PHY1004W 2010

Electricity and Magnetism

Part 2

Prof Andy Buffler

Room 503 RW James
andy.buffler@uct.ac.za
M&I
Chapter 16
Electric potential
M&I Energy of a single particle
16.1

Particle energy mc 2 K
q mc 2 1
2 mv 2 for v c

The kinetic energy of a single particle can be changed

if positive or negative work is done on the particle by
an external force.
Wexternal Fexternal r

Then K K final K initial Wexternal

Potential energy associated with pairs of interacting particles

For a system of interacting particles:

K sys Wext Wint Q if mc 2 0

or K sys Wint Wext Q

Write Wint U
change in potential energy U

Then K sys U Wext Q

Systems of charged particles:

in most cases considered here, Wext 0 and Q 0
K sys U 0
 M&I
Proton moving to the + r 16.2
right in a uniform + Felectric
electric field + +
+
+ E
Uniform electric field between plates
K proton U electric 0

increases decreases
K final K initial U electric 0
K final K initial Wint 0
K final K initial F r 0
K final K initial eEx x 0
 Electron moving to + r
the right in a uniform +
Felectric
electric field +
+
+ E
Uniform electric field between plates
K electron U electric 0

decreases increases
K final K initial Wint 0
K final K initial F r 0
K final K initial ( e) E x x 0
K final K initial eEx x 0
M&I Electric Potential Difference
16.3

In the previous examples:

For the proton: U electric eEx x e Ex x

For the electron: U electric eEx x e Ex x

Let potential difference: V Ex x

Then U electric q V Units of V : volts (V)

If r is not parallel to E E
+
then V ( Ex x E y y Ez z )
r
or V E r
 The electron volt

If an electron moves through a potential difference of one volt

then there is a change in the electric potential energy whose
magnitude is
U e(1 volt) (1.6 10-19 C)(1 J/C) = 1.6 10-19 joule

1.6 10-19 joule = 1 electron volt = 1 eV

1 keV = 1000 eV
1 MeV = 106 eV
M&I Sign of potential difference and direction of electric field
16.4
V E r

r E r 0
1. A B
V 0
E

r E r 0
2. A B
V 0
E

r E r 0
3. A B V 0
E
 Example: Field and potential
B
V VB VA
E r
E r cos r
E
= (100)(2)cos(30 )
= 173 volts 100 N C-1
2m
Work done by an external
agent in moving a proton 30
from A to B:
A
Wext U electric q V

=(1.6 10-19)( 173) = 2.76 10-17 J or 173 eV

 M&I Potential difference in a non-uniform field
16.5
If we move through two (or more) regions where the
electric field is different, then
V Vfinal Vinitial E r
if each r is small enough that E is uniform in the region
through which it passes.
Remember that E r Ex x E y y Ez z

For example:
V VB VA
VC VA VB VC
E1 r1 E 2 r2
E1x ( xC x A ) E2 x ( x B xC )
 Change of electric potential in a non-uniform field 2

i If the electric field in a

E region varies continuously,
then we need to integrate:
dr
+ f
V Vfinal Vinitial E dr
i

f or V Ex dx E y dy Ez dz

2
M&I uses the notation V E dl
1

M&I
Note that potential difference is independent of path 16.6
 M&I
and for a round trip V 0 16.7

C
V VC VA E dr
A

Path independent

Hence write:
f xf yf zf
V E dr Ex dx E y dy Ez dz
i xi yi zi
Electric field inside and outside a current carrying wire

The charges are

moving, hence the
electric field E inside
the wire is non-zero.

V 0 though the wire

Hence V 0 along
path 2 (in the air)
hence E is non-zero
in the air.
1 2 3 4 5

R S
x x
The electric field is uniform in this region.
S is at (2, 2, 0) m and T is at (2, 0, 0) m
E
E 300j N C-1
x
What is V along a path from S to T? T

1. +150V
2. 150V
3. +300V
4. 300V
5. +600 V
6. 600 V
1 2 3 4 5

R S
The electric field is uniform in this region. x x

S is at (0, 0, 0) m and T is at (0, 2, 0) m

E
E 400j N C-1
x
What is V along a path from S to T? T

1. +200V
2. 200V
3. +400V
4. 400V
5. +800 V
6. 800 V
1 2 3 4 5

R S
x x
The electric field is uniform in this region.
S is at (0, 0, 0) m and T is at (0, 2, 0) m E
E 200i 300j N C-1
x

What is V along a path from S to T? T

1. 0V
2. 300 V
3. 500 V
4. 600V
5. 1000 V
1 2 3 4 5

The electric field is uniform in this region. R S

x x
S is at (0, 0, 0) m and T is at (0, 2, 0) m
V along a path from S to T is 500 V. E

What is the magnitude of the electric

x
field in this region? T
1. 250 V m-1
2. 500 V m-1
3. 750 V m-1
4. 1000 V m-1
1 2 3 4 5

The electric field is uniform in this region. R S

x x
R is at (3, 2, 0) m and T is at (8, 0, 0) m
E
E 200i 400j N C-1
x
What is V along a path from R to T? T

1. +200V
2. 200V
3. +800V
4. 800V
4. +1000 V
6. 1000 V
1 2 3 4 5

The electric field is uniform in this region. R S

x x
R is at (3, 2, 0) m and S is at (5, 2, 0) m
E 400j N C-1 E

What is V along a path from R to S? x

T
1. 0V
2. 400V
3. +400V
4. 800V
5. +800 V
1 2 3 4 5

Without doing any calculations, what is the sign of VB VA ?

