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Full Text: Three decades of English teaching material and methods for high schools in China
integration of tradition and innovation

Abstract:
During the more than 30 years since the late 1970s Chinas high school English language pedagogy has undergone three major
phases, two of which were accompanied by reforms to the curriculum. Each of these reforms resulted in a new set of textbooks.
These sets each had their own characteristic concept and methodology which was then updated from time to time before being
replaced. When the three phases are analyzed from the perspective of theory and practice, it is possible to see development and
innovation but also continuity based on previous experience. This was because it was felt that only in this way could a smooth
transition from one phase to another be assured, and the teaching of high school English develop and improve.

Key words: textbooks and teaching methods, tradition and innovation, functional approach, communicative language teaching,
constructivist theory, task-based language teaching
There is a famous saying in China that The teacher always follows a certain way of teaching, but does not stick to it. And I
believe that there is actually no universal teaching method in the world. The invention and development of all teaching methods
have their special historical background, and can exert positive influence on the society at that time. However, all teaching methods
have both advantages and limitations. The adoption of any teaching method should be decided according to the students needs and
the actual teaching situations. Depending on one single method the teacher cannot achieve good results.
Teaching methodology consists of three hierarchical elements, namely, approach, method and technique. An approach,
according to Anthony, is a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, and teaching, such as the structural
approach and communicative approach. Method is an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected
approach. Techniques are the specific activities manifested in the classroom that are consistent with a method and therefore in
harmony with an approach as well. (D Brown, 1994) Defining these three aspects is quite helpful in the discussion of teaching
methods.
The selection of teaching methods
Which method is most effective? It depends on:
1Teaching goal. The goal of school English teaching is to help students acquire comprehensive language application ability
based on integrated qualifications in terms of language skills, language knowledge, affective attitudes, learning strategies and
cultural awareness. Obviously, it aims at fundamental and general English, rather than English for specific purposes. Selecting
suitable teaching methods in line with the goal is conducive to laying a solid foundation for the future development of the students.
This foundation should be comprehensive, covering not only language factors but also intellectual and psychological factors,
feelings, learning ability and cultural awareness. Any effective teaching methods can be adopted. Meanwhile, the latest results in
international language research should be absorbed and adopted, e.g.: the task-based language teaching can be adopted to enhance
students comprehensive ability to improve their way of learning and using the language.
2The target learners. Students are youths ranging from 12 to 18 years old. They are remarkably differentiated from primary
school students in terms of both physical and psychological development. They are approaching the physically mature stage and are
not as easily agitated and good at emulating. They are thinking more sensibly and have strong curiosity. They have passion for novel
and exciting things. They are both anxious and concerned for the future. They tend to be subjective, one-sided and emotional in their
thinking. Therefore, it is not appropriate to adopt the Total Physical Response (TPRmethod for teaching high school students.
3Teaching environment. English is universally taught in China as a foreign language (not as a second language). Except in
the Zhujiang Delta region and coastal areas, most of Chinas foreign language environment is quite weak. The actual conditions
including different native languages and dialects, and cultural background of the students, the large-size classes and limited teaching
hours are all deciding factors for the selection of teaching methods.
The development history of high school English textbooks during the past 30 years could be roughly divided into three phases
including the 1980s, the 1990s and the beginning of the 21th century. Junior/Senior high school English
textbook1980sJunior/Senior English for China jointly compiled by China and Britain (1990s)Full-time general
junior/senior high school Englishrevised version of JEFC/SEFC, 2001-and the General Senior High School Curriculum
Standard Experimental English textbookNSECNew Senior English for China,2004-.
The textbooks of the three stages appear to be quite different. Especially the Sino-British jointly developed version of SEFC is
twice as large as the 1980s version, and has entirely different compiling and layout structure. The revised version of SEFC and the
NSEC are also remarkably different from the 1990s version. However, the transformation is gradual and evolutional in terms of
teaching approach and method. It goes like what Zhang Zhigong, a well-known linguist in China said: The new teaching method
cannot come into being overnight; neither can it be borrowed from other countries without any changes. It cannot be a totally new
product which has nothing to do with the previous foundation. The big change is like what N. Grant, English author of JEFC,
called a Revolution withoutREvolution. Indeed, the reforms carried out in curricula and textbooks at the three stages show
both inheritance and innovation, in stead of complete revolution.

