1

Abstract
A model is presented linking task scope to employee motivation and performance. Emphasis is given to
the importance of objective, environmental (versus psychological) conceptualizations of task scope.
Psychological reactions to variations in task scope are depicted as dependent on intervening constructs.
Through an expectancy model, a formulation of a task scope/performance relationship leads to a
complex, situationally specific set of predictions. Additional refinements of the model are suggested.

THE EFFECT OF NON-MONETARY INCENTIVES ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE ( A CASE STUDY

OF HEALTH GATE FOODS AND DRINKS CO. LTD UYO)

The Concept of Financial and Non Financial Incentives

Financial incentives are monetary rewards or compensation use in motivating employees in organization.
Financial incentives consist in organization. Financial incentives consist of direct financial and indirect
financial compensation. Direct financial compensation consist of salary, wages, bonuses and
commissions. The indirect financial compensation are also called benefits, which are all financial
compensations. The non financial compensations consist of employee satisfaction, such as responsibility,
opportunities for recognition, the chance of promotion, or form psychological and physical environment in
which the employee works, such as a pleasant work environment, sound policies, a cafeteria, work
sharing compressed work week and free time (Monday and Noe, 2003).

Micheal and Harold (2006) states that financial incentives refers to monetary terms in from of wages and
salary use to compensate and motivate workers in an organization. Wages are financial rewards based
on time units. The wage rate is multiplied by the number of the units worked. Time unit plans are used
when work schedule is irregular e.g factory workers, mine workers, farm labourer etc. while salaries on
the other hand are paid from one data to another irrespectively of the amount of time another
irrespectively of the amount of time they work between those dates. Salaries are used when the hours of
work are so regular that there is little reason to count e.g management salaries, professional salaries etc.
And commissions are financial rewards based on direct measure of productivity.

However, Dessler (2005) opined that non financial incentives are remuneration or benefits in from of
services. This include medical services, insurance programmes, recreational facilities, subsidized
cafeteria, discount on purchase of companys product, education assistance to staff children and
special awards for long services. Non financial incentives in form of fringe benefits are many and varied,
however may be classified into four main types of incentives. Individual schemes, groups incentive
schemes, factory wide productivity bargaining where workers are allowed to form committee (Aliyu, 2007).

In the same vein Lawal (2006) opined that financial and non financial incentives are means of eliciting
additional effort of the workers and are tied to performance. He further opined that there are four main
types of incentives plans:

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1. Indivdiual schemes which include measured day work, piece rates, commission and suggestion
schemes
2. Groups incentive schemes-similar to the individual ones but places emphasis on group
cooperation.
3. Factory wide productivity bargaining is an incentive scheme were workers are allowed to form
committees. These committees provide suggestions about methods, machines, plant layout
material etc.
4. Profit sharing schemes make allowance for employees to share in the companys profit
depending on the state of the companys profit for the year.

Financial incentives are monetary incentives such as salaries, wages, commission, profit sharing and
bonuses while non financial incentives are compensation in the form of services offered to employees to
enhance their performance services such insurance, health care, paid time not worked etc.

Concept of Employee Performance

The performance of employee is the achieved results of operations with the capabilities of the employee
who acts in certain situations. According to Byars (2005) employee performance is a combined result of
effort, ability and perception of tasks. High performance is a step towards the achievement of
organizational goals. Therefore, efforts are needed to improve employee performance. Dharma (1991)
stated that performance is something that is done on the products/services produced or provided by any
persons or group of people.

However, Swato (2006) argued that employee performance is the action or the execution of tasks that
were completed by individuals within a certain time.
Similarly, Colquitt et al (2011) noted that job performance is the set of employee behaviors that contribute
to organizational goal accomplishment.

In the same vein, Okoh(2011) opined that employee performance is the individual effort of an employee in
his given tasks in a production process. This implies that each individual is given a task in the production
process of every organization as such the rate of work an individual undertakes in a particular production
is said to be his performance towards that production, while the overall effort of the employee is said to be
organizational performance.

Concept of Performance Incentives in Workplace

The use of performance incentives date back to era of scientific management movement, which was
championed by Frederick Taylor in the early 20th century to resolve the problem of soldering at work.
Since then, the private sector in most countries has continued to employ performance incentives with a
view to raising the productivity of their workers 9Okoh, 2004).
While research on the impact of incentives on employees productivity has been a prominent area of
interest in human resource management; it has been established by pest surveys that effective incentive

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pay system are panacea for performance. This is owing to the fact that incentives are regarded as
variable payments made to employees or a group of employees on the basis of the amount of output or
result achieved. Alternatively, it could be payments made with the aim of pursuing employees
performance toward higher targets (Banjoko, 2006).

Similarly, Egbe (2009) sees performance incentives as compensation other than basic wages or salaries
that fluctuates according to employees attainment of some standard, such as pre-established
formula, individual or group goals, or organizational earning. Incentives in work place are designed to
boost the effort of employees to work extra hard in order to enhance organizational productivity.

