BIOLOGY 12 LE1

TAXONOMIC RANK

Domain
Kingdom
Phylum/Division: -phyta
Class: -opsida
Order: -ales
Family: -aceae
Genus: Zea
Species: Zea mays
Scientific name: Zea mays L.

DOMAINS

1. Eukarya
2. Archaea
3. Bacteria

5 KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

PROKARYOTIC
1. Monera
A. Archaea: no peptidoglycan
B. Eubacteria: peptidoglycan cell wall

EUKARYOTIC
2. Protista
3. Plantae
4. Fungi
5. Animalia

CELLS

PARTS
1. Plasma membrane: fluid-mosaic model
2. Genetic material
A. DNA: made up of nucleotides & nucleic acids (AT, CG), sugar, phosphate,
nitrogen bases
B. RNA: sugar, nitrogen base (AT, CG)
3. Ribosomes: protein synthesis
4. Source of energy
 Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Plasma Membrane - No membrane bound - Membrane bound
organelles organelles
Genetic Material - Scattered DNA & - Enclosed in nucleus
RNA
Ribosomes - 2 subunits: small &
large
Cell Wall - Peptidoglycan - Usually
cellulose/chitin

BACTERIA

CLASSIFICATION

1. Forms
A. Coccus
B. Bacillus
C. Spirillum
2. Pathogenic vs. Non-pathogenic
3. Gram-positive vs. Gram-negative
4. Photosynthetic vs. Non-photosynthetic
- Cyanobacteria: have thylakoids not enclosed in the membrane
5. Archae vs. Eubacteria
- Archae: extremophiles (i.e. acidic enviroment)

MONERA

- Prokaryotic
- Unicellular/colonial/multicellular forms
- Reproduction through binary fission
- Endospores: protection

1. Division Schizophyta: non-photosynthetic bacteria

2. Division Cyanophyta: photosynthetic bacteria (e.g. blue-green algae w/ phycocyanin as
predominant pigment)

PROTISTA

- Eukaryotic
- Most diverse
- 9 + 2 flagella & cillia
- Unicellular/colonial/multicellular
- Microscopic & macroscopic
1. Algal-like

Division Dinophyta Dinoflagellates Pfiestera

- flagellated, amoeboid, Piscicida
encysted Pyrodinium
bahamense
Division Chrysophyta Golden algae
Division Bacillariophyta Diatoms
Division Euglenophya Euglenoids Euglena
- animal like (motile)
- plant like
(photosynthetic)
Chlorophyta Green algae Chlamydomonas
- ancestors of flowering Ulothrix
plants (similarities in Spirogyra
pigments and stored Scenedesmus
products) Volvox
Ulva
Codium fragilis
Caulerpa racemosa
Halimeda
Acetabularia
Microsterina
Phaeophyta Brown algae Sargassum
(Algin in cell wall: used Ectocarpus
as thickening agent, etc) Laminaria
Rhodophyta Red algae Halymenia
Gracilaria
Porphyra

2. Fungal-like

Division Myxomycota Division Acrasiomycota

1. Plasmodial slime molds 1. Cellular slime molds
2. Heterotrophs 2. Unicellular feeding stage
3. Many are pugmented 3. Amoeba-like feeding stage
4. Amoeboid and coenocytic mass 4. Ingests solid food particles
5. Phagocytosis 5. Lacks cell wall during feeding stage
6. Moist soil and leaf mulch 6. Cellulose present in spore wall, no
7. Ceases growth when stressed and chitin
releases sporangia (fruiting bodies) 7. Moist soil, wood, dung and
decaying vegetation
8. Has crosswall between cells

Division Oomycota Division Cytridiomycota

1. Water molds and downy mildews 1. Chytrids
 2. Coenocytic hyphae (filaments in 2. Mostly microscopic
fungi) 3. Unicellular
3. Cellulose in cell wall, no chitin 4. Coenocytic
4. Zoospores lack cell wall 5. Chitin in cell wall
5. Aquatic and terrestrial 6. Aquatic and moist soil
6. Parasites of many crop plants 7. Parasites of diatoms and some
insects
8. Ancestral group of some fungi

3. Animal-like (to be discussed by Sir Mamaril)

FUNGI

- Hyphae
- Mycilla
- Chitinous cell wall

Division Chytridiomycota Division Zygomycota Division Ascomycota

1. Chytrids (has chitin in 1. Zygote fungi 1. Cup fungi
cell wall) 2. Reproductive feature: 2. Reproductive feature:
2. Reproductive feature: resistant sexual spores borne
motile spores with zygosporangium at internally in sacs
flagella sexual stage called asci
3. Aceptate hyphae (no (ascospores)
crosswall of cell walls) 3. Source of medicine
4. Crosswall hyphae
5. With sexual structures