1. positive
2. negative
3. 0
1 2 3 4 5

What is VB VA ?

1. 20 V
2. 10.05 V
3. 8.06 V
4. 0.1 V
5. none of the above
M&I The potential at one location
16.8
V Vfinal Vinitial
set Vinitial = 0 at infinity
For the potential at a distance r from a single point charge q
r
r r 1 q 1 q 1 q
Vr Vr V Ex dx 2
dx
4 0 x 4 0 x 4 0 r

If we know the value of the potential at location A, then if

we place a charge q at A, then the potential energy of the
system is U qV
A A

1 q1q2
For two point charges separated by a distance r: U
4 0 r
 Lines of equipotential

The electric potential in 2D. V(x,y)

V(x,y) around a positive
point charge.

1 q
Vr
4 0 r y

x
 Lines of equipotential around an electric dipole

Lines of equipotential

How much work would

you need to do to move a
charge from here

to here?
 r 4r Insert either > or < or =
C below for each.

B
A 1. EA EB
+Q
2. VA VB Va Vb
3. VC VB Vc Vb
4. Q q
5. EB EA
c
6. EB EC
a b
+q 7. Eb Ea
8. VA Va
9. EA Eb
 Electrical potential energy
For each situation below, decide qualitatively whether the initial
or final situation has higher electrical potential energy.
All charges are either +q or q.
initial final
+
<
(a) + Uinitial = Ufinal
- - - - >

- + + <
(b) Uinitial = Ufinal
- - - >

<
(c) - - + - - + Uinitial = Ufinal
>
 Electrical potential energy 2

initial final
+ <
Uinitial = Ufinal
(d) + >
- + - +

- + - <
(e) Uinitial = Ufinal
- + - >

(f) + +
- - <
- Uinitial = Ufinal
- >
 Electric potential and electric field
Shown below are examples of the variation of the electrical
potential along the x-direction. Draw arrows representing the
direction and relative magnitude of the electric field at positions
A and B on the x-axis.

V(x) V(x)
(a) (b)
0 0
A B x A B x

A B x A B x
 Electric potential and electric field 2
V(x) V(x)
(c) (d)
0 0
A B x A B x

A B x A B x
V(x) V(x)
(e) (f)
0 0
A B x A B x

A B x A B x
 Electric potential and electric field 3
V(x) V(x)
(g) (h)
0 0
A B x A B x

A B x A B x
V(x) V(x)
(i) (j)
0 0
A B x A B x

A B x A B x
 Important worked example: A disk and a spherical shell
A thin spherical (plastic) shell
carries a uniformly distributed
negative charge Q1.
A thin circular (glass) disk
carries a uniformly distributed
positive charge +Q2.
Find the potential difference
V2 V1.

choose a path (straight line) from 1 to 2

neglect the polarization of the plastic and
glass since both object are made of thin
material.
 2 2 2
V V2 V1 Vshell Vdisk Enet dr Eshell dr Edisk dr
1 1 1

V due to shell:
Vsurface of shell V1 0 since Eshell 0 inside shell
1 Q1
Outside shell: Eshell 2
r
4 0 r
2
V2 Vsurface of shell Eshell dr
3
3
2 1 Q1
2
( dx)
3 4 0 x
1 Q1 Q1
4 0 R1 d R1
Why is there a sign here?
Check:
We move opposite to the direction of the field, therefore V 0
 V due to disk:

Q2 R22
Since d R2 and R1 R2 : Edisk
2 0
2 2
2 2Q R Q R
2 2 2 2
V2 V1 Edisk dr ( dx) (d R1 )
1 1 2 0 2 0
Check:
We move opposite to the direction of the field, therefore V 0

V due to both shell and disk:

1 Q1 Q1 Q2 R22
V2 V1 (d R1 )
4 0 R1 d R1 2 0
 A metal in static equilibrium

For a metal in static equilibrium: i

V Vfinal Vinitial 0 (and E = 0) f

for any two locations inside the metal
Therefore Vfinal Vinitial

the potential inside the metal is constant

but not necessarily zero!
 Q1 Q1 A metal slab inside a capacitor
s
+ Start with a charged capacitor
+ A s
A + s = 3 mm, V = 6 volts
+ V
+ E = 2000 V m-1
s
Insert 1 mm metal slab without
Q1 Q2 Q2 Q1 touching sides of capacitor
which then polarizes
+ + Since E inside slab is zero, Q2 Q1
+ + Why?
A + + But in the air gaps, E is unchanged
+ + Vleft Vright = (2000 V m-1)(0.001 m)
+ +
= 2 volts
1 mm Vcapacitor = 2 V + 0 V + 2 V = 4 volts
 Q s Q M&I
16.9
+ Potential difference in an insulator
+ Eplates
A +
+ Again start with a charged capacitor
+

Eplates
Q Q now insert an insulator

+ + +
+ + + What is the effect on the
A + + + electric field inside the
+ + + capacitor?
+ +
+
 Inside the plastic, Edipoles is complex
Outside the plastic consider E r around the closed path shown

E r will be positive outside the plastic

r
r

therefore the average field inside the plastic must point to the left
 Q Q
result is that the electric field
Eplates inside the capacitor is reduced.
Edipoles + + +
+ + +
Eapplied
+ + + E net
A + + + K
+ + + where K is the dielectric constant

K always > 1
Enet
Vvacuum
and Vinsulator
K
Q
Electric field inside a capacitor with a dielectric constant =
0 AK

Effect of dielectric: decreases the electric field

decreases the potential difference
 Dielectric constants for various insulators

Vacuum 1 (by definition)

Air 1.0006
Typical plastic 5
Sodium chloride 6.1
Water 80
Strontium titanate 310

1 2
Energy density associated with electric field = 2 0 E J m-3
general result do it yourself
M&I
16.10
 1 2 3 4 5

Originally V was 1000 volts.

