Ramco Institute of Technology

Rajapalayam
E.Thangam,
AP/EEE
thangam@ritrjpm.ac.in
 EE6801 ELECTRIC ENERGY GENERATION,
UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION
UNIT I ELECTRIC DRIVES AND TRACTION
Fundamentals of electric drive - choice of an electric motor - application of
motors for particular services - traction motors - characteristic features of traction
motor - systems of railway electrification - electric braking - train movement and
energy consumption - traction motor control - track equipment and collection
gear.

UNIT II ILLUMINATION
Introduction - definition and meaning of terms used in illumination engineering -
classification of light sources - incandescent lamps, sodium vapour lamps,
mercury vapour lamps, fluorescent lamps design of illumination systems -
indoor lighting schemes - factory lighting halls - outdoor lighting schemes - flood
lighting - street lighting - energy saving lamps, LED.

UNIT III HEATING AND WELDING

Introduction - advantages of electric heating modes of heat transfer - methods of
electric heating - resistance heating - arc furnaces - induction heating - dielectric
heating - electric welding types - resistance welding - arc welding - power
supply for arc welding - radiation welding.
UNIT IV SOLAR RADIATION AND SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS
Introduction - solar constant - solar radiation at the Earths surface - solar radiation
geometry estimation of average solar radiation - physical principles of the
conversion of solar radiation into heat flat-plate collectors - transmissivity of
cover system - energy balance equation and collector efficiency - concentrating
collector - advantages and disadvantages of concentrating collectors - performance
analysis of a cylindrical - parabolic concentrating collector Feed in Invertors.

UNIT V WIND ENERGY

Introduction -basic principles of wind energy conversion - site selection
considerations basic components of a WECS (Wind Energy Conversion System)
- Classification of WECS - types of wind Turbines - analysis of aerodynamic
forces acting on the blade - performances of wind.
 UNIT I ELECTRIC DRIVES AND TRACTION
Fundamentals of Electric drive.
A form of machine equipment designed to convert electrical energy
into mechanical energy and to provide electrical control of this process is
known as electrical drive.
 Load:
Machine designed to accomplish a given task (Eg: Pumps, Washing
machine, drills, trains)
Power Modulator:
(i) It modulates flow of power from the source to the motor.
(ii) It restricts source and motor current within the permissible values.
(iii) It converts electrical energy of source in the form suitable to motor.
(iv) It selects the mode of operation of the motor. i.e, motoring or braking.

Advantages of electrical drives:

(i) High efficiency.
(ii) Available in wide range of torque, speed and power.
(iii) Do not pollute the environment.
(iv) Flexible control characteristics.
(v) Can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded.
(vi) Speed control is easy
(v) Can be remotely operated.
(vi) Compact size , require less space.
Disadvantages of electrical drives:
(i) It comes to stop as soon as there is failure of electric supply.
(ii) It cannot be used at far off places which are not served by electric
supply.
 Classification of Electric drives:
Electrical drives can be categorised into :
(i) Individual drive.
(ii) Group drive.
(iii) Mutimotor drive.
Individual drive:
In individual drive, each machine is driven by its own separate motor
with the help of gears, pulley etc.
Group drive:
A drive in which a single electric motor drives a line of shaft by
means of which an entire group of working machines may be operated is
called group drive.
Multi motor drive:
Separate motors are provided for actuating different parts of the
driven mechanism.
Example : Travelling cranes where three motors are used, one for hoisting,
another for long travel motion, and third for cross travel motion.
 Choice of electric motor

