Solar cells made from an inexpensive and increasingly popular material called perovskite can more efficiently turn

sunlight
into electricity using a new technique to sandwich two types of perovskite into a single photovoltaic cell.

This first version of a new layered perovskite solar cell already achieves an efficiency of more than 20 percent, rivaling many commercial
solar cells. Flexible and easy to make, it can produce more than half a volt of electricity. (Photo by Onur Ergen)

Perovskite solar cells are made of a mix of organic molecules and inorganic elements that together capture light and convert
it into electricity, just like todays more common silicon-based solar cells. Perovskite photovoltaic devices, however, can be
made more easily and cheaply than silicon and on a flexible rather than rigid substrate. The first perovskite solar cells could
go on the market next year, and some have been reported to capture 20 percent of the suns energy.
In a paper appearing online today in advance of publication in the journal Nature Materials, University of California, Berkeley,
and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory scientists report a new design that already achieves an average steady-state
efficiency of 18.4 percent, with a high of 21.7 percent and a peak efficiency of 26 percent.

We have set the record now for different parameters of perovskite solar cells, including the efficiency, said senior author
Alex Zettl, a UC Berkeley professor of physics, senior faculty member at Berkeley Lab and member of the Kavli Energy
Nanosciences Institute. The efficiency is higher than any other perovskite cell 21.7 percent which is a phenomenal
number, considering we are at the beginning of optimizing this.

This has a great potential to be the cheapest photovoltaic on the market, plugging into any home solar system, said Onur
Ergen, the lead author of the paper and a UC Berkeley physics graduate student.

The efficiency is also better than the 10-20 percent efficiency of polycrystalline silicon solar cells used to power most
electronic devices and homes. Even the purest silicon solar cells, which are extremely expensive to produce, topped out at
about 25 percent efficiency more than a decade ago.
The achievement comes thanks to a new way to combine two perovskite solar cell materials each tuned to absorb a
different wavelength or color of sunlight into one graded bandgap solar cell that absorbs nearly the entire spectrum of
visible light. Previous attempts to merge two perovskite materials have failed because the materials degrade one anothers
electronic performance.
This is realizing a graded bandgap solar cell in a relatively easy-to-control and easy-to-manipulate system, Zettl said. The
nice thing about this is that it combines two very valuable features the graded bandgap, a known approach, with
perovskite, a relatively new but known material with surprisingly high efficiencies to get the best of both worlds.

Full-spectrum solar cells

Materials like silicon and perovskite are semiconductors, which means they conduct electricity only if the electrons can
absorb enough energy from a photon of light, for example to kick them over a forbidden energy gap or bandgap. These
materials preferentially absorb light at specific energies or wavelengths the bandgap energy but inefficiently at other
wavelengths.
Cross section of the new solar cell, showing the two perovskite layers (beige and red) separated by a single-atom layer of boron nitride and
the thicker graphene aerogel (dark gray), which prevents moisture from destroying the perovskite. Gallium nitride (blue) and gold (yellow)
electrodes channel the electrons generated when light hits the solar cell.

In this case, we are swiping the entire solar spectrum from infrared through the entire visible spectrum, Ergen said. Our
theoretical efficiency calculations should be much, much higher and easier to reach than for single-bandgap solar cells
because we can maximize coverage of the solar spectrum.
The key to mating the two materials into a tandem solar cell is a single-atom thick layer of hexagonal boron nitride, which
looks like a layer of chicken wire separating the perovskite layers from one other. In this case, the perovskite materials are
made of the organic molecules methyl and ammonia, but one contains the metals tin and iodine, while the other contains
lead and iodine doped with bromine. The former is tuned to preferentially absorb light with an energy of 1 electron volt (eV)
infrared, or heat energy while the latter absorbs photons of energy 2 eV, or an amber color.

The monolayer of boron nitride allows the two perovskite materials to work together and make electricity from light across
the whole range of colors between 1 and 2 eV.

The perovskite/boron nitride sandwich is placed atop a lightweight aerogel of graphene that promotes the growth of finer-
grained perovskite crystals, serves as a moisture barrier and helps stabilize charge transport though the solar cell, Zettl said.
Moisture makes perovskite fall apart.
The whole thing is capped at the bottom with a gold electrode and at the top by a gallium nitride layer that collects the
electrons that are generated within the cell. The active layer of the thin-film solar cell is about 400 nanometers thick.
Our architecture is a bit like building a quality automobile roadway, Zettl said. The graphene aerogel acts like the firm,
crushed rock bottom layer or foundation, the two perovskite layers are like finer gravel and sand layers deposited on top of
that, with the hexagonal boron nitride layer acting like a thin-sheet membrane between the gravel and sand that keeps the
sand from diffusing into or mixing too much with the finer gravel. The gallium nitride layer serves as the top asphalt layer.
It is possible to add even more layers of perovskite separated by hexagonal boron nitride, though this may not be necessary,
given the broad-spectrum efficiency theyve already obtained, the researchers said.
People have had this idea of easy-to-make, roll-to-roll photovoltaics, where you pull plastic off a roll, spray on the solar
material, and roll it back up, Zettl said. With this new material, we are in the regime of roll-to-roll mass production; its really
almost like spray painting.