A metal slab is inserted into the
capacitor.
Now V = VB VA =

1) + 1000 volts
2) +500 volts
3) 0 volts
4) 500 volts
5) 1000 volts
 1 2 3 4 5

With a plastic slab in the capacitor:

Now V = VB VA =

1. between 500 and 1000 volts

2. between +500 and+ 1000 volts
3. 500 volts
4. +500 volts
5. not enough information to tell
 Potential of distributed charges M&I
Potential along the axis of a ring 16.8

... with radius R and total charge Q

R2 z2
R Each point charge q on the
ring contributes:
z 1 q
V
4 0 R2 z 2

Adding up the potential contributed by all the point charges:

1 q 1 1 1 Q
Vring q
4 0 R 2
z 2 4 0 R 2
z 2 4 0 R2 z2
M&I Potential along the axis of a uniformly charged disk
16.12
j ... with radius R and total charge Q
1 q 1 Q 2 r r
Vring
4 0 z2 r2 4 0 A z2 r2
r i
1 Q R rdr
V
2 0 A 0 z2 r2
R
R
z 1 Q 2 2
z r
r 2 0 A 0

E
k 1 Q
V z2 R2 z
2 0 A
V 1 Q z
Check: Ez 1
z 2 0 A z 2 R2
1 2 3 4 5

What is VB VA?

1. 270 V
2. 18 V
3. 6V
4. 6 V
5. 18 V
6. 270 V
1 2 3 4 5

What is VB VA?

1. +1350 V
2. 1350 V
3. +3375 V
4. 3375 V
5. none of the above
1 2 3 4 5

VP VQ is:

1. positive
2. negative
3. zero
4. not enough information to tell
1 2 3 4 5

Along the semicircular path, VB VA is:

1. positive
2. negative
3. zero
4. not enough information to tell
1 2 3 4 5

Which of the following quantities are zero?

1. VC VA
2. VD VC
3. VB VD
4. VC VA and VB VD
5. VC VA and VB VD and VD VC
6. none of the above
1 2 3 4 5

Along the straight path through the metal sphere, VB VA is:

1. positive
2. negative
3. zero
4. not enough information to tell
M&I
Chapter 17
Magnetic Field

Electric fields E generated by the presence of charge

(stationary or moving)

Magnetic fields B generated by moving charge

 Electron current i
M&I
17.1

the number of electrons per second that enter a

section of a conductor

Simple circuits

refer to laboratory exercise on circuits ...

M&I
Detecting magnetic fields
17.2

Do it yourself and record results

What is the effect of the magnetic field of the Earth?

Detecting magnetic fields 2

Oersted, 1820

magnitude of B magnitude of current

zero current zero B
direction of B is perpendicular to direction of current
direction of B above the wire is opposite to direction of B
below the wire

B
M&I The Biot-Savart law for a single moving charge
17.3

qv r
Careful experimentation B 0

4 r2

0 permeability of free space

B = 4 10-7 T m A -1

0 = 10-7 T m A-1 exactly

r 4
r Units of B : tesla (T)
q +
v
 The cross product

A B ( Ay Bz Az By )i + (Az Bx Ax Bz )j + (Ax By Ay Bx )k
G where G A and G B

easy to remember: i j k always

Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
A

In polar form in 2D: A B AB sin k

B

where is the angle between tails of A and B .
 1 2 3 4 5
What is the direction of ...

A. < 0, 0, 3> < 0, 4, 0> ?

B. < 0, 4, 0> < 0, 0, 3> ?

C. < 0, 0, 6> < 0, 0, 3> ?

1. i
2. i
3. k
4. k
5. zero magnitude
 1 2 3 4 5

What is the direction of magnetic field at the observation location?

A. B. C.

1. i
2. i
3. k
4. k
5. zero magnitude
 1 2 3 4 5

At the observation location the magnetic field due to the proton

is in the z direction.
What is a possible direction for the velocity of the proton?

1. j
2. j
3. k
4. k
5. zero magnitude
 1 2 3 4 5

At the observation location the magnetic field due to the electron

is in the x direction.
What is a possible direction for the velocity of the electron?

1. j
2. j
3. k
4. k
5. zero magnitude
M&I Relativistic effects
17.4
qv r
0 v : velocity of source or observer?
B
4 r2

v
or
+ v +

Retardation
(no t in here) B B 0? B 0

+ v + v 0 + v 0

t1 t2 t3
M&I Electron current i
17.5
Metal wire of cross sectional area A.
Free electrons move under influence
E
of E.
A v
Drift speed of mobile electrons = v
v t

Distance traveled by electron sea in time t = v t

Number of mobile electrons in shaded cylinder = nAv t

where n is the number of mobile electrons per unit volume

Electron current i is the rate at which electrons pass a

section of a wire (number of electrons per second) = nAv
M&I Conventional current I
17.5

... runs in the opposite direction to electron current

... defined as the amount of charge (in coulombs) passing a
point per second
... given by the number of holes per second multiplied by the
(positive) charge associated with one hole

I q nAv

In metals, q e

I enAv
Units of I: ampere (A)
M&I
17.6 The Biot-Savart law for currents

Consider a small thin wire of length l and cross sectional area A.

