EE742

Chapter9:FrequencyStabilityand
Control
Fall2011
 Meetingdemandwithgeneration
Largeandslowchanges(24hr)inpowerdemandaremetby
unitcommitment
Mediumandrelativelyfastchanges(30min)inpowerdemand
aremetbyeconomicdispatch.
Smallandfastchanges(seconds)aremetbyautomatic
generationandcontrol(AGC)tomaintain
Frequency
Tielinepowerexchange
Powerallocationamongthegeneratingunits
Generationcharacteristic=sumofspeeddroopcharacteristics.
 Turbinegeneratorcharacteristics
Thesystemhastheabilitytocompensateforpowerimbalance
atthecostoffrequencydeviation.
Alargeinterconnectedsystemhasanalmostflatcharacteristic
(i.e.,alargedeviationinpowerdemandresultsisaverysmall
frequencydeviation).
Theturbinegeneratorcharacteristicshasbothalowerlimitand
anupperlimit(seecurvebelow).
Theunitthatreachesitslimit(i.e.,withnospinningreserve)
doesnotcontributetoanincreaseinpowerdemand.
 Influenceofturbineupperlimitandspinning
reserveallocationongenerationcharacteristic
Thegenerationcharacteristiccanbecomenonlinear(orpiece
wiselinear)ifsomeofthegeneratorsreachedthemaximum
powerlimits
 Systemfrequencypowercharacteristics
Inasystemwithalargenumberofgenerator,thepiecewise
linearcurveappearssmooth(seefigurebelow).
Linearapproximation:

atmaximumpower,thedroopT tendtoinfinity.
Loadvariationwithfrequency:
KL:frequencysensitivitycoefficientofpowerdemand
 Increaseinsystemdemand
Anincreaseinsystemdemandiscompensatedby
Anincreaseinturbinegeneration(attheexpenseofa
reductioninfrequency)
Adecreaseinsystemload(duetodropinfrequency)

Stiffness exactvalue
difficulttodetermine
 Example0
Anisolatedandunregulated60Hzpowersystemconsistsoftwo
generatingunitthatserveaload.Assumeabaseof500MVAand
thefrequencysensitivitycoefficientsofthegeneratingunitsand
loadare:K1 =100pu,K2 =50pu,KL =1.8pu.Nowasuddenincrease
inpowerdemandofP=0.2pu occurs.Determinethesystem
operatingfrequencyandthepowercontributionfromeachunit.

f=P/(K1 +K2 +KL )=0.00131pu (i.e.,f=59.92Hz)

P1= K1 f=0.131pu (=65.7MW)
P2= K2 f=0.0658pu (=32.9MW)
PL= KL f=0.0023pu (=1.2MW)
 Primaryfrequencycontrol
Primaryfrequencycontrolistheactionofturbinegovernors
duetofrequencychangeswithoutchangingPref setting.
Astheloadincreases,spinningreserveisreleasedfromfast
regulatingunitswhichhavespeeddroopcharacteristicswith
deadzones(seeexamplesbelow)

Unitswithlargerdeadzones
areactivatedonlyduring
largedisturbances
 Secondarycontrol
Toreturntotheinitialfrequency,thegenerationcharacteristic
muchbeshiftedbychangingPref settingintheturbine
governingsystem.
Inanisolatedpowersystem,automaticsecondarycontrolcan
beimplementedinsomeunits(byaddingasupplementary
controlloopasshownbelow)inadecentralizedway.
Inaninterconnectedsystemwithanumberofcontrolareas,
centralizedsecondarycontrolisnecessary.
 AGC
Inaninterconnectedsystem,eachcontrolareahasitsown
centralregulatortomaintainfrequencyatthescheduledlevel,
andbalancebetweengeneratedpower,areademand,andtie
lineinterchangepower.
frequencybiasfactor
AreaControlError(ACE)
Participatingfactors:
 AGC
ZeroingAGCcanbeachievedintwoways:
Zeroingbotherrors(moredesirableoutcome)

Achievingacompromisebetweentheerrors

inthelattercasewhichmayhappenofthecontrolarea
exhausteditsreserves,themissingpowermustcomefromthe
neighboringnetwork(aviolationofthenoninterventionrule).
Topreventpowerswingsbetweencontrolareas,scheduled
changesintielinepowerflow,rampingthatlastaround10min
isoftenused.
 AGCasamultilevelcontrol
Synchronousclocksbasedonsystemfrequencytendtobuildan
errorduetofrequencydeviations.Theseerrorsareeliminated
occasionally(onceamonth)bychangingthefrequencyreference
value.