Some of the important factors on which the selection of electric

motor depend are:
1. Steady state operation requirements:
(i) Nature of speed torque characteristics.
(ii) Speed regulation.
(iii) Speed range.
(iv) Efficiency
(v) Duty cycle.
(vi) Quadrant of operation.
(v) Speed fluctuation if any, ratings
2. Transient operation requirements:
(i) Values of acceleration and deceleration.
(ii) Starting, braking and reversing performance.
3. Requirement related to the source:
(i) Type of source and its capacity.
(ii) Supply voltage, Voltage fluctuation, V, Power factor,
harmonics and their effect on other load.
4. Size and rating of motors:
(i) Load cycle:
(a) Continuous
(b) Intermittent
(c) Variable
(ii) Overload capacity
4. Capital and running cost, maintenance needs, life
5. Reliability
6. Environment and location.
7. Space and weight restrictions, if any.
 Applications of motors for particular services
For a particular application, the type of electric drive and
control gear are determined by the following considerations:
Starting torque
Duty (whether light, medium, heavy)
Limitations on starting current.
Speed control range and its nature.
Need for automatic control
Conditions of environment.
SN Application Types of motor (s) Characteristics
O used
1. Domestic uses Small Universal motor Moderately
(e.g. Vaccum cleaners, Sewing
machines, Mixy, electric
shaver, cloth washing
machines, refrigerator etc)
2. Cranes DC series or compound High starting
motors torque, smooth
speed control
3. Lifts DC compound wound High starting
and A.C. Slip ring torque, variable
induction motor speed
4. Lathes, milling and grinding DC shunt or Squirrel
machines cage motors
5. Planers For DC supply DC
Compound motor
For AC supply Slip
ring IM
SN Application Types of motor (s) used Characteristics
O
5. Electric traction D.C. Series Motors,
Single phase AC compensated
series motors
6. Hoist work 3 phase slip ring induction
motor
7. Textile industry Three phase induction motor
8. Printing Machines, Three phase squirrel cage IM Constant speed is
Machine tools required
9. Refrigeration and air
conditioning
10. Air compressors Squirrel cage IM for small Speed remains
rating, constant under
Slip ring IM for large rating varying load
11. Paper Industry Squirrel cage motor with
clutches
SNO Application Types of motor (s) Characteristics
used
12. Flour mills Pipe ventilated, Totally
enclosed type motor
13. Drilling machines Constant speed squirrel
cage IM,
DC Shunt,
Multi speed AC Motors
14. Belt conveyors Double cage induction
motor
Introduction to Traction system:
i. Non electric traction systems: These systems do not use electric
energy at some stage or the other
Example: Steam engine drive used in railways
ii. Electric Traction systems: These systems involve not use electric
energy at some stage or the other
These are further sub divided into the following two groups.
(a) Self contained vehicles or locomotives.
Example: Diesel electric drive, Battery electric drive

(b) Vehicle which receive electric power from distribution

network.
Example: Railway electric locomotive fed from
overhead AC supply

Electric Traction:
The locomotion in which driving force or tractive force is
obtained from electric motor is called Electric Traction.
Requirements of Ideal Traction system:
The requirements of an ideal traction system are:
1. It should be pollution free.
2. Speed control should be easy.
3. Braking should be such that minimum wear is caused on the brake shoes.
4. There should be no interference to the communication lines running the
track.
5. Minimum wear on the track.
6. High adhesion coefficient, so that high tractive effort at the start is possible
to have rapid acceleration.
7. It should be possible to overload the equipment for short periods.
8. Low initial cost and maintenance cost.
9. The locomotive is self contained self contained so that it can run on any
route.
 Different systems of Traction:
Steam engine drive.
Reciprocating engine is invariably used for getting the necessary motive
power

IC engine drive.
This drive used for road transport (buses, trucks, cars etc). The driving
force is obtained from Internal combustion engine.

IC engine electric drive.

The diesel engine is to drive the DC generator coupled to it at a constant
speed. (Railway locomotives)

Petrol electric traction.

This system, due to electric conversion provides a very fine and continuous
control. ( Heavy lorries and buses)

Battery electric drive.

The secondary batteries which supply power to DC motors employed for
driving the vehicle.
Electric traction.
The electric motors which are fed from overhead distribution system. The
drive of this type is most widely used.
Steam Engine Train
Diesel Engine
Diesel electric Engine
First Letter Denotes the gauge of the engine, W stands for Wide (Broad) gauge, Y for meter
gauge and Z for narrow gauge
Second Letter Denotes the motive power, D stands for diesel, C for DC electricity and A for
AC electricity
Third Letter Denotes the type of carriage that the engine pulls, M stands for Mixed, P for
passenger and G for Goods
Electric Traction
 System of Railway Electrification
DC System:
Voltage ranges : 600 V, 750 V, 1500 V, 3000 V

Single-phase A.C. System:

15 to 25 kV, 16 2/3 Hz, 25 Hz, 50 Hz.