If there are n moving charges per unit volume, then there are
nA l moving charges in this volume.
Then the total contribution to qv = nA l q v q nAv l I l

0 I l r
Now can write B
B 4 r2

where l is a vector with

r magnitude l pointing in the
direction of the conventional
r
current I
I
0
l = 10-7 T m A-1 exactly
4
 1 2 3 4 5

For each situation below, determine the direction of the

magnetic field at point P caused by the current in the short
section of wire in the dashed box.

A P B

I P I

C P

2 1. into the page

1 3 2. out of the page
3. zero
I
 1 2 3 4 5

For each situation below, determine the direction of the

magnetic field at point P caused by the current in the short
section of wire in the dashed box.
2
D E

P
1 2
1 P 3 I

I
1. into the page
2. out of the page
3. zero
M&I Magnetic field of a straight wire
17.7
... of length L, carrying current I
j
l yj
r xi yj
y y r Magnitude of r : r x2 y
2

r r xi yj
B Then r
r x2 y
2
x i
k
Then magnetic field B 0 I yj r
I
due to small piece only = 4 x 2 y 2

0I yj xi yj
4 x2 y 2 x2 y
2
 Magnetic field of a straight wire 2

I yj xi yj j xi yj xk
0
B
4 x2 y 2 x 2
y
2

I x y
B 0
3 k
4 x2 y2 2

Let y 0 and integrate over entire length L of wire

(only Bz is non-zero):
L
2 Tables of integrals
0 dy
Bz Ix 3
4 L
2
x y 2 2
2
L
2

0 y 0 LI
Bz Ix ...
4 x 2
x 2
y 2 4 x x2 L2
2
L
2
 Magnetic field of a straight wire 3

0 LI
Bwire can write r = x
4 r r2 L2
2

Check the result ... units? ... direction?

2 2
Special case L r : r r2 L2 r L2 r L2

02I
Then Bwire
4 r
I l
0
Another special case r L : Bwire I
4 r2

Direction of B wire ? ... use right hand rule

B wire
 Magnetic field of a straight wire 4

0 LI
Bwire
4 r r2 L2
2

B
B wire curls around the wire

VPython script
Bwire_with_r.py

Go to worksheets ...
Electric currents produce magnetic fields (1 & 2)
M&I Magnetic field along the axis of a circular loop of wire
17.8
j
l ... with radius R and current I

r l R i

i
r Rj zk
Magnitude of r : r R2 z2
R r
B r Rj zk
Then r
z k r R2 z2

Then magnetic field R i Rj zk

0 I l r 0
due to small piece only = I 3
4 r2 4 R 2
z 2 2
 Magnetic field along the axis of a circular loop of wire 2

R i Rj zk R i Rj zk
0
B I 3
4 R 2
z 2 2
zR j R 2 k

+zR j R 2 k
0
B I
r
3
4 R 2
z 2 2 B

R
See: z
B_loop_with_r_dB.py Bz

Only Bz will be non-zero:

0 IR 2
Bz 3
4 R 2
z 2 2
 loop of wire 3
Now let 0 and integrate around loop
2
2
0 I R 0 I R2
Bz 3 d = 3 2
4 R2 z2 2 4 R2 z2 2
0

2 I
0 2 I R
Bloop = 3 B
4 R 2
z 2 2

Check the result ... units? ... direction?

Special case: centre of the loop, z = 0

0 2 I
Bloop =
4 R
3 3
2 2 2
Another special case z R: R z
2
z 2
z3

0 2 R2 I
Bloop =
4 z3
Magnetic field at other locations outside the loop

use a computer program

B_loop_xy_xz.py
 1 2 3 4 5
What is the direction of magnetic field at the observation location?

A. B.

1. i
2. i
3. k
4. k
5. zero magnitude
 1 2 3 4 5

Which components of B1 at the observation location are nonzero?

1. z
2. y
3. x
4. y & z
5. x & y
6. x & z
7. all components
 1 2 3 4 5

Which components of B 2 at the observation location are nonzero?

1. z
2. y
3. x
4. y & z
5. x & y
6. x & z
7. all components
 1 2 3 4 5

What is the direction of magnetic field at location A? ... and B?

1) +x
2) x
3) +y
4) y
5) +z
6) z
7) zero magnitude
For each situation below, determine the 1 2 3 4 5
direction of the magnetic field at point P
caused by the current in the entire wire. P
A B P C
P

I I into page I

D E
1. into the page
P P 2. out of the page
3.
4.
5. zero
I I
M&I Magnetic dipole moment,
17.9
0 2 R2 I
Baxis = A
4 r3
B B
for r R

0 2
Write Baxis =
4 r3 I

Where the magnetic dipole moment = IA

In an applied magnetic field, a current-carrying loop rotates

so as to align the magnetic dipole moment with the field.
 M&I The magnetic field of a bar magnet
17.10

S N

0 2
Baxis =
4 r3
for both the bar magnet and ring of current

Be careful of
pictures like
this ...

what about magnetic monopoles?

 The magnetic field of the Earth

5
BEarth at Cape Town 2.6 10 T
 Magnetic dipole caused by a current loop

Determine the direction and magnitude of the magnetic dipole

moment produced by each current loop shown below:

20 cm r = 20 cm
r = 20 cm
I = 2.0 A

I = 2.0 A
15 cm I = 2.0 A

A B C
 Worked example: A circuit in the Antarctic
Say that a circuit containing a loop of wire
of radius 5 cm lies on a table in a lab in the
Antarctic. There is a 5 ampere current in the
wire. Say that you have a bar magnet with
A I
magnetic moment 1.2 A m2. How far above
location A (at the centre of the loop), and in
what orientation, should you hold the bar
magnet such that the net magnetic field at A
is zero. Take the Earths magnetic field at the
Antarctic to be 6 10-5 T.