An analysis of senior high school English textbooks and teaching methods used in the 1980s
When English textbooks in the 1980s are mentioned, people tend to assert that the textbooks were based on the theory of
grammar translation method. As a matter of fact, this assertion is not factual. It may be true that in the teaching activities during
that time, the grammar translation method was used quite frequently. However, the compilation of textbooks was not based on
grammar translation method, but more on the structural approach. Its main features include:
1. The textbook pays attention to trainings in listening, speaking, reading and writing, and holds that oral language is primary
and written language is secondary. It also proposes that junior high school teaching should stress listening and speaking at beginning,
with listening preceding speaking. Reading and writing came later, with reading preceding writing. In senior high school stage,
reading comprehension ability was focused. Therefore, senior high school textbooks at that time were centered on texts, and
supported with large amount of oral and written language exercises. This is essentially different from the grammar translation
method which aims at improving reading and translation ability.
2. It believes that language is a linear structure, built up with small structures of different layersand the sentence is a basic
structure. Therefore, the sentence pattern is the basis for language teaching. That is why junior high school textbooks were centered
on sentence patterns, and so it was very important to teach English through pattern drills. The senior high school texts focused
mainly on grammar structure.
3. Influenced by the behaviourist learning theory, people held that the language teaching process was also a process to form a
new habit, which was similar to animal behaviour in the stimulation-response pattern. As a result, textbooks at that time
emphasized practices in repetitive emulation, memorizing, repetition and talking in order to attain an ability and habit to talk
automatically without thinking about vocabulary and grammar structure.
4. The structuralists emphasized accuracy in teaching language. They demanded repetitive imitation and a lot of practice for the
students to acquire ability to correctly use English. For that purpose, the textbook designed systematic exercises in pronunciation and
grammar. Moreover, pronunciation and grammar knowledge were integrated into texts, and dialogues which were made up of
sentence patterns. The teaching mainly adopted induction rather than deduction, which featured grammar explanation preceding
examples and translation. The training of pronunciation and intonation is kept in the current junior high school textbooks, and
grammar is still taught in the New Senior English for China, though in a new way.
5. Teaching needs to resort to visual means and language environment (including contexts and situations), and requires teaching
directly in foreign language. This principle was well implemented in the junior high school textbooks with a large quantity of
illustrations. However, it is not well carried out in the senior high school textbooks, and the few illustrations were of poor quality,
incomparable to NSEC.
Besides, the textbook proposed to conduct teaching in English, unlike the grammar translation method which allows teaching
mainly in the first language. It did not forbid the use of the mother tongue, and it proposed the motto Use as much English as
possible, use Chinese appropriately. However, the compilers of the textbook believe that the learners language and thinking
undergo a series of complicated changes during the process of English learning. It is inevitable for students to link foreign language
with their thoughts in the first language (in the process of mind translation). The students have fully grasped the thinking tool in the
first language, and it is difficult for them to eliminate the influence of their mother tongue when learning English since it has become
their natural habit to resort to the first language. How to make use of the positive transfer and overcome the interference is an
important issue in the English language teaching. The textbooks gave emphasis on certain parts in pronunciation, vocabulary and
grammar teaching in accordance with the similarities and differences between English and Chinese, and also provided comparison
exercises of English to Chinese translation and Chinese to English translation. These practices have also been carried on in the
NSEC.
The high school English textbooks of the 1980s accepted many viewpoints of the structuralise theory, and achieved remarkable
progress as compared with the grammar translation method. However, with the deepening of the teaching reforms, the problems with
the structuralist teaching method itself were exposed and needed to be solved.
First of all, language structure oriented textbooks do not pay enough attention to the essence of languageits communicative
function and the notions which need to be understood and expressed in communication. The textbooks emphasized the structures of
language which mainly included phonology, lexicology and grammar, but neglected the contents and meanings of language to a
certain degree. In the textbooks, a large number of sentence transformation exercises were not based on actual application of
language, and there were relatively fewer exercises to train the students to use the language for communication purpose. Also, there
was a lack of practical communicative activities such as exchange in information and completion of certain tasks.
Secondly, little research was carried out to investigate the students needs and interests, resulting in a lack of attraction and
interest in the textbooks. There were more mechanical grammar structure exercises than lively, meaningful and ability-nurturing
activities and practices. The students could not find pleasure derived from application of English language learned from school, and
therefore could not become highly motivated to learn.
Thirdly, too much emphasis given to imitating, memorizing and mechanical drilling ignored the initiatives and self-motivation
of the learners, and hampered the development of their creative thinking.

