SECTION 8.

4 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES AND INNER PRODUCTS 455

8.4 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES AND INNER PRODUCTS

All the vector spaces we have studied thus far in the text are real vector spaces since the
scalars are real numbers. A complex vector space is one in which the scalars are complex
numbers. Thus, if v1, v2, . . . , vm are vectors in a complex vector space, then a linear com-
bination is of the form
c1v1 1 c 2v2 1 ? ? ? 1 cmvm
where the scalars c1, c 2, . . . , cm are complex numbers. The complex version of Rn is the
complex vector space C n consisting of ordered n-tuples of complex numbers. Thus, a vector
in C n has the form
v 5 sa1 1 b1i, a 2 1 b 2i, . . . , an 1 bnid.
It is also convenient to represent vectors in C n by column matrices of the form

3 4
a1 1 b1i
a2 1 b2i
v5 .. .
.
an 1 bni

As with Rn, the operations of addition and scalar multiplication in C n are performed com-
ponent by component.

EXAMPLE 1 Vector Operations in C n

Let
v 5 s1 1 2i, 3 2 id and u 5 s22 1 i, 4d
be vectors in the complex vector space C 2, and determine the following vectors.
(a) v 1 u (b) s2 1 idv (c) 3v 2 s5 2 idu

Solution (a) In column matrix form, the sum v 1 u is

1 1 2i 22 1 i 21 1 3i
v1u5 33 2 i 4 1 3 4
5 4 3
7 2i
. 4
(b) Since s2 1 ids1 1 2id 5 5i and s2 1 ids3 2 id 5 7 1 i, we have
s2 1 idv 5 s2 1 ids1 1 2i, 3 2 id 5 s5i, 7 1 id.
(c) 3v 2 s5 2 idu 5 3s1 1 2i, 3 2 id 2 s5 2 ids22 1 i, 4d
(c) 5 s3 1 6i, 9 2 3id 2 s29 1 7i, 20 2 4id
(c) 5 s12 2 i, 211 1 id
456 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES

Many of the properties of R n are shared by C n. For instance, the scalar multiplicative
identity is the scalar 1 and the additive identity in C n is 0 5 s0, 0, 0, . . . , 0d. The standard
basis for C n is simply
e1 5 s1, 0, 0, . . . , 0d
e 2 5 s0, 1, 0, . . . , 0d
.
.
.
en 5 s0, 0, 0, . . . , 1d

which is the standard basis for Rn. Since this basis contains n vectors, it follows that the
dimension of C n is n. Other bases exist; in fact, any linearly independent set of n vectors in
C n can be used, as we demonstrate in Example 2.

EXAMPLE 2 Verifying a Basis

Show that
v1 v2 v3
{
{
{
S 5 hsi, 0, 0d, si, i, 0d, s0, 0, idj
is a basis for C 3.

Solution Since C 3 has a dimension of 3, the set hv1, v2, v3j will be a basis if it is linearly indepen-
dent. To check for linear independence, we set a linear combination of the vectors in S equal
to 0 as follows.
c1v1 1 c2v2 1 c3v3 5 s0, 0, 0d
sc1i, 0, 0d 1 sc2i, c2i, 0d 1 s0, 0, c3id 5 s0, 0, 0d
ssc1 1 c2 di, c2i, c3id 5 s0, 0, 0d

This implies that

sc1 1 c 2 di 5 0
c2i 5 0
c3i 5 0.

Therefore, c1 5 c2 5 c3 5 0, and we conclude that hv1, v2, v3j is linearly independent.

EXAMPLE 3 Representing a Vector in C n by a Basis

Use the basis S in Example 2 to represent the vector

v 5 s2, i, 2 2 id.
 SECTION 8.4 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES AND INNER PRODUCTS 457

Solution By writing
v 5 c1v1 1 c2v2 1 c3v3
5 ssc1 1 c 2 di, c2i, c3id
5 s2, i, 2 2 id
we obtain
sc1 1 c 2 di 5 2
c2i 5 i
c3i 5 2 2 i
which implies that c2 5 1 and
22i 22i
c1 5 5 21 2 2i and c3 5 5 21 2 2i.
i i
Therefore,
v 5 s21 2 2idv1 1 v2 1 s21 2 2idv3.
Try verifying that this linear combination yields s2, i, 2 2 id.

Other than C n, there are several additional examples of complex vector spaces. For
instance, the set of m 3 n complex matrices with matrix addition and scalar multiplication
forms a complex vector space. Example 4 describes a complex vector space in which the
vectors are functions.

