KUMARAGURU COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Coimbatore-641049

U15 PHP101/201
Physics Laboratory
WORK BOOK
(According to R-15 Regulation, 2016-17)
Semester-II

Prepared By

Dr.R.BALAMURUGAN
Dr.R.SENGODAN
Mr.H.ARUL
 KUMARAGURU COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Division of Physics
(Department of Science and Humanities)

Name:
Roll Number:
Class: Branch:

Certified Bonafide Record of work done by .

Place:

Date:

University Register Number:

Submitted for the University Practical Examination held on ..

Staff In-charge Internal Examiner External

Examiner

ii
 PHYSICS LABORATORY - MARKS BREAK UP STATEMENT
S.No Date Name of the Formula Performance Calculation Result Viva Total Staff
Experiment with Units [30] [30] [10] [10] marks sign
(Short Form) [20] [100]

1.

2.

3. .

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Average Mark:

iii
 Kind Attention on Physics Laboratory Safety Measures

The purpose of this document is to inform the physics student of the basics of laboratory safety and
point out the most common types of safety hazards in the physics laboratory. This document is NOT a
complete listing of the safety hazards in this laboratory or any laboratory but rather it plays the role of
alerting the student to only some of the possible safety hazards.
Physics Laboratory Safety Concerns the physics laboratory doesnt usually use chemicals like biology
and chemistry labs, there are still safety concerns that not everyone is commonly aware about.
In the physics lab, the main concerns are mechanical, extreme heat and cold, electrical, radiation.
Many of the devices in the physics lab require mechanical motion and use significant amounts of
mass. Students should be careful to place themselves and sensitive electronics out of the path of these
masses in case a string or other holding device was to fail. This does happen from time-to-time in
introductory laboratories.
In the heat and thermodynamics experiment two different heat mechanisms are used: electric furnace
and hot plate. Care should be taken while heating the objects by either method. Use insulating gloves
and large tongs to transfer the object in and out of the furnace or hotplate.
Check the electric furnace with tester for any leakage current before touching it. He-Ne laser (633nm,
3mW) is being used in optics experiment. Direct staring into the beam will damage the retina of the
eye. If needed, safety goggles (not seeing directly laser beam) should always be worn while working at
the level of the laser beam.
Student Responsibilities

1. Report all accidents, injuries or breakage to the instructor immediately. Also, report any
equipment that you suspect is malfunctioning.
2. Dress appropriately. Avoid wearing overly-bulky or loose-fitting clothing, or dangling jewelry
that may become entangled in your experimental apparatus. Pin or tie back long hair and roll
up loose sleeves.
3. Be careful when working with apparatus that may be hot. If you must pick it up, use tongs, a
wet paper towel, or other appropriate holder.
4. Ask the instructor to check all electrical circuits before you turn on the power
5. When working with electrical circuits, be sure that the current is turned off before making
adjustments in the circuit.
6. Return all equipment, clean and in good condition, to the designated location at the end of the
lab period.
7. Leave your lab area cleaner than you found it.

iv
Instructors Responsibilities

The laboratory instructors will inform the students of possible hazards in working in the laboratory
environment as these hazards present themselves. Some of the experiments need extra concern as
they include multiple safety hazards. The instructor will also maintain a watch on the different
laboratory groups and point out safety issues and corrective action as the need arises. It is better to
know about First Aid and fire safety in laboratory.
General Laboratory
Rules
The following list of rules is general in nature and applies to the laboratory environment at all
times. Rules and guidelines specific to a particular piece of laboratory equipment or a particular
laboratory will be given at the time of the laboratory.
1) No mobile phone usage inside of
laboratory.
2) Students must wear appropriate clothing to laboratory. This includes shoes that are not open
toed (No sandals, slippers, etc.). Please wear clothing to lab that you dont care if it gets dirty. We
dont have a lot of chemicals but you will have to kneel on the floor to make measurements and
some of the equipment can have greasy rotation points.
3) Place all sensitive electronic equipment safely on your table or within your bag under your table
so that expensive damage can be avoided.
4) Do not modify or damage the laboratory equipment in any way unless the modification is
directed by the instructor. This does not include the changing of a lab setup as prescribed by the
procedures in the carrying out of measurements.
5) Use care when loosening and tighten screws and bolts. Treat the equipment as if it were your
own.
6) Do not force any of the equipment. If an excessive amount of force is necessary then tell
your instructor.