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International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 7, July-2013 2554

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Impact of Non-Financial Rewards on

Employee
Attitude &Performance in the workplace
A case study of Business Institutes of
Karachi
Neelam Bari , Uzma Arif , Almas Shoaib

Abstract:The purpose of the study is to find out the impact of non-financial rewards on employee attitude and to get
information about the factors which affect their performance at workplace in the business institutes of Karachi. A
survey was conducted from the different designation of employees and 9

Universities of Karachi were selected to find out whether the Non-Financial Rewards are offered to employees and if does, so
itaffects employee attitude in the workplace and increases Employee Performance. Sample of 300 employees were taken, out of
which 217 employees from nine Universities responded which were randomly selected. Data was gathered through Questionnaires
containing 15 likert scale questions. The data obtained from the research are analyzed through SPSS 15.0. Correlation is used to
analyze the data and the results showed thatfeedback to employees, freedom, career development plan, and valuation of
employees, learning programs, open & comfortable work environment and good supervisory relations, all these factors positively
impacts employee attitude and performance in the workplace. It would further be suggested that focusing the factors that positively
impacts employee attitude and performance would enhance the performance of employee and create a positive work environment
which will also help grow the Institute and its productivity. Their classroom performance will also be enhanced and students learning
would also move upward.

Keywords: Employee Performance, Employee attitude, non-financial rewards, Performance in the workplace, Extrinsic
rewards, Intrinsic rewards. Career development plan, Work life balance, Recognition.

Introduction:

Employee Performance plays a vital role in the Organizational growth. High Performance of employee depends on what
kind of reward policies an organization offers. Several methods are used to increase employee performance. Reward
policies are one of the important practices of Human Resource among which Monetary rewards directly effects employee
performance and also organization offers non-monetary rewards to increase the motivational level of employees which
will help increase the performance of employee and result will be the increased productivity of organization. Effective
non- monetary rewards can change a persons attitude in the workplace which itself brings a positive change in
environment and also enhances employee performance. When employees have positive attitude towards their job, they feel
committed with the organization and get engaged

Neelam Bari is currently Senior Lecturer in the faculty of Business Administrationat Jinnah University for Women Karachi, Pakistan. E-
mail: neelam.baari@gmail.com

Uzma Arif is student of BBA (final Year) in Jinnah University for Women

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Karachi, Pakistan.

Almas Shaib is student of BBA (Final Year) in Jinnah University for

Women Karachi, Pakistan.

in the work and results will be effective output. And employee feels committed when they receive intrinsic rewards, which
also increases job satisfaction and motivate employees. Satisfied employees are less likely to quit their jobs. So an
effective organization needs to revise their compensation and benefit plans to retain their employees.
(Ray) The attitudes of employees in the workplace can have a significant effect on the business as a whole. Attitude is one
of the hidden, hard-to-measure factors that end up being crucial to the success of a company. Whether for better or for
worse, employee attitudes tend to have a drastic impact on the productivity of a business, both directly and through the
effect on other job-related factors.
(ANDERSON)Money and other material things cannot fully satisfy ones being. Everyone has their own psychological
needs to fulfill and this is a good target for employee rewards. Aside from bonuses and other materialistic prize, employees
will also be happy to receive any of the top non-monetary rewards. Rewards do not necessarily have to be expensive to
show sincere appreciation. Hardworking people are sometimes satisfied with just the thought that someone recognizes
their efforts. Non-monetary employee rewards can be in any form as long as the sincerity is present.

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(Simmons, 2011) If your employees are not performing as well as you would like, its very likely because they are not
very satisfied with their jobs and committed to the
organization. Their lack of satisfaction and commitment is most likely a result of a crappy HR practice or system of
practices. Stop blaming employees and fix the systems if you want to improve attitudes, behaviors and performance in the
workplace.
(Simmons, Bret L. Simmons, 2010) The study did confirm that younger workers do have a sense of entitlement, meaning
they strongly value extrinsic rewards (e.g. pay, promotion) but are less willing than previous generations to put in long
hours to work for those rewards. More than any other generation, younger workers value leisure and time away from
work. The study also confirmed that across all generations, intrinsic rewards remain highly valued. Contrary to popular
belief, there really is very little new under the sun when it comes to the fundamentals of motivating behavior at work.
The study is conducted from 9 Universities of Karachi from different level of employees.

a. Problem Statement:

This research is conducted to know how Organizations are using non-monetary rewards to motivate their employees in
order to improve their performance and to determine up to what extent non-monetary rewards impacts on employee
attitude and performance.

b. Research Questions:

Are Business Institutes using effective non-monetary rewards to motivate their employees?
To what extent Organization offers non-
monetary rewards to their employees?
Does non-monetary rewards impacts on
employee attitude and performance?

Literature Review:

(Zhou, 1998)Collected data from 210 participants who performed a role-playing task in a laboratory setting. The study
concluded that individual receiving positive feedback, working in a high task autonomy environment, and achievement
effects on creative performance.