An analysis of pedagogy of high school English in the 1990s

The Sino-British jointly developed Junior/Senior English for China (JEFC/SEFCintroduced the modern language teaching
theory, and followed a reform path conforming to Chinas situations through integrating Chinas traditional teaching experience.
The writers of JEFC/SEFC made a careful analysis of the functional (or communicative) approach, which was popular in the
European Community. The functional approach is a teaching methodological system focusing on language function and
development of communicative ability. The advocators first analyze what students want to do with the language, and then make a
decision on the language forms they need to grasp before mapping out a list of functional and notional items.
The major characteristics of the functional/ communicative approach:
1Develop the students communication ability. The functional approach proposes to arrange teaching activities based on
communicative functions, and take into consideration factors such as notions, situations, topics, pronunciation and intonation,
vocabulary and grammar structure in addition to genres.
2) Map out the purpose, requirements, contents and ways of teaching in accordance with the students actual needs.
3Make the process of teaching communication-oriented. The functional approach converts the foreign language teaching
process as a process for communication with foreign language, and teaches the students to properly use the language in various
situations. Thus, the students can feel pleasure derived from successful use of the language for communication. This can help arouse
the students interest in learning the language.
4Encourage the students to have as much access to the target language as possible and apply it in real life. Therefore
authentic language materials, in particular, are chosen to give students opportunities to use them frequently.
5The functional approach adopts a variety of teaching methods to organize teaching activities. Textbooks alone can not show
the full functions of language. A teaching kit is needed, which contains the students book, teachers book, and auxiliary reading
materials, in addition to audio and video materials, slides and graphics.
The functional approach can grasp the essential functions of language and embody the development rules of language. It can also
motivate the students to learn actively. When making research into Chinas high school English teaching reform, we should learn and
adopt the functional approach. However, we also need to pay attention to Chinas own useful experience and the actual teaching
situations, and indiscriminately copying of the functional approach needs to be avoided. The reasons mainly include:
Chinas high school foreign language teaching is part of the basic education and is not a specialized education. What the
students need is the basic language knowledge and skills, and the requirements on actual communicative competence are limited.
Due to limitations in teaching conditions, e.g. lack of high level teaching team, good language environment and teaching
facilities in addition to large-size classes, the communicative approach is not feasible.
The functional approach has its own problems which are hard to tackle, e.g.: the function-oriented approach may lead to
neglecting the step-by-step accumulation of language and being too liberal with students errors.
Based on the above reasons the functional approach cannot be fully promoted in Chinas high schools. On the other hand, the
audio-lingual method and the sentence pattern teaching method based on the structuralist theory have been adopted by many
teachers, and the effective teaching experience is still quite useful and should be carried on. The high school English teaching reform
shall follow the principle of utilizing the truly effective parts in the functional approach and absorbing all useful elements from other
approaches so as to develop a reform strategy which best suits Chinas high school teaching conditions.
This change marked a big stride with a larger size textbook and new design. The textbook (JEFC/SEFC) was divided into units,
which included four lessons each. More illustrations were added, and the textbook became colour prints. As compared with the
previous version, the SEFC appeared to be much more fashionable. When the new textbooks were first used, many experienced
teachers felt quite at a loss as to how to teach with them. But in the second year there were fewer complaints. In the third year,
people started to recognize the value of the new textbook. Facts showed that this set of Sino-British jointly developed textbooks had
achieved success. The main reason of the success is that the textbooks were innovative and also carried on the previous successful
experience.
One of JEFC/SEFCs innovations is that it broke the traditional mode of organizing teaching in strict accordance with grammar
structures, and adopted a new approach to combine topic, structure and function. A total of 16 topics had been selected especially for
SEFC after investigation among the students to find out their specific interests and needs. In each unit, a topic was introduced and
was followed with listening, speaking, reading and writing activities. The daily communication expressions (functional and notional
items) were attached equal importance in the syllabus with grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Thus, topic, function and
language structure were closely integrated. The previous textbook focused on grammar structure, and the new textbook combined
structure with topic and function, which inevitably made people feel that it weakened the teaching of grammar. Moreover, the SFEC
presented grammar in a cyclic way, with one particular structure appearing in different units with an increasing complexity, and it is
hard for both the teachers and the students to grasp the key points. However, the Chinese partners of this jointly-developed textbook
project know very well that the traditional grammar system has been a dominant teaching approach for the past century and is hard
to be totally given up. Therefore, each textbook summarized all grammar items mainly in table form and included the summary in
the appendix. Besides, all the basic grammar items were reviewed in the books for the last three semesters.
The second innovation is that the content of the textbook was close to modern life and attached importance to nurturing the
students sense of morality and enhancing their cultural qualifications. The chosen topics were contemporary, authentic, educational
and very informative, whereas texts in the previous version had been usually quite irrelevant with the students life and current
society, and the students were unable to talk about social issues even though they could recite many of the texts. The similarity the
JEFC/SEFC shares with the old textbook is that they both pay attention to integrating moral education with language teaching.
Unlike the old textbook which highlighted literary works, SEFC covered the topics of the common contemporary concerns including
a balanced ecosystem, environmental protection, womens rights, food sanitation, natural disasters, sports and music, and space
technology, etc. These materials vividly show the difference between Chinese and foreign cultures, and can enhance the students
awareness of cross-cultural communication. Some other texts are conductive to developing such intellectual elements including
observing, attention, and thinking, etc. However, teachers who are familiar with the old textbooks could easily discover that SEFC
kept quite a number of classical old texts such as Madame Curie, The Merchant of Venice and Winter Sleep, etc. This is part of the
inheritance. The British author of SEFC Chris Jacques is a talented compiler, but after all one persons resources are limited. The
texts of the old textbook were selected from a large quantity of overseas resources, and were revised by the senior editors from the
Peoples Education Press before they were finalized by experts including Deng Yanchang and Ding Wangdao. With many years of
application and practice, these texts were also well received by teachers and students. It is quite wise to maintain the valuable parts.
Of course, the author made certain revision of the texts selected from the previous book.
The third feature is that the four skills were highlighted throughout the whole process with more stress on reading in SEFC.
That changed the previous mode of all exercises for consolidating the reading texts. SEFC implemented the principle of
comprehensive training of the four skills with more emphasis on reading. This was the first time for senior high school textbooks to
include conversations and listening comprehension exercises. Thus the teaching of functional and notional item was guaranteed.
Meanwhile, the teaching of reading and writing was integrated with oral English teaching by means of organizing questions and
answers, and discussions. In this way, the students listening and speaking ability was remarkably improved, and an effective way to
solve the dumb English problem seemed to have been found. Besides, in view of Chinas actual teaching situations, reading was
still given more attention especially in the third year of senior high school when the listening and speaking exercises were reduced to
some degree and the quantity of reading was increased.
The fourth innovation of SEFC was that a series of supplementary materials were developed to reinforce the textbook. Apart
from the students book, workbook, teachers book, other materials including reading practice books, wall charts, graphics, sketches,
and slides, audio and video tapes in addition to diagnostic tests were supplied. The abundant teaching resources provided sufficient
flexibility to the textbooks and helped meet a variety of teaching demands.
JEFC/SEFC had another feature that made it different from the previous textbooks. That is it offered materials for different
levels of students. At that time, according to the syllabus, senior high school English course for the first year and second year were
compulsory and the course for the third year was selective. Moreover, different requirements were set for vocabulary and grammar,
which fell into two categories: receptive and productive. As a result, the textbooks made different requirements in teaching
vocabulary and grammar. This approach was conducive to teaching students in accordance with their aptitudes, developing their
individuality, and alleviating burdens on them. It also conforms to the process by which knowledge and understanding is developed
in the students mind.
Advocating the five-step teaching method was also one of the outstanding characteristics of JEFC/SEFC. The five steps refer to
Revision, Presentation, Drilling, Practice and Consolidation. The five-step teaching method inherits the traditional experience such
as revision, drilling and consolidation, and it embodies also development and progress as evidenced in Presentation (i.e.:
introducing new language phenomena), the target language, in which English and visual teaching aids are used. In the Practice
step, various forms of activities are carried out to reduce teachers control over students. The exercises are aimed at improving the
students fluency in stead of accuracy alone, and the teachers do not need to correct every error in the students oral performance.
Thus, the students will be encouraged to develop their language skills into ability to communicate with the target language.