v
 Table 1: Base Units

No. Physical Quantity Symbol for Name of SI Unit Symbol of SI

Physical Unit
quantity
1 Length l metre m
2 Mass M kilogram kg
3 Time T second s
4 Electric current I ampere A
5 Temperature T kelvin K
6 Luminous Intensity Iv candela cd
7 Amount of substance n mole mol

Table 2 : Supplementary units

No. Physical Quantity Symbol for Name of SI Unit Symbol of SI
Physical Unit
quantity
1 Plane angle radian rad
2 Solid angle steredian sr
Table 3 : Derived units
No. Physical Quantity Symbol for Name of SI SI Unit Symbol of SI
physical Unit Unit
quantity
1 Area A metre2 m2
3
2 Volume V metre m3
3 Density kilogram per kg m-3
3
metre
4 Velocity u,v metre per ms-1
second
5 Angular velocity w radian per rads-1
second
6 Acceleration a metre per ms-2
2
second
7 Angular acceleration radian per rads-2
2
second
8 Force F newton kg ms-2
9 Energy, work E,W joule Nm
10 Power P watt Js-1
11 Pressure / Stress p pascal Nm-2

vi
12 Momentum p kg metre per kgms-1
second
13 Frequency , f hertz s-1
14 Youngs modulus E newton per Nm-2
meter2
15 Rigidity modulus n newton per Nm-2
meter2
16 Bulk modulus K newton per Nm-2
meter2
17 Quantity of heat Q joule kgm2s-2
18 Sp. Heat capacity S joule per kg Jkg-1k-1
per Kelvin
19 Sp. Latent heat L joule per Jkg-1
kilogram
20 Thermalconductivity K watt per Wm-1K-1
meter per
Kelvin
21 Refractive index n or - -
22 Magnetic flux weber
23 Magnetic induction B Tesla Wbm-2
24 Magnetic intensity H ampere per Am-1
metre
25 Magnetic moment m ampere Am2
meter2
26 Pole strength P ampere meter Am
27 Magnetic permeability henry per Hm-1
meter
28 Current I ampere A
29 Charge Q coulomb C
30 Potential difference V volt V
Table 4: Physical Constants

S.No Name of the quantity Symbol of Value of the quantity SI Unit

quantity
1 Speed of light c 2.997925 x 108 ms-1
2 Gravitational constant G 6.673 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2
3 Acceleration due to g 9.78281 ms-2
gravity
4 Avagadros number NA 6.02217 x 1026 mol-1
5 Boltzmanns constant k 1.38062 x 10-23 JK-1
6 Plancks constant h 6.62620 x 10-34 Js
7 Electron charge e 1.602192 x 10-19 C
8 Electron rest mass me 9.10956 x 10-31 kg

vii
 When the SI units are either too large or too small in reference to a particular physical
quantity, their multiples or sub-multiples in powers of ten are used.

The following table gives standard names of multiples and sub-multiples which can be
prefixed to the name of the unit concerned.

Table 5: Multiples and sub - multiples in Units

Multiple Name Symbol Sub-multiple Name Symbol

10 deca da 10-1 deci d
102 hector h 10-2 centi c
103 kilo k 10-3 milli m
106 mega M 10-6 micro
109 giga G 10-9 nano n
1012 tera T 10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a

The use of theses prefixes (for powers of 10) makes it easier and more compact for us to
express very large and very small quantities.

Rules and conventions for writing SI units and their symbols

1. The units named after scientists should not be written with a capital letter

For example: newton, henry, watt not as Newton, Henry, Watt

2. The symbols of the units named after scientist should be written by a capital letter

For example: N for newton, H for Henry, W for watt

3. Small letters are used as symbols for units not derived from a proper name.
For example: m for metre, kg for kilogram, s for second
4. No full stop or other punctuation marks should be used within or at the end of symbols
For example: 50 m not as 50 m.
5. The symbol of the units do not take the plural form.
For example: 10 kg not as 10 kgs
6. When temperature is expressed in Kelvin, the degree sign is omitted.

viii
1. SCREW GAUGE

The least count of the micrometer screw can be calculated using the formula given below:
Least count

=0.01 mm

Figure 4

Figure 5

ix
Determination of Diameter of a Wire
The wire whose thickness is to be determined is placed between the anvil and spindle end,
the thimble is rotated till the wire is firmly held between the anvil and the spindle. The rachet is
provided to avoid excessive pressure on the wire. It prevents the spindle from further movement.
The thickness of the wire could be determined from the reading as shown in figure below.