Division Basidiomycota Deuteromycota

1. 1. Bracket fungi, jelly fungi, mushrooms

2. Reproductive feature: sexual spores 2. Imperfect fungi
borne externally on club-shaped 3. No known sexual reproductive feature
structures called basidia (basidiospores)
3. Crosswall
4. With sexual structures
5. Cap-like structure: pileus; under:
basidia; stalk: stipe; ring around stipe:
annulus; holdfast: stolon

1. Yeast
- Good: Saccharomyces cerevesiae (sac fungi)
- Bad: Candida albicans (vaginalis, budding)
2. Lichens
- Not a taxonomic category
 - Common name
- Algal and fungal composition
- Attached to old substrate (e.g. dying trees)
- Symbiotic relationship
Phycobiont: algal component, food, filamentous blue-green algae
Mycobiont: fungal component, support and protection, ascomycota
- Forms
Crustose: stuck on bark
Foliose: leaf-like, detached
Fruticose: filaments
3. Examples of fungi
- Amanita: first source of LSD
- Amanita ocreata: poisonous
- Romania: red coral fungi

PLANTAE

- Multicellular eukaryotes
- Cellulosic cell wall
- Photosynthetic autotrophs with choloroplasts containing chlorophyll a & b,
xantophyll, and carotenoids
- Food reserve: true starch stored in plastids (blue-black w/ IKI)
- Differentiated based on xylem and phloem

NON-VASCULAR PLANTS

- Well-developed parenchyma cells in substitution to vascular tissue

- No xylem and phloem
- Hepatophyta: Sporophyte and gametophyte not seen together
- Anthophyta: Sporophyte dependent on gametophyte
- Thallus: undifferentiated, gametophyte stage (haploid)
- Rhizoids: root-like structure
- Antheridia: male
- Archegonia: female
- Gametophyte dominant (primitive)
- Sporophyte (2N), gametophyte (N)

Division Bryophyta Moss Pogonatum: used in

marcoting, leafy structure:
gametophyte, capsule:
sporophyte, sporophyte
dependent on gametophyte
(most advanced)
Division Anthocerophyta Hornworts Anthoceros: sporophyte on
gametophyte, thallus is
gametophyte
Division Hepatophyta Liverworts Marchantia: in cold places
Riccia: stones exposed to
rain

VASCULAR SPORE-PRODUCING PLANTS

- Gametophyte (N) Sporophyte (2N)

- Primitive plants

Division Pterophyta True ferns: sori, circinnate Pako

Division Psilophyta
Division Lycophyta
Division Sphenophyta
vernation (fiddlehead coiled
young)
Whiskferns (fern ally)
Club mosses (fern ally)
Horsetails (fern ally)
Psilotum: most primitive
living vascular plant,
grows at the base of
coconut trees
Tmesepteris: differentiated
between root, shoot, small
leaves
Selaginella: turns blue
when light hits, sporophyte
form
Lycopodium: hanging
leaves (reproduction)
Equisetum: small bamboo

VASCULAR SEED-PRODUCING PLANTS

- Has vessels and tracheids

Division Coniferophyta Conifers Pinus

Division Cycadophyta Cycads (male and female have Cycas
different sporangia) Zamia
Division Ginkgophyta Ginkgo (fan shaped leaves) Ginkgo biloba
Division Gnetophyta Gnetae
Division Anthophyta Flowering Angiosperms
Monocots Orayza: pinipig flower;
Dicots palay fruit; bigas seed

DIVISION ANTHOPHYTA

Monocots Dicots
Embryo One cotyledon Two cotyledons
Leaf venation Parallel Netted
Stem Complex vascular bundle Ring vascular bundle
arrangement arrangement
Root Fibrous Tap root
Flower Multiples of 3 Multiples 4/5

MONOCOTS

Liliaceae Lily
Poaceae Grass, rice, Zea mays
Orchidaceae Orchid
Palmae Palm

DICOTS

Rosaceae Raspberry, rose

Lamiaceae Coleus
Apiaceae Caraway
Asteraceae Chicory
Sunflower
Mums
Sterculiaceae (bad odored flowers) Cocoa
Cactaceae Cactus (second most primitive)
Magnoliaceae (most primitive) Magnolia: sepal cant be distinguished
(perianth)
Fagaceae Oak
Asclepiadaceae Milkweed