Three phase A.C. System:

3.3 to 3.6 kV at 16 2/3 Hz

Composite system:
Involving conversion of single phase A.C. Into 3 phase A.C. or
D.C
 DC System:
DC series motor is used
Regenerative braking is desired.
600 to 700 V for suburban railways
1500 to 3000 V for mainline services.
These systems are fed from substations which are spaced 3 to 5 km for
suburban traffic, and 40 to 50 km for mainline services.
Substation themselves receive power from grid, the DC so obtained is fed
via suitable contact system to the traction motors
Advantages of DC system over single phase AC system.
i. No interference with overhead communication lines.
ii. D.C Train consumes less energy than a single phase AC
iii. Equipment of D.C Train is lighter, less costly and more efficient than
similar AC equipment
iv. Frequent and rapid acceleration of heavy trains, D.C motors are best suited
than AC motors
v. For distribution system, the conductor rail is less costly, both initial and
maintenance than AC
Disadvantages of DC system over single phase AC system.
Necessity of AC/DC conversion substation at relatively short distances apart.
 Single phase AC system
AC series motor is used.
15000 to 25000 V at 16 2/3 Hz or 25 Hz, which is step down on the
locomotive to a low voltage of 300 or 400 V suitable for supplying to
single phase AC series motor by means of a step down transformer
carried in locomotive
Advantages of low frequency AC supply system
i. Increases efficiency and power factor
ii. Less interference to communication line
iii. Line reactance is less so that impedance drop is reduced, so it is
feasible to space the substations 50 to 80km.

Single phase AC system is invariably adopted for the main line

service where the cost is of more importance and rapid acceleration
and retardation is not so important as for sub urban railways.
 Three phase AC system
3 phase induction motor is used.
3.3 kV to 3.6 kV at 16 2/3 Hz or 25 Hz,
Distribution system consists of two overhead wires and track rail for
the third phase.
This system is no longer likely adopted because of following
disadvantages
This system is used in hilly areas where output power required high
Disadvantages
i. Constant speed characteristics IM are not suitable for traction work.
 Composite system
Single phase to three phase system
16 kV, 50 Hz single phase overhead supply
1 single phase to 3 phase is converted by converter carried on the
locomotive.
Single phase to DC system
25 kV 50 Hz supply is stepped down by the transformer in the
locomotive.
This DC is used in driving DC series traction motor.
Advantages
1. Higher starting efficiency
2. Higher adhesion coefficient
3. Simplicity of substation design
4. Flexibility in location of substation
5. Less number of SS
6. Low cost of fixed installation
 Characteristics of Traction Motors

Traction motors are expected to have both electrical and mechanical

characteristics:
Electrical characteristics:
i. High starting torque.
ii. Simple speed control.
iii. Self relieving property ( Speed may fall with increase in load, self
protective against overloading as power output is proportional to speed and
torque)
iv.Better commutation.
v. Possibility of dynamic or regenerative braking.
vi. Capability of withstanding voltage fluctuations.
vii. Capability to withstand temporary interruption of supply
viii. Capability to take heavy loads without flashover.
Mechanical characteristics:
i. Traction motors must be robust and capable to withstand continuous
vibrations.
ii. Must be totally enclosed type
iii. Must be small in overall dimensions specially in its overall diameter.
iv. Minimum weight.

Traction Motors:
None of the motors can have all the desirable characteristics
mentioned below: Some of the motors which find application in traction are
listed below.
1. DC Series motors supplied with straight DC or rectified AC.
2. AC series motors single phase.
3. Repulsion motors.
4. Three phase induction motors.
5. Linear induction motor.
Linear induction motor.
Earlier DC series motor was widely used in traction.
High starting torque.
Better sharing of loads between motors.