After promotion and training, the five-step teaching method was well received by the teachers, and the reason is that this
method has originated from teaching practice. It is a combination of inheritance and innovation, and although it is new, it is not
difficult to follow.

The inheritance and innovation in NSEC and its teaching methodology

Currently, the New Senior English for China (NSEC) has been put to use only on trial basis in Chinas coastal provinces, and
most of Chinas regions are adopting the revised version of SEFC. The revised version of SEFC and NSEC share many similarities,
but they also have certain differences. The revised version of SEFC was compiled with great efforts by a number of experts from
both home and abroad, editors and teachers organized by the Peoples Education Press. Although it is called a revision, it is almost a
new book. The purpose is to provide a set of senior high school English textbooks conforming to the requirements of contemporary
social development. Meanwhile, it can make necessary preparations for both the teachers and students to shift to the new curriculum
standard textbook. As a result, almost everyone who has used this textbook before feels quite at ease when moving on to use NSEC.
They describe this shift as a smooth and steady transition.
This article mainly deals with the common senior high school curriculum standard English textbook-- NSEC. Since many
teachers hope to know the difference between NSEC and the revised SEFC, it is illustrated below with a table format.

Revised version of SEFC NSEC

requirement Close to level 8 Level 7level 8level 9
Number of units 58 55
Unit content SB7-9 pagesthree times for reading, SB8-10 pagesthree times for reading,
capacity twice for listening, speaking and writing listening and speaking, twice for writing.
vocabulary About 3000 25003500about 4500
grammar All items required by the curriculum All items required by the curriculum
standard standardwith some additional items
Lead-in Warming up, listening and speaking Warming up, pre-reading, and reading
Teaching approach Emphasize task-based learning activity Emphasize discovery, inquiring and task-
based learning activity
Language materials Most of them are new. About 14% materials Almost all the materials are new
are chosen from the previous version of
SEFC
project One arranged in three units One for each unit

Except for the differences shown in the above table, they are quite similar in terms of topics, functions, structure, teaching
approach, assessment and learning strategies.
I. The characteristics of NSEC
The characteristics of NSEC can be expounded from six aspects including the humanities, interest, practicality, inquiry,
elasticity and evaluation.
1. Helps to enhance the students moral qualities and accomplishments in the humanities.
 The NSEC includes 55 units in11 modules and covers a wide range of topics. The 24 topics required in the curriculum standard
are repeated in cycles in the book, covering science and technology, geography and history, celebrities, places of interests, medical
science, environmental protection, nature, animals and plants, language and culture, and current events. The content is close to the
contemporary social life and has a strong sense of keeping pace with new social development. This set of textbooks can not only
widen the cultural horizon of the students, but also enhance their understanding of foreign countries, especially English-speaking
countries. Moreover, it attaches importance to promoting Chinas culture including cultural relics, places of historical interests,
inventions, ancient navigation technology in addition to literature and arts in order to deepen the students love for and devotion to
their nation. The materials provided by the textbooks are intended to give moral education to the students and enhance their
accomplishments in the humanities.
2. Conforms to the requirements for the students physical and psychological development, and can inspire their interests.
The content, structure, level and capacity of the textbooks, and the design of activities and tasks are all aimed at complying with
the characteristics of the students physical and psychological development, in addition to their ages so as to provide a stimulus for
them to learn.
The textbooks involve a wide spectrum of cross-cultural knowledge and a variety of disciplines including social sciences and
natural sciences. In fact, the topic of each unit can satisfy the students learning desire to a certain degree, and can arouse both the
teachers and students interests to continue their research. The textbook is like a kaleidoscope, through which the students can
observe the complicated and splendid external world.