Figure 6

Reading = Linear scale reading + (Coinciding circular scale x Least count)

= 2.5 mm + (46 x 0.01)
= (2.5 + 0.46) mm
= 2.96 mm

Figure 7

x
2. VERNIER CALLIPER
The vernier calliper consists of a main scale graduated in centimetres. On the vernier
scale 0.9 cm is divided into ten equal parts. The least count or the smallest reading which you
can get with the instrument can be calculated as under

Least count = one main scale (MS) division one vernier scale (VS) division

=1mm -0.09 mm

=0.1 mm

=0.01 cm

The least count of the vernier

Figure 1

xi
 Figure 2

Principle of Vernier:

You will notice that one of the vernier scale divisions coincides with one of the main scale
divisions. (In the illustration, 3rd division on the vernier coincides with a MS division). Reading
of the instrument = MS div + (coinciding VS div x L.C.)
= 3.2 + (3x0.01)
= 3.2 +0.03
= 3.23 cm

Figure 3

= 3.2 + (3 x 0.01)

= 3.2 + 0.03
= 3.23 cm

xii
3. TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

Usually in travelling microscope, each mm will be partitioned equally into two halves. So one
main scale division will be 0.5 mm.

There will be 50 numbers of divisions on the vernier scale.

So the least count of the device will come to 0.5/50 = 1/100 = 0.01 mm or
0.001 cm. Hence the least count of the travelling microscope will be 0.001
cm.

xiii
4. SPECTROMETER

The value of each main scale divisions is half a degree(30'). The number of vernier scale
divisions is 30. 29 main scale divisions are divided into 30 vernier scale divisions (30 VSD =
29 MSD). Therefore value of 1 VSD = 29/30 MSD.
Least Count (L.C.) = 1MSD - 1VSD
= 1MSD - 29/30 MSD
= 1/30 MSD
= 1/30 x 30'
(L.C.) = 1' (1 minute)

xiv
 KUMARAGURU COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Science & Humanities
PHYSICS LABORATORY
I year BE/B.Tech (2016 2017)
Subject Code: U15PHP201
(Common to all branches of Engineering and Technology)

(1st Cycle of Experiments )

1. Air wedge - Determination of thickness of a thin wire

2. Lees disc - Determination of Thermal conductivity of a bad conductor
3. Viscosity - Determination of Co-efficient of viscosity of a liquid by Poiseuilles flow
method.
4. Compound pendulum-Determination of Acceleration due to gravity
5. Meldes String- Determination of frequency of an electrically maintained vibrator
(tuning fork)
6. Spectrometer - Determination of wavelength of Mercury source using Grating

(2nd Cycle of Experiments )

7. Non-Uniform Bending Determination of Youngs modulus

8. Lux meter Determination of efficiency of a Solar cell
9. Ultrasonic Interferometer Determination of velocity of sound and compressibility
of liquid.
10. Semiconductor laser:
A) Determination of wavelength of laser using Grating
B) Particle size determination.
C) Acceptance angle of optical fibre.
 KUMARAGURU
COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
LABORATORY WORK BOOK
Experiment Number: 1

Lab Code / Lab : U15PHP101/201/ Physics Laboratory

Course / Branch : BE/B.Tech.
Title of the exercise/experiment
: Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a bad Conductor
Lees Disc method
________________________________________________________________________
STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
a) OBJECTIVE OF THE EXERCISE/EXPERIMENT
To determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor by Lees disc method
STEP 2: ACQUISITION
b) Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities/material required Quantity
1. Lees disc apparatus 1
2. Stop clock 1
3. Thermometer 1
4. Screwgauage 1
5. Stream generator 1
6. Bad conductor 1
7. Metre scale 1
8. Rubber tube 1
c) Procedure for doing the exercise/experiment:
Steps Description (in full)
1. Formula: The coefficient of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor
K= Msd (r + 2l ) (d/dt) Watt/ metre/ Kelvin
r2 (2r + 2l) (1 2)
2. The Lees disc set up is arranged as shown in fig. Steam is passed through the chamber.
As heat gets conducted into the brass disc through the bad conductor, it gets heated up .
The temperature is noted from time to time. At one stage the temperature becomes
steady. When the temperature becomes steady for at least 10 minutes the steady
temperature is noted ( 20C )
3. The temperature of steam is noted (10C ) . Now the cardboard is removed and the brass
disc is heated in direct contact with the steam chamber until the temperature rises by
about 50C above the steady temperature.
4. The disc is now separately suspended from the ring after removing from the steam
chamber. Temperatures are noted in steps of 30secs from (2 + 5 ) 0C to (2 5 ) 0C
1
 and the values are tabulated (Table ) . A graph is drawn with temperature on the Y axis
and the time on the X axis .
5. A horizontal line is drawn corresponding to steady temperature 2 0C . The time dt for a
fall of temperature of 2 0C is found by taking two points one degree above 2 and the
other one degree below ( Fig )
6. Note down the mass (M) of the brass disc B as noted over it or determine its mass using
balance. Its diameter is found and hence the radius ( r) is determined using vernier
calipers.The thickness (l) of the brass disc is found using vernier calipers and thickness
of the bad conductor (d) with a screw gauge .