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(Tausif, 2012)Explored the relationship between the non- financial rewards (promotion, job enrichment and job autonomy)
and job satisfaction for the educational sector of
Pakistan. Data collected from 200 full time employees from public sector schools show that there is a strong relationship
of non-financial rewards with job satisfaction.
And also the satisfaction increases with the age. The older employees are more satisfied with non-financial rewards than
younger employees.
(Dambisya, 2007)Investigated that the use of nonfinancial incentives for health worker leads to satisfaction of employees.
This study was conducted in health sector and found that non-financial rewards affect the performance of an individual.
(Group, 2011)This study was conducted in online staff in business sector that are more satisfy with non-financial rewards
rather than financial rewards. He concluded that non-financial rewards effects on performance and also effects to increase
the productivity and profitable growth of organization.
(Sammer, 2011) This study was conducted as nonfinancial rewards can create perceptions of the overall fairness of a
rewards program. A study of more than 500 professionals conducted by World at Work found that reward fairness focus on
nonfinancial aspects of the total reward offering, including (career development opportunities, nonfinancial recognition,
and employee development and training).
(Dzuaranin, 2012) Suggested from the results that companies that only have cash incentives must also introduce noncash
rewards to their performance incentive systems to increase the motivation level of employees.
(Nsour, 2012)Investigated the incentives approach and the level of performance in Jordanian Universities. Descriptive
analysis was used to analyze the data and five Universities were selected for this study. The results showed the
significance relationship between moral incentives and learning and growth in Jordanian Universities and also there is a
high level of Organizational Performance. Internal business process is ranked in the second place followed by learning and
growth.
(Erbasi, 2012)Examined the effect of financial and non- financial incentives on job satisfaction.Questionnaires were
applied to eleven employees at food premises. And several techniques were used to analyze data via SPSS. Results showed
significant relationship between financial and non- financial incentives and the job satisfaction of employees. Attitude
towards financial incentives have strongereffect on job satisfaction than attitude towards non-financial incentives.

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(Stovall, 2003)Evaluated various non-monetary means of increasing employee participation in fire safety education
activities. The purpose was to develop a program emphasizing primarily non-monetary incentives to motivate employees
to participate. Evaluative, descriptive and action research were employed. This Research also concluded that organizations
using effective reward programs better accomplishes organizational objectives and also influences employee behavior.
Three programs were recommended for the fire safety education programs on the basis of research: advancement to
participation, progressive participation in the fire fighter career path and providing recognition by the use of low-cost-on-
the-spot rewards.
(Roberts, 2005) Investigated whether rewards and recognition impacts on employee motivation. Sample included 184
employees. Inferential tests used include the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient, Multiple Regression
Analysis and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Research resulted that there is a positive relationship between rewards,
recognition and motivation. It also concluded that good reward and recognition system contributes to employee
satisfaction and the more highly rewarded and recognized employees, more they are satisfied and satisfied employees are
less likely to quit the job.
METHODOLOGY:

a. Statistical Techniques Used:

This statistical technique used in this research is

Inferential Statistics through Correlation.

b. Hypothesis:

i. H1 :Individual Extrinsic Rewards

(appreciation & recognition, praise and feedback to employees) affects employee attitude and performance.

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ii. H2 :Individual Intrinsic Rewards

(assigned tasks & responsibilities, freedom, career development plan and advancement opportunities) affectsemployee
attitude and performance.
iii. H3 :Collective Extrinsic Rewards (fair
opportunity, work-life balance, learning programs and valuation of employees) affects employee attitude and performance.
iv. H4 : Collective Intrinsic Rewards
(encouraging employees, open & comfortable work environment and supervisory relations) affects employee attitude and
performance.

c. Data Collection and Techniques:

Primary data was collected through Questionnaires that contains 15 likert scale questions. And data was gathered from
different business institutes of Karachi which were randomly selected.
Secondary data was collected from internet that includes theories and reviews.

d. Sample:

Sample of total 300 employees were taken from Business Institutes in Karachi out of which 217 employees responded.
The sample includes Professors, Lecturers and Assistant Professors from 9 different Business Institutes that were randomly
selected.
Data Analysis:

DemographicInformation:

Gender * marital status Crosstabulation

marital status Total

Marrie
Single Single
d
Gender Male 42 84 126

Female 59 32 91

Total 101 116 217

Gender * age group Crosstabulation

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Correlation Analysis:

** Correlation is Significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) Interpretations:

This result indicates that appreciation and recognition of employees do not correlate with employee attitude in the work
place and performance in Business Institutes of Karachi. Correlation Coefficient is 0.063 and significant value is 0.359 >
0.05. Appreciation and Recognition does not support H1 i.e. Individual Extrinsic Rewards affects employee attitude and
performance in Business Institutes.
No Significant relation is found in Business Institutes while praising the employees in their attitudes and performance.

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Correlation Coefficient is 0.024 and significant value is

0.727 > 0.05. Hence praising the employees in the workplace also does not supportH 1 i.e. Individual Extrinsic Rewards
affects employee attitude and performance in Business
Institutes.
There is a significant relation between feedback and employee attitude and performance. It directly affects the dependent
Variable. Correlation value is 0.173 and significant value is 0.011< 0.05. Feedback supports H 1 .
There is no significant relation found between assigned tasks and responsibilities with the employee attitude and
performance in Business Institutes of Karachi. Correlation Coefficient value is 0.022 and significant value is 0.751
>0.05. Assigning tasks and responsibilities does not support
H2 i.e. Individual Intrinsic Rewards affects employee
attitude and performance in Business Institutes of Karachi.
There is a positive relationship between freedom in the workplace with employee attitude and performance. It has a
positive influence on the dependent variables. Spearman Correlation is 0.342 and significant value is 0.00 < 0.05.
Therefore, freedom in the workplace supports H2 i.e. Individual Intrinsic Rewards affects employee attitude and
performance in Business Institutes of Karachi.
There is no relation between advancement opportunities with employee attitude and performance in the Business Institutes
of Karachi. Correlation value is 0.110 and significant value is 0.115 > 0.05. Hence an advancement opportunity for
employee does not support H2.
There is a positive relation between career development plan and employee attitude and performance in Karachi Business
Institutes. Correlation value is 0.258 and significant value is 0.00 < 0.05. It shows that career development plan also
supports H2.
There is no relation between fair opportunity for complaints & suggestions with employee attitude and performance.
Correlation value is 0.110 and significant value is 0.196 > 0.05. Hence, it shows that fair opportunity for complaints &
suggestions does not support H3 i.e. Collective Extrinsic Rewards affects employee attitude and performance in Karachi
Business Institutes.
There is a positive relationship between valuation of employees and employee attitude and performance in Karachi
Business Institutes. Correlation value is 0.413 and significant value is 0.00 < 0.05. It shows that valuation of employees
strongly correlates with dependent variable and also supports H3.
There is no relation between work-life balance of employees and employee attitude & performance in Business Institutes
of Karachi. Correlation value is 0.054 and significant value is 0.430> 0.05. It shows that work-life balance strongly
correlates with dependent variable and also supports H3.
There is also a positive relationship between learning programs of employees and employee attitude & performance in
Business Institutes of Karachi. Correlation value is 0.371 and significant value is 0.00 < 0.05. It shows