EXAMPLE 4 The Space of Complex-Valued Functions

Consider the set S of complex-valued functions of the form

fsx) 5 f1 sxd 1 if 2 sxd
where f1 and f2 are real-valued functions of a real variable. The set of complex numbers
form the scalars for S and vector addition is defined by
fsxd 1 gsxd 5 ff1 sxd 1 if 2sxdg 1 fg1(xd 1 i g2 sxdg
5 ff1 sxd 1 g1 sxdg 1 iff 2 sxd 1 g2 sxdg.
It can be shown that S, scalar multiplication, and vector addition form a complex vector
space. For instance, to show that S is closed under scalar multiplication, we let c 5 a 1 bi
be a complex number. Then
cfsxd 5 sa 1 bidff1 sxd 1 if 2 sxdg
5 faf1 sxd 2 bf 2 sxdg 1 ifbf1 sxd 1 af 2 sxdg

is in S.
458 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES

The definition of the Euclidean inner product in C n is similar to that of the standard dot
product in R n, except that here the second factor in each term is a complex conjugate.

Definition of Let u and v be vectors in C n. The Euclidean inner product of u and v is given by
Euclidean Inner u ? v 5 u1v1 1 u2v2 1 ? ? ? 1 unvn.
Product in C n

REMARK: Note that if u and v happen to be real, then this definition agrees with the
standard inner (or dot) product in R n.

EXAMPLE 5 Finding the Euclidean Inner Product in C 3

Determine the Euclidean inner product of the vectors

u 5 s2 1 i, 0, 4 2 5id and v 5 s1 1 i, 2 1 i, 0d.

Solution
u ? v 5 u1v1 1 u2v2 1 u 3v3
5 s2 1 ids1 2 id 1 0s2 2 id 1 s4 2 5ids0d
532i

Several properties of the Euclidean inner product C n are stated in the following theorem.

Theorem 8.7 Let u, v, and w be vectors in C n and let k be a complex number. Then the following
properties are true.
Properties of the
1. u ? v 5 v ? u
Euclidean Inner 2. su 1 vd ? w 5 u ? w 1 v ? w
Product 3. skud ? v 5 ksu ? vd
4. u ? skvd 5 ksu ? vd
5. u ? u $ 0
6. u ? u 5 0if and only if u 5 0.

Proof We prove the first property and leave the proofs of the remaining properties to you. Let
u 5 su1, u 2, . . . , un d and v 5 sv1, v2, . . . , vn d.
Then
v ? u 5 v1u1 1 v2u2 1 . . . 1 vnun
5 v1u1 1 v2u 2 1 . . . 1 vnun
5 v1u1 1 v2u 2 1 . . . 1 vnun
 SECTION 8.4 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES AND INNER PRODUCTS 459

5 u1v1 1 u2v2 1 ? ? ? 1 unvn

5 u? v.

We now use the Euclidean inner product in C n to define the Euclidean norm (or length)
of a vector in C n and the Euclidean distance between two vectors in C n.

Definition of Norm The Euclidean norm (or length) of u in C n is denoted by iui and is
and Distance in C n iui 5 su ? ud1y2.

The Euclidean distance between u and v is

dsu, vd 5 iu 2 vi .

The Euclidean norm and distance may be expressed in terms of components as

iui 5 s uu1u 2 1 uu2u 2 1 ? ? ? 1 uunu 2d1y2

dsu, vd 5 s uu1 2 v1u 2 1 uu2 2 v2u 2 1 ? ? ? 1 uun 2 vnu 2d1y2.

EXAMPLE 6 Finding the Euclidean Norm and Distance in C n

Determine the norms of the vectors

u 5 s2 1 i, 0, 4 2 5id and v 5 s1 1 i, 2 1 i, 0d
and find the distance between u and v.

Solution The norms of u and v are given as follows.

iui 5 s uu1u 2 1 uu2u 2 1 uu3u 2d1y2
5 fs22 1 12d 1 s02 1 02d 1 s42 1 52dg1y2
5 s5 1 0 1 41d1y2 5 46

ivi 5 s uv1u 2 1 uv2u 2 1 uv3u 2d1y2

5 fs12 1 12d 1 s22 1 12d 1 s02 1 02dg1y2
5 s2 1 5 1 0d1y2 5 7

The distance between u and v is given by

dsu, vd 5 iu 2 vi
5 is1, 22 2 i, 4 2 5idi
5 fs12 1 02d 1 ss22d2 1 s21d2d 1 s42 1 52dg1y2
5 s1 1 5 1 41d1y2 5 47.
460 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES

Complex Inner Product Spaces

The Euclidean inner product is the most commonly used inner product in C n. However, on
occasion it is useful to consider other inner products. To generalize the notion of an inner
product, we use the properties listed in Theorem 8.7.