Diagram:

Temperature 0C
d

d dt 2
Steam Steam 2
S Tinlet
1
Outlet B T2
D
0
Time t (seconds)

Lees Disc Apparatus

Table No: 1. To find Time temperature reading

Temperature Time in secs

0
C

2
Table No: 2. To Find the Thickness of a Bad Conductor (d) Using Screw Gauge
Pitch
L east Count for screw gauage
Total number of head scale division
Pitch = Distance move on pitch scale
Number of rotation made head scale
Pitch = 5 mm
5
Pitch = 1 mm, Total number of head scale division = 100
Least count = 1 mm
100
Least count = 0.01 mm Zero Error =
Zero correction =
S.No PSR HSC OR =PSR + CR = OR + Z.C
X 10-3 m In div ( HSC X L.C ) X 10-3 m
X 10-3 m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Mean (d) = ................ m

Table No: 3. To Find the Thickness of a Lees disc (l) Using Screw Gauge
Least count = 0.01 mm Zero Error =
Zero correction =
S.No PSR HSC OR =PSR + CR = OR + Z.C
X 10-3 m In div ( HSC X L.C ) X 10-3 m
X 10-3 m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Mean (l) =..........m
l = .................. m

3
d) CALCULATIONS
FORMULA:
The coefficient of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor
K= Msd (r + 2l ) (d/dt) Watt/ Metre/ Kelvin
r2 (2r + 2l) (1 2)
Where
M - Mass of the disc placed over the experimental disc X 10-3 (Kilogram)
S -Specific heat of the material of the disc (Joule/Kilogram/Kelvin)
d - Thickness of the bad conductor in (metres)
r - Radius of the brass disc in (metres)
l - Thickness of the brass disc in (metres)
1 - temperature of the steam in (Degree Celsius)
2 -Steady temperature in (Degree Celsius)
d/dt - rate of heat radiation of the brass disc at 2 (Kelvin/ second)
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
Formula Used: K= Msd (r + 2l ) (d/dt) Watt/ metre/ Kelvin
r2 (2r + 2l) (1 2)

Here, M =................ Kilogram

s = 370 Joule/Kilogram/Kelvin

d = ............ metre (mean value from tabular column)

Circumference of the brass disc 2r = ............... metre.

r = .................. metre

l =................ metre (mean value from tabular column)

1 =...........o C

2 =.............o C
d /dt =................ Degree Celsius /Second
r + 2l .......................... metre

2r + 2l = ........................ metre

K= ...................... (Watt/ metre/ Kelvin)

.............

K = .....................(Watt/ metre/ Kelvin)

RESULT (Inference and analysis):

The coefficient of thermal conductivity of bad conductor = .. (Watt/ Metre/ Kelvin)

4
STEP 3: PRACTICE/TESTING
Questions VIVA VOCE
1)What is thermal conductivity ? what is its unit ?

2) Does the value of thermal conductivity depend on the dimension of the specimen ?

3) Is there any reason to take the specimen in the form of a disc ?

.
4) Can this method be used for good conductors ?

Model Questions
1. Define coefficient of thermal conductivity.
2. Can this method be used in the case of a good conductor?
3. What is steady state?
4. Why is the experimental material taken in the form of disc?
5. Mention few applications of bad conductors.
6. What is meant by rate of cooling?
7. What is meant by temperature gradient?

5
6
 Experiment Number: 2

Lab Code / Lab : U15PHP101/201/ Physics laboratory

Course / Branch : BE/B.Tech.
Title of the exercise/experiment : Determination of thickness of thin sheet Air wedge method
________________________________________________________________________
STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
a) OBJECTIVE OF THE EXERCISE/EXPERIMENT
To determine the thickness of thin sheet by forming interference using an air wedge
arrangement.
STEP 2: ACQUISITION
b) Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities/material required Quantity
1. Two optically plane rectangular glass
1
plates
2. Sodium vapour lamp 1
3. Thin sheet 1
4. Traveling microscope 1
5. Magnifying lens 1

c) Procedure for doing the exercise/experiment:

