Chapter 4

UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL PERCEPTION AND MANAGING DIVERSITY

Organizational Behavior
By: Aditya Achmal

1. Social Information Processing Model of Perception

Perception is a cognitive process that enables us to interpret and

understand our surroundings. Recognition of objects is one of this majors
functions. Social perception involves a four-stage information processing
sequence (hence, the label social information processing). Selective
attention/comprehension, encoding and simplification, and storage and retention
describe how specific social information is observed and stored in memory. The
fourth and final stage, retrieval and response, involves turning mental
representations into real world judgements and decisions.

a. Stage 1: Selective Attention/ Comprehension

Attention is Process of becoming consciously aware of something or
someone. It can be focused on information either from the environment, or
memory. Salient stimuli is something that stands out from context. For
example, an elephant would certainly be a salient in a group of zebras.
b. Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification
Observed information is not stored in memory in its original form.
Perceivers assign pieces of information to cognitive categories. Objects are
interpreted and evaluated by comparing their characteristics with the ones
contained in schemata/schema. Schema Represents a persons mental
picture or summary of a particular event or type of stimulus. People use
stereotypes during encoding information -- an individuals set of beliefs about
the characteristics or attributes of a group. Stereotype is not always negative,
and may or may not be accurate. Stereotypes are maintained by:
Overestimating the frequency of stereotypic behavior exhibited by others
Incorrectly explaining expected and unexpected behaviors
Differentiating minority individuals from oneself
 c. Stage 3: Storage and Retention
This phase involves storage of information in long-term memory. Long-
term memory made up of three compartments containing categories of
information:
Event memory : information about both specific and general events,
Semantic memory : general knowledge about the world, mental dictionary
of concepts,
Person memory : information about a single individual or groups of people.
d. Stage 4: Retrieval and Response

Judgements and decisions are either based on the process of drawing

on, interpreting, and integrating categorical information stored in long-term
memory, or retrieving a summary judgment that was already made.

2. Managerial Implications
a. Hiring
Interviewers make hiring decisions based on their impression of how
an applicant fits the perceived requirements of a job and on the basis of
implicit cognition. Implicit cognition represents any thoughts or beliefs that are
automatically activated from memory without our conscious awareness. The
bias can be reduced. To do so, managers can be trained, or using structured
as opposed to unstructured interviews (multiple interviewers).
b. Performance appraisal
It is a great importance for managers to accurately identify the
behavioral characteristics and results indicative of good performance.
Characteristics can serve as the benchmarks for evaluating employee
performance. Objective and subjective measures of performance are not
interchangeable. Managers are thus advised to use more objectively based
measure of performance as much as possible.
c. Leadership
Employees evaluations of leader effectiveness are influenced strongly
by their schemata of good and poor leaders. Good leaders exhibit the
following behaviors: (1) assigning specific tasks to group members, (2) telling
others they had done well, (3) setting specific goals for the group, (4) letting
the other member of the group make the decisions, (5) trying to get the group
to work as a team, (6) maintaining definite standards of performance.
d. Communication and interpersonal behavior
Social perception is a screening process that can distort
communication, both coming and going. Ability to influence others is affected
 by information contained by others schemata regarding age, gender, ethnicity,
appearance, speech, mannerisms, personality, and other personal
characteristics.
e. Counterproductive work behavior
Counterproductive work behavior is exhibited when employees
perceived that they were treated unfairly. Managers has to treat the
employees fairly.
f. Physical and Psychological well-being

Perception of fear, harm, and anxiety are associated with the onset of illness
such as asthma and depression. We need to let go of negative thoughts.

3. Causal Attributions
Causal attributions are a suspected or inferred causes of behavior. Heider,
the founder of the attribution theory proposed that behavior can be attributed to
either internal factors within a person (such as ability), or external factors within
environment (such as difficult task). Kelly hypothesized that people make causal
attributions after gathering information about three dimensions of behavior:
consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.

Consensus involves a comparison of an individuals behavior with that of

his/her peers. Distinctiveness is determined by comparing a persons behavior on
one task with his or her behavior on other tasks. Consistency is determined by
judging if the individuals performance on a given task is consistent over time.
Kelly hypothesized that people attribute behavior to external causes when they
perceive high consensus, high distinctiveness, and low consistency. Internal
attributions tend to be made when observer behavior is characterized by low
consensus and distinctiveness, and high consistency.

4. Attributional Tendencies

The fundamental attribution bias reflects ones tendency to attribute

another persons behavior to his or her personal characteristics, as opposed to
situational factors. Self-serving bias represents ones tendency to take more
personal responsibility for success than for failure. Managers tend to
disproportionately attribute behavior to internal causes. An employees
attributions for his own performance have dramatic effects on subsequent
motivation, performance, and self-esteem.
5. Defining and Managing Diversity

Diversity represents the multitude of individual differences and similarities

that exist among people. Personality represents stable set of characteristics that
is responsible for a persons identity. Effectively managing diversity requires a
new way of thinking about differences among people, as it enables people to
perform up to their maximum potential. Affirmative action is an artificial
intervention aimed at giving management a chance to correct an imbalance, an
injustice, a mistake, or outright discrimination that occurred in the past.

6. Barriers and Challenges to Managing Diversity

Organizations encounter barriers when it comes to managing diversity.
The most common barriers to implementing successful diversity programs are:
a. Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice. This barrier manifests itself in the belief
that differences are viewed as weakness.
b. Ethnocentrism. It represents the feeling that ones cultural rules and norms
are superior or more appropriate.
c. Poor career planning. This is associated with the lack of opportunities for
diverse employees to get the type of work assignments that qualify them for
senior management positions
d. An unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse employees.
Sexual, racial, and age harassment are common examples of hostile work
environment.
e. Lack of political savvy on the part of diverse employees. Diverse employees
may not get promoted if they do not know how to play the game.
f. Difficulty in balancing career and family issues. It relates with ones role at
household chores.
g. Fears of reverse discrimination. It relates to belief that managing diversity is a
smoke screen for reverse discrimination, which leads to strong resistance.
h. Diversity is not seen as an organizational priority. It leads to subtle resistance
that show up in the form of complaints and negative attitudes.
i. The need to revamp the organizations performance appraisal and reward
system. Employees are likely to resist changes that adversely affect their
promotions and financial rewards.

j. Resistance to change. Effectively managing diversity entails significant

organizational and personal change, and people for many reasons resist
changes.
 R. Roosevelt Thomas Jrs Generic Action Options
a. Include/exclude. The primary goal is to either significantly increase or
decrease the number of diverse people at all levels of the organization.
b. Deny. People using this option deny that differences exists.
c. Assimilate. The basic premise is that diverse people will learn to fit in or
become like the dominant group.
d. Suppress. Differences are squelched or discouraged.
e. Isolate. Managers can isolate people by putting them in the same special
project, work groups, or departments in the organization.
f. Tolerate. It entails acknowledging differences but not valuing or accepting
them.
g. Build relationships. Good relationships can overcome differences.
h. Foster Mutual Adaption. People are willing to adapt or change their views for
the sake of creating positive relationship with others.

References:

Kinicki, A., Fugate, M. 2013. Organizational Behavior: Fifth Edition. McGraw Hill
International Edition, USA.