Definition of a Complex
Inner Product
Let u and v be vectors in a complex vector space. A function that associates with u and
v the complex number 7u, v8 is called a complex inner product if it satisfies the fol-
lowing properties.
1. 7u, v8 5 7v, u8
2. 7u 1 v, w8 5 7u, w8 1 7v, w8
3. 7ku, v8 5 k7u, v8
4. 7u, u8 0 and 7u, u8 5 0 if and only if u 5 0.

A complex vector space with a complex inner product is called a complex inner product
space or unitary space.

EXAMPLE 7 A Complex Inner Product Space

Let u 5 su1, u2d and v 5 sv1, v2d be vectors in the complex space C 2. Show that the func-
tion defined by
ku, vl 5 u1v1 1 2u2v2
is a complex inner product.

Solution We verify the four properties of a complex inner product as follows.

1. 7v, u8 5 v1u1 1 2v2u 2 5 u1v1 1 2u 2v2 5 ku, vl
2. ku 1 v, wl 5 su1 1 v1dw1 1 2su2 1 v2dw2
5 su1w1 1 2u 2w2 d 1 sv1w1 1 2v2w2 d
5 ku, wl 1 kv, wl
3. kku, vl 5 sku1dv1 1 2sku 2 d v2 5 k su1v1 1 2u2v2 d 5 k ku, vl
4. ku, ul 5 u1u1 1 2u 2u 2 5 uu1u2 1 2uu 2u2 $ 0
Moreover, ku, ul 5 0 if and only if u1 5 u2 5 0.

Since all properties hold, ku, vl is a complex inner product.

 SECTION 8.4 EXERCISES 461

SECTION 8.4 EXERCISES

In Exercises 18, perform the indicated operation using In Exercises 3538, determine whether the given function is a com-
u 5 si, 3 2 id, v 5 s2 1 i, 3 1 id, and w 5 s4i, 6d. plex inner product, where u 5 su1, u2d and v 5 sv1, v2d.

1. 3u 2. 4iw 35. ku, vl 5 u1 1 u2v2

3. s1 1 2idw 4. iv 1 3w 36. ku, vl 5 su1 1 v1d 1 2su2 1 v2d
5. u 2 s2 2 idv 6. s6 1 3idv 2 s2 1 2idw 37. ku, vl 5 4u1v1 1 6u2v2 38. ku, vl 5 u1v1 2 u2v2
7. u 1 iv 1 2iw 8. 2iv 2 s3 2 idw 1 u 39. Let v1 5 si, 0, 0d and v2 5 si, i, 0d. If v3 5 sz1, z2, z3d and the
In Exercises 912, determine whether S is a basis for C n. set {v1, v2, v3} is not a basis for C 3 , what does this imply
about z1, z2, and z3?
9. S 5 hs1, id, si, 21dj 10. S 5 hs1, id, si, 1dj 40. Let v1 5 si, i, id and v2 5 s1, 0, 1d. Determine a vector v3
11. S 5 hsi, 0, 0d, s0, i, id, s0, 0, 1dj such that hv1, v2, v3j is a basis for C 3.
12. S 5 hs1 2 i, 0, 1d, s2, i, 1 1 id, s1 2 i, 1, 1dj
In Exercises 4145, prove the given property where u, v, and w are
In Exercises 1316, express v as a linear combination of the vectors in C n and k is a complex number.
following basis vectors.
41. su 1 vd? w 5 u? w 1 v ? w 42. sku)? v 5 ksu ? vd
(a) hsi, 0, 0d, si, i, 0d, si, i, idj
43. u ? skvd 5 ksu ? vd 44. u? u $ 0
(b) hs1, 0, 0d, s1, 1, 0d, s0, 0, 1 1 idj
45. u ? u 5 0 if and only if u 5 0.
13. v 5 s1, 2, 0d 14. v 5 s1 2 i, 1 1 i, 23d
46. Let ku, vl be a complex inner product and k a complex
15. v 5 s2i, 2 1 i, 21d 16. v 5 si, i, id number. How are ku, vl and ku , kvl related?
In Exercises 1724, determine the Euclidean norm of v. In Exercises 47 and 48, determine the linear transformation
T : C m C n that has the given characteristics.
17. v 5 si, 2id 18. v 5 s1, 0d
19. v 5 3s6 1 i, 2 2 id 20. v 5 s2 1 3i, 2 2 3id 47. Ts1, 0d 5 s2 1 i, 1d, Ts0, 1d 5 s0, 2id
21. v 5 s1, 2 1 i, 2id 22. v 5 s0, 0, 0d 48. Tsi, 0) 5 s2 1 i, 1d, Ts0, id 5 s0, 2id
23. v 5 s1 2 2i, i, 3i, 1 1 id
In Exercises 4952, the linear transformation T : C m C n is given
24. v 5 s2, 21 1 i, 2 2 i, 4id by Tsvd 5 Av. Find the image of v and the preimage of w.
In Exercises 2530, determine the Euclidean distance between u 1 1 i
3i 4 3 4 34
1 0 0
and v. 49. A 5 ,v5 ,w5
i 1 2 i 0
25. u 5 s1, 0d, v 5 si, id