1. Introduction to Photovoltaic (Solar) Cells

 Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of semiconducting materials that can convert incident radiation in the solar spectrum to electric currents. PV cells are most commonly made of
silicon, and come in two varieties, crystalline and thin-film type, as detailed in Table 1.
Table 1 - Crystalline (Wafer-Based) and Thin-Film Photovoltaic Cells

When a photon is absorbed by a semiconducting material, it increases the energy of a valence band electron, thrusting it into the conduction band. This occurs when the energy
of incident photons is higher than the bandgap energy. The conducting band electron then produces a current that moves through the semiconducting material.

Figure 1 Cross-Section of a PV Cell

The amount of current generated by photon excitation in a PV cell at a given temperature is affected by incident light in two ways:
By the intensity of the incident light.
By the wavelength of the incident rays.
The materials used in PV cells have different spectral responses to incident light, and exhibit a varying sensitivity with respect to the absorption of photons at given
wavelengths. Each semiconductor material will have an incident radiation threshold frequency, below which no electrons will be subjected to the photovoltaic effect. Above the
threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron varies according to the wavelength of the incident radiation, but has no relation to the light intensity.
Increasing light intensity will proportionally increase the rate of photoelectron emission in the photovoltaic material. In actual applications, the light absorbed by a solar cell will
be a combination of direct solar radiation, as well as diffuse light bounced off of surrounding surfaces. Solar cells are usually coated with anti-reflective material so that they
absorb the maximum amount of radiation possible.
PV cells can be arranged in a series configuration to form a module, and modules can then be connected in parallel-series configurations to form arrays. When connecting cells
or modules in series, they must have the same current rating to produce an additive voltage output, and similarly, modules must have the same voltage rating when connected
in parallel to produce larger currents.

Figure 2 - Solar Panel Configurations

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 2. Summary
This section contained a summary of photovoltaic (solar) cells. More information about I-V characterization theory and test systems can be found in the subsequent parts:

Table of Contents
1. Theory of I-V Characterization
2. Toolkit for I-V Analysis with LabVIEW
3. Summary
1. Theory of I-V Characterization
PV cells can be modeled as a current source in parallel with a diode. When there is no light present to generate any current, the PV cell behaves like a diode. As the intensity
of incident light increases, current is generated by the PV cell, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1 I-V Curve of PV Cell and Associated Electrical Diagram

In an ideal cell, the total current I is equal to the current I generated by the photoelectric effect minus the diode current ID, according to the equation:

where I0 is the saturation current of the diode, q is the elementary charge 1.6x10-19 Coulombs, k is a constant of value 1.38x10-23J/K, T is the cell temperature in Kelvin, and V is
the measured cell voltage that is either produced (power quadrant) or applied (voltage bias). A more accurate model will include two diode terms, however, we will concentrate
on a single diode model in this document.
Expanding the equation gives the simplified circuit model shown below and the following associated equation, where n is the diode ideality factor (typically between 1 and 2),
and RS and RSH represents the series and shunt resistances that are described in further detail later in this document:

Figure 2 - Simplified Equivalent Circuit Model for a Photovoltaic Cell

The I-V curve of an illuminated PV cell has the shape shown in Figure 3 as the voltage across the measuring load is swept from zero to VOC, and many performance parameters
for the cell can be determined from this data, as described in the sections below.

Figure 3 - Illuminated I-V Sweep Curve

Short Circuit Current (ISC)
The short circuit current ISC corresponds to the short circuit condition when the impedance is low and is calculated when the voltage equals 0.
I (at V=0) = ISC
ISC occurs at the beginning of the forward-bias sweep and is the maximum current value in the power quadrant. For an ideal cell, this maximum current value is the total current
produced in the solar cell by photon excitation.
ISC = IMAX = I for forward-bias power quadrant
Open Circuit Voltage (VOC)
The open circuit voltage (VOC) occurs when there is no current passing through the cell.
V (at I=0) = VOC
VOC is also the maximum voltage difference across the cell for a forward-bias sweep in the power quadrant.
VOC= VMAX for forward-bias power quadrant
Maximum Power (PMAX), Current at PMAX (IMP), Voltage at PMAX (VMP)
The power produced by the cell in Watts can be easily calculated along the I-V sweep by the equation P=IV. At the ISC and VOC points, the power will be zero and the maximum
value for power will occur between the two. The voltage and current at this maximum power point are denoted as VMP and IMP respectively.