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that it has a positive effect on dependent variable and also supports H3.
There is no positive relation between encouraging employees and employee attitude & performance. Correlation value is
0.126 and significant value is 0.065 >
0.05. It shows that it does not support H4 i.e. Collective
Intrinsic Rewards affects employee attitude and performance.
There is a positive relationship between open & comfortable work environment and employee attitude & performance.
Correlation value is 0.176 and significant value is 0.009 < 0.05. It shows that open & comfortable environment.in the
workplace directly and positively impacts dependent variable and also supports H 4.
There is a positive relationship between good supervisory relations and employee attitude & performance in Karachi
Business Institutes. Correlation value is 0.436 and significant value is 0.00 < 0.05. It shows that good supervisory relation
with employees strongly correlate with dependent variable and it supports H 4.

Conclusion and Recommendation:

This survey found that various factors directly and positively affect employee attitude and their performance in the
Business Institutes of Karachi.The factors studied in this survey includes various factors among whichsome factors
positively impacts employee attitude and performance are feedback to employees, freedom, career development plan, and
valuation of employees, learning programs, open & comfortable work environment and good supervisory relations. Some

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factors are supporting Hypothesis while others not. It could also be concluded as the better the feedback, freedom, career
development plan, valuation of employees, learning programs, open & comfortable environment and good supervisory
relations provided to employees, the higher is the employee performance and positive attitude in the workplace and
therefore it would result the higher performance and good environment in the workplace which will increase the
productivity of organization.However, Business Institutes could use the outcome of this study to recognize its focusing
area and further work on it.
(Simmons, Bret L.Simmons, 2009) Build relationships with your employees, ask them what they think and seek their
suggestions on how to improve the work they do, and then
involve them in implementing those changes. According to Simmons building relationship with employees must be
focused. Employees feel that they are being valued and this study also proved that valuation of employees positively
impacts employee attitude and also performance in the workplace.
The findings of this study also concluded that employees not receiving non-monetary rewards that has positive impact on
employees in the Business Institutes of Karachi have low positive attitude in the workplace towards their job and
performance than those who receive.

Limitations:

This study has many limitations. Firstly, the limitation occurred in measuring the variables of Employee Attitude and
Performance in the Workplace. It is all based on respondents perception and attitudes through the Questionnaire.
Therefore, there might be possible error in the data set. Secondly, the time period and resources were short to complete the
targeted sample size, some questionnaires were not returned back to us and also the problem faced was that some Institutes
Management straightforwardly denied to survey in their Institute. On the other hand, more Business Institutes would be
included in the population area but there were unavailability of employees because of their schedule. Besides it, this study
would be specific in the Business Institutes of Karachi.

Future Recommendation:

Institutes has an increasingly competitive environment, so by revising their non-monetary reward policies that has positive
influence on employee attitude and performance, they can help retain their employees. They would get benefit by focusing
and effectively using the factors that has positive influence. Recognizing employees effort can impact positively not only
on employees performance but also upon organizations image. Non- financial rewards has long run impact , so this is
strongly recommended to institutes that turn their focus on intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. A public applaud and a tap on
shoulder could be impact greatly on employees performance.

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Bibliography

ANDERSON, J. (n.d.). at awards plus. Retrieved May Monday, 2013, from awesomeawards:
http://www.awesomeawards.com/index.php/top-5
Dambisya. (2007, May). Retrieved from equinetafrica: http://www.equinetafrica.org/bibl/docs/DIS44HRd ambisya.pdf
Dzuaranin, S. (2012). the effect of tangible and intangible noncash rewards on performance and satisfaction in production
setting. Management Accounting Quarterly, vol 13, no.4.
Erbasi, A. (2012). The Effect of Financial and Non-financial Incentives on Job Stisfaction: An Examination of Food Chain
premises in Turkey. Interntional Business Research, Vol. 5, No. 10.
Grant, P. C. (n.d.). Retrieved May Saturday, 2013, from p- mm: http://www.p-
mm.co.uk/motivation/images/assets/pdf/Motivatio n%20-%20Cash%20Vs%20Non%20Cash.pdf
Group, M. (2011, September). Retrieved 2013, from shrm: http://www.shrm.org/hrdisciplines/compensation/
articles/pages/noncashmotivator.aspx
Jeffrey. (n.d.). The Benefits of Tangible Non-Monetary
Incentives.
Nsour, A. (2012). Relationship between Incentives and Organizational Performance for employees in Jordanian
Universities. International Journal for Business and Management, Vol 7, No.1.