3 4
i
3 4 34
26. u 5 s2 1 i, 4, 2id, v 5 s2 1 i, 4, 2id 0 i 1 1
50. A 5 ,v5 0 ,w5
27. u 5 si, 2i, 3id, v 5 s0, 1, 0d i 0 0 1
11i
28. u 5 s2, 2i, 2id, v 5 si, i, id

3 4 3 4 34
1 0 2
29. u 5 s1, 0d, v 5 s0, 1d 2 2 i
51. A 5 i 0 ,v5 , w 5 2i
30. u 5 s1, 2, 1, 22id, v 5 si, 2i, i, 2d 3 1 2i
i i 3i
12i

3 4 34 3 4
In Exercises 3134, determine whether the set of vectors is linearly 0 1 1 2
independent or linearly dependent. 52. A 5 i i 21 , v 5 5 , w 5 1 1 i
31. hs1, id, si, 21dj 0 i 0 0 i
32. hs1 1 i, 1 2 i, 1d, si, 0, 1d, s22, 21 1 i, 0dj 53. Find the kernel of the linear transformation given in Exercise
33. hs1, i, 1 1 id, s0, i, 2id, s0, 0, 1dj 49.
34. hs1 1 i, 1 2 i, 0d, s1 2 i, 0, 0d, s0, 1, 1dj
462 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES

54. Find the kernel of the linear transformation given in Exercise 50. 58. Determine which of the following sets are subspaces of the
vector space of complex-valued functions (see Example 4).
In Exercises 55 and 56, find the image of v 5 si, id for the indicated
composition, where T1 and T2 are given by the following matrices. (a) The set of all functions f satisfying f sid 5 0.
(b) The set of all functions f satisfying f s0d 5 1.
2i
3 4
i
3 4
0 i
A1 5 and A2 5 (c) The set of all functions f satisfying f sid 5 f s2i d.
i 0 i 2i

55. T2 8 T1 56. T1 8 T2
57. Determine which of the following sets are subspaces of the
vector space of 2 3 2 complex matrices.
(a) The set of 2 3 2 symmetric matrices.
(b) The set of 2 3 2 matrices A satisfying sAdT 5 A.
(c) The set of 2 3 2 matrices in which all entries are real.
(d) The set of 2 3 2 diagonal matrices.

8.5 UNITARY AND HERMITIAN MATRICES

Problems involving diagonalization of complex matrices, and the associated eigenvalue
problems, require the concept of unitary and Hermitian matrices. These matrices roughly
correspond to orthogonal and symmetric real matrices. In order to define unitary and
Hermitian matrices, we first introduce the concept of the conjugate transpose of a com-
plex matrix.

Definition of the The conjugate transpose of a complex matrix A, denoted by A*, is given by
Conjugate Transpose of a A* 5 A T
Complex Matrix where the entries of A are the complex conjugates of the corresponding entries of A.

Note that if A is a matrix with real entries, then A* 5 AT. To find the conjugate trans-
pose of a matrix, we first calculate the complex conjugate of each entry and then take the
transpose of the matrix, as shown in the following example.

EXAMPLE 1 Finding the Conjugate Transpose of a Complex Matrix

Determine A* for the matrix

3 1 7i
3 4
0
A5 .
2i 42i