B Earth points out of the page (out of ground at Antarctic)

B circuit points out of the page (out of table)
Therefore bar magnet needs to be orientated with its north pole
downward (into the page).
 Antarctic loop 2
dl k axis out
r
B Earth 6 10 5
T k
Bstraight wires 0
A R
I d l r
0
B3/4 loop dB
4 r2

Put the origin at the centre of the loop.

r R (constant)
At all locations dl r therefore d l r dl sin dl Rd
2 2
I Rd
0 IR 0 IR
0 2
B3/4 loop = d =
4 R2 4 R2 4 R2 2
2 2

3 I
B3/4 loop 0
k = ... = 4.7 10 5
T k
4 2R
 Antarctic loop 3

B Earth 6 10 5
T k
B Earth B3/4 loop 1.06 10 4
T k
B3/4 loop = 4.7 10 5
T k

Therefore want B magnet 1.06 10 4

T k

0 2 4
B magnet 1.06 10 T
4 z3

1
3 1
0
2 7
1 10 T m A -1
(2)(1.2 A m ) 2 3
z 4 0.13 m
4
Bmagnet 1.06 10 T
 M&I Bohr atomic model ...
17.11
The atomic
structure B B
of magnets

Each atomic current loop

contributes an amount 2
0 2 0 2 R I
of magnetic field: 3
=
4 r 4 r3
e e ev
I and A R2
T 2 R 2 R
v ev 2 1
IA R eRv
2 R 2
Estimating the magnetic dipole moment:
a simple model of the atom

dv v2
m m Fnet
dt R
+
v2 1 e2 R
m
R 4 0 R2

1 e2
v get v 1.6 106 m s-1 for R 10-10 m
4 0 R2m
1 19 10
Then eRv 1
2 (1.6 10 C)(10 m)(1.6 106 m s-1 )
2
23
1.3 10 A m 2 per atom
Estimating the magnetic dipole moment:
quantized angular momentum

Orbital angular momentum: L Rmv

1 1 e 1 e
Then eRv Rmv L
2 2m 2m

L is quantized in units of = 1.05 10-34 J s

1 e 1
2 (1.6 10 19 C) 34
31
(1.05 10 Js)
2m (9 10 kg)
23
0.9 10 A m 2 per atom
 The modern theory of magnets

... Bohr model too simplistic, really

Situation closer to ...

... information about location of electron is probabilistic

... spherically symmetric probability distributions average to zero
... non spherically symmetric probability distributions (p, d, f)
orbitals can contribute a non-zero magnetic dipole moment
... most atoms also have more than one electron!
 Spin

The electrons themselves also have spin ... which contributes a

significant magnetic dipole moment.

... but it is problematic to think of the electron as a spinning ball

of charge ...

... protons and neutrons in nuclei also have spin, but magnetic
dipole moment is much smaller, and can be ignored for this
purpose ... 1 e
2m
where m = mp or mn

... but not for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

... and the technology of magnetic resonance imaging (MR)
 Alignment of the atomic magnetic dipole moments

Most materials have no net orbital or spin magnetism.

In some materials (e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt, ...) the orbital and
spin motions of neighbouring atoms line up with each other
and can produce a sizable magnetic field

... ferromagnetic materials.

... explained by quantum mechanics

... alignment due to electric interactions between atoms, not
magnetic interactions.
In an ordinary piece of iron that is not a Magnetic domains
magnet, the material can be thought of being
made up of a patchwork of small regions
called magnetic domains within which the
alignment of the atomic magnetic dipole
moments is nearly perfect ...
... many of the individual atomic magnetic dipole moments are then
aligned wit the external field ... causing a significant field associated
with the material ...
... but normally these domains are randomly
orientated ... net magnetic effect is not
significant ... if the iron is placed within an
external magnetic field, the domains nearly
aligned with the field tend to grow, and
others might rotate to align with the field
If the external field is removed, this induced magnetism may
remain... can be destroyed by external force or heating.
M&I The magnetic field inside a solenoid
17.13 (by the application of the Biot-Savart law)
Tougher mathematics ... try it yourself ... ...
otherwise see later (Amperes Law)

N loops
NI
0
If L R : Bz
L
II
L R

solenoid_drag.py
M&I
Chapter 18
A Microscopic View of Electric Circuits

electron current i = no. of electrons per second passing a point

electron current flows in direction opposite to E
conventional current I = no. of coulombs per second = E
conventional current flows in the direction of q i

Static equilibrium : no charges are moving

Steady state : charges are moving, but their velocities do not
change (significantly) over time (and there is no change in the
deposits of excess charge anywhere)
M&I Current in different parts of a circuit
18.2

1 2 3 4 5
Consider a simple circuit:

+ A
-
+
-

1. iA = iB 2. iA > iB 3. iA < iB

What is being used up in the light bulb?

What is a light bulb?