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Ray, L. (n.d.). Retrieved June 2013, from globalpost: http://everydaylife.globalpost.com/effect- employee-attitude-

productivity-workplace-
3168.html
Roberts. (2005). relationship between rewards, recognition and motivation at an insurance company in the western cape.
Sammer, J. (2011). Retrieved 2013, from shrm:
http://www.shrm.org/hrdisciplines/benefits/articles
/pages/nonfinancialrewards.aspx
Simmons. (2009, April). Bret L.Simmons. Retrieved June
2013, from http://www.bretlsimmons.com/2009-
04/do-you-know-what-drives-work-performance- part-2/
Simmons. (2010, November). Retrieved June 2013, from Bret
L. Simmons: http://www.bretlsimmons.com/2010-
11/exposing-some-truths-about-motivating- millennials-in-the-workplace/
Simmons. (2011, August). Bret L. Simmons. Retrieved June
2013, from Bret L. Simmons: http://www.bretlsimmons.com/2011-08/high- performance-work-systems-affect-employee-
attitudes-and-group-performance/
Stovall. (2003). increasing employee participation in fire safety education programs using non-monetary rewards.
Tausif. (2012). Asian Journal of Management Ressearch. Zhou, J. (1998, April). APA PsychNet. Journal of Applied

Job Analysis
I. What is Job Analysis?
A. a process used to identify the important tasks of a job and the essential competencies an
individual should possess to satisfactorily perform the job. (State of Colorado, 2002,
http://www.colorado.gov/dpa/dhr/select/docs/jobanal.pdf).
B. a wide variety of systematic procedures for examining, documenting, and drawing
inferences about work activities, worker attributes, and work context. (Sackett & Laczo,
2003, p. 21).
C. methods for learning about the tasks involved in doing a job and/or the knowledge, skills,
abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs) that a worker needs to have to do the job (or,
to do it well), and the context in which a job is performed.
1. From these definitions, you should see that there are two types of job analysis: job-
oriented (aka task-oriented or work-oriented) and person-oriented (worker-oriented).
II. The purposes of job analysis
A. "... job analysis is to the personnel specialist what the wrench is to the plumber." (Cascio,
1982). It is the cornerstone of nearly all personnel practices. (Mitchell, Alliger, &
Morfopoulos, 1997).
1. In other words, job analysis is used for nearly everything, including
B. Job Description: A snapshot communicating the essence of the job.
1. Usually contains information such as job title, summary of job purpose or objectives,
and duties and tasks that are done on the job.

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2. Among other purposes, job descriptions are important for letting people who dont do
the job know what the job is.
C. Job Specification: Identifying the skills or attributes a worker should have to successfully
do a job.
D. Job Classification: Identifying what jobs go together somehow.
1. They may go together for a variety of reasons, for example:
(a) Similar tasks carried out.
(b) Similar KSAOs needed.
(c) Similar lines of authority.
2. Job classification can be important for setting pay, hiring employees, moving
employees between jobs.
E. Job Evaluation: Establishing the worth of jobs to employers.
F. Job design and redesign: Deciding what tasks or units of work go together into a single
job.
G. Personnel Selection & Firing
1. Job analysis is crucial in identifying the KSAOs that should be looked for in hiring.
H. Training
1. What KSAOs must be taught.
2. What tasks must be learned.
I. Safety
1. Job analysis can identify job tasks that increase accidents and injury. Job analysis can
identify working conditions that are dangerous.
J. Ergonomic Design: Knowing what people do on the job helps design equipment to be
more efficient and safer.
K. Performance Appraisal
1. Job analysis identifies the dimensions that an employee should be evaluated on.
2. It is also very important to make sure that performance appraisals (and the
consequences that come with a bad evaluation) are administered fairly, without
discrimination.
(a) Aside for general moral & business reasons for doing this, there are legal reasons
(see below).
L. Avoiding Discrimination & Defending against Charges of Discrimination

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1. When making personnel decisions, it is legitimate to hire/promote/reward people who

do the job better, even if certain classes of people do not get hired. But to do this,
you have to know what the job really entails.
(a) Discrimination and Adverse Impact: Potential unfairness in the treatment of [a]
minority group or protected class members. (From your textbook, p. 405).
i If a procedure used for making personnel decisions causes a protected group
to be more negatively treated than other groups, it has adverse impact.
ii If even so the procedure relates to job performance, then the law does not
consider that discrimination.
(i) Job Analysis can be used to identify what are necessary parts of the job,
and is an important part of establishing the relationship of a procedure to
job performance.
(b) The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) says that employers cannot
discriminate against people with disabilities unless they are unable to perform
essential functions of the job, even with reasonable accommodations.
i Essential Function: Those job duties that are so fundamental to the position
that the individual holds or desires that s/he cannot do the job without
performing them. A function can be "essential" if, among other things: the
position exists specifically to perform that function; there are a limited
number of other employees who could perform the function; or the function is
specialized and the individual is hired based on his/her ability to perform it.
(From www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/accommodation_procedures_eeoc.html).
ii Reasonable Accommodations: Any change in the work environment or in the
way things are customarily done that would enable a qualified individual with
a disability to enjoy equal employment opportunities. These
accommodations are considered reasonable if they do not cause undue
hardship on an organization because they are very difficult or expensive for
the organization to implement. (Also from
www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/accommodation_procedures_eeoc.html).
III. How do different methods of Job Analysis differ from each other?
A. Job Descriptors
1. Job Oriented (task-oriented, work-oriented)
(a) focuses on specific tasks needed to do the job.
2. Person-Oriented (worker-oriented)
(a) focuses on the knowledge, skills, abilities, aptitudes, attributes, and so on, of
individual workers believed necessary to do the job tasks and behaviors
successfully. Tries to identify the KSAOs needed for the job.

