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Land Degradation


PicturefromtheNationalArchives,takenduring
the"DustBowl"inthe1930's

"Theobjectiveofthisconventionistocombatdesertificationandmitigatetheeffectsofdroughtincountries...
particularlyinAfrica...intheframeworkofanintegratedapproach...withaviewtocontributingtotheachievementof
sustainabledevelopmentintheaffectedareas."

ConventiontoCombatDesertification,RiodeJaneiro,1994.

"Aprocessthatdescribeshumaninducedphenomenawhichlowerthecurrentand/orfuturecapacityofthesoilto
supporthumanlife"

GLASODFirstUnitedNationsGlobalAssessmentofHumanInducedSoilDegradation,198890.

01/04/2010
formatforprinting

Wewishtolearn:

Whataretheprimarycausesoflanddegradation?
Whatisdesertificationandwhatmanagementstrategiescanbeusedtomitigatenegativeeffects

Jumpto:[Croplands][Soils][SoilDegradationProcesses][Summary][SuggestedReadings]

1.Croplands

Theworld'scroplandsareindeclineduetothepressureofhumanactivities.Thefigureshowsthe
regionalandglobaltrendsinthetotalavailableareaoftheworld'scroplands.

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Worldwidetheamountofcroplandpercapitahasdeclinedduetopopulation
growth.NorthAmericaandtheformerUSSRhavesubstantiallymorecroplandper
capitathantherestoftheworld.

ThefirstglobalsurveyofsoildegradationwascarriedoutbytheUnitednationsin198891.This
survey,knownasGLASODforGlobalSurveyofHumanInducedSoilDegradation,hasshown
significantproblemsinvirtuallyallpartsoftheworld.Theyellowlineineachpanelshowstheglobal
croplandareaperperson.Obviously,thisindicatorisafunctionoftwofactors:humanpopulationand
croplandarea.Ithasshownasteadydeclineinthe30yearsfrom1961to1991,amountingtoa
decreaseofbetween20and30%.Thefigureillustratestheregionalchangesthathaveaccompanied
thisglobalchange.NorthandcentralAmericaandtheformerUSSRareregionswithsignificantly
highercroplandareaspercapita.However,allregions,includingthese,haveshowndecreases.South
Americacroplandshavedeclinedataratethatisslowerthantheglobalaverage,whileAfricanper
capitacroplandshavedeclinedatagreaterthanaveragerate.

Whatarethecausesofthisdegradation?

Thelossofarablelandhasbeencausedbyanumberoffactors,manyormostofwhicharetiedto
humandevelopment.Theprimarycausesaredeforestation,overexploitationforfuelwood,overgrazing,
agriculturalactivitiesandindustrialization.

Thefollowingfigureillustratestherelativesizesofthecausalmechanismsasafunctionofregion.

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Worldwidetheamountofcroplandpercapitahasdeclinedduetopopulation
growth.NorthAmericaandtheformerUSSRhavesubstantiallymorecroplandper
capitathantherestoftheworld.

Ontheglobalbasis,thesoildegradationiscausedprimarilybyovergrazing(35%),agricultural
activities(28%),deforestation(30%),overexplotationoflandtoproducefuelwood(7%),and
industrialization(4%).

Thepatternsaredifferentinthevariousregions.InNorthAmerica,agriculturehasbeenresponsible
for66%ofthesoilloss,whileinAfrica,overgrazingisresponsibleforabouthalfofthesoil
degradation.

Theeconomicreasonsfortheseprocessesarecomplexandarelinkedtotheparticularcharacteristics
ofeachregion.Someoftheseissueswillbediscussedlaterinthecourse,aspartofcasestudies.

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Oftheworld's1.2billionhectareswithmoderatetoseveresoildegradation,the
largestareasareinAsiaandAfrica.CentralAmericahasthehighestpercentageand
worstdegreesofsoildegradation

Thisfigureillustrateshowpervasiveistheproblemofsoildegradation.Nocontinentisfreefromthe
problem.Areasofseriousconcernincludezoneswhereupto75%ofthetopsoilhasbeenlostalready.
ThecentralportionoftheUnitedStatesisanareaofparticularlocalconcern.Thepracticesoflarge
scalemechanizedmonoculturehascontributedtothedeclineinsoilinthemidwest.

2.Soils

Allouraminoacidsandnutrientseventuallycometousfromplantlife(sometimesviathemeatof
planteatinganimals).Plantssynthesizeaminoacidsfromthecombinationofsunlight,waterand
soils.

Soilisthereforeofcriticalimportancetolife.Simplyput:no
soil,nolife.

Wefirstdefinesoilasadynamicnaturalbodycapableof
supportingavegetativecover.Wherethereisnosoil,there
isnoplantlifeandwehavebarrenrockand/orsand.Soilis
composedprimarilyofweatheredmaterials,alongwith
water,oxygenandorganicmaterials.Luckilyforus,soil
coversmostofthelandsurfacewithafragile,thinmantle.
Soilandagriculturalscientistshaveidentifiedahugenumber
ofdifferentsoiltypes.

