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s
v avg =
t
Scalar Vector
Area Force
Age Velocity
Volume Displacement
Height Acceleration
Speed Momentum
Distance Drag
= 80 km/ hr East
V A / B=V A V B
8.4.2.4: Describe the actions that must be taken for a vehicle to change
direction, speed up and slow down
According to Newtons First Law, a net external force must be applied to a
vehicle to change direction/speed
This can be seen in a typical drivers journey, pressing on the
accelerator/brake (providing thrust/driving force) or using the steering wheel
to change speed/direction
On earth there are however other forces such as gravity, air resistance
and friction which slow a car down
Average acceleration only takes into account the beginning and ending
points
8.4.2.7: Define the terms mass and weight with reference to the effects
of gravity
Mass is the amount of matter in a body (does not change despite location)
Weight is the force a body exerts at a particular area, i.e. on Earth this is
shown by:
o W = mg
Where W = weight in newtons, m = mass and g = force due to
gravity (9.8m/s/s) on Earth
v2
centre of the circle) and can be calculated using the formula: a=
r
where a is the magnitude of acceleration (ms -2), v is the constant
speed (ms-1) and r is the radius of the curve/circle (m)
Centripetal force (net force on an object travelling in a circular path at
2
mv
a constant speed) is calculated by the formula: F=ma= where
r
F is the centripetal force (N), m is the mass of the object (kg)
v =velocity ( ms1 )
If work is applied to the object, the velocity increases (thus increasing KE)
KE is directly proportional to the square of the velocity of an object
(mass is constant)
Work is defined through the equation:
W =Fs
Where W = work, F = Net force, S = Displacement
m A a A =mB aB
Now , v=u+at
vu
a=
t
v A u A v u
m A( )=mB ( B B )
t t
m A v A m A u A =mB v B + mB u B
mA u A +mB uB =m A v A + mB v B
8.4.5: Safety devices are utilised to reduce the effects of changing
momentum
8.4.5.1: Define the inertia of a vehicle as its tendency to remain in uniform
motion or at rest
Inertia is the tendency for an object to remain in uniform motion or at
rest
E.g. if a car suddenly stops the passenger in the vehicle continues to go
forward (because of his/her inertia)
The car in this sense may have forces slowing it down; friction, etc., however
the passenger does not and may be injured in such a situation
This can also be seen in the images below where the coin remains at rest
and drops into the glass when the cardboard is flicked fast
8.4.5.2: Discuss reasons why Newtons First Law of Motion is not apparent
in many real world situations
There are various reasons why Newtons First Law of Motion is not apparent
in real life situations:
o There are many external forces on Earth which can oppose a bodys
motion
o E.g. friction, air resistance, gravity and drag
o Thus, the law is not apparent in real life situations
o If there was no friction an object moving at uniform speed would
maintain it forever
8.4.5.3: Assess the reasons for the introduction of low speed zones in
built-up areas and the addition of air bags and crumple zones to vehicles
with respect to the concepts of impulse and momentum
Low speed zones in built-up areas (such as school zones) were introduced
because it gives drivers more time to stop
In terms of physics this can be seen through the momentum
formula: p = mv (the less velocity, the less momentum, thus the
faster u can stop)
It can also be seen through the stopping distance formula:
2
mu
s= (by decreasing initial velocity the stopping distance
2F
decreases significantly, stopping distance proportional to
square of initial velocity, assuming mass and friction are
constants)
Where s = stopping distance, m = mass, u = initial velocity, F = friction
Air bags and crumple zones provide essential safety for drivers and
reduction in possible damage of vehicles
Air bags and crumple zones increase time of collisions for vehicles as
well as passengers
Since Impulse is given by: I = Ft, increasing the time of the collision
therefore, decreases the force of the impact
8.2.1.4: Define and apply the following terms of the wave model: medium,
displacement, amplitude, period, compression, rarefaction, crest, trough,
transverse waves, longitudinal waves, frequency, wavelength, velocity
Medium: material in which the wave is travelling, e.g. wood, steel, air
Transverse Waves: particles travel at right angles to the direction of
transfer
Longitudinal Waves: particles travel parallel to the direction of transfer
Compression: (longitudinal wave) region of higher density of the medium
Rarefaction: (longitudinal wave) region of lower density of the medium
Displacement: distance from zero displacement/equilibrium
Amplitude: amount of energy wave is carrying the maximum
displacement of a particle from the
equilibrium position
Wavelength (): distance between two
corresponding points
Crest: highest point and maximum
displacement of a wave
Trough: lowest point and maximum
displacement of a wave
Period (T): time taken for one wave/pulse to
pass a fixed point
Frequency (f): number of waves passing a fixed point (in a second)
o Hertz; in sound, determines pitch
o
Velocity (v): how fast the wave travels
Frequency Modulation
Only frequency varies
The information is coded into the different frequencies.
Carrier and audio wave are combined in the modulator circuit
Resulting FM wave increases in frequency to indicate a crest in the audio
wave and decreases to indicate a trough in the audio waves.
The frequencies of the audio signals and the carrier wave are added
together by superposition.
Radio Waves
Energy carried by waves can be varied to transmit information by varying
frequency or amplitude
o Frequency Modulation (FM) or Amplitude Modulation (AM)
o Information is carried through signals by superposition of a carrier
wave tuning frequency
o Signal occupies a range of frequencies around the carrier frequency
bandwidth
Receiver subtracts carrier wave from signal and interprets variation in
frequency/amplitude demodulation
AM advantage uses much narrower range of frequencies more stations
fit into limited bandwidth
FM advantage not dependent on amplitude changes, so strength of
signal does not change (frequency difficult to change due to interference)
Microwaves
Greater available bandwidth (20,000 phone calls), higher transmitted
energy (less spread out)
Reception in buildings more difficult due to short , range affected by
atmospheric conditions (oxygen)
Light
High energy laser light using amplitude modulation (frequency
bandwidth too small for light)
Fibre optic cables required only reliable to 200 m in open air, due to
more interference (narrow frequency)
Radio Waves
Radio sky waves bounce off ionosphere essentially bouncing off a plane
surface
Radio space waves pass the ionosphere and reflect off satellite
Microwaves
Radar uses microwaves, reflects off an object to determine distance of the
object
Used in telephone communication worldwide.
Due to the curvature of the earth waves may not reach the other side of
Earth without the use of reflection
8.2.4.3: Describe one
application of reflection for
plane surfaces, concave surfaces,
convex surfaces and radio waves being reflected by
the ionosphere
8.2.4.7: Identify the conditions necessary for total internal reflection with
reference to the critical angle
When wave travels to a less dense medium, ray bends away from normal
Ray can be refracted so that angle of refraction is bent to 90 from
normal
o Angle of incidence is the critical angle
Critical angle measured by using Snells Law: