THE TECHNOLOGY OF ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS Volume 2a Introduction of Artificial Litt Systems Beam Pumping: Design and Analysis Gas Lift Kermit E. Brown The University of Tulsa 1 contributing authors John J. Day Joe P. Byrd Joe Mach Pennyell Books PennWell Publishing Company “Tulsa, Oklahoma ve ebh |. LIBRARYInn Yaa ons seewtanere Precedent w een Ice ‘omonsse11 194085 Conyeant © 1980 by PennWell Publishing Company Box 1250, Tulsa. Ox LUbrary of Congress Cataloging In Publication Data (Revised) Brome, Kermit ‘Th technology of arial metas, Includes bibiogrepticalrelarencas. CONTENTS: v. 1. lnlow parformance, muliphase ow in pipes, the owing wal.—y. 2. Inroducton ‘of aril it systems beam pumping 1. Oiwals, 2 Ppo—Flud dynamics. |. Til rNeviesis eez.sde 7659201 SBN 0-87814.091-X (vt) ‘Al rights reserved. No pat of this book may be ‘eproduced, stored na retieval system, oF lranseived in any frm or by any means, sleavoni oF mecnancal. including photocopying and recoding, ‘itnou te price writen parission ofthe pubisher. Incomationst Standard Book Number: O-87614-119-7 Print inthe United States of Amariea 29450899 eatI dedicate this book to my four children and three grandchildren. They are in the order in which God created them: Stephen Wesley, Sandra Kay, Robert Michael, David Earl, Stephen William, Bryan Scott end Robert Wade.Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Contents Introduction of artificial lift systems 1 Introduction 1 441 Purpose of ati lit 2 4112 Usizasion of mutiphese flow correlations for artificial it systems 3 1.121 Introduction 3 4.122 Use of multiphase flow corelations 3 4.1221 Viscosity 3 4.1222 Etfect of slippage of fell-back § 4.129. Summary of multiphase flow 6 Beam pumping: design and analysis, by John J. Day and Joe P. Byr' 2a 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Introduction 9 General considerations © ‘Subsurfece pumps 11 231 Tubing pumps 12 2.311, Tubing pumps classified according to type of working barrel 12 2.312 Tubing pumps classified according to type of standing valve 12 2313 Tubing pumps classified according fo type of plunger 12 232 Inset pumps 13 233 Casing pumps 14 234 The pumping cycle 14 235 API pump classifications 15 236 Pump size selection 15 ‘The sucker rod string—general considerations 20 2.44 Design ofthe sucker rod sting 23 2442 Modiied Goodman diagram 26 Pumping motion 27 2.51 Simple harmonic motion (SHMA) 27 252 Crank and pitman motion 29 253. The influence of pumping motion on the rod and structural loading of @ beam-type unit 29 ‘The effect of erankcto-pitman ratio on class land class il geometries 32 Effective plunger stroke 33 2.71 Rod and tubing stretch—single rod size 33 2.72 Rod etretch—tapered stings 35 2.73 Plunger overtavel 35 2731 Coberiey's method 35 Calculations for surface equipment 97 2.81 Counlerbalance 38 2.82 Torque considerations 39 2821 Torque factors 40 2.622 An important aspect of energy conservation in a beam and sucker rod pumping system 41 2.83 Prime movers 42 2.84 Prime mover horsepower requirements 43 2edt Neti 43 2.842 Frictional horsepower 44 viivii Contents Chapter 3 p28 2843 Cyctc load factor 44 2.644 Surface offciency in a beam and sucker rod pumping system 45 2.845 Approximate horsepower formulas 47 285 Speed reduction and engine sheave size 50 288 APlunit ratings 50 ‘API recommended design procedure $2 2.10 Dynamometers and dynagraphs 59 2101 The dynamometer card (dynagraph) 60 2102 Limitation of visual interpretation 63 2.103 Loads from dynamometer cards 85 2104 Courterbalance effect from dynamometer cards 65 2.105 Polished rod horsepower irom dynamometer cards 65 2108 Torque from dynamometer cards 69 2.107 Factors infuencing the shape of dynamometer cards 75 2.108 Permissible oad diagrams 78 2.11 Non-synchronous pumping speeds In a beam and sucker rod system 78 2.12 Beam pumping geometry and Its effect on rod and unit loading and pump travel 79 2.13 Modem predictive methods 80 2.191. Precieting polished rod dynamometer card shapes 84 2.14 The diagnostic technique 86 2.16 tnortial torque In a beam and sucker rod pumping system 85 2.151 Aperformence comparison between two beam and sucker rod pumping units of Cssimilar geometry consicaring the influence of inertial torque 68 Nomenclature 91 Roterences 94 Gas lift 34 32 Introduction 95 3.11 Defnitons 95 valve characteristies 96 321 lnraduction 96 322 Gas it valve nomenclature $6 3.23. Design considerations 97 3231 Continuous flow 97 3.232 Intermitent it 97 3.24 Pressure, area, and force relationships 97 3.25 Casing pressure operated valve 98 3.251 Unbalanced belows valve with pressure charged dome as loading clement 98 3.2511 Opening pressure of valve under operating conditions $8 3.2512 Closing pressure of valve under operating conditions 101 32513 Spread 102 3.2514 Gas pressure at depth 103, 3.2515 Test rack opening pressure 104 3.2516 Standard pressure operated gas lit valve summary example 105 3.252 Unbalanced bellows valve with pressure charged dame and spring as loading element 105 32521 Opening pressure of valve under operating conditions 106 3.2522 Closing pressure of valve under operating conditions 105 32523 Spread 107 3.2524 Summary examples 107 9.253. Balanced pressure valve 109 3.258 Pilot valves 110 3.255 Gas passage 111 3.28 Throtting pressure valve 111 327 Fluid operated valve 112 3.271 Opening pressure of fuid valve under operating concitions 112 3.272 Closing pressure of valve under operating conditions 114 9.273 Test rack opening pressure 114Contents "ix 9.274 Summary examples - fd valve _ 116 3275 Gas passage characteristics 117 3276 Dillerential valve 117 3.2761 Opening pressure of ciferentia valve under actual operating conditions 117 3.2762 Closing pressure of differential valve under operating conditions 118 32763. Test rack seting procedure for difarental valve 118, 228 Combination valves 118 3.29 Dynamic considerations 119 3291 Bellows travel and protection 119 3.292 Boliows load rato 119 15.293 Pressure valves 121 3.210 Ciass problems 121 ‘Types of gos litt Installations 123 331 Inoduction 123, 3.82 Open installation 123 333 Semiclosed installations (Fig. 932) 124 3.34 Closed installations (Fig. 3.8) 124 385 Chamber installations 124 2.351 Introduction 128 3.852. Standard two-packer chamber (Fig. 2.25) 125 3.353 Insert chamber (Fig. 896) 125 3.354 Reverse flow chamber instaliaion 125 3.355 Special chamber to save gas for long pay interval 125 12.356 Special chamber instalation for sand removal 126 3.357 Open hole chamber installation 127 3.358 Special chambers for bad casing and/or long perforate or fong epen hole interval 127 3.859 Chamber above packer 128 3.8570 Automatic veni chamber system 128 3.95 Macaroni instatations 128 337 Dual installations 192 338 Packol!instafations 133 3.39 Amular tow 135, 3.310 Installations to backwash injection wells. 135 Design of gas lft installations 137 3.41 Introduction 137 3.42 Continuous flow design 137 3421 Introduction 137 3422 Factors to consider in the design of a continuous flow gas it instalation 128 24221 Requirements of continuous flow valves 138 34222 Separator pressure and wellhead flowing pressure 198, 34223. Location of the top valve 198, 3.4224 Injection gas pressure and volume 199 3.4225 Bottom hole temperature (BHT) and flowing temperatu 3.42251 Invoduetion 139 8.42252 Kirkpatrick's solution 140 2.42254 Shiu's correlations 140 3.4226. Unloading gradients and spacing of gas ift valves 143 34227, Flow configuration sizes and procuction rates 143, 3.4228 Valve settings 144 3.4228. Approximations to be used in continuous fow installations 144 8.42210 Types of instalations 144 3.42211 Use of muliphaco flow correlations 144 9.423. Design procedure for a continuous flow instalation 144 34231 Determining the point of gas injection. 144 ‘3.4232 Determining tow rates possible by gas lt, by Pedro Regnault 147 8.42321 Introduction 147 = 8.42922 Solution for a constant welhead pressure 148 aay 3.428221 Pressure-iow rate Giagram procedure 148 3.423222 Equilibrium cuve procedure 149 3.42928 Solution fora variable welhead pressure, by Hugo Marin 155 3.423231 Wellhead pressure-low rate diagram procedure 155 3.423232 Flowing botiom-hole prassure-fow rate diagram procedure 187 139x Contents 4.424 An sono uty fa continuous How ges Ih wel by Pac Regnauk 162 Steet modseton 162 Bacsz. Earnie problem 162 s.aes Bea of contra tw gos it sialatons based onthe os! econo oui ol gs be beta by Maar cel an sus Pacha 168 Sezst neoascon 68 4282 Gatrnnabn of he met corel toa gas ue fr onan totnece peso” 168 Seater recede fer ho most sxoromial gas tt dein 166 S2ER2. Shonen mabe tor determining the men economia S6- Tul at to 2.12509 Barge problem Hustle the est economical ga it sean 70 ; 214283 eteminaton otha mos! econo! astra ovale wand pressure 179 Ses50 tuoducton 173 S42582.Desotpton ofthe economical spe matad_174 SSS Baten of promt on atv cat of gs ected metiod 178 RSE Gente pobloe ore mont ears gen oagn— tl woead pes 178, | Sasa "Ceenomaal slope meod 178 Side Prof on ol vant of as ected mahod 181 / 4250s teat of veri 108 S425" eet of Poin length 180 Siczecee tet of fowine comet’ 104 4.42506. Danusin of asl 185 SA2507 Consuons, 83 4.426 Opting coun few go stems, by Vicor Gomex and Hay Hong. 198 Beast hrosucion 18 ‘ $1282. Comuacs low ga it design fr pinizakon based on i rman le S87 saan Cont elhead procedure 187 S250 Desurpton of cure fing and opmizaton procedure. 188 Sas oducton 8 Ses Gave tery Teo Sa2s3'3. Optinzato pronto 108 ou2sse Fate rampie 103 4.4064 arate wetheadsoiton | 121 Suzee Computational procewure 181 32602. Decsipon of he opimizabon pocedue 189 S20" ivoauclon 190 SSE) Guns mepolaing scheme 104 aa5t23.Optmissbon procedure 198 2142643, Eaoe ol vanes in epimiaton of vanabla wolnead gat itsytene. Tot Sa26tSTInewuton 194 SGeG2 Etec of ing siz and fowin sie 184 $2005 Elect ol separ prs 198 Sisse.efect of wr ul 13, S:28405 Eft of evalu econ pressure 198 Sete Efecto pocuctiy don T88 Sees? surmeany 198 34285 Concuson ana econmaratons 192 34258 Flu cece of economia optnizaton 190 Sizeet invoctan 160 Sazee2 Oniieebon ge 198 3.603 Examplo provem 200 S.ca00e_ Summa 202 7 2.4ar_Slecton ot gas pura 202 S107! nteducton 202 Sara Michel's procedure 200 S4a73. Spec ago make sdlecton of parameas in coninoue fow gut aor Sever troducion 207 32782. Dean pecedua 207343 Contents "xi 9.42783. Selecting parameters 200 3.42734 Example problem 209 3.428 A new gas lif concept-—"two-step gas fit instalation,” by Juan Faustineli 214 3.4281 Inroducton 211 24282 Description of the two-step gas lit method 211 34283 Proposed well bre completion fora two-step gas iit instalation 214 3.42881 Parallel two-step completion for walls of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela 214 3.42832 Concenivis two-step completion 214 34284 Tworstep gas it examples 214 3.4285 Summary and conclusions 223, 3.429. Spacing of continuous flow gas it valves 223 3.4291 Introduction 223 3.4292 Universal design and spacing for alltypes of continuous flow gas it valves 224 3.42921 Introduction 228 3.42922 Standard pressure operated valves—constant surtace opening pressure 224 3.4299. Design procedure for pressure operated valves—taking 10-20 psi drop in surface closing pressures between valves. 230 9.4294 Spacing and design procedure for uid operated valves (oressure charged dome)—universal design 232 3.4295 Spacing and design procedure for combination pressure closed, fuid opened valves 233 8.4286 Design example for fluid operated, spring loaded gas lit valves 233 3.4297 Additional spacing procedures 236 ‘3.42971 Intreduction 236 2.42972 Common procedure for analytical spacing of pressure operated asi vaves 236 3.42973 Graphical spacing of pressure operated valves—(26 pel drop in pressure between valves) 230 84298 Discussion on spacing 238 ‘3.4299 Continuous flow design for ciferenial valves, 241 ‘3.42991 Introduction 241 '3.42992 Design procedure for diferential valves (continuous flow) 241 3.42983. Design exernple for differential valves (continuous flow) 241 3.42994. Analyteal procedure for spacing diferentil valves 242 3.42910 Spacing of completely belanced continuous fow valves 242 3.42911 Proportional response sysiem 244 3429111 Invoduction 244 3.429112 Transfer operation 248 34291121 Transfer point selection 246 3.429112 Gas requirements 246 34291123 Gas supply 247 2.429143 Design example—detalled information available 247 34291191 Preliminary wel analysis 248, ‘34291132 Gas it valve spacing and selection 248 3.429114 Compuler designed example 251 2.4210 Continuous flow gas-iting directionally diled wells 253 342101 Introduction 253 342102 Methods for calculating pressure loss in deviated wells 254 3.42103 Design of gas lit instalations 255 3.42104 Example problems and discussion 256 3.42105 Summary 257 3.4211 Summary and logical sequence in continuous flow gas lt design 257 ‘9.4212 Ciass problems "258 Design of intermittent ow installations 260, 8.431 Introduction 260 ~ 3.432. Intermitint gas fit cycle 261 3.433. Analysis of pressure recoicings during intermitent ges lit cycles 261 3.434 Factors to consider Inthe design of an intermitent instalation 264 34341 Type of inctalations 264 34342 Location of top valve depth 265, . 3.4343 Avalable pressures and valve setings 266 24946 Unloading gradients and spacing 257xii Contents 3.435 3.4345. Ditferential between valve pressure and tubing load to lit 267 3.4946 Gasiit valve por size 263, 34947 Percent recovery 272 8.4343. Gas volume requirements for intermitont lit 279 3.4349 Cycle requency and pressure stabilzain time 273 3.43410 Types of valves for intermittent lit 274 8.49411 Single point vs. mulipoint injection for itermttant it 275 3.43412 Summary of design considerations in intermittent it 275 ‘sign and spacing procedures for inlermittent gas it installalons 275 94951 Introduction 275 3.4952 Design procedure for intermittant gas Ht well 276 34953 Graphical procedure—pressure operated valves (ime cycle control at the surface) 279 9.4954 Analytical pracedure—pressure operated valves (lime-cycla control at the surtace) (25 psi drop in presaure bedween valves) 281 3.4955. Graphical procedure—pressure operated valves (choke control at the surface) (25 psi drop in surtace opening pressure between valves) 262 3.4358 Pressure operated valves-—graphical pracedure, constant valve closing pressure (time cycle control and choke control) 264 3.4357 Design procedure, fluid operated valves for multipoint injection 286 3.49571 Nivogen charged fluid valve 287 3.49572 Design example for multipoint intermittent it—spring charged valve 268 9.4958 Intermitent optitlow design procedure 290 34358 Dasign for combination Mid oponed, pressure closed valves 292 3.49591 Introduction 292 ‘9.43592 Ossign procedure | for the combination pressure closad tubing ‘pressure opened valve (choke contol or time cycie contol) 293 3.49593 Design procedure Il for combination pressure clasad tubing Pressure opened valves 294 3.49510 Design procedure for complataly batanced valves 298 3.435101 Graphical procedure for designing a low productivity intermittent instalation for balanced valves 298, 3.49511 Design example in which the static ld lave is fw inthe well and the well hhas not been loaded with “ki” fhuid—balanced valves 298 ‘3.49512 Designing chamber gas Iitinstafations for intermittent it 298 3495421 Introduction 298 3.495122 Procedure for designing standard chamber installations 298 3.4951221 Example problem No. 1 299 3.498122 Example problem No. 2 301 3.495129 Example problem for insert chamber S03 3.435124 Special chamber design for deep wells and fow surface gas operating pressure 304 34951241 introduction 904 3.4351262 Design procedure—intermiter contral (chamber valve to be operating valve) 305 3.4951249 Desion procedure—chamber choke control— chamber vaive to be oparating valve 306 9.4951244 Special design 308 3.4951246 Fisid example of deep chamber for low operating pressure 307 3.4351246 Field case no. 2—chamber it (chamber valve = ‘operating valve) 308, 34951247 Summary 309 9.498 Detailed design for intermittent fow—a method for determining the production rate 309 3.4961 Introduction 309 3.4962 Caloulatng the weighted average BHP 310 3.43621 Example 1—calculating the minimum BHP that occurs for one cele of intermittent it 310 9.49622 Example 2—calcuialing the weighted average BHP for one ‘completo cycle (without standing valve) 311 3.438221 Reducing the weighted average BHP 312 3.49623, Example 3—caiculating the weighled average BHP for one Complete cycia (with stancing valve) 3133437 3.498 Contents xiii 19.4983 Detalled design of intermittent instalation 919 Effect of variables in intermitent bk 316 3.4971 Detailed design for intermittent flow—etfect of variables 316 343711 Effect of differential between valve pressure end tubing load 316 3.43712 Eflect of Pl 316 3.4372. Computer solution to the problem 316 3.43721. Efiect of ctferental and Pl 317 3.43722 Ettect of depth 317 3.43723. Prediction of BHPS 318 Class problems, intermittent design probloms 318 8.44 Comparisons of continuous, slandard intermittent and chamber gas lit methods, by Folx Eslat 320 341 3449 Introduction 320, Ettect of changing static pressure 320 Ettect of wellhead pressure 321 Effect of productviy index $22 Etfect of tubing size 322 Etfect of the slippage 924 Etfect of surface injection pressure 924 Etiect of pressure cifferntial across the valve 925 Effect of eiferential and cycle time 825 3.4410 Summary 325 ‘3.45 Multiple completions, by Jeny B. Davis and Kermit E. Brown 326 3.451 3.452 3.453 3.454 3.485, 3.456 3.457 Introduction ° 326 ‘Types of instalations 326 34521 Introduction 325 3.4522. Paralll tubing sting installations 926 3.4823. Concentric tubing string installations 327 3.4524 Commingling of zones. 327 Valve salecton for a dual installation producing both zones by continuous lit 327 3.4531 Introduction 327 3.4582 Two strings of combination fluid opened and pressure ofuid closed valves 327 3.4533, Two strings of fuid operated valves (open and close on tubing tid pressure) 327 3.4534 ‘Two strings of pressure operated valves 327 3.4835. One string of fluid operatad valves (open and close on tubing fig pressure) and one siring of pressure operated valves 927 Valve selection for a dual installation producing both zones by intermittent it $28 3.4541 Introduction 328 3.4542 Two strings of combination fui opened and pressure closed valves, 928 3.4543 Two stings of plot operated valves $26 3.4564 Two strings of standard pressure operated betows valves 829, 3.4545 Two stings of fuid Valve selection for a dual installation producing one zone by continuous lit and one zone by intermittent I 329 3.2551 Two strings of combination fi opened and pressure closed valves 929 3.4552 One string pressure operated bollows continuous fit valves and one sting of pict operated intermittent valves, 823 3.4853 Two strings of pressure operated betiows valves $30 ‘3.4554 One string of fd operated valves (opened and closed by tubing luis pressure) and one string of pressure operated belows valves 330 3.4585 Two strings of Tuld-operated valves (opened and closed by tubing id pressure) 390 Design of dual gas lit installations 930 Example designs 330 3.4871 Example set #1 220 3.4872 Example sat #2 339 9.4573. Example set #3 (mandrels in piace) 299 35 Compressor systems 338 351 Introduction 336 3.52. Classification of compressor systems 996 ‘353. Design of the compressor system 337 3.sat 3.532 Inoduction 837 Factors fo consider when designing a compressor system 998xiv Contents ‘88321 Location of alllease equipment 338 3.5922. The individual gas it valve design for each wel 308 35329 Gas volume needed 339 35924 Injection gas pressure 339 38925 Separator pressure and suction pressure 908 25926 Distibution system 339 38327 Low-pressurea gatnoring system 341 35328 Availability of make-up gas 942 35223. Avalabilly of a gas sales outlet 342 259210 Freezing conditions (nydrates) 242 9.593 Compressor selection 344 35331 Inveduction 344 3.5332. Sizing the compressor 344 8.54 Design ofa rotative compressor system 351 8.85 Summary 954 355 Problems 365, 3.6 Gas lift operation, analysis, and trouble shooting 355 3.61 Introduction’ 355 3.62 Operation of gas i systems 356 3.621 Unloading processes 356 3.6211 Continuous flow unioading process 356 36212 Intermittent fow unloading process 387 8.622 Types of gas injection contol 356 36221" Choke contro! 358 8.6222 Regulator control in conjunction with a choke intermitent flow 959 3.6223. Time cycle controler 359 3.63 Analysis and trouble shooting 350 3.631 Introduction 360 3.632 Pressure surveys—continuous llow 981 38921 Introduction 361 3.6322 Hypothetical case of owing prassures surveys 262 3.6323. Field cases of flowing prasaure surveys 265 3.633. Flowing temperature surveys—continuous fow wells 967 8.694 Combination fowing pressure and flowing tamperature surveys (for continuous fow wets) 369 3.635 Pressure survays—intemmittent it 372 3.6951 introduction 372 3.8952 Hypothetical pressure surveys 973 3.6353. Field cases of intermittent pressure surveys 973, 3.696 Well sounding devices 376 9.6961 Introduction 976 3.6362 Field cases of acoustic surveys 977 8.637 Surtace recordings of casing and tubing pressures 378 36971 Introduction 378 3.6372 Continuous tow recorder charts 979 363721 Hypothetical charts 379 3.63722 Field cases of two-pen surtace recorder charts for continuous flow 363 3.6373. Intermitent low recorder charts 38 3.63731 Hypothetical charts 363 3.69782 Field cases of two-pon recorder chars for intermittent flow 999 3.698 Surface wethead pressure 435 3.6381 Intreducton 435 9.6982 Effect of back-pressure for continuous How 435 8.6383 _Eifect of back-pressure for intermittent fow 437 3.639 Injection gas pressure 439 3.6310 Injection gas volumes 441 3.6311 Total output gas volumes 443 3.6312 Total lid recovery 443 3.6313 Tomperature of the fowine and Christmas tree 443 3.6314 Miscellaneous 443, 3.6315 Field case of improved operations 444 3.6316 Summary 444 AppendixPreface For the first time, all the artifical lift methods are presented in one volume. Volume 2 is published in two Separate books, Vol. 2A and Vol. 2B, and is complete ‘with sufficient charts, curves, etc. to plan, design, ana- Iyze, and compare all artificial lift methods. Volume 1, published in 1977, gives all the preliminary informa. Hon needed to use Vol. 2. Volume 1 includes (1) the inflow ability of the well, (2) multiphase flow in pipes, ‘and (8) the flowing well. Although not absolutely neces- sary, Volume 1 should be studied and used in con- junction with Volume 2. Volume 3, which is also available, includes over 2,200 flowing pressure traverse curves for multiphase vertical fiow and horizontal flow, {as production, gas injection and water injection curves. T want to thank the many individuals that helped write this text. I Iso want to thank their companies that relinquished time for them to do so. These indi viduals and their respective companies are listed below: Jokn J. Dey Joe P. Byrd Joe Mach Jerry B, Davis Bill Richards Ed DeMoss Gene Riling Clarence Dunbar Satish Goel Don Rhosds Phil M. Wilson Hal L. Petrie Bolling A. Abercrombie Phil Patillo ©. R Canalizo RH, Gault George Thompson Bill Waters KC. McBride Forrest. E. Chancellor W.G. Skinner LAS: Hank Arendt Rusty Johnston ‘Tom Doll J.T, Dewan Purvis J. Thrash Luiz Couto The University of Tulsa Latkin Industries, Ine Tohnston Maceo Schtumberger Otis Engineering Corp Teledyne Merle Teledyne Merle TRW-REDA TRWREDA OILINE KOBE Centrtif, Ine. KOBE KOBE ‘MeMurry-Hughes ‘Amnoco Research Otis Bagineering Corp. Bethlehem Ste! Corporation TEC Of Field Pomp Hydrogas-Lift Systera EI Paso Neturel Gas Co, Chancellor Oi! Tots, Inc. Mid-Continent Supply Mid-Continent Suppl Otis Boaineerng to. Otis Engineering Corp. Louisiana Land and Exploration Tiinko, Lindaht! & Schwetkhardt, Ine. Otis Engineering Corp. Petrobras ‘There are numerous other individuals that I want to thank for their assistance and contributions: Spencer Duke, Victor Gomez, Harry Hong, Hugo Marin, Felix Eslait, Juan Faustinelli, Victor Mitchell, Pedro Ragnault, Jesus Pacheco, Carlos Woyno, Luis Menezes, Gustavo Lopes, Mario Sanchez, Nelson Velloso, Frank ~xvi Preface Zarvinal, Roman Omana, Humberto Calderon, Edgar LaFuentes, Celio Fonseca, Abad Loreto, Mohammed Yousaf, Cesar Camacho, Nelson Cordozo, Alvaro Fuentes and Carlos Ney. Thanks is due to the following companies for per- mission to reproduce certain art work: Centrilit, Inc., Otis Engineering Corp., Lufkin Industries, Inc., TRW-REDA, KOBE, Fluid’ Packed Pumps United States Steel and Johnston MaccoSchlumberger. Volume II offers sufficient flexibility to be used as a text or to be used by the engineer in industry in designing installations. Example problems are worked and numerous class problems are included. Eventually, an answer guide will be available. I want to thank The University of Tulsa for the ‘opportunity to publish this text. Also, thanks is due to Evelyn Washburn, Nelda Whipple and Betty Finnegan for their help in typing the manuscript. Finally, I want to thank my wife, Katherine, for her patience, love and understanding while I com- pleted this text. Kermit B. BrownChapter 1 Artificial lift systems 1.4 INTRODUCTION This text will discuss the various types of artificial lift systems available today. More and more wells in the world are being placed on artifical lift, and the number will contioue to increase. The selection of the ‘most suitable type of artificial lift for a well or group of wells ean be dificult or easy, depending upon the conditions, Generally, more than one method of lift can be used, Each method of lift may be classified from excellent to poor in accomplishing the objective. Depending upon the economic considerations, two types of lift (one used later) may possibly be prescribed for a group of wells. For example, in a “depletion” type reservoir, high initial production rates may be needed, but decreasing pressures and declining inflow capability may require a low rate in the future. In this case, an initial instal lation of continuous flow gas lift or electrical submers- ible pumping may be changed to intermittent gas lift, sucker rod pumping, or hydraulic pumping at a later date, or vice versa. ‘The following list probably represents the relative standing of lft systems based on the number of instal- Jations throughout the world. This differs from field to field, state to state, and country to country. (1) Sucker rod pumping (beam pumping) (2) Gas lit, 3) Electrical submersible pumping () Hydraulic pumping (8) Jet pumping (6) Plunger (Gree piston) lift (7) Other methods ‘As these methods are discussed, complete design procedures wil be given along with numerous example problems. In addition, other methods are continually being developed and tested. A short discussion on the ball pump and the gasactuated pump are also given. The ball pump was tried many years ago, and new interest hasrecently sparked additional development of this it method. The ball pump uses spherical flexible balls that pass down one tubing string and return through ‘another in order to eliminate the slippage of gas past the liquids. Gas is used as the source of power. ‘The ges pump has been in the experimental stage for many Years. Several field trials have been performed and are installed at the present time, The pump uses gas to actuate a downhole pump and can be used in conjunction with gas lit. In particular, gas lit unload- ing valves may be used to reach the pump. Rothrock presented Table 1.1, showing the distribu- tion of 518,867 oil wells based on a 7% sampling from 200 operators with information on 37,100 wells.! TABLE 14 CGAUDE PRODUCING WELLS (JAN, 187) Calegory Number Pescert od pumping 40997 e521 Gas it 51,964 1080 Eleccal submersble 3708 Hydric “Tolal US. aii US. towing of wals ‘Tots! LS. procucing ll wes ion00% Of the 518,867 wells, 481,146 or 92.7% are being lifted artificially. These are further broken down into 85.2% rod pump, 10.8% gas lift, 2% submersible, and 2e hydraulic. Approximately 383,000 of the artificial wells are strippers (producing less than 10 B/D). Assuming that 100% of the stripper wells are on rod pump, then Table 1.2 shows a redistribution of the remaining wells TABLE 12 ARTIFICIAL LIFT WELLS (LESS STRIPPER WELLS) catepoy Number Percent Rod pumping esr 28 Gas it B16 Electrica! sutmersiole yoraute "Tolal wets Table 12 shows that the largest percentage of the wells are on gas lift after eliminating stripper wells. Gas lift predominates on offshore wells but, according to Rothrock, isnot keeping pace with other lit methods in areas other than offshore. ‘Submersible pump use is inereasing rapidly in West ‘Texas and in some Rocky Mountain areas. noted that hydraulic pumping is not growing at the rate of other methods. However, jet pumping is now taking 50% of the hydraulic market, and its popularity will probably continue to grow.2 The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a Table 13 breaks down total maintenance cost into failures, failure rates, cost per failure, total cost, and percent of each failure spent for well servicing. Also included are costs and rates for well workover. ‘Two main types of downhole equipment failures are pumps and rods. Each pumping well has a 57% chance of pump failure and a 44% chance of rod failure each year. These rates are additive so each wel will average 1.01 failuresyear. Costs to maintain these wells total $346,000,000, including $230,000,000 for well servicing. Remaining expenditures translate to approximately 34,000,000 fect of rods and 31,000 bottomhole pumps needed for replacement of worn out equipment plus an additional repair of 180,000 purnps. Submersible pump failure rates apparently are decreasing based on the 7% sample. Repairs to submnersibles by manufacturers are running considera~ bly less than in previous years. ‘The survey indicates that failure incidence in hydraulic pumps is increasing. Again, this may be due to the small number of hydraulic pumps contained in the survey. In any event, the growth of the hydraulic piston pump market appears to be declining and jet pumping is on the increase. Gas lift failure rate is the lowest of any form of arti- ficial lift (21%) but costs of individual failures are high compared to the average of all failures. A high portion of these costs, however, is attributable to high cost of service units, crows, and related equipment. Various lift methods are compared in Chapter 9. Comparisons are quite difficult, but some choices of lift methods are obvious. One example is high volume wells where either electrical submersible pumping or continuous flow gas lit should be considered. Very deep lit must look at hydraulic pumping with installa- tions presently pumping from 15,000 to 18,000 feet, with rates of 300 to 500 B/D. Although these pumps are set at these depths, the effective lift depth may be less. Effective lift refers to that depth to which the flowing bottom hole pressure will support the producing fluids. For example, ifthe flowing bottom hole pressure is 700, psi and the average fluid gradient is 0.30 psift, the 700, psi will support the fluid 700/.90 = 2933 ft. Therefore, if the pump is set ala total depth of 16,000 fit is really only lifting feom 16,000-2,383 = 12,667 ft and theoret- ically could be set at that depth and produce the same amount of fuids (neglects tubing well-head back pres- sure). ‘Availability of certain power sources will influence the decision on type of lif. All these factors are diseussed in detail in Chapter 8. 4.11 Purpose of artificial ‘The purpose of artifical lift is to maintain a reduced producing bottom hole pressure so the formation can, give up the desired reservoir fluids. A well may be capable of performing this task under its own power. In ite latter stages of flowing life, a well is capable of producing only a portion of the desired fluids. During this stage of a well’ flowing life and particularly after the well dies, a suitable means of artificial lift must be installed so the required flowing bottom hole pressure can be maintained. ‘Maintaining the required flowing bottom hole pres- sure is the basis for the design of any artificial lift installation; if a predetermined drawdown in pressure can be maintained, the well will produce the desired fluids, This is true regardless of the type of lift installed. : Tn gas lift operations, @ well may be placed on contin- uous or intermittent lif. In continuous flow, the flow- ing bottom hole pressure will remain constant for a particular set of conditions, while in intermittent flow the flowing bottom hole pressure will vary with the particular operation time of one cyele of production. In this latter case, a weighted average flowing bottom hole pressure must be determined for one cycle and, hence, for a day's production. Economics enters into the design of any lift installation, Many types of artificial lift methods are available: beam-type sucker rod pumps, piston-type sucker rod pumps, hydraulic oil well pumps, electrical submerg- ible centrifugal pumps, rotating rod pumps, plunger Tit, gas lit, and others. The advantages and disadvan- TABLE 13 DOVINHOLE COSTS TO MAINTAIN US. PRODUCING Ol. WELLS (YEAR 1977) Face ‘Number of ‘Average Percent wel ‘a0 tales cos, 8 Total cost, S sonicing Subeuriace od pumps 3 210277 1078 226857,000, 6 ‘Sucka ross 4s 162.118 729 119,685,000 cy Submersible pumps 35 3.390 7873 6,030,000, 5 Hysraute pumps 1.86 41,411,000 0 as itt 21 47713,000 7m using 12 115,027,000 3 Cesing coat 176,742,000 st Total 2 753,285,000 et falces Wiorkovers 20 10.888 1.128.532,000 58 Total maitonanco cost 1.376.777,000, 9tages of all types of artificial lift are discussed in Chap- ‘ter 9. 41.42. Utiization of multiphase flow correlations for artifical tft systems 1.921 Introduction All if. systems can be designed better if the proper use of multiphase flow correlations is utilized. Numer- ous references, including Volume 1 of this series "Inflow Performance, Multiphase Flow in Pipes, and the Flow- ing Well,” give excellent discussions on vertical, hori- zontal, and inclined multiphase flow correlations. The best correlations for vertical multiphase flow are those of Ros," Hagedorn? Orkiszewski, and Beggs and Brill? ‘Some of these correlations are better in some ranges of flow conditions than others, as was discussed in 2 paper by Lawson and Brill The best horizontal flow correla- tions are those of Dukler,? Eaton,* Lockhart and Mar- tinelli Baker,'* and Beggs and Brill The Beggs and Brill correlation has proven to be excellent for horizon- tal flow, and some designers are using the Dukler pro- cedure with the Eaton hold-up correlation. For inclined flow applicable to the directional well problem, the best solution appears to be the use of a vertical multiphase flow correlation by calculating frictional loss over the ‘measured tubing length and calculating the static den- sity loss over the vertical distance only. The kinetic energy term is calculated over the total tubing length, also. For the surface hilly terrain problem the Beggs and Brill correlation is widely used. The Flanigan solution as well as modifications to the Flanigan solution are also used." For example, use of the Flanigan procedure to determine pressure loss over the hills in eonjunction ‘with either the Dukler or Baton procedure for frictional Joss is commonly used. For a complete discussion on multiphase flow, refer to Volume 1 of this series." Also, the productive ability of wells is discussed in Volume 1, along with a complete analysis of the flowing well. 4.122. Use of multiphase flow correlations ‘The use of multiphase flow correlations is very iroportant in the design of artificial lift installations. ‘This subject is discusced in detail in Volume 1, Refer to it for discussions on the various correlations, their range of applicability, and those that are best for verti- cal, horizontal, inclined, and directional flow. ‘he poblication of gradient curves (working curves) has made this technology readily available for the field man who dees not always have computer available for immediate calculations. Most energy companies and arlificial lift companies have 2 computer, program available for the calculation of pressure losses. for multiphase fiow in pipes. Refer to Volume 3 of this series for a complete set of curves that have been prepared for both the Hagedorn and Beggs correlations. Others are available, such as the curves used by the Shell companies, that were prepared from the Duns and Ros correlation. In the future it will be necessary to lift more heavy and viseous crude oils. Present-day correlations show 2 great deal of discrepancy in handling viscous effects, Artificial lift systems ©. 3 Hagedorn and Ros were two investigators who varied the viscosities in their experimental work, yet their Predictions of pressure loss for viscous crudes do not 1.1221 Viscosity Increases in viscosity are expected to couse increases in pressure drop since frictional pressure loss is directly Proportional to viscosity, The pressure traverse is ‘expected to move to the right for increasing values of | cil viscosity. A plot of well bottom hole pressure vs, viscosity will show increasing bottom hole pressure with increasing viscosity. During two-phase flow in a well where both gas and liquid are present, the resultant frictional pressure rop depends on both the gas and liquid viscosities. Different multiphase flow correlations handle this combination of ges and liguid viscosities differently, eg. Beggs and Brill and Hagedom and Brown define a mixture viscosity as followe: Hm = HAL t He(1— Ar) fae nia ae wher Beggs and Brill Hagedorn and Brown Hp ™ mixture viscosity liguid viscosity iquid holdup no slip holdup or input liquid content Duns and Ros use only the liquid viscosity in the slug and bubble flow regimes and correct the Moody friction factor thus obtained by means of dimensionless factors, These factors are funetfons of the Moody fric- tion factor, in situ gas and liquid velocity, and pipe diameter number, Gas viscosity only is used in the mist flow regime. Orkiszewski also uses liguid viscosity in bubble'and slug flow and the gas visesity in mist iow. ‘To study how each correlation handles increasing viscosity, a typical well was chosen and, with all other data held constant, the pressure traverses were caleu- lated for increasing values of viscosity. Since it was necessary tovhold the oil API constant, the Chew and Connally correlation was used to predict oil viscosity.” Dead cil viscosities (Jap) were chosen and the actual live oil viscosities (u,) Were calculated as follows: Be = Alao(D where: Hap = deal oil viscosity (stock tank oil) i = live oil viscosity (oil containing dissolved gas) Aand B are factors given by Chew and Connally,” ‘Hep(T) is the dead oil viscosity at the required tem- perature end is found using an interpolation scheme given by Brill and Boggs as follows sO = esse EED tere X= 1945 tf BAMBLOED eee [stor] For calculating the viscosity above the bubble point pressure, it was necessary to interpolate the plotof rate4 The Technology of Arti of increase of viscosity above the bubble point pressure given by Beal."* Gas viscosity was calculated using the Lee correlation. ‘The following well data were used in calculating the pressure traverses: Well depth 8000 fe ‘Tubing diameter 1.995 in. (LD.) Gas-liquid ratio 500 seftbbl Water-cut 0 Wellhead pressure 100 psia Bottom hole temperature 200°F. Wellhead temperature 150°. Refer to Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 for comparisons of the Hagedorn, Ros, Orkizewski, and Beggs and Brill correlation for oil viscosities of 10,0, 100.0, and 1000.0, ep.at 100°, Figure 1.4 shows plots of bottom hole pressure vs. viscosity for each correlation tested, The results show the following: (2) For all correlations tested, pressure drop in- creases with increasing viscosity. (2) Increases in viscosity within the range of 6 ep to 100 cp (at 100°F,) ease rapid changes in pressure drop for the Hagedorn, Beggs, and Ros correla~ tions. Beyond 100 cp’ (at 100°F.) the rate of increase in pressure drop decreases until approx- imately 500 op, after which increases in viscosity have negligible effects on pressure drop. The Orkiszewski correlation shows an initial decrease in pressure drop as viscosity increases from 5 ep to 10 cp (at 10°F). Beyond 10 cp, the pressure drop increases rapidly until 100 cp as with the other corre- lations. Beyond 100 op, pressure drop increases with increased viscosity. However, the rate of increase decreases with increasing viscosity. ‘The differences in bottom hole pressures predicted 3009} 009} peptH (et) s00c 700% 00 ficial Lift Methods—Volume 2a ie viscosity = 100 ¢P BEGGS AND ROS ARE APPROXIMATELY THE aE SAME far Zak Bot ee 7h 1 S10 S20 25 PRESSURE (100 PSI? Fig. 12 Comparison of Correlavons for Viscasy Etects viscosity =1000 cP ROS, BEGGS, AND ORKISZEWSK: GIVE APPROXIMATELY SAME RESULTS. ‘os00 66508 8006 Pressure (esi) tions rr Viscosity Etects Be Fig 11 Cemparisen of Cu 1 i015 20—«S, PRESSURE(IOOPSI) Fig. 1.2 Comparison of Coraatons fr Viscosity Elects 5/ 1009) BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE (PSIA) 500 00 #00 “so 8081005 viscosity tcp.) Fig, 14 Comparison ef Gonelasens for Vecosiy Etecte for each correlation between 5 cp and 1000 ep (at. 100°F.) are as follows: Hagedorn 1,204 pia Ros 702 psia Orkiszewski 1,000 psia Beggs 487 psia ‘The Hagedorn correlation has the largest spread in pressure drop between the highest and lowest viscosi- ties tested, indicating that this correlation is the most sensitive to viscosity changes, followed by the Orkis- zewski, Ros, and Beggs. This indicates that all the correlations predict changes in pressure drop differently for changes in viscosity. However, they all show rapid increases for viscosity increases between 5 ep and 100 cp (at 100°F.) This information shows the need for additional research in the area of viscous and heavy crudes. The effect of emulsions is an entirely different problem and is being investigated presently at The University of Tulsa. 4.1222 Etfect of slippage or fall-back Another area where correlations tend to differ considerably is in the case of flow rate for a particular flow configuration size where the fall-back of liquids becomes excessive. Field experience has shown that in some cases the oil production rate may be increased by replacing the tubing with tubing of a smaller diame- ter, Tn many cases, a dying well can be brought back to flowing conditions by reducing the tubing diameter, and the rate can be increased on artificial lit wells. Low flow velocities up the tubing string result in increased fall-back of liquids and high pressure losses, The flow velocity is increased by reducing the pipe Artificial lift systems 5 wage Fo. 1.5. Pressure Flow Rate Diagram Showing Rate for Minimum Flowing Pressure Giameter, hence fall-beck and pressure loss is reduced. Figure 1.5 shows the expected performance from a flowing well. For a given flow configuration, the bottom hole pressure decreases as flow rate decreases down to a point below which any further decrease in flow rate increases bottom hole pressure. Reducing the tubing size reduces the flow rate required before this limiting flow rate is reached. During multiphase flow in a vertical or inelined well, density differences cause the heavier liquids to fall back and the lighter gas to slip by up the well. Hence, in a given section of pipe during upward flow, the frac. tional volume of liquid present is normally greater than the input fractional volume of liquid, The lower the flow rate, the greater the effect of fall-back. One fallacy with present multiphase flow correla- tions is that they fail to correctly predict fall-back. A study was conducted to show how this phenomena of fall-back is handled by each of the following correla- tions: (Q) Hagedorn and Brown (2) Duns and Ros @) Orkiszewski (4) Beggs and Brill For this study a typical well was chosen and the flow. ing bottom hole pressures were calculated by each of the four correlations for decreasing flow retes. Both tubing and annulus flow were considered. The well data are as follows: ‘Total depth ‘9500 ft Flowing gas-oil ratio 500 scffbbl Wellhead pressure 150 psia API gravity oil 35° Specific gravity of 0.65: gas Water-cut. 0. Tubing LD. (in—for 1.995, 2.441, 2.959, tubing flow) 3.548, Annulus (in.—for 1h, Th 9%, annulus flow) 5K 2%, 526 Bottom hole 20°F, temperature Wellhead 50°F. temperature6 — The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a i i Fig. 18. Beets of Sippage or Faoack All of the correlations show the expected reduction of bottom hole pressures with decreasing flow rates up to 4 point where the flowing pressure increases, Figure 18 shows the results predicted by the original and modified Hagedorn and Brown correlation for tubing flow. The bottom hole pressure reduces for decreasing flow rates. The original correlation failed to predict the uptum of increased flowing pressure with the lower rates. The present modified correlation does make this prediction, ‘This difference is due to the inaccuracies contained in the original Hagedorn and Brown correlation for predicting pressure drop in the bulible flow regime. ‘The original Hagedorn and Brown correlation was modified to account for this limitation by including the Griffith correlation for bubble flow. A comparison of results predicted by the different correlations shows a few similarities and many differ- ences (see Figure 1.7 and Table 1.4). The differences are: (D For a given tubing size the limiting flow rates below which the bottom hole pressure increases with decreasing flow rate are different for each correlation. This is illustrated in Table 1.1. (2) The Orkiscewski correlation shows the bottom hole pressures at the limiting flow rates decrease Fig, 1.7 Comparisons of Faltsack of Liuids lor Dievont Corelax TABLE LS LIMITING FLOW RATES (B/D) FOR THE VARIOUS CORRELATIONS ‘ANO PIPE SIZES TESTED Tubinglannulss Hagedorn Fes __Orkisawshd Baggs 2 15040 00 400 ™ 250500 00 500 4 40015001000, 900 4 450 20001900, 1500 7x2 100 soco gan 5000 aR 900 4000300, ‘3000 Sanam 100015008000, +2000 err 20001000500 8000 with reducing tubing diameter. All of the others show the opposite trend. (B) The Hagedorn and Brown and the Beggs and Brill correlations show rapid increase of bottom hole pressure from the limiting flow rate, The Orkis- ‘zewski and the Ros correlations show a more gradual rise. Points of similarity are as follows: (1) All the correlations predict the expected limiting flow rates below which the bottom hole pressures increase with decreasing flow rates, (2) Allof the correlations indicate limiting flow rates decrease as tubing size decreases, Apparently, the predicted rates for full-back effect are too low for the Hagedorn correlation and possibly too high for the Ros. Additional research is needed to determine the correct values. ‘The previous discussions concerning comparison of correlations for predicting effects of viscosity and fall- back are also discussed to a limited extent in Volume. 1 1.123 Summary of multiphase flow ‘The multiphase flow correlations should be used for the design ofall types of artificial lift In particular, gas, ify, electrical pumping, and jet pumping are probably the’ most critical, and industry is readily using the available correlations for these three methods of lift. Piston hydraulic pumping and sucker rod pumping are less critical but could also benefit from the use of such correlations in the future. ‘Therefore, two areas of flow exist where multiphase flow correlations may give questionable results: (1) low flow rates whereby slippage becomes excessive and (2) heavy viscous crudes where the visoosity is excessive. Unless specifically stated, the working curves avail- able should not be used for crude viscosities above 10 op. REFERENCES 4. Rothrock, Renn, J, "Ogantole Maintenance Costs Approach $2 Bition” Tha Patooum Enginoer (duly 4977) 2. os. N.C.J, "Simultaneous Fiow of Gas and Liquid as Encountared in Well Tubing” Jour, Pat. Toch (Qstobor 196%), p. 1037. 