Limitations
DC series motor field cannot be controlled easily by semiconductor
switches.
There are a number of problems with regenerative and dynamic braking of
a series motor.

Advantages of squirrel cage induction motor over DC motor.

Ruggedness
Lower maintenance
Better reliability
Lower cost, weight, volume and inertia
Higher effficieny
Ability to operate satisfactorily with sharp supply voltage.
 Traction motor control

This control is for the following purposes.

1. To provide smooth acceleration without sudden shock
2. To avoid damage to couplings and inconvenience to the passengers
3. To control speed depending upon the type of service.

1. Series parallel control.

 The series parallel control is carried out by the following methods.
Shunt transition
Bridge transition
 Electric Braking

Electric braking of motors can be broadly classified as:

1. Electro-mechanical brakes.
2. Electrical Brakes.

Electro-mechanical brakes:
Electro-mechanical or friction brakes are operated by electromagnets or
electric-operated thrusters.
Spring loaded brake with friction liners pressing against the brake wheel.
This ensures safety in case of failure of power.
Disadvantage is that the sudden application of braking force and
accompanying shock to the machine.
 Requirements of braking system
1. Actuation time should be as small as possible.
2. The system should apply brakes simultaneously over all vehicles.
3. It should be robust, simple, and easy for driver to control and operate.
4. It should require less maintenance.
5. It should be reliable.
6. Braking force applied to each axle should be proportional to axle load.
7. Safety consideration is the prime most consideration.
Electric Brakes:
Three types of electric braking.
1. Plugging (or) counter current braking.
2. Rheostatic or dynamic braking.
3. Regenerative braking.

Plugging:
Armature connections are reversed and hence motor tends to run in
opposite direction.

Due to reversal of the armature terminals, applied voltage V and back

EMF Eb starts acting in the same direction and hence the total armature
current exceeds.

To limit this armature current a variable resistor is connected across the

armature. This is similar for both series and shunt wound methods.
Plugging gives greater braking torque as compared to rheostatic
braking.
Plugging of DC shunt motor

Plugging of DC series motor

 Dynamic braking:

All the kinetic energy of the moving mass is converted to electrical energy
which is dissipated in the variable resistance connected.

The magnitude of the braking torque can be controlled by varying the value
of the resistance R.

The disadvantages of this method is that in case of failure of electric supply,

this method is ineffective.
Dynamic braking of DC shunt motor

Dynamic braking of DC Series motor

Regenerative brakinng:

Instead of being disconnected from the supply, it remains connected and

returns the braking energy to the line.

Suppose the load causes the speed to be increased above normal, the field
current remaining the same then the back e.m.f. becomes greater than the
supply voltage (Eb > V).

The current gets reversed and power will be supplied to the line, tending to
prevent any further increase in the speed.

Alternatively same effect can be obtained by increasing the field current

where motor quickly slowed down to the speed corresponding to the new value
of the field current. Due to reversal of direction of armature current as Eb > V,
armature torque is reversed and speed falls until Eb becomes less than V.
 Rheostatic braking of DC shunt motor

Rheostatic braking of DC series motor

In case of a D.C. series motor, increase in excitation results decrease in speed. As

such it is not possible to get e.m.f. more than voltage. It is not possible to make
field current more than the armature current. Hence regeneration braking with
series motor is not possible. But can be used with traction motors with some
special arrangements.
Arrangement preferred for the series motors when used for for
regenerative braking.
 Types of Railway services

City or urban services.