The structure of the textbook gives up the previous practice of dividing one unit into four lessons. Insteadeach unit contains
a number of sections such as Warming up and Pre-reading etc. This way of compiling the book provides teachers with more
flexibility in using the textbook according to actual situations. They can integrate the textbook and organize more effective teaching
activities. What's more important is that the teacher paid great attention to the students' learning process, in which the students'
ability of autonomous and inquiring learning could be developed. For example, the training of all skills include the steps pre, while
and post, which lead the students to integrate or regroup the new information step by step based on their existing knowledge and
experience into their own cognitive system.
In general, the NSEC is much more demanding than the previous textbooks. In order to facilitate the acceptance of the textbook
by most students, the textbook tries to highlight the focal language points and difficult parts in each unit. Generally speaking, only
one topic and one grammar phenomenon is arranged for each unit. The difficulty and complexity is gradually increased. For
instance, the vocabulary of each unit is increased from 30 to 40, and it even reaches 60 in the last three modules (actually not many
root words). Students who are able to select the 9th level course ought to have a stronger vocabulary acquisition ability to deal with
this task. Another example is that the length of the text is gradually extended from 300 words to 600 words and then to almost 800
words at the final stage. The activities and tasks are designed in three layers: drilling in language forms meaningful practice
authentic tasks. These careful considerations are aimed at making teaching conform to the characteristics of the students physical
and intellectual development and their cognitive capacity so that both the students acceptability and potential are tapped.
3. Adopts an approach integrating function, structure, topics and task-based activities to help the students construct their own
cognitive system.
The textbook absorbs the achievements in the fields of modern language teaching theory and practice, and takes into
consideration Chinas special conditions. It also carries on the effective methods from the traditional approach. Centered on topics,
and arranged in accordance with structure and functional items, listening, speaking, reading and writing activities are organized and
the teaching target is achieved through task-based activities and completion of projects. This textbook creates and designs a great
number of language application activities (e.g.: Using Language in NSEC) so as to help the students feel and experience English in
person and develop language skills and finally acquire the comprehensive language competence.
The presentation and training of language knowledge and skills are arranged in a progressive and repetitive pattern, and the
approach conforms to the cognitive characteristics of Chinese students and is conducive for them to building up their cognition
structure. The vocabulary teaching adopts such methods including explanation in English, analogy and association. Purposely
recycling is designed and implemented throughout the books. The grammar items mainly appear in the compulsory learning phase
(Modules 1-5) to facilitate teaching, and they are still organized with a repetitive pattern for the students to deepen understanding
and enhance actual application ability.
The language materials of the textbook mainly come from contemporary social life, and the language used is authentic, idiomatic
and natural. Although the textbook is mainly written in British English, it also introduces different varieties of English used by major
English countries especially American English in order to provide the students with an overall view of the English language.
4. Enlightens the students to make inquiries in their learning so as to nurture their innovative spirit and ability to practice.
NSEC implements the curriculums human-oriented education concept, and considers the student as whole person. The
textbook views exploration and creativity as an integral part of a fully-developed individuality. The textbookespecially the
Learning Tip sectionhelps the students to convert from the traditional passive learning via simple emulation to a more active
approach utilizing such strategies as observing, discovering, thinking, understanding, memorizing, comparing, analyzing,
associating, inducing and internalizing. The textbook also helps teachers change their indoctrination teaching method into an
elicitation teaching method in order to give students more space for discovery and exploration. Discovering useful words and
expressions/structures is designed with this purpose. As compared with SEFC, the most remarkable change of NSEC is that the
requirement for Speaking is changed from memorizing the dialogues in the book to holding a discussion, giving a presentation and
even a short speech based on the given language, information and situations. This indeed requires the students to think, communicate
and express their ideas in English and it demands that the students bring their imagination and creativity to full play. The sections
including Warming Up, Pre-reading and various tasks in the Using Language section require the students to take initiatives to
participate and learn autonomously. These sections make them brainstorm and trigger free imaginations. Many listening and reading
materials in the textbook are imaginative themselves, e.g.: ComputersModule 2, Unit 2, Wildlife protection2-4Life in the
future5-3, Robots7-2. The textbook also contains quite a few vivid examples to encourage the students to have hands-on
practice, e.g.: designing a place for watching birds (2-4); surf the Internet (2-4), first aid (5-4)plant experiment (9-4)and
advertisement designing (9-5) etc. Such arrangements in the textbook are aimed at activating students thinking, enlightening their
intellects, promoting innovative spirit, and enhancing capability for practice.
5. Provides rich resources produced with multi media in order to meet varied needs of the students.
Besides the students book, workbook, and teachers book, the NSEC offers auxiliary reading materials, cassettes, aural and oral
materials, assessment books, wall charts, and transparencies. All these teaching resources make it possible for teachers to use the
textbooks more flexibly and expand the language and information input. It also helps the students take initiatives to study and learn
to make use of available learning resources.
This series of textbooks are designed to meet the needs of the majority of schools in China. Considering the differences and
unbalance existing in actual teaching, the textbooks appropriately expand language materials on condition that the basic
requirements set by the curriculum standard are guaranteed. For example, the words marked with triangles in the new vocabulary list
are not required for all the students to grasp, and similarly, the parts marked with asterisks in the students book and workbook are
merely optional. The related supplementary reading, listening and speaking materials are all for selective use only. Such arrangement
gives elasticity to the textbook and flexibility to the teaching. Attention has been paid not only to the students acceptability, but also
to their potential, which is conducive for the teachers to teach according to the students varying situations.
6. Assessment system is added to monitor and improve learning and teaching
In order to guarantee an effective monitoring on the whole teaching process and results in line with the objectives and
requirements set in the curricula standard, Summing Up and Checking Yourself sections are designed in the students book, and
suggestions on diagnostic tests are provided in the teachers book. Suggestions are also given for the students to make self or peer
assessment, which can help the students to reflect while studying. Their progress and achievements need to be identified and
encouraged so as to enhance their confidence. Meanwhile, their problems can be found. Such assessment system can also help
teachers obtain feedback on their teaching so that they can improve their teaching accordingly.