23. Hagatom, A.B. and Brown, KE. tal Sted of Prossure Gradient’ Occuring Ounng Continuous Two-Phase Flow in Small ‘ameter Varical Concuts," Jour Pet. Teh (Apr 1963), pp. 47S. 4344. Okiszewshi J, "Pucicting Two-Phase Pressure Drops in Vertical Pipes," deur. Pot. Tech, (June 1087), pp. 829-53, 45, Beggs, FD. ard Bil, JB. "A Susy ol Two-Phase Fowia Ineined Pipes."lour. Pot Tech. (May 1973), pp. 607-617. 6, Lawson, 4. D. and Bri, Py "A Staetieal Evaluation of Methods Used a Preset Pressure Losses for Mullphase Flow ht Verical O2 Wel Tubing Trans. AIME (1674), pp. 903.914, 7. Dulles, AE. Wicks, M. and Clevelena, FG. "Ficiona Pressure ‘A—Comparison of Exting Canlaon for Holdup. B=An Approach Through Simlarly Analysis" ALCKE dum, January 1864), pp. 301 18. Eston, B.A, Andrews, D-E, Knowl, © ©, Sibergrg, H, and Brown, KE, "The Pradiaion of Flow Petia, Ligue Holdup end Prossure Losses Occuring During Continuous Two-Phase Flom Horaontal Pipes,” Trans. AIME (1867) 815 8. Locinan RW, and Matinel, RC, "Proposes Comelaon of Data Artificial lift systems 7 ftom Torco em Sean Samay ates wo Reena no oe Reco aee + REE Ee reves oepnmema Tyg ese Caneng Sys” Oi end Ges sore (res 1, : 12 HENGE ene nea fant are FSSA ena cet eto re CA. dea Viscosty Coralation for Gas Saluraied Crude Ois,” Trans AME (1959. p23, 14, Beal, Ceiton, “Te Viscosty ofA, Watay, Natural Gas, Crude Ot and ts Associated Gases at Ol Field Terperaures anc Pressures" Trans AIME, Vol. 765 (1848), p. 94, 16, L00, A. Lot al, "The Vscosty of Netural Gases," rans AIME (1368), 907,Chapter 2 Beam pumping by John J. Day and J. P. Byrd 2A. INTRODUCTION 80.90% of all artificial lift wells are being produced by sucker rod pumping; the most common is the beam pumping system. Although the beam sucker rod System is mechanically simple and has proven to be Tong-lived and economical in operation, many factors must be considered in the design of a proper system. ‘The design engineer must be thoroughly familiar with the function and complicating features of each part of the overall cystem if optimum performance is to be expected. Although it appears simple, in field practice the behavior of the beam and sucker rod system is surprisingly complex. ‘There are basic formulas for calculating the various factors affecting the selection ofa suitable system, and this chapter will present those calculations and explore some of the problems involved in the design and anel- ysis of a beam pumping installation. Note, however, that the formulas are inexact, and any analysis or Gesign must be tempered with local experience. 22 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS il well pumping methods can be divided into two main groups:* (2) Rod systems. Those in which the motion of the ‘subsurface pumping equipment originates at the surface and is transtaitted to the pump by means of a rod string (2) Rod-less systems, Those in which the pumping ‘motion of the subsurface pump is produced by means other than sucker rods. Of these two groups, the first is represented by the beam pumping system and the second is represented by hydraulic and centrifugal pumping systems. ‘The beam pumping system consists essentially of five parts: (i) The subsurface sucker rod-driven pump @)The sucker rod string which transmits the : design and analysis surface pumping motion and power to the sub- surface pump. Also included is the necessary string of tubing andlor casing within which the sucker rods operate and which conducts the pumped fluid from the pump to the surface (3) The surface pumping equipment which changes the rotating motion ofthe prime mover into oscil- lating linear pumping motion (4) The power transmission unit or speed reducer () The prime mover which furnishes the necessary power to the system Figure 2.1 illustrates the various components of a ‘complete beam pumping system. Items 3 and 4 are esignated the beam pumping unit. ‘All beam type pumping unit geometries fall into two distinct classes: (1) the Class I lever system whieh has its speed (gear) reducer rear-mounted with the fulerum ‘at mid beam, represented by the conventional unit and (2) the Class IIT lever system, a push-up geometry with its speed reducer front-mounted, represented by the air balance and Lufkin Mark IT units, where the faleram is located at the rear of the beam. Figure 2.2 illustrates schematically these different pumping unit types. ‘Figure 2.3 shows the arrangement ofthe surface equip- ment for a typical conventional unit. ‘The rotary motion ofthe crank arm is converted into oscillating motion by means of the walking beam. The crank arm is connected to the walking beam by means of the Pitman arm, and the walking beam is supported by the Sampson post and the saddle bearing. ‘The horse's head and the bridle—or the hanger cable arrangement—are used to ensure that the pull on the sucker rod string is vertical atall times so thatno bend ing moment is applied to that part of the sucker rod string above the stuffing box. The polished rod and stuffing box combination is used to maintain a good liquid seal at the surface. ‘Sach beam pumping units are available in a wide range of sizes. Stroke lengtbs vary from 12 to 240 §nches. The stroke length for any particular unit can be varied with three or more different lengths being pos-10 PumeiN UNIT POLISH ROD CLAMPS. IPE AND FITTINGS. couBINATION TUBING HEAD, PUMPING TEE B WOBBLER STUFFING 30x Tues suceen os Powe: casing: SHOES © Fig. 2.1 Beam Pumping System sible, These different strokes can be achieved by vary- ing the position of the Pitman connection to the crank. Rod and structural ratings are expressed in terms of maximum allowable polished rod loads, which can vary from about 3,000 to over 42,000 Ibs. One of the most important aspects of pumping-instal- lation design is the selection of counterbalance to reduce the size and torque requirements of the prime mover and goar reducer. For conventional beam units, counterbalance is accomplished by placing weights directly on the walking beam (this is usually done for the smaller units), or by attaching counterweights to the rotating crank’arm, or by a combination of the two methods in the larger pumping units. In more recent designs, the rotary counterbalance can be adjusted by shifting the position of the counterweights on the crank arms, Another important consideration in a pumping installation is the prime mover; two basic types are in widespread use today: electri¢ motors and internal combustion engines. The main advantages of electric motors over gas ‘engines are their lower initial cost and lower mainte- nance costs, Electric motors also provide dependable all-weather service and ean be more easily fitted into an automatic system. (On the other hand, gas engines have the advantage of more flexible speed control and can operate over & wider range of load conditions. Fuel costs for gas engines may be lower than comparable energy costs for The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a : | counree. seanee waar CLASSE LEVER SYSTEM - LUFKIN MARK ZL ruccnus. CLASSI LEVER SYSTEM ~ AIR BALANCED SYSTEM. Fig 2.2 (afer Ret. 22) electric motors, although as fuel power costs increase this condition may be reversed. "The selection of one type of prime mover over another may well depend upon local availability, fuel supply, Tocal conditions, availability of maintenance, and personal experience or preference.Beam pumping: design and analysis 11 — sate nae lees nea apts 4 ae