Distance between stops nearly 1 km or less
Suburban services.
Distance between stops nearly 3 to 5 km
Main Line services
Over long routes and stops are infrequent
Speed-Time Characteristics for Train Movement
 Acceleration period (0 to t1 ):
Traction motors accelerate from rest, the current taken by the motors
and tractive effort are practically constant.
Starting operation
Notching period
Acceleration on speed curve (t1 to t2 )
The motor current and torque decreases as train speed increases.
Acceleration gradually decreases till torque developed by the motors
exactly balances that due to resistance to the train motion.
Free running period (t2 to t3 )
At the end of acceleration that is t2 the train attains the maximum
speed.
During this period the train runs at constant speed and constant power
drawn.
Coasting period (t3 to t4 )
Power supply is cut off and the train is allowed run its own momentum.
Speed of train is starts decreasing. Rate of decrease in speed is coasting
retardation.
 Braking (t4 to t50 ):
During this period brakes are applied and train is brought to a stop.
Speed-Time Characteristics of urban services

Speed-Time Characteristics of Main line services

 Crest speed (Vm) :
It is the maximum speed attained by the train during the run.
Average speed:
The distance covered between two stops divided by the actual time of
run is known as average speed.
Dis tan cebetweenstops
Averagespeed
Actualtimeofrun
Scheduled speed
The distance covered between two stops divided by the total time of
run including stop time.

Dis tan ce between stops

Scheduled speed
Actual time of run Stop time
The scheduled speed is depends on the following factors:
1. Acceleration and braking retardation
2. Maximum or crest speed.
3. Duration of stop.
Type of Train Operational Speed Government Approval

High Speed 250 350 km/h Yes

Yes (Only max. 160 km/h

Semi-High Speed 160 200 km/h is allowed for operation
in India)

Express Trains 120 140 km/h Already in operation

Passenger 90 110 km/h Already in operation

 Mechanics of Train movement
The armature of the driving wheel has pinion which meshes with gear
wheel keyed to the axle of the driving wheel. The gear wheel transfers the
tractive effort at the edge of the pinion to the driving wheel.

Let, T= Torque exerted by the motor.

F1 = Tractive effort at the pinion.
F2 = Tractive effort at the wheel.
= Gear ratio.
d1 , d2 = Diameters of the pinion and gear wheel respectively.
D = Diameter of the driving wheel.
= Efficiency of power transmission from the motor to driving axle.
 d 2T
T F1 1 F1
2 d1
d2
Ft F1
D
T
Ft 2
D
Adhesive weight:
Adhesive weight of a train is equal to the total weight to be carried on the
driving wheels. It is dead weight by about 20 to 40 percent.
Adhesive weight (Wa )
x
Dead weight (W )

Coefficient of adhesion (a ):
It is defined as the ratio of tractive effort to slip wheels and adhesive
weight.
Tractive effort to slipwheels
a
Adhesive weight (W )
 Tractive effort for propulsion of train
It is defined as the effective force necessary to propel the train at the
wheels of locomotive.
The tractive effort (Ft ) required for train propulsion is given by:

Ft Fa Fr
Ft Fa Fg Fr
Electric current collectors are used by trolleybuses, trams, electric
locomotives or EMUs to carry electrical power from overhead lines or
electrical third rails to the electrical equipment of the vehicles. Those for
overhead wires are roof-mounted devices, those for third rails are mounted
on the bogies. Two system of current collection by a traction unit.
1. Overhead wire system.
2. Third rail system

Overhead wire system:

Electric trains that collect their current from overhead lines use a
device such as a pantograph, bow collector or trolley pole. It presses against
the underside of the lowest overhead wire, the contact wire. Current collectors
are electrically conductive and allow current to flow through to the train
Overhead wire system
Conductor rail system
Bow collector
Bow Collector
Bow collector.
Light metal strip about 1 m long
Made up of aluminium, copper, carbon
Provision of either duplicate bows or an arrangement for reversing
the bow for running in reverse direction.
Employed for high speed.
Not suitable where speed upto 120 km/hr and current upto 3000A
Pantograph collector.
Mounted on pentagonal framework
Pentagonal framework is made of tensile alloy steel tubing.
It can raised or lowered by compressed air or spring
Employed for high speed train and current collected are large 2000
to 3000 A
Pantograph collector
 Conductor rail system
Insulated collector rail made of high conductivity steel
Collector rail running parallel to the track at a distance of 0.3 to 0.4 m
For collecting current a shoe is used.
Shoe presses on the rail with a force of about 150 N
Current collection range 300 to 500 A