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(b) Person-Oriented Job Analysis requires more inferences. It is a bigger leap from
observing the job to KSAOs than it is from observing the job to tasks.

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B. What level of description is generated?

1. We could describe what someone does on a job at many different levels.
2. A job element means the smallest unit of work that has a clear beginning, middle, and
end. Describing things in any smaller unit would require describing the physical
actions needed to do it.
(a) For example, if we were doing a job analysis on the job police officer, one
element would be dialing the phone.
i If we wanted to describe this in any smaller unit, it would be physical: Pick up
handset, press numbers, etc.
3. An activity is a group of elements that have a goal of fulfilling some work
requirement.
(a) For example, an activity for police officers that involves the element dialing the
phone is Calling witnesses to ask questions.
(b) A typical job may have more than 100 activities. Complex jobs may require
several hundred.
4. A task is a collection of activities that are meant to achieve a specific job objective.
(a) For example, a police officer calls witnesses to obtain information about a
crime.
(b) A typical job analysis may have 30 to 100 tasks.
5. A duty is a collection of tasks all directed toward general goals of a job.
(a) For example, Homicide Duties.
(b) A thorough job analysis might produce 5 to 12 duties for a typical job.

Further Examples of Duties, Tasks, Activities, & Job Elements for the Job of Police Officer
Term Example
Duty Traffic Enforcement
Task Issue Tickets to Violators
Activity Pull Motorist Over
Element Switch on Siren and Lights

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C. Quantitative or Qualitative?
1. Qualitative involves a verbal, narrative description of the job.
2. Quantitative involves numeric information
(a) Could be something like: Must be able to lift 40 lbs.
(b) But, more often will be something like ratings on scales, for example:
i Ratings of how important a particular activity or ability is.
ii Ratings of how often or frequently a certain task is done.
D. Who provides information about the job?
1. Subject Matter Experts (SMEs)
(a) Job Incumbents
(b) Supervisors
2. Others who come in contact with the worker or job.
(a) Clients or customers
(b) People in other organizational units
3. The Job Analyst
4. Written Sources of Information
(a) Existing job descriptions
(b) Training Manuals
(c) Performance Appraisal Materials
i But, these may reflect peoples opinions about the job, rather than what the
job really involves.
(d) Previous job analyses.
E. Methods for obtaining data (See p. 61 in the textbook for advantages and disadvantages).
1. Interviewing Individuals or Group Interviews
2. Questionnaires: Structured or Open-Ended
3. Diaries: The job incumbents keep records of what they do during their working day.
4. Video or audio recording. Physiological recording (for job analyses focused on the
physical nature of the job).
5. Reviewing records and literature.
6. Doing the Job.

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F. Using a pre-existing questionnaire or using a blank slate method.

1. Advantages of a pre-existing questionnaire
(a) Less work to develop question, therefore probably quicker and less expensive.
(b) Allows comparison among different job analyses.
2. Advantages of the blank slate method.
(a) Job analysis can be tailored to the specific job being studied.
G. Descriptive or Prescriptive Job Analysis
1. Should the job analysis describe the job as it is currently being done, or should it try
to come up with the tasks or KSAOs that represent excellent job performance (how it
should be done).

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Specific Job Analysis Methods

IV. The Task Inventory
A. A list of tasks is presented to subject matter experts (SMEs), who check off which tasks
are done on the job and/or rate the tasks on different dimensions. Tasks are rated on
scales (such as 1 to 5).
1. Typical dimensions include:
(a) How important is each task to your job?
(b) How much time do you spend on each job?
(c) How frequently do you perform each task?
(d) How difficult is it to perform each task?
B. The tasks in a task inventory are typically generated by a job analyst based on
observation of the job, background materials (job descriptions, training materials, etc),
and interviews with SMEs.
C. Frequently, the tasks will be grouped by the duties that they correspond to.
An example of a (partial) task inventory for the job of Clerk in a Pharmacy
(These tasks fall under the heading of the customer service duty).

Task Check Time Spent Difficulty

Here if 1 = small amount 1 = one of the easiest
Task is 2 = less than 2 = easier than most
Done in average 3 = average
your Job 3 = average 4 = harder than most
4 = above average 5 = one of the hardest
5 = large amount

Answer customer questions about

products and services

Call patient about scrip not picked

up after 7 days

Make refunds

Recommend products to customers

Refer medical questions to

pharmacist

Ring up merchandise and

prescriptions on register

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D. The Dimensions on which Job analyses differ:

1. Is this method task oriented or worker oriented?
2. What is the level of description?
3. Is it quantitative or qualitative?
4. What is the source of the information?
5. What are the methods of gathering information?
6. Is this a Blank Slate method or a Pre-existing Questionnaire or Categories Method?
7. Is this descriptive or prescriptive?
V. Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
A. Originally developed by the Department of Labor, and used to generate the Dictionary of
Occupational Titles (DOT; first version: 1939).
1. The DOT lists all the jobs in the U.S. The more recent versions list both
descriptions of occupations and worker characteristics for the job.
(a) But, the original version was more task oriented.
(b) The DOT is being replaced by O*NET, an online system that will be explained
more below.
B. In Functional Job Analysis, the emphasis is on what the worker does not on why he/she
does it (in other words, not on the goals of the task).
1. COMPARE:
(a) Determines the qualifications that employees must possess in order to fill a vacant
position.
(b) Reviews/analyzes job description data, drawing on experience and psychological
background in order to determine employee qualifications for vacant positions.
C. The goal in FJA is to create task statements describing a job. Task statements are
combined to make a job description.