II. The influence of constructivist theory on the NSEC

The senior high school curriculum standard encourages optimizing the students English language learning style, making them
bring their study potential into full play through observing, experiencing and exploring. Thus, the students can form effective
learning strategies and enhance their autonomous learning ability. To follow this guideline, the NSEC adopts the task-based
language teaching. As a matter of fact, constructivist theory is one of the important theoretical foundations for the learning method
promoted by the curriculum standard.
The constructivist theory is not only a cognitive theory, but also a learning philosophy. Constructivism holds that human
beings cognitive development is subject to the influence of three processes---assimilation, conformability and balance. Assimilation
is the process in which related information from the external environment is absorbed and integrated into the existing cognitive
structure; conformability refers to the process in which the existing cognitive structure cannot assimilate information from the new
environment and undergo reshuffling and reforms under changed external environment. Assimilation is the expansion of cognitive
structure in quantity, while conformability is the structural change of cognitive structure.
The individual achieves balance with the external environment through assimilation and conformability. Humans cognitive
structure is gradually constructed through the processes of assimilation and conformability, and becomes enriched, improved and
developed in the cycle of balance---unbalancenew balance. Vogotsky believes that the individuals learning activity is carried
out under certain historical, social and cultural backgrounds, and society can play an important supporting and promoting role for the
individuals development in learning. Therefore, learning (the development of cognition) about society and social communication is
the process of humans psychological function development. The knowledge produced in such activities is mainly constructed by the
learners themselves, rather than transferred from other people.
Constructivism encourages the learners to construct their subjective understanding of the objective world from the perspective
of their own experiences and backgrounds and attaches importance to the learning process. It holds that learning occurs in the
interaction with other people and the students need to be provided with conditions for exploring. These are exactly the theoretical
basis for autonomous, inquiring and cooperative learning, as well as the task-based learning approach encouraged by the curriculum
standard. It is these new concepts which cause the NSEC to undergo significant changes, and make the new textbooks quite
innovative.
Now let us focus on researching the influence exerted by constructivism over classroom teaching with textbooks. Also, the evolution
of the textbooks and teaching approaches will also be analyzed. The difference between constructivist theory and traditional teaching
concept is compared as follows:

Traditional classroom Constructivist classroom

1. The class presentation is from part to the 1. The class presentation is from the whole to the part, and
whole, and the focus is on basic skills. macro classroom concept is emphasized.

2. Strictly follow classroom routine
3. Classroom activities mainly depend on
textbooks and reference books.
2. Emphasize the pursue and interests of students, and
expansion of the classroom, and give great importance to
questions raised by students.
3. Classroom activities mainly depend on first-hand resources
and practical materials.

4. Students are considered as empty tanks for
the teachers to input information. Learning is
based on memorizing and passive acceptance
of knowledge.
5. The teachers are authorities, and pass on
instructive information via indoctrination.
6. Teachers seek correct answers to testify that
the students learning has reached teaching
objective.
7. Assessment of the students learning is
separate from teaching, and evaluation is
made via tests and examinations.
8. Knowledge is thought to be static, and
learning depends on repetitive emulation and
memorization.
9. The students mainly study
themselves.
4. The students are regarded as thinkers, creators and
constructors. They can propose hypothesis and provide
validation, and they can think and explore on the basis of
their existing knowledge and experience.
5. Teachers function as leaders, supporters and learning
partners. Teachers and students interact with each other
and have dialogues on equal terms. Teachers help create
situations for students to construct their knowledge.
6. Teachers respect the existing knowledge and experience of
students, and help them incorporate new information into
their cognitive structure. In this way, teachers can
stimulate the students to think, observe, discover, induce
and sum up, and propose their own questions and
viewpoints.
7. Assessment is integrated with teaching. Teachers make
evaluation through observing the students classroom
performance, their work, viewpoints, and test scores. Both
the process and the results are evaluated.
8. Knowledge is dynamic and undergoes changes with the
development of our experiences. Human beings cognition
structure is gradually formed and developed through
assimilation and conformability, in the cycling process of
balanceunbalancenew balance.
9. Students mainly study in groups.

There is no obvious dividing line between traditional classroom teaching and modern classroom teaching (currently
constructivist classroom is considered as the modern teaching approach). It is a gradually evolving process from traditional to
modern, and this process is usually characterized with frequent interacting between the two approaches as explained in a Chinese
saying: You have what I have, and I have what you have. The above table seems to convey the idea that the two approaches differ
distinctively from each other. However, if the teaching method or classroom teaching promoted by the Sino-British jointly-
developed Senior English for China is added between the two columns, we could discover that this is a gradual and progressive
process. And, it is not difficult to discern that innovation is made on the basis of inheritance. Here is the added table that may be put
in between the columns in the above table.
The classroom teaching promoted by the Sino-British jointly developed SEFC

1Does not support the approach of teaching vocabulary and grammar without contexts, and promotes teaching the texts as a

whole without dividing them into irrelevant sections

2Advocates open classroom teaching, converting the unilateral indoctrination by the teachers to two-way interactions between
 teachers and students. Starts to encourage the students to raise questions

3Promotes teaching with multi-media means

4Emphasizes on motivating the students initiatives and enthusiasm

5Teachers keep changing their roles: demonstrators, organizers, instructors, referees and helpers.