Soilislayered

Soilislayeredintosectionscalled"horizons".Thefigure
showsatypicalsoilprofiledevelopedongranitebedrockina
temperateregion.Thetophorizoniscomposedofhumus
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andcontainsmostoftheorganicmatter.Thislayerisoften
thedarkest.The"A"horizonconsistsoftinyparticlesof
decayedleaves,twigsandanimalremains.Themineralsin
theAhorizonaremostlyclaysandotherinsolubleminerals.
Mineralsthatdissolveinwaterarefoundatgreaterdepths.
The"B"horizonhasrelativelylittleorganicmaterial,but
containsthesolublematerialsthatareleacheddownwards
fromabove.The"C"horizonisslightlybrokenupbedrock,
typicallyfound110metersbelowthesurface.Whilethisisa
typicalsoilprofile,manyothertypesexist,dependingon
climate,localrockconditionsandthecommunityof
organismslivingnearby.TheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture
hasclassified10ordersand47subordersofsoils.Ifyou
includeothersubsets,thereareover60,000typesofsoil.
Thelunarsurface,whichhasbeenproducedbymeteoroid
impacts,isnotclassifiedasasoil,butisrathergiventhe
name"regolith"(derivedfromtheGreekwordsmeaning
coverandstone).

Thelayered
 natureofsoil
LayersofHorizonsofatypicalsoilprofile indicatesitslong
evolutionunder
theeffectsof
atmosphericand
biological
processes.The
processthat
createssoilfrom
barerockis
called
"weathering".Intheweatheringprocess,theatmosphereandwaterinteractwithbarerocktoslowly
breakitdownintosmallerandsmallerparticles.Rockclimberswhoencountertalusslopes(regionsof
pebbleliferocksthatformingreatconicalpilesatthefeetofmountains)experienceanintermediate
stepintheinexorabletransitionfromsolidgranitetosandandsoil.

Soilisgeneratedbytheprocesscalledweathering.Thisisaveryslowprocessandonethatdepends
alotonthelocalconditions.Forexample,considerwhathappensifyoudropanironnailinagardenin
Michigan.Afterafewyears,youwouldbeabletobreakitintwo,becauseithasdegradedorrusted.
If,however,youweretodropthesamenailinadryenvironmentforexampleinEgyptorin
Antarcticaitwouldlastforhundredsofyearsbeforerusting.Aluminiumcansdecayveryslowlyand
glassdecaysevenmoreslowly.Plasticisconsidered"biodegradable".

Soilitselfisanimportantagentinweathering.Whensoilispresent,rocksweathermuchmorequickly
intosoil.Thus,soilisbothafactorinweatheringandaproductofweathering.

Ratesofweatheringachangefromplacetoplaceandfromrocktypetorocktype.Thefollowing
weatheringratesareinunitsofmicrometersperthousandyears:

BasaltColdclimate:10warm,humidclimate:100
GraniteColdclimate:1warm,humidclimate:10
MarbleColdclimate:20warm,humidclimate:200

Thebottomlineonsoilproductionisthatittakes(onaverage)about100yearstogeneratea
millimeterofsoil.Thisisaboutahumanlifetime.So,youcanseethatsoilgeneationisaveryslow
processindeedonhumantimescales.

Soilisanimportantsourceofnutrients
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Thistableshowstheresultsofa
famousexperimentthatwas
carriedoutatHubbardBrook,
NewHampshire.Thepurposeof
theexperimentwasto
determinewherethenutrients
plantsneedcomefrom.The
tablecomparestheannual
requirementofseveral
importantnutrients,withannual
supplyratesfromtheimportant
sources.Asyoucansee,the
largestannualsourcescome
fromthedetritusturnoveri.e.,
nutrientsstoredinthetopsoil.

Fromexperimentslikethis,itispossibletoseethatthepoolofnutrientsheldinthesoiland
vegetationismanytimeslargerthantheannualreceiptofnutrientsfromtheatmosphereandfrom
rockweathering.Whatthismeansisthatlifehusbandsnutrientsveryeffectivelyonlandinthesoil,
storingmuchofthetotalneededforplantlifeinthehumusortopsoil.

So,wecanseethatsoilisveryimportantforstoringtheessentialnutrientsneededbyplants.Simply
put:Nosoil,nolife!

Thetotallossofarablelandcanbesummarized
inthefollowingfigure.Ofthetotalavailable
(1500millionhectares,signifantcomponents
havebeenlostduetothecombinedeffectsof
desertification,salinization,erosion,and
developmentactivities.

Whensoilislostwheredoesitgo?