Compound Source Use

Atropine Belladonna Pupil dilator
Digitalin Foxglove Heart medication
Menthol Eucalyptus Ingredient in cough medicine
Morphine Opium poppy Pain reliever
Quinine Quinine tree Malaria preventive
Taxol Pacific yew Ovarian cancer drug
Tubocurarine Curare Muscle relaxant
Vinblastine Periwinkle Leukemia drug

FLOWERING

FLOWERS (PARTS)

1. Accesory Parts: not directly involved in sexual reproduction

- Gamo[sepal/petal]ous: united sepals and petals respectively
- Poly[sepal/petal]ous: free sepals and petals respectively

A. Sepals (calyx)
B. Petals (corolla)
 C. Perianth (fused sepals and petals): seen in Family Magnoliaceae
D. Peduncle
Stalk for solitary flower
Inflorescence (collective flowers): pedicel florette
Sessile: no stalk
2. Essential Parts: sexual reproduction
A. Stamen (androecium)
Anther (pollen grains)
Filament
Staminal column
B. Pistil/Carpel (gynoecium)
Stigma
Style
Ovary ovule

FLORAL VARIATIONS

1. Based on Petals
A. Regular: aratiles
B. Irregular: papilionaceous (ornamental peanut), caesalpinaceous (caballero)

Caesalpinaceous Papilionaceous
Banner (1) Small Large
Wing petals (2) Same Medium
Keel petals (2) Same Small

2. Based on Parts (petal, stamen, pistil, sepal)

A. Complete
B. Incomplete
3. Based on Sex
A. Perfect (bisexual): stamen and pistil on the same flower
B. Imperfect (unisexual): separate, staminate/pistillate
Monoecious: staminate and pistillate on the same plant (e.g. corn ear:
pistillate, tassel: staminate)
Dioecious: staminate and pistillate on separate plants (e.g. papaya)

FRUIT CLASSIFICATION

1. Based on Origin
A. Simple: single ovary (e.g. cherry, papaya)
B. Aggregate: many ovaries, single flower (e.g. raspberry, atis, strawberry)
C. Multiple/Collective: inflorescence (e.g. pineapple leaves are a specialized organ
for asexual reproduction, langka, breadfruit)
D. Accessory: fruit not derived from ovary (e.g. apple receptacle, cashew)
2. Based on Nature of Pericarp
A. Fleshy: endocarp, mesocarp, exocarp can be recognized
 Berry
Pepo: hard exocarp (e.g. cucumber, squash, Family Cordicaceae)
Hespiridium: leathery exocarp (e.g. orange)
Drupe: one seeded (based on nature of endocarp)
o Fibrous: fibrous endocarp (e.g. mango)
o Stony: stony endocarp shell (e.g. coconut endosperm: pith and
juice)
Pome
B. Dry: cannot distinguish pericarp
Dehiscent: opens at maturity
o Legumes: opens on both sutures/sides
o Follicle: opens along one suture (e.g. Esterculia, kalachuchi)
o Silique: opens at both sutures but with persistent placentation
(seeds are attached to the placenta)
o Capsule: can open at several sides, along locule & septum (e.g.
Bixa)
Indehiscent: does not open at maturity
o Samara: winged
o Grain/Caryopsis: seed is tightly attached to pericarp, mechanical
separation, mostly Famile Poaceae (e.g. corn)
o Achene: sunflower (disk flower only complete flower, with seed)
o Schizocarp: separates into mericarps once mature (Mimosa
mature fruit: brown)

SEEDS

SEED STRUCTURE
1. Type of seeds
A. Exalbuminous
Endosperm absent at maturit
Endosperm disintegrates
Leaves embryo
Enlarged cotyledons: to compensate for missing endosperm
Example: common bean
B. Albuminous
Endospetm present at maturity
Cotyledon not thickened
Blue in IKI endosperm
Example: castor bean, corn

REPRODUCTION
Sperm Egg fertilization Zygote (2N) Mitosis Sporophyte (multicellular, 2N)
Meiosis I (reductional cell division: from diplid to haploid) Meiosis II (equational cell
division: no change in ploidy) 4 haploid spores (N) Mitosis Gametophyte
(multicellular, N)