6Changes spoon-feeding to the heuristic way of teaching

7Encourages to add listening comprehension and oral tests in examinations

8. Emphasizes the use of language. Learning by doing; doing while learning

9Classroom organization is changed by carrying out activities in groups

III. The influence of the task-based language teaching approach in the NSEC.
The supporters of TBLT dont have universal opinions on it, and they fall into two schools. One is the strong version of
TBLT and the other is the weak version of TBLT. The strong version school believes that theTBLT is different from the
traditional PPP mode, i.e. Presentation, Practice and Production. For a long time, the PPP mode was used to compile textbooks and
organize classroom teaching. With this method, firstly the teachers introduce language items, and then do oral and written exercises
to provide the learners with controlled spoken and written activities to practise new vocabulary and sentence patterns.
Harmer2001argues that task-based language instruction is just the opposite to PPP because by TBLT teachers get the students to
complete certain tasks before they discuss the application process of language. The teachers will give proper suggestions or
corrections to improper language use or errors made by the students. To the strong version of TBLT, the PPP mode only offers
exercises, rather than tasks.
However, the weak version of TBLT believes that all activities which can promote language learning can be considered as
tasks. Tasks can be divided into enabling tasks and communicative tasks. Skehan1996pointed out, the classroom teaching
process of the weak version is not much different from the process of the PPP mode. The former also needs presentation and practice
phases, and the only difference lies in that tasks not mechanical repetitions are involved in the production stage,. He argues that
theTBLT described by Littlewood is basically the same with the PPP mode in communicative language teaching.
Littlewood2004used a very clear table to illustrate this issue:

Focus on forms Focus on meaning

Non-communica- Pre-communica- Communica- Structured Authentic
tive learning tive language tive language communica- communication
practice practice tion
Focusing on the Practicing language Practicing pre- Using language to Using language to
structures of language, with some attention to taught language in a communicate in communicate in
how they are formed and meaning but not context where it situations which situations where the
what they mean, e.g. communicating new communicates new elicit pre-learnt meanings are
substitution exercises, message to others, e.g. information, e.g. language, but with unpredictable, e.g.
discovery and question-and- information-gap some creative role-play,
awareness-raising answer practice Activities or unpredictability, more complex
activities personalized e.g. structured role- problem-solving and
questions play and simple discussion
problem-
solving
Exercises (Ellis) tasks
Enabling tasks (Estaire and Zanon) communicative tasks

It is obvious that the viewpoint of the strong version of TBLT is absolute to certain degrees, and the points of weak task
school are easier for us to accept. Actually, task-based teaching concept shares the same origin with the communicative language
teaching concept (or functional approach). In other words, the former is developed based on the latter. The table above by
Littlewood clearly shows that the series of communicative activities here is not much different from the CTL approach. Now, let us
take a look into the non-communicative language exercise, communicative language activities and task-based activities and make a
comparison.
non-communicative language exercises (often used in old textbooks, and the exercises adopted by the NSEC mainly include
word and sentence transformation exercises, words filling, sentence substitution, multiple choice selection, questions, translations
and crossword puzzles).
communicative language exercises (firstly used by the sino-British jointly compiled SEFC and is still used today) include role
plays with information gap, guessing, survey, interview, discussion, debate, letter-writing, diary-keeping and note-taking.
Task-based activities (the NSEC uses many such activities) refer to the communicative activities which are meaningful,
communicative, interactive, cooperative and creative. They often require the learners to integrate their own experience into
classroom learning. They are not confined to activities in class. Task-based activities emphasize not only language, but also the
learning process, i.e.: the process to construct knowledge. In the NSEC, take Module I as an example, a large quantity of task-based
activities can be located. For example: questionnaire investigation concerned with real life experiencesAre you good to your
friends? p.l and What qualities does a great person have? p.33, letter writing (A letter of advice p.7)listening to southerners of
the United Statesp.14Analysis of peoples attitudesp.19and analysis of information and solving problems (Listen to
the story to find out what happened. p.43, Make notes about Murrays life. p.51). The following information sheet is often used in the
textbook to replace traditional question formats.

Some personalized activities request the students to be creative, e.g. help Anne with her problem (p.43), Plan your poster.
(p.60). Some other activities can stimulate the learners to refer to their own experiences, e.g. Make a code for taking notes (p.54), in
addition to the Warming up, Pre-reading and Speaking tasks in each unit. There are also many tasks which require the students to go
out of the classroom and make contacts with social life. Almost all Projects are activities which have certain parts of the following
characteristics.
Real life related tasks
Analysis and problem solving tasks
personalized and creative tasks
Tasks which activate the learners own experiences
Tasks to make social practice
Communicative activities and task-based activities are more difficult to be carried out in teaching than non-communicative
language exercises, since higher language application ability of the learners is required. Here, we want to restate the five principles
proposed by Nunan in 1999 concerning task-based language teaching, and remind teachers to pay attention to certain issues in order
to avoid some setbacks.
The authenticity principleThe language materials and context are made as real as possible to provide the students with a
natural, real, or simulated real situations to let them experience, understand and use the language.
The form-function principleThe design of task shall integrate the forms and function of the language so as to nurture the
students capability to utilize the language while grasping the language form. The students shall be led to make reasoning and
deduction by themselves so as to understand the functions of language and utilize it in real situations.
The task dependency principleThe design of tasks follows the principle of making gradual increase in the degrees of
difficulty and complexity, and forming a cycle of evolution from the basic tasks to advanced tasks which covers the basic tasks. This
is also called ladder task principle.