 The current node rule

In a steady state, the electron current entering a node in a circuit is

equal to the electron current leaving that node.
... consequence of the principle of conservation of charge

Also known as the Kirchhoff node rule

i1 i1 = i2 = (i3+i4)
i3
i2
i4 But i3 need not be equal to i4

i2 = ? i2 = ?
i1= 5 A i1= 5 A
i3= 8 A i3= 8 A

i4 = 6 A i4 = 1 A
 M&I The start-stop motion of electrons in a wire
18.3
In order for electrons to move in a wire (i.e. for there to be a
current), there must be an electric field present to drive the sea of
mobile electrons.

Why is a (constant) electric field necessary ?

and what is the source of the electric field in the wire?

Why is a field necessary?

... the mobile electrons are constantly colliding with the lattice of
atomic cores, increasing the thermal motion of the atoms.
... electrons cannot push each other through the wire!
 The Drude model

A mobile electron in a metal, under the influence of an electric

field inside the metal, accelerates, gains energy, but then
collides with the lattice of atomic cores, which is vibrating
because of its own thermal energy.
The electron then gets accelerated again, collides,
The metal heats up as a result of this process.

Speed of
a single
v = drift speed
electron
v

time
 The Drude model 2

p
Momentum principle: Fnet eE
t
If an electron loses all its momentum in a collision, p p 0 eE t
p eE t
If speed of electron << c, write v
me me

eE t
Averaging over all collisions: v uE
me
e t
where u is the electron mobility
me
Different metals have different electron mobilities.
Then electron current: i nAv nAuE
 Electric field and drift speed in different elements of a circuit

Consider a part of a circuit where a wire leads into a thinner

section made of the same material ...

vthick
vthin

Since ithin ithick

Athick
nAthin vthin nAthick vthick or vthin vthick
Athin

The electrons move faster in the thinner section of wire.

... hence the electric field is larger in the thinner section.
 Direction of electric field in a wire

The current is the same in all parts E

of a series circuit, hence the
electric field E must be the same in
every part of the wire in a circuit
in a direction parallel to the wire at
every location, even if the wire
twists and turns

E must also be uniform

across a cross section of the
wire E A B

Convince yourself by thinking D C

about A

VABCDA E dl
A
M&I
18.4 What charges make the electric field in the wires?

In a steady state circuit ...

... there must be an electric field in the wires
... the magnitude of the electric field must be
the same throughout a wire of the same
geometry and material
... the direction of the electric field at every
location must be along the wire, since
the current follows the wire.
 Consider a very simple circuit consisting of a bulb connected
by long wires to a battery
Does the bulb shine any differently depending on
where the bulb is in relation to the battery?

No !

so where is the excess charge that creates the electric field

that drives the current in the circuit ?
 A mechanical battery

A conveyor belt
replenishes
electrons that have
left the negative
plate and travelled
around the circuit
to the positive
plate. v

v
 A mechanical battery ...2

Connected a bent Nichrome wire

across the terminals of a
mechanical battery

Think about E due to plates of battery

and v at points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

E v

Huh !?
 A mechanical battery ...3

Excess positive
+ charge builds up
Ebends + + here on the
Ebattery + surface of the
wire
Excess electrons
build up here on
the surface of the
wire
 A mechanical battery ...4

until Ebends > Ebattery and net field electric field points to the left

+
Ebends + +
+
++
Ebattery

This is an example of feedback

 A mechanical battery ...5
Charge build-up will occur at many points in the wire (not only at
bends) until in the steady state every point in the circuit will have
the same magnitude of E

E v
++
++

++
++ +
+ +
+
The distribution of
excess surface
charge in a circuit
can be quite
complicated

Remember that the

real situation is in
3D.

Think about this

simple case: What is the direction of the electric field here?

Typical electric fields: 5 V m-1

and only about 106 electrons per cm of wire near the negative
end of a 6 volt battery
M&I Connecting a circuit: the initial transient
18.5

gap

At t = 0, there is a gap in the circuit

... and E = 0 everywhere in the wire
 Connecting a circuit: the initial transient 2

Look more closely at the

gap region and consider
electric field inside the
wire due to surface
charges in gap region:

Egap faces

Net electric field inside the

wire must be zero, hence
other charges must
contribute Eother, as shown:

Eother
 Connecting a circuit: the initial transient 3

Now close the gap.

Charges on facing ends of wire
neutralize each other, and net
field is given by Eother only
But there is a large unstable
discontinuity in surface charge
distribution:
Electrons will move under the
influence of Eother
After a fraction of a nanosecond,
the new distribution might look
like this (a more gradual change
in the charge distribution):
 Connecting a circuit: the initial transient 4
All this happens at the speed of light.
The electrons do not have to move
very far in order to effect a significant
surface charge distribution. E=0
The electric field is still zero at other
locations in the circuit (information
hasnt yet reached these regions!) E 0

After a few nanoseconds the

rearrangement of charges will have
extended to all parts of the circuit
leads to the steady state situation
where E has uniform magnitude
everywhere ..
If a typical electron drift speed is around 5 10-5 m s-1, why does
the light come on immediately when you throw the switch?
 M&I Feedback
18.6
Feedback during the initial transient produces the right amounts of
surface charge to create the appropriate steady state field.
it also maintains these steady-state conditions

feedback leads to current equalisation

Two cases:
i1 > i2 i1 < i2
i1 i2 i1 i2

i1 - - - - i2 i1 + + + i2
- - - - + + +

Negative surface charge Positive surface charge

buildup until i1 = i2 buildup until i1 = i2
What happens if we bend a wire which is carrying a current?

Extra charge builds up on the

- - bend until there are enough
- - there to repel on-coming
- - - - - - -
-
elections just enough too make
i - them turn the corner, without
-
- - - - - - - running into the side of the
wire.

