form.
Example: for any point x one can define a certain linear function (x) V
by (x) (f ) := f (x)
check: (x) (f + g) = f (x) + g(x)
(x) (af ) = af (x)
To deal with such things the physicist Dirac invented a new type of function (not
continuous so not in F [0, 1]) such that
Z 1
(x) (f ) = ( x)f ( )d
0

John von Neumann objected; it took about 20 years for the mathematicians to find
mathematical justification: the theory of distributions.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

V : linear space
K : scalars
L(U , V , ...; W ) := { the set of linear function from U V ... W }
V := L(V ; K ) = L(V ; R) = L(V )

dim V = dim V if V <

V V if dim V <
but not for function spaces ( dimensional )

many finite dimensional vector space theorems are not true in general for infinite di-
mensions.

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We will not worry much about this, and will generally assume finite dimensions without
bothering to always mention it.

********************************************************

In general suppose we have a map between any 2 sets: : M N

then F (M ; Q) F (N ; Q) = function from N Q

M N
& f

Let m M , (f )(m) = f ((m)) Q, (m) N

f := f

points go forward, functions map back( pull back).

points map forward, functions pull back.

in particular for linear functions and linear spaces:

V W

V W
&
K

for A : V W and W

a linear function(A = A) on V , A V
h|Avi = hA |vi adjoint

vectors map forward (contravariant) against functions

dual vectors pull back (covariant) with functions

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 V
%B &A
AB
U W

V

.B -A
(AB) =B A
U W

dual linear maps are like transpose, adjoint

vectors and dual vectors are not the same, they map in different ways.

Theorem : L( U, V, . . . ; W ) = L( U, V, . . . ,W ; K ) (in finite dimensions)

example: u U , v V, L(U, V ; W )
this means (u, v) W , is linear in each argument, i.e.
(au1 + bu2 , v) = a(u1 , v) + b(u2 , v)
(u, av1 + bv2 ) = a(u, v1 ) + b(u, v2 )
v, ) K
Define (u, W
linear in each argument by
v, ) := h|(u, v)i K ,
(u, (u, v) W

thus W = L( , W ) = L(W ; K ) = W

Given V
can make V
can make L(V ; V )
= L(V , V ; K )
L(V ; V )
= L(V , V ; K )
L(V ; V )
= L(V , V ; K )
L(V ; V )
= L(V , V ; K )

example: L(V , V ; K )
(v1 , v2 ) is a scalar
(v1 , ) : v2 7 (v1 , v2 )

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hence (v , ) V
and ( , ) : v1 7 (v1 , ) V

 
p
Tensors of type q
on V
Tpq V := L(V , V , . . . , V , V , V , . . . , V ; K )
| {z } | {z }
p q
= the set of real valued linear functions on p dual vectors + q vectors. A tensor is just
a multi-linear function, e.g. if
, , V , u, v, V
T(, , , u, v) : (rank 5) real valued, linear in each argument
 
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T is a tensor of type 2

T T 32 (V )
Taylor expansions
f = f (0) + ( f )(0)x + 21 ( f )(0)x x + 3!1 ( f )(0)x x x + . . .
f (0) : scalar
 
0
f (0) : tensor of type 1
 
0
f (0) : tensor of type 2
1
( f (0))u v
2
= 12 (f )(u, v)