Learning by doing Lead the students to learn language and accumulate learning experience through completing specific
communicative tasks. The students still need to learn grammar and memorize words, but grasping of knowledge is not purely
achieved through the teachers explanations, but by students application so as to experience, internalize, and then construct and
develop their own language system.
ScaffoldingThe language learning process is progressive, and we need to provide the students with sufficient support. For
example, the Writing task in Module 4 of the NSEC requires the students to write a limerick. To help the students complete this task
step by step, the textbook provides two limericks as examples for the students to read aloud and taste the humor and rhythm. Then
the students are asked to search for rhyming words and complete the frame of limerick given by filling in appropriate words.
While implementing task-based teaching, the following problems frequently occur:
The language format is ignored to pursue the tasks real situations and be anxious to achieve functions. Such situations normally
occur in open classes, language presentation steps (including vocabulary and pattern drills) are omitted to show that the students can
apply language creatively in task-based activities as if they could acquire the language without learning or being taught. Actually, it
contains boasting and exaggeration in such shows. Probably language presentation has been made in the previous lesson, or the
whole lecture has been given and practiced. Otherwise, it can be discovered that it is difficult to carry out activities in class, or only
a few top students are actively involved. Or it may be the case that students participate very actively in the activities, but their
language is of poor quality and full of errors.
Emphasize real communicative tasks, and ignore non-communicative exercises. There should be a process existing between non-
communicative exercises and real communicative tasks. The weak version of TBLT considers non-communicative exercises as
enabling tasks and the strong version does not consider them as tasks at all. No matter whether they recognize non-communicative
exercises as tasks, mechanical drills of language form in English language teaching are indispensable. Such kinds of exercises are
included in Learning about language section in the NSEC. Actually, due to limited printed pages, the increase in many task-based
activities naturally reduces the quantity of exercises in language forms. Therefore, the teachers need to make necessary addition.
While emphasizing the students self-motivated construction of knowledge system, some teachers dare not explain language
phenomena in class (especially in open classes) and give necessary instruction. They dont point out the problems in the students
group activity and do not correct the commonly-existing language errors of the students.
Emphasize the nurturing of students comprehensive language application ability, and ignore the strengthening of basic
knowledge and training of basic skills. This results in such problems as inaccuracy in expression and weak language foundation.
Lack of support given to students while they are carrying out task-based activities, especially to the backward regions and
students with difficulties, who fail to experience pleasure from successfully fulfilling tasks.
IV. The NSEC renovates teaching approach based on inheritance of pervious experience
A thoughtful teacher once asked such a question: Can task-based teaching be integrated with the five-step teaching method?
This question deserves our research. Probably, the strong version of TBLT would give a negative answer, and the weak version of
TBLT would not since they hold a positive attitude towards the PPP teaching method and would probably not be against the five-step
method, which is closely related to PPP.
The five-step teaching method has given strong influence on Chinas English language teaching during the past over ten years,
and a big number of excellent teachers have been growing with this method. However, the five-step teaching method needs to be
upgraded to suit the needs of the present curricula, textbooks and teaching approaches. The five-step teaching method needs to be
innovated based on inheritance. If the constructivist and communicative task-based teaching conceptions and the language
acquisition theory are applied to develop the five-step teaching method, the following graphic can be constructed, which can be
called as 5P or the new five-step method. Although this graphic is not fully-developed, it can be a starting point for us to carry on
further research and discussion.

summing up

The five Ps stand for the five steps of the NSEC English language teaching process:
1Preparation. This step is far from the simple revision carried out at the beginning of each class, instead, it is the beginning of a
unit and the start of listening, speaking, reading and writing activities. It includes Warming up, aimed at activating the students
 existing knowledge and experience. The students are also asked to think and inquire, to predict what they will learn so as to get
involved in the learning tasks to follow.
2Presentation. The new language knowledge is introduced in contexts, and teachers are encouraged to use English to explain
language phenomena to their students. Students are instructed to treat observing, discovering, imitation and memorizing as learning
tasks. The teachers should make sure that the students have obtained sufficient language input to cultivate language feel. Besides,
they need to provide rational instructions to help the students study and grasp language rules rapidly. In other words, language
acquiring and learning should be integrated.
3Practice. This step combines the drilling and practice steps of the previous five-step method, and refers to the development
from non-communicative language activities (i.e.: mechanical practice) to meaningful practice and then to all kinds of
communicative activities.
4Production. This step has higher requirements than in the previous five-step method. The students are expected to
accomplish target tasks, (i.e.: authentic communicative tasks) and projects designed by the textbook or the teacher.
5Progress. Knowledge and experiences acquired will be consolidated through Summing up, Checking and other measures so
that the students will consolidate the knowledge learnt, enrich their experience and make progress.
During the past 30 years, Chinas school English language materials and teaching methodology have seen major changes
accompanying the reforms in the curricula. The textbooks in the three decades have their own distinctive characteristics, and the
guiding concept and methods adopted have been updated continuously. Having analyzed the textbooks and teaching methods from
the perspectives of both theory and practice, you can discover that the innovation of teaching materials and methods is developed
based on the previous experience. Perhaps, this is what the old saying weed through the old to bring forth the new
means. Only in this way, can the smooth transmission from one phase to another be well assured, and the ELT be developed and
improved incessantly and successfully through reforms in China.

Reference
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Normal University Press, 2004.
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