Figure 4 - Maximum Power for an I-V Sweep

Fill Factor (FF)
The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is calculated by comparing the maximum power to the theoretical power (P T) that would be output at
both the open circuit voltage and short circuit current together. FF can also be interpreted graphically as the ratio of the rectangular areas depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5 - Getting the Fill Factor From the I-V Sweep

A larger fill factor is desirable, and corresponds to an I-V sweep that is more square-like. Typical fill factors range from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often represented as a
percentage.
Efficiency ()
Efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output Pout, compared to the solar power input, Pin, into the PV cell. Pout can be taken to be PMAX since the solar cell can be operated
up to its maximum power output to get the maximum efficiency.

Pin is taken as the product of the irradiance of the incident light, measured in W/m2 or in suns (1000 W/m2), with the surface area of the solar cell [m2]. The maximum efficiency
(MAX) found from a light test is not only an indication of the performance of the device under test, but, like all of the I-V parameters, can also be affected by ambient conditions
such as temperature and the intensity and spectrum of the incident light. For this reason, it is recommended to test and compare PV cells using similar lighting and temperature
conditions. These standard test conditions are discussed in Part III.
Shunt Resistance (RSH) and Series Resistance (RS)
During operation, the efficiency of solar cells is reduced by the dissipation of power across internal resistances. These parasitic resistances can be modeled as a parallel shunt
resistance (RSH) and series resistance (RS), as depicted in Figure 2.
For an ideal cell, RSH would be infinite and would not provide an alternate path for current to flow, while R S would be zero, resulting in no further voltage drop before the load.
Decreasing RSH and increasing Rs will decrease the fill factor (FF) and PMAX as shown in Figure 6. If RSH is decreased too much, VOCwill drop, while increasing RS excessively can
cause ISC to drop instead.

Figure 6 - Effect of Diverging Rs & RSH From Ideality

It is possible to approximate the series and shunt resistances, RS and RSH, from the slopes of the I-V curve at VOC and ISC, respectively. The resistance at Voc, however, is at best
proportional to the series resistance but it is larger than the series resistance. R SH is represented by the slope at ISC. Typically, the resistances at ISC and at VOC will be measured
and noted, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 - Obtaining Resistances from the I-V Curve

If incident light is prevented from exciting the solar cell, the I-V curve shown in Figure 8 can be obtained. This I-V curve is simply a reflection of the No Light curve from Figure
1 about the V-axis. The slope of the linear region of the curve in the third quadrant (reverse-bias) is a continuation of the linear region in the first quadrant, which is the same
linear region used to calculate RSH in Figure 7. It follows that RSH can be derived from the I-V plot obtained with or without providing light excitation, even when power is sourced
to the cell. It is important to note, however, that for real cells, these resistances are often a function of the light level, and can differ in value between the light and dark tests.

Figure 8 - I-V Curve of Solar Cell Without Light Excitation

Temperature Measurement Considerations
The crystals used to make PV cells, like all semiconductors, are sensitive to temperature. Figure 9 depicts the effect of temperature on an I-V curve. When a PV cell is exposed
to higher temperatures, ISC increases slightly, while VOC decreases more significantly.
 Figure 9 - Temperature Effect on I-V Curve
For a specified set of ambient conditions, higher temperatures result in a decrease in the maximum power output PMAX. Since the I-V curve will vary according to temperature, it
is beneficial to record the conditions under which the I-V sweep was conducted. Temperature can be measured using sensors such as RTDs, thermistors or thermocouples.
I-V Curves for Modules
For a module or array of PV cells, the shape of the I-V curve does not change. However, it is scaled based on the number of cells connected in series and in parallel. When n is
the number of cells connected in series and m is the number of cells connected in parallel and ISC and VOC are values for individual cells, the I-V curve shown in Figure 10 is
produced.

Figure 10 - I-V Curve for Modules and Arrays

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2. Toolkit for I-V Analysis with LabVIEW
Using LabVIEW analysis capabilities you can assess the main performance parameters for photovoltaic (PV) cells and modules. In order to facilitate the I-V analysis, National
Instruments has created hardware-independent LabVIEW functions to perform the forward-bias I-V characterization analysis.
There are two versions of the toolkit that are available for download: one is hardware independent, and can be used with previously acquired data, while the other can in
addition acquire the data using a NI PXI-4130 Power SMU. Both versions will apply the same IV analysis functions to the measured data. Figure 11 shows a screenshot of one
of the toolkits main VIs that reads data from a file (the sample data is included with the download).
For more information, or to download the toolkit, refer to the following link: Toolkit for I-V Characterization of Photovoltaic Cells.
 [+] Enlarge Image
Figure 11 - LabVIEW VI for Photovoltaic Solar Cell Characterization

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3. Summary
In this paper, we looked at the theory behind I-V characterization and we also provided a LabVIEW toolkit that is hardware independent to perform the I-V analysis that can be
downloaded by researchers and engineers.
In the next section, Part III, we explore an example test system to perform I-V characterization that takes advantage of NI LabVIEW and NI PXI-4130 SMU.