Tertiarycontrolis
associatedwith
generatorscheduling
viaeconomicdispatch
Exampleoffrequencyrecoveryfollowingageneratoroutage
Sampleoffrequencydeviationsinalocalsystem
 Responseofapowersystemtopowerimbalance

Considerthesystembelowwithtwoidenticalgenerators.The
disturbanceconsistsofthedisconnectionofonegenerator.
Refertothepredisturbanceequivalentcircuitintheleftfigure.
 StageI:rotorswings
Effectofdisconnectionofoneofthegenerators:
Systemreactanceincreases
Mechanicalpowerdrops

Xs: measure of electrical distance of system w.r.t disturbance

Xd+XT: measure of electrical distance of remaining gen. w.r.t disturbance
 StageII:frequencydrop
Theshareofanygeneratorinmeetingthepowerimbalance
dependssolelyonitsinertia,andnotonitselectricaldistance.
Afterfewrotorswings,allgeneratorswillslowdownatthesame
rate.Ingeneral,

Hence,

For the case of the network to the left,

 StageIII:Primarycontrol
Theoperatingfrequencyofthesystemisdeterminedatthe
intersectionpointof

and
 Importanceofspinningreserve
Spinningreservecoefficient:
(R numberofunitsoperating
belowtheirlimits)
Ifallunitshavethesamedroop,
then,
and
frequencydrop:

The smaller the spinning

reserve, the bigger the
drop in frequency.
With no spinning reserves,
 FrequencyCollapse
Forlargefrequencydeviations,thelinearityofgenerator
frequencypowercharacteristicisnolongervalid.
Intheleftfigurebelow,points isstable,whilepoint uisunstable
(shadedareiscalledareaofrepulsion).
Intherightfigure,thesystemwasoperatingwithlowsinning
reservewhenalossofageneratoroccurs.Thesystemtrajectory
enterstheareaofrepulsionthusresultinginfrequencycollapse.
 Underfrequencyloadshedding
Inaninterconnectedsystemwithashortageintielinecapacity,
theonlywaytopreventfrequencycollapsefollowingalarge
disturbanceistoemployautomaticloadsheddingusing under
frequencyrelays.
Loadsheddingisimplementedinstagesstartingwiththeleast
importantload.
Firstshedactivatedatpoint3,followedbythesecondshedat
point4
 StageIV:Secondarycontrol
Inthisfinalstage,theAGCisactivatedtocorrectthetielineflow
andfrequencydeviation.
Inanislandedsystem(withnotielines),thecentralregulators
transmitscontrolsignalstoparticipatinggeneratingunitsto
increasetheiroutputpower(i.e.,shiftthegeneratorcurve
upwardinincrements) seefigurebelow.
 StageIV:Secondarycontrol
Inreality,theinertiawithinthepowerregulationprocess
ensuressmoothchangesinpower(insteadofzigzag lines).

1: slow frequency control

2: fast frequency control
 StageIV:secondarycontrol
attheendofStageIII,eachgeneratorcontributestothepower
imbalance.InStageIV,thecontributiontopowerimbalanceismade
onlybythoseunitsparticipatingincentralcontrol.
Importanceofspinningreserveisillustratedinthefigurebelowfor
differentspinningreservecoefficients(r).Inhere,thedisturbance
consistsofloosinggenerationequalto10%oftheloaddemand.
Incases1&2,thefrequencyreturnstoitsreferencevalue
Incases3&4,thefrequencycollapses.

1: r = 16%
2: r = 14%
3: r = 12%
4: r = 8%
 EnergybalanceoverstagesI,II,IIIandIV
Initially,theenergyshortfallisproducedbyconvertingthekinetic
energyoftherotatingmassestoelectricenergy(areas1&2).
Thereductionofkineticenergycausesadropinfrequencywhich
activatestheturbinegovernorprimarycontrolsothatthe
mechanicalenergyisincreasedbutatalowerfrequency(area3).
Secondarycontrolfurtherincreasesthemechanicalenergyto
generatetheadditionalrequiredelectricenergyandtoincrease the
kineticenergyoftherotatingmasses(area4).
Variation of mechanical power
provided by the system

Variation of electric power

of the load (due to frequency
deviation)
 Interconnectedsystemsandtielineoscillations
Considertwosystems(A&B).Assumptions:
Ptie isflowingfromAtoB(i.e.,PTB <PLB)
PowerimbalancePo occursinsystemB.
TheinfluenceoftheAGCduringthefirstthreestagesisignored.
StageIofthedynamicsmaybeobtainedbyusingtheequalarea
criterionwithsystemAactingastheinfinitebusbar.
 Interconnectedsystemsandtielineoscillations
Initialoperatingpoint1(operatingatnegativepoweranglew.t.System
A)
SystemBlosesgenerationequaltoPo.Thisforcesthesystemtomove
frompoint1to2thento3.Kineticenergyinbothsystemsisusedto
coverthelostgeneration.
SinceMA >>MB,thelostpoweralmostentirelycomesfromthetieline.
 Interconnectedsystemsandtielineoscillations
Thefrequencydropisdeterminedby

where
TheAGCofbothsystemswillnowinterveneinstageIV:

with

Hence,

whereKRA andKRB areestimatesofKfA andKfB.

Ifthen
Example(9.2)

Slope of PTA: 6000 MW/Hz

Slope of PTB: 800 MW/Hz
(inverted and shifted)
 Caseofinsufficientregulatingpower
IftheavailableregulationpowerinsystemBislessthanthe
generationloss,thensystemAmustintervenetocoverpartofthe
lostpower;hence,itscentralregulatorissubjecttotwoerror
signals:

withthetielinepowersatisfyingthepowerbalanceofsystemB

Thefinalsteadystateerrorsignalsaregivenby

Since,
and
The variation in tie-line power interchange is similar to example 2, except that
it settles down to 800 MW (instead of zero MW).

Since KRA < KTA, the regulator of the system A will decrease its generation,
thus increasing the frequency error while the tie line error is not allowed to
increase.
SkipSection9.6 FACTSDevices