In summary
Feedback in a circuit leads to surface charges and steady
state current: E 0 inside a metal.
Feedback in static electricity situations leads to static
equilibrium: E 0 inside a metal.
 M&I
18.7 Surface charge and resisitors
Consider a circuit container a resistor
comprising a thin section of Nichrome wire
Charge will build up at various places on the
wire, as discussed before, but in particular, a
resistor significant amount of charge will build up on
either side of the thin section. Why?

The electric field in the resistor

needs to be high enough for
there to be the same current in
the resistor as elsewhere in the
circuit.
Eresistor
i nAthick uEthick nAthin uEthin
Ewire or Athick
Ethin Ethick
Athin
 A wide resistor: charges on the interface

What about a wide resistor? It would need to be made of a

different material (say carbon) to the (Nichrome) wire, and
hence will have a different mobility u.
The steady state electric field in the carbon needs to be much
larger than the wire, hence electrons will tend to build up not
only on the outer surfaces of the wire and resistor, but also on
the interfaces between the wire and resistor in order to make
an electric field of large enough magnitude.
+++ ++ +
+ Eresistor
Ewire + Ewire
+ i
+++ ++ +
 M&I Energy in a circuit
18.8

Consider the path of a single electron as it moves around a

circuit: energy gained as it moves across the mechanical battery,
then lost in collisions with atomic cores
Or we can think about the energy per unit charge gained or lost in
a trip around the circuit.

* We know that over any path the round-trip potential

difference must be zero.

The loop rule (energy conservation)

V1 V2 V3 ... 0 along any closed path in a circuit

This is essentially the energy principle,

but on a per unit charge basis.
Potential difference across a battery FNC

Turn on the belt (with no external

circuit) and transport electrons from
the left, to the right hand plate.
The belt exerts a non-Coulomb
force FNC on each electron. FC eEC FNC

Charge build up on the plates. These

EC of plates
charges exert a Coulomb force
on each electron being transported.

Eventually FC eEC FNC and the FC FNC

motor cannot pump any more charge
and the plates are charged up as
much as they can be. EC of plates
 Potential difference across a battery 2
If the distance between the plates of the mechanical battery
is s and the electric field EC of the charged plates is uniform
between the plates, then the potential difference across the
battery is
FNC s
Vbattery EC s
e
The quantity FNC s e is the energy input per unit charge (a
property of the battery and is called the emf of the battery.)
The emf of a battery is measured in volts, although it is not
a potential difference.

Role of a battery:
A battery maintains potential difference across the terminals
of the battery, and this potential difference is numerically
equal to the batterys emf.
Connect a wire across the Internal resistance
terminals of the battery
FC eEC FNC
... for a steady state, the transport
of electrons in the battery must
equal the current in the wire. v
If there is no resistance to the
movement of charge in the battery,
then FC FNC
However, in any real battery there is
internal resistance. FNC
The drift velocity in the battery: v u EC
e
Since FNC is fixed, the maximum drift speed is when EC =0, which
means there is no charge on the ends of the battery and Vbattery 0
We will assume (ideal battery) that u is high inside the battery, so
is reasonable
v even if FC is nearly as large as FNC, and
hence Vbattery emf
[... see later how to deal with real batteries ...]
 Field and current in a simple circuit
In the situation alongside, the Einside battery
electric field inside the
mechanical battery points in FNC
the opposite direction to the
electric field in the
neighbouring wires ...
Starting at the negative plate and
going anti-clockwise ... E

... potential increase of +emf across the battery

... then a potential drop of EL along the wire of length L.
For the round trip: Vbattery Vwire 0
emf
or emf ( EL) 0 E
L
... gives a way of determining E and hence I enAuE
 Two different paths i3
i3
Following the dashed path i1
E3
through wires L2 and L3: i2

Potential rise: +E2L2 along L2 L3 E2

L2 E1
Potential rise: +E3L3 along L3
L1
Potential drop: emf through the battery i3 = i1 + i2
For the round trip: +E2L2 +E3L3 emf = 0

And along path through L1 and L3:

For the round trip: +E1L1 +E3L3 emf = 0
This implies that E1L1 = E2L2
... which makes sense since with the same starting and ending
points the two wires have the same potential difference
Also i3 = i1 + i2 due to the current node rule.
General use of the loop rule B C D

Consider one loop of loop loop

a multi-loop circuit: 1 2

A F E
Any round trip potential
difference must be zero:
V2 = VC VB
V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 0 B C

Hence:
(VB VA)
V1 = loop V3 =
+ (VC VB)
VB VA 1 VF VC
+ (VF VC)
+ (VA VF) = 0
A F
V4 = VA VF 0
M&I E1
E4
18.9 A D E3
L1 L3 E3
E1
Energy conservation circuits E1 B C E2
L2
Consider the circuit shown
which contains a (thin) resistor: V VB VA

The electric field is the (negative) VC VB

gradient of the potential. VA VD
VD VC

E2 E4

Going around the circuit: E1 E3

E
V1 + V2 + V3 + Vbattery = 0
( E1L1) + ( E2L2) + ( E3L3) + emf = 0
M&I
18.10 Applications of the theory

The current node rule (conservation of charge):

In the steady state, for many electrons flowing

into and out of a node:
Electron current: net iin = net iout where i nAuE

Conventional current: net Iin = net Iout where I q nAuE

The loop rule (conservation of energy):

In the steady state, for any round-trip path:

V1 V2 V3 ... 0
 1 2 3 4 5

1. iA > iB

2. iA = iB

3. iA < iB
 1 2 3 4 5

What comprises a current in a circuit?