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D. In FJA, work tasks can be classified as relating to one of three categories of objects: Data,
People, or Things.
1. Data are numbers, words, blueprints. Types of worker functions involving data
include:
(a) Synthesizing: Integrating analyses of data to discover facts and/or developing
knowledge, concepts, or interpretation.
(b) Analyzing: Examining and evaluating data.
2. People is people, of course, but can also include animals (for example, for the job of
veterinarian). Example functions are:
(a) Mentoring: Dealing with individuals in order to advice, counsel, and/or guide
them
(b) Serving: Attending to the needs or requests of people or animals.
3. Things refers to physical objects, such as computers, tools, etc. Example functions
include:
(a) Driving-operating: Starting, stopping, and controlling the actions of machines or
equipment for which a course must be steered.
E. Task statements are generated by combining a specific worker function with:
1. the object of the function (either data, people, thing).
2. the work field
(a) The work field is one of 100 fields that are broad areas that classify all the jobs in
the economy.
(i) Examples are butchering, entertaining, detecting.
3. the materials or products, etc, that are affected by the task.
F. Example job description:
1. Trains wild animals such as lions, tigers, bears, and elephants to perform tricks for
entertainment of audience at circus or other exhibition. Evaluates ability, behavior,
and performance of each animal. Originates acts based on performance of animals.
(a) trains = Worker function.
(b) wild animals = the object
(c) to entertain = work field
(d) audience = thing affected by task.

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G. The Dimensions on which Job analyses differ:

1. Is this method task oriented or worker oriented?
2. What is the level of description?
3. Is it quantitative or qualitative?
4. What is the source of the information?
5. What are the methods of gathering information?
6. Is this a Blank Slate method or a Pre-existing Questionnaire or Categories Method?
7. Is this descriptive or prescriptive?
VI The Critical Incident Technique

A) The goal is to collect specific, behaviorally-focused descriptions of work or other

activities. (Bownas & Benardin, 1988, p. 1120).

1) The goal is to gather examples of things workers do (incidents) that reflect good,
adequate, or poor performance.

B) Critical incidents should be specific:

1) They should provide enough detail so that anyone familiar with the job can imagine
the same incident, and can agree on the effectiveness (good, adequate, poor) of the
incident.

C) Critical incidents should be written in the active voice, with the job incumbent as the
sentences subject, and some behavioral verb as the subject.

1) Critical incidents should reflect observable behaviors.

D) Critical incidents should include a brief description of the context in which the behavior
occurred, so that it is clear what was happening and/or whether the behavior was effective
or not.

E) Critical incidents should include the consequences of the behavior.

F) Incidents are usually gathered in workshops of conferences meetings of between 6 to 12

subject matter experts.

(a) The SMEs should be people who have had enough experience to have observed
the work behavior of a variety of people doing the job.

(b) People should not report critical incidents that reflect their own behavior.

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(c) SMEs need to have good verbal skills, and/or a job analyst needs to be present to
help develop the critical incidents.

G) However, they can also be collected by questionnaires, interviews, or through observation

by a job analyst.

1) The problem with some of these methods is that the job analyst may have less of an
opportunity to work with the SMEs to make sure they are writing good critical
incidents.

H) Critical incidents can be collected with a structured method (where specific domains of
the job are listed, and examples of good/adequate/poor performance are asked for).

I) They can also be gathered in an unstructured format (Tell us about things that are good
or bad ways of doing the job.)

J) The Dimensions on which Job analyses differ:

8. Is this method task oriented or worker oriented?

9. What is the level of description?
10. Is it quantitative or qualitative?
11. What is the source of the information?
12. What are the methods of gathering information?
13. Is this a Blank Slate method or a Pre-existing Questionnaire or Categories Method?
14. Is this descriptive or prescriptive?

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VII The Position Analysis Questionnaire

A) A generic, worker-oriented, structured job analysis questionnaire that could be used in

the analysis of most jobs in the labor force. (McCormick & Jeanneret, 1988).

1) Generic: Can be used to examine almost any job.

2) Worker oriented:

(a) It focuses on generalized worker behaviors describing how a job is done.

3) Structured

(a) There are 187 job elements, which are organized into 6 divisions or sections.

(i) Elements are either attributes of workers (e.g., color perception) or aspects of
the job that either affect the worker or require the worker to do something
(e.g., the job makes use of written information; the jobholder experiences
vibrations).

(i) These are not tasks of the job, but something that is required of the
worker.