REPRODUCTIVE PATTERNS

1. Cellular Reproduction
A. Equational cell division (mitosis): 2 daughter cells exactly like parent cell
B. Binary fission: 2 daughter cells exactly like parent but no cell division stages
(Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase), no spindle fibers, no disintegration
of nuclear membrane
Chromosome replication Chromosomes move to opposite ends
Replication continues Plasma grows inward Cell wall is deposited
2. Organismic Reproduction
A. Asexual Reproduction: less energy needed, twofold number (produced), less
diverse (protoplasm protrudes)
Structures: planters, tubers, runners
Budding: yeast
Vegetative propagation
o Leaves: meristematic margins
o Stem: tubers, nodes; runners, dev roots when in contatc with soil;
rhizoids, stolons
o Bark: periderm
o Marcot: bark is shed to expose vascular cambium (which is made
of actively dividing cells) and wrapped in soil for root growth
propagation which is later cut off and planted as a new tree, used
for plants with long growth time (e.g. chico, balimbing)
o Graft: 2 trees with exposed vascular cambium are stuck to each
other (scion, stock), used with mango trees
o Cutting: gumamela
Test tube cloning: phloem parenchyma and companion cells were used
(carrot)
Spores
o Akinetes
o Zoopores (flagellated spores)
o Conidia (asexual spores)
o Soredia (lichens asexual spores)
Fragmentation: man-influenced
Regeneration: happens spontaneously
B. Sexual Reproduction: 2 different parents cells (different mating types), more
variety
Isogamy: cannot differentiate between male and female (morphologically)
o Conjugation: water is needed as a medium, seen in Spirogyra
through the conjugation tube
Heterogamy: fusion of like gametes
 o Rhizopus: has 1 cell with 2 nuclei (dikaryotic), undergoes
karyogamy (fusion of nucleus) to create a diploid zygote, and
plasmogamy (fusion of cytoplasm)

GENERALIZED LIFE CYCLE OF FUNGI

- Fertilization stage: plasmogamy and karyogamy

1. D. Ascomycota
- Reproductive structure: asci/ascus
- 8 ascospores per asci
- Meiosis 4 haploid Mitosis 2 ascospores (asexual spores)
2. D. Basidiomycota
- Reproductive structure: basidia in gills (sexual spores)
3. D. Zygomycota
- Conjugation (must be of different strains)

NON-VASCULAR (BRYOPHYTA)

- Thallus-like body
- Similar to algal-like protist, requires water for pollination (primitive
characteristic)
- Sporophyte dependent on gametophyte

VASCULAR (SPORE-PRODUCING)

- Gametophyte independent of sporophyte

- Sporophyte: whole plant
- Gametophyte: prothallus
- Antheridia: male
- Archegonia: female
- True ferns: circinnate vernation (coiling and uncoiling)
- Underneath: sori which contain the sporangia with spores
- Sori arrangement varies
- Example: Lycopodium

VASCULAR (CONE-PRODUCING)

- Pinus: transfusion tissue in needles, sporophyte (pine tree) produces the

gametophytes (pine cones), seed is a thin filament in the female cone

Bryophyte True fern Seed plant

Gametophyte and sporophyte Gametophyte and sporophyte Gametophyte and sporophyte
in one plant separate in one plant
Gametophyte dominant Sporophyte dominant Sporophyte dominant
Sporophyte dependent on Gametophyte independent on Gametophyte dependent on
gametophyte sporophyte sporophyte
Large sporophyte, small Reduced gametophyte
gametophyte
Most primitive Least primitive

VASCULAR (FLOWER-PRODUCING)

- Need to be vegetatively active to reproduce

1. Sporogenesis (gametogenesis in plants)

A. Microsporogenesis (spermatogenesis in plants): from the anther to the pollen sac,
starts at germ cell
Pollen mother cell (2N)

Meiosis

4 microspores (N)

Encapsylation
(formation of covering inner: intine, outer: exine)

Pollen grain
(will land on anther and absorb moisture from stigma for germination to occur)

Mitosis

Generative cell nucleus Tube nucleus
(fertilized by germinating pollen grain
= male gametophyte)

2 sperm nuclei (N) No more development

B. Megasporogenesis (oogenesis in plants): from ovary to ovule

Megaspore mother cell (2N)

Meiosis

4 megaspores (N)

1 functional megaspore 3 degenerate megaspores

Mitosis
(three times without cytokinesis only
nucleus divides)

8 nucleated embryo sac (N)

Female gametophyte (N)

8 Nucleated Embryo Sac

o Outer integuments testa
o Inner integuments tegmen
o Micropyle gap pollen tube path
o 3 antipodal cells disintegrates
o 2 polar nuclei endosperm
o 1 egg zygote
o 2 synergids disintegrates

2. Pollination: transfer of pollen grains

- Wind pollinator: small pollen grain

- Insect pollinator: scented and sticky pollen grain

A. Self pollination: anther to stigma

B. Cross pollination: flower to another flower
3. Double Fertilization

1 haploid sperm (N) 1 haploid sperm (N)

Fertilization with 8 nucleated embryo sac Unites with 2 polar nuclei from 8 nucleated
(N) embryo sac (N)

Zygote (2N) Endosperm (3N)

Embryo

Seed
(matured fertilized ovule)