1. Electrons push each other through the wire

2. Since there is no friction, no force is needed to keep

electrons moving

3. A nonzero electric field inside the wire keeps the

electrons moving
 1 2 3 4 5

1. i1 > i2

2. i1 = i2

3. i1 < i2

4. Not enough information

 1 2 3 4 5

1. v1 > v2

2. v1 = v2

3. v1 < v2

4. Not enough information

 1 2 3 4 5

A1 = 4*A2

1. E1 = 4*E2

2. E1 = (1/4)*E2

3. E1 = (1/16)*E2

4. E1 = 16*E2

5. Not enough information

 1 2 3 4 5

n1 = (1/3)*n2

1. E1 = 3*E2

2. E1 = (1/3)*E2

3. E1 = (1/9)*E2

4. E1 = 9*E2

5. Not enough information

1 2 3 4 5

In the next tiny fraction of a

second, what will happen at
the RIGHT bend in the
wire?

1. Nothing will change

2. The right bend will become negative
3. The right bend will become positive
 1 2 3 4 5

In the same tiny fraction of

a second, what will happen
at the LEFT bend in the
wire?

1. Nothing will change

2. The left bend will become negative
3. The left bend will become positive
1 2 3 4 5

Where will the excess

positive charge of the
right bend be located?

1. Inside the wire

2. On the surface of the wire
3. Both inside the wire and on the surface of the wire
1 2 3 4 5

At location 4, what is the

direction of E due only to
the charges on the
surface of the wire?

1. Esurface = 0

2. Esurface to the right

3. Esurface to the left

1 2 3 4 5

The wires have the same

length L and cross-sectional
area A, but are from different
materials.
Same us, but n1 = 2*n2

1. E2 = emf/(1.5*L)

2. E2 = emf/L

3. E2 = emf/(2*L)

4. E2 = 1.5*emf/L
 1 2 3 4 5

What is the pattern of electric field in this steady-state circuit?

1. 2.

3. 4.
 1 2 3 4 5

What charges make the

electric field inside the
wire in this circuit?

1. The moving electrons inside the wire

2. Charges on the battery and the surface of the wire
3. Only charges on the battery
4. Only charges on the surface of the wire
 1 2 3 4 5
Circuit 1: 1 battery, NiCr wire
length L
cross-sectional area A
electric field E1 inside wire

Circuit 2: 1 battery, NiCr wire

length (3L)
cross-sectional area A
electric field E2 inside wire.

Which statement is correct?

1. E1 = E2
2. E1 = 3*E2
3. E1 = E2/3
 1 2 3 4 5
Circuit 1: 1 battery, NiCr wire
length L
cross-sectional area A
electric field E1 inside wire

Circuit 2: 1 battery, NiCr wire

length L
cross-sectional area (4A)
electric field E2 inside wire.

Which statement is correct?

1. E1 = E2
2. E1 = 4*E2
3. E1 = E2/4
 1 2 3 4 5
Circuit 1: 1 battery, NiCr wire
length L
cross-sectional area A

Circuit 2: 1 battery, NiCr wire

length L
cross-sectional area (4A)

Which statement is correct?

1. i1 = i2
2. i1 = 4*i2
3. i1 = i2/4
 1 2 3 4 5

Energy conservation (loop) equation:

1. +emf E*(2L1 + L2) = 0

2. +emf + E*(2L1 + L2) = 0
3. +emf 2E1L1 E2L2 = 0
4. +emf + 2E1L1 E2L2 = 0
5. None of the above
 1 2 3 4 5

Current conservation (node) equation:

1. i1 = 2*i2
2. 2i1 = i2
3. i1 = i2
4. i1 = (A2/A1)*i2
5. None of the above
emf = 1.5 V 1 2 3 4 5
n = 9 1028 electrons/m3,
u = 7 10-5 (m/s)/(V/m)
L1 = 0.2 m, L2 = 0.05 m
A1 = 9 10-8 m2, A2 = 1.5 10-8 m2

What is E2?

1. 50.4 V/m
2. 12.86 V/m
3. 3.15 V/m
4. 0.788 V/m
5. None of the above
 Applications of the theory
...refer to laboratory on circuits ...

Bulbs in parallel
Connect two identical light i1
bulbs in parallel with a
battery ... i2
Both shine with same
i3 = i1 + i2
brightness ...
Remember brightness equates to resistance

For a path through one bulb: 2 emf EL 0

And the other: 2 emf EL 0
(L = filament length)
2 emf
Electric field is thus the same in each light bulb: E
L
 Bulbs in parallel ...2
Why does the current divide through parallel resistors?

Consider the circuit alongside ... in

steady state ...
...containing two wide resistors in
parallel ...
Electrons move into the dead-end
until the surface charge there
becomes so negatively charged
that no more electrons can enter.

(Effect is that the wire seems

slightly wider at the junction, but
no more electrons move into the
dead-end branch.)
 Bulbs in parallel ...3
Now complete the parallel
connection ... leads to a
rearrangement of the surface
and interface charges.
Some electrons now take the
upper branch and some the
lower branch.
There is also a larger current
through the battery and a larger
gradient of surface charge along
the wires to drive the larger
current.
Current in each branch depends on the mobility in each branch ...
... surface charge might build up differently in each branch
... and hence a different current in the branches.
Very important !

Work through ....

M&I Example problem: A circuit and a wide wire

No shortcuts!
A circuit and a wide wire 2