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Structure of the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

Division Definition Subdivisions Example Job

Elements

Information Where and How Does the Sources of job Use of written
Input Worker Get the information materials
Information Used in the
Job? Discrimination and Estimating the speed
perceptual activities of moving things
Mediation What reasoning, decision- Decision making and Reasoning in problem
(mental) making, planning, & reasoning solving
processes information processing
activities are used in Information processing Encoding/Decoding
performing the job? Use of stored information Using Mathematics
Work Output What physical activities Use of physical devices Use of keyboard
does the worker perform, devices
and what tools or devices
Integrative manual Handling
are used?
activities objects/materials
General body activities. Climbing
Manipulation/coordination Hand-arm
activities manipulation
Interpersonal What is the nature of Communications Instruction
Activities contact and with whom?
Interpersonal relationships Serving/catering
Personal contact Personal contact with
public customers
Supervision and Level of supervision
coordination received
Work In what physical and social Physical working Low temperature
situations and contexts is the work conditions
job context performed?
Psychological and Civic obligations
sociological aspects
Miscellaneous Work schedule, method of Irregular hours
pay, and apparel
Job demands Specified (controlled)
work pace
Responsibility Responsibility for the
safety of others

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4) Because of the technical language used, the PAQ needs to be filled out by trained job
analysts.

(a) They base their responses on observation & interviews of SMEs.

5) The PAQ is quantitative. Elements are rated on one of several scales appropriate to
that element.

(a) Dimension scores can be calculated.

(b) This allows comparisons across different jobs.

(c) It is also useful for job classification: jobs which have similar profiles can be
classified together.

(d) It is perhaps most useful for the issue of job evaluation (deciding how much a job
is worth).

(i) The company that makes the PAQ maintains a data base of many jobs.

(ii) They have a formula that allows them to calculate how much a job is worth, in
relationship to other jobs in the economy.

(i) The different elements of the job can be thought of as compensable

factors, each with a specific value. By determining the level of each
element for a particular job, the jobs comparable worth can be calculated.

(ii) Jobs that have similar profiles will get similar worths.

B) The Dimensions on which Job analyses differ:

15. Is this method task oriented or worker oriented?

16. What is the level of description?
17. Is it quantitative or qualitative?
18. What is the source of the information?
19. What are the methods of gathering information?
20. Is this a Blank Slate method or a Pre-existing Questionnaire or Categories Method?
21. Is this descriptive or prescriptive?

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VIII O*Net
A) O*Net is a database being developed by the U.S. Department of Labor to replace the
Dictionary of Occupational Titles.
B) Its purpose is to be a comprehensive description of worker and job attributes.
(Peterson et al., 2001).
1) Eventually, it will list information on about 1100 occupational categories.

The O*Net Content Model

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2) It contains multiple levels of information, so it can be used for many different

purposes
(a) It has information about individual level features that are needed to do a job
(i) Worker Requirements: general attributes that are developed through
education and experience they include knowledge, skills, and education.
(Peterson et al., 2001, p. 463).
(ii) Experience Requirements: the types and quantities of experience that are
required in a specific occupation, including incumbent experience in other
jobs, job-related training, on the job training, and licensure or certification
requirements. (Peterson et al., 2001, p. 471-472).
(iii) Worker Characteristics: relatively enduring individual attributes that
influence the capacities they can ultimately develop as well as their
willingness to engage in certain kinds of activities. (Peterson et al., 2001, p.
457).
(b) It has information on job-level features
(i) Occupational Requirements: descriptors of the work itself, as compared to
descriptors of the worker the work activities and context within which the
work is performed. (Peterson et al., 2001, p. 467).
(ii) Occupation-Specific Requirements: Tasks, duties, and skills specific to a
single job.
(i) This information must be collected for the specific job. O*NET suggests
a procedure for how to collect the information.
(c) It has information about the types of organizations where the job is done.
(i) Organizational Context: Characteristics of the organization that affect all
jobs within that organization. (Peterson et al., 2001, p. 471).
(d) It has economic information about the job.
(i) Occupation Characteristics: Information about labor demand, labor supply,
and other labor market information.
3) O*NET is available on the internet at www.onetcenter.org

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IX Two new trends in job analysis (and related areas).

A) Competency Modeling: A technique popularized in business, designed to identify the
core competencies that are necessary for a person to be a successful part of an
organizations goals.
1) This is similar to job analysis, but it is usually
(a) More focused on a close connection between the individual competency
requirements and the broader goals of the organization
(b) More focused on the things that jobs or occupations within an organization have
in common, as opposed to identifying the differences between jobs.
(c) More likely to identify broad level descriptors.
2) On the down-side
(a) the broadness of the descriptors sometimes means that competency models for
any job sound alike. Especially because
(b) There is no clear-cut definition of what is meant by the term core competency.
B) Cognitive Task Analysis: An emphasis on finding the actual mental processes or activities
used by experts to complete the job...
1) For example, in a task-based analysis of the job pilot, we might have the task
Determine current location.
(a) A worker-based analysis might include related skills or abilities: Knowldege of
maps & compasses, visual acuity, visualization ability.
(b) A Cognitive task analysis would attempt to determine which of many ways to
work out current location is being used by expert pilots, and how that would differ
from non-experts.
2) Uses techniques and concepts from cognitive psychology.
3) Can be time consuming and expensive.

As mentioned in the very beginning, job analysis is a crucial part of almost every human
resource function. We will talk about it a lot as we go through the next couple of parts of the
class. Its important to keep the ideas about what job analysis is in mind as we proceed.

February 24, 2017