re “4 Fig.2.9. The Surface Equipment ots Beam Pumping instakaion (ater Ret. §) Another important aspect of the surface transmis sion equipment is reducing the speed of the prime mover to & suitable pamping speed. This speed reduc- tion is accomplished by means of the gear (or chain) reducer. ‘Any complete installation design must consider the behavior of all elements of the system. However, there are still some aspects of the engineering analysis of this, method of pumping which have not been fully solved. In spite ofthis, thereisan even greater need today for a better understanding of the pumping behavior because of the trend towards greater pumping depths. ‘The minimum amount of information which must be known, or assumed, to determine even approximate Toads and pump displacements for sucker rod pumping unit installation design must include:* () Fluid level (net lift, ) @) Pump depth, ft (3) Pumping speed, strokes per minute (@) Length of surface stroke, in. (5) Pump plunger diameter, in. ©) Specific gravity of the fui (@ The nominal tubing diameter and whether it is anchored or tunanchored (8) Sucker rod size and design (@) Unit geometry With these fectors, the designer should be able to calculate, with some degree of reliability, the follow- ing: (1) Plunger stroke, in. (2) Pump displacement, (B/D) () Peak polished red load, Tb (4) Minirmum polished rod load, 1b (6) Peak (crank) torque, in-Ib or f-Ib, (when the unit's torque factor schedule is known) (6) Polished rod horsepower (7) Counterweight required, Ib ‘The final solution to the design problem is reached, to a great extent, through trial end error methods? Generally, three Steps are required in designing an installation. (2)A preliminary selection of components for the installation must be made. (2) The operating characteristics of the preliminary selection are calculated by use of the basic formulas, tables, and figures to be presented. (@) The calculated pump displacement and loads are compared with the volumes, load ratings, stress- es, and other limitations of the preliminary selec- tion, It may then be necessary to make other selections and calculations to bring the limitations ofthe various ‘components of the installation into agreement. Often, more than one selection of equipment and calculation of operating conditions is necessary before the opti- mum selection is made. It is important to observe each of the elements of a pumping installation and tie them together into an operable system. 23. SUBSURFACE PUMPS When reservoir pressure is too low to permit well to flow by its own energy, some artificial means of supple- menting that energy is required to lift the fluid to the surface. This can be accomplished through the use of subsurface pumps, which ean be divided into four designs: (1) Rod-drawn pumps (2) Hydraulic subsurface pumps (3) Submerged centrifugal pumps 4) Sonie pumps Rod-drawn pumps can be divided into three basic types: @) Tubing pumps (2) Insert (rod) pumps (3) Casing pumps (a larger version of insert pumps) All of these pumps are actuated by a sucker rod string and a surface pumping unit. Any rod-drawn pump consists of four essential elements: (1) A working barrel (2) A plunger (3) An intake valve (standing valve) (4) An exhaust valve (traveling valve) The basic difference between a tubing pump and an insert pump is the manner in which the working barrel is installed. With tubing pumps, the working barrel is connected to the bottom of the tubing and is run into the well as an integral part of the tubing string. With12 The Technology of Artificial Lift Methods—Volume 2a insert pumps, the working barrel is an integral part of the entire subsurface pump assembly and is run as a unit on the sucker ro string inside ofthe tubing (or casing) string. 231 Tubing pumps One basic advantage of tubing pumps is that they have a greater displacement than insert types because larger plunger diameters can be used within the larger working barrels of tubing pumps. However, tubing pumps have the disadvantage that the entire tubing string must be pulled from the well in order to service the working barrel, For this reason, tubing pumps are generally used only when the production desired cannot be obtained with an insert pump at the avail- able stroke and speed combinations on the pumping unit selected. Obviously, the entire unit ‘selected depends on economics and operating efficiency. Figure 2.4 is a schematic of a typical tubing pump. ibe different types of tubing pumps can be classi (D In relation to the type of working barrel used (2) In relation to the standing valve arrangement (3) In relation to the type of plunger used Obviously, a lange number of different types of these three classification is possible, For example, a tubing pump with a particular type of working barrel could have any one of several different standing valve arrangements or types of plungers. Ten SUEKER. ROD ons eaRREL TRAVELING VLE STANDING vaLYE oe. Fommarion Fue as ancuon % Fig. 24 The Sutsutace Tubing Pump (ater Rot. 3) 2311 Tubing pumps classified according to type ot working barrat From the standpoint of the type of working barrel used, the tubing pumps can be subdivided into three groups: @) Common working barrel pumps. The barrel is made of cold-drawn seamless steel, cast iron, or corro- sion-resisting alloys. With this type of pump, alength of cold-drawn tubing is polished on the inside to smooth the walls. The maximum diameter of the barrel is usually about 4 inch less than the inside diameter of the tubing string to allow enough clearance for the plunger when lowered through the tubing string. The ‘working barrel is eonnected to the bottom of the tubing string, These types of barrels are designated by the API as heavy-wall barrel design. (@) Fulbliner working barrel pump. This type of pump consists of a single hardened-steel tube (or cor- rosfon-resistant alloy) which is machined and honed in ‘one piace (not APD. (3) Sectional liner pump. The barrel of this type of pump consists of an outside steel jacket with short ma- chined and accurately honed liners assembled end to ‘end inside of the jacket. The various sections are made of hard steel, cast iron, or alloy steel and are held in position by the compressive force exerted by clamping collars at the ends of the jacket (not APD. 2.312 Tubing pumps classified according to type of standing valve From the standpoint of standing valve arrangement, the tubing pumps may have: (DA fixed standing valve (2) A removable standing valve ‘The fixed-type standing valve is attached to the bottom of the tubing; in order to service the standing valve the tubing rust be pulled from the well. This type of valve can be made oversize and can be quite effective in wells of low fluid levels, with viscous fluids, or when the working barrel does rot fill completely. The removable-type standing valve is placed in the working barrel before the barrel is run into the well or when the valve is dropped down the tubing from the surface and is pushed into place by the plunger. These valves are held in place by any one of several types of anchoring arrangements which employ special seating cups and frietional Bt. 2.13. Tubing pumps classified according to type of lungs From the standpoint of the type of plunger used, the most convenient method of classification is to divide the tubing pumps into groups according to the type of plunger seal used: (Pumps with eup-equipped plungers (soft-packed plungers). This type is the oldest form of plunger seal for oit well sucker rod pumps (see Fig. 2.5). The cups are usually made of leather or rubber-impregnated canvas. However, new types of synthetic materials for cups and cup rings are becoming available each year, and many of them have excellent corrosion resistance. On the upstroke, pressure exerted by the fluid column forces the cups to expand and form a seal between the lip of the cup and the wall ofthe barrel. On the downstroke,