Whentopsoilismobilizedandgetsintothe
hydrologicalcycleitgetsliterallywashedto
thesea.Thetopsoilbecomessiltandtraqvels
downstreamsandrivers,ultimatelyreaching
thesea.Theprocessisresponsibleforasinkof
topsoil.Youcanseeadramaticexampleof
sedimentoutputfromtheAmazonriverasseen
fromspace.

3.SoilDegradationProcesses

Erosion

Erosionisthetermgiventosoillossduetothemobilizationoftopsoilbytheforcesofwaterandwind.
Windandwatermovetheerodedparticlestosomeotherlocation,whereitisdepositedassediment.
Soilerosionisanaturalprocessthatremovessoilfromtheland.

Thecriticalaspectofsoilerosionforourpurposeshereisthattherateoftheprocessishighly
dependentonhumanactions.Naturalratesofsoilerosionarelowerforsoilwithagoodcoverof
vegetationthanforbaresoil.Infact,anyhumanactionsthatuncoversoil(e.g.,farming,logging,
building,overgrazing,offroadvehicles,fires,etc.)greatltyenhancesoilerosionrates.

Duringthelastdustbowlinthe1930'smorethan30millionhectareswereseverelydamagedinparts
ofTexas,Kansas,Oklahoma,andColorado.TheDustBowlwasprimarilycausedbythetwofactorsof:
1)lossoflongrootedgrassesduetotheplowingoftheprairiesand2)aperiodofrelativedrought.

Erosionisaglobalproblem,aswehavealreadyseen.Globally,topsoiliserodingfasterthanitcanbe
replacedover1/3oftheworld'scroplands.IntheU.S.,thelossoftopsoilhasbeenestimatedtocost

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$125Bperyear.Asyoumightimagine,thisis
averydifficultcalculationtoperfrorm,since
topsoilproductionratesaresoslow,thelost
topsoilisessentiallyirreplaceable.

Desertification

Desertificationoccurswheneveranondesert
areastartstoexhibitthecharacteristicsofa
truedesert.Thetermwascoinedbythe
UnitedNationsin1977.

Overthepast50years,atthesouthernedgeoftheSahara,anareathesizeofSomaliahasbecome
desert.ThesamefatenowthreatensmorethanonethirdoftheAfricancontinent.Themaincauseof
desertificationisnotdrought,butmismanagementofland,includingovergrazingandfellingoftrees
andbrushwoodforfuel.

SalinizationandNutrientLoss

Soilsalinizationistheconcentrationofsaltsinthesurfaceornearsurfaceofsoils.Humaninduced
salinizationisamajorproblemindrylandsandisoftenassociatedwithlargescaleirrigation.

Whendrylandsareirrigated,thewaterevaporatesquickly,leavingbehindpreviouslydissolvedsalts.
Thesesaltscancollect,sincethereislittleraintoflushthesystem.Thesaltinthesoilinhibitsthe
uptakeofwaterbyplantrootsandthesoilcannolongersustainavegetativecover.

Nutrientlossisanimportantprobleminregionsoflowinputagriculture,suchasinAfrica.Insuch
regions,whencopsareharvested,essentialnutrientsaretakenawayinthecropandnotreplaced.

Restoration

Wehavediscussedsomeofthemajorproblemsinsoildegradation.Candegradedsoilsberestoredto
fullfunction?Thisturnsouttobeasignificantproblem.

Ingenerallightlydegradedsoilscanbeimprovedbycroprotation,minimumtillagetechniques(next
lecture),andotherfarmpractices.Moreseverelydegradedsoilsaremoredifficulttorestore.

Moderatelydamagedlandtakesmoreresourcesthananaveragefarmerhastorestore.Changesinsoil
conservationpracticescanslowlanddegradation,butnotrestorefertilityoften.Nationalprogramswill
beneededforsuchlands,requiringmajorstructuralchange(e.g.,draining,contourbanks,etc.)

Severelyerodedlandgenerallyissimplyabandoned.Restorationeffortsaresimplybeyonddeveloping
countriesrequiringdeepditchesfordrainage,terracestoholdthesoilinplace,mechanizeddeep
plowingtoremovecompaction,reseedingprograms,etc.

4.Summary

Degradationoflandincludessoilerosion,salinization,nutrientdepletion,anddesertification.The
rateofdegradationhasincreaseddramaticallywithgrowthinhumanpopulationsandtechnology.

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Severelanddamageaccompanieslargescaleagriculture.Restorationisveryproblematical.
Continuedlossofarablelandwilljeopardizeourabilitytofeedtheworldpopulation.
Landdegradationisworldwidebothdevelopedanddevelopingcountries.

5.SuggestedReadings

WorldResources19921999:AGuidetotheGlobalEnvironment,Oxford,1992
F.T.MackenzieandJ.A.Mackenzie,OurChangingEarth:AnIntroductiontoEarthSystemScience
andGlobalEnvironmentalChange,PrenticeHall,1995

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AllmaterialstheregentsoftheUniversityofMichiganunlessotherwisenoted.

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