Steps Description (in full)
1. Formula: Thickness of thin sheet t = X metres
2
2. An air wedge is formed by keeping two optically plane glass plates in contact along one of
their edges and keeping the wire near the other end parallel to the edges of contact
3. The glass plates are tied together in this position by using rubber band. The whole
arrangement is placed on the horizontal bed plate of the traveling microscope.
4. A parallel beam of monochromatic light from the sodium lamp is made to fall vertically on
the air wedge film formed between the glass plates, using a thin 450 inclined glass plate and a
lens.
5. The microscope is adjusted to get a clear view of interference fringes formed. By adjusting
the horizontal screw of the microscope the vertical cross wire is made to coincide with one of
the edge of dark fringe ( say nth fringe) and the horizontal scale reading is noted
6. The microscope is moved without disturbing the position of the glass plates and the vertical
cross wire is made to coincide with the centre of every successive 2nd dark fringe (n+2, n+4,
n+6 n+30 ) and the readings are recorded. Mean fringe band width is calculated.
7. The distance of the wire from the edge of contact (X) is measured using the traveling
microscope. Assuming the wave length of sodium light () as 5893 X 10-10 m and
substituting the values of X, and in the formula, the thickness of the wire can be found
out.
7
8
Diagram:

Table No: 1: To find the band width

Least count of Traveling microscope= Value of one main scale division
Total number of vernier scale division
Least count = 0.05 cm
50
Least count = 0.001cm
Order of the Microscope Reading Width of Band width
fringes MSR VSC MSR + 10 fringes
Div (VSC x LC)
Unit X 10-2 m Div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m X 10-2 m
n
n+5
n+10
n+15
n+20
n+25
n+30
n+35
n+40
n+45
n+50

Mean () =.........................m
9
d) CALCULATIONS
FORMULA:
Thickness of thin sheet t = X metre
2
Where,
= wave length of monochromatic light (5893 X 10-10 metre)
= Band width in metres
X = Distance between the edge of the contact and the wire in metres.

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
Thickness of thin sheet t = X metre
2
= 5893 X 10-10 metre
= .................. metre (mean value from tabular column)
X = ........................ metre
t = X metre
2

t = ..................... metre
.........

t = ......................... metre
(Or)
t = ............................ m

RESULT (Inference and analysis):

Thickness of the thin sheet is t = . metre

10
STEP 3: PRACTICE/TESTING
Questions with answers: VIVA VOCE
1. What do you mean by interference of light?

2. Is there any loss of energy in interference phenomenon?

3. What are interference fringes?

4. What type of source is required in division of amplitude?

5. What is the shape of fringes in wedge shaped film?

6. When white light is used to illuminate the slit, what is the colour of fringes?

Questions:
1) What is interference?
2) How to test the optical flatness of a glass plate?
3) What will happen to the fringe width if the angle between the two glass plates increases?
4) What is the relation between the thickness of specimen and band width?
5) For the same specimen if a longer glass plate is used, what will be its effect on the band
width?
6) How the thickness of insulation of a wire is determined using this method?
7) What are coherent sources?
8) Give examples for monochromatic sources
9) Can you determine the thickness of a very thick wire? Give reasons
10) What is the effect of length of air wedge on band width?

11
12
 Experiment Number: 3

Lab Code / Lab : U15PHP101/201/ Physics laboratory

Course / Branch : BE/B.Tech.
Title of the exercise/experiment: Determination of Wave Length of Mercury Spectrum
Transmission Grating
________________________________________________________________________
STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
a) OBJECTIVE OF THE EXERCISE/EXPERIMENT

To determine the wave length of prominent lines of mercury source by plane diffraction
grating.
STEP 2: ACQUISITION
b) Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities/material required Quantity
1. Diffraction grating 1
2. spectometer 1
3. mercury lamp 1
4. reading lens 1
5. table lamp 1
6. Sprit level 1
c) Procedure for doing the exercise/experiment:
Steps Description (in full)
sin
10 10
1.
The wave length of any spectral line mts
Nm
2. The eye piece in the telescope is adjusted to get the clear image of the cross wires .
Prism table should be leveled .Telescope and collimators are adjusted for parallel light rays. To set
the grating normal to the axis of collimator the following steps are to be followed
3. The collimator and Telescope are arranged in line and the image of the collimator slit is focused
with vertical cross wire and the readings are noted on both verniers
4. The telescope is now rotated through 900 Mount the grating on the prism table and rotates the
prism table so that the reflected image coincides with the vertical cross wire. Take readings of the
verniers ( Fig )
5. Turn the prism table from this position through 450 or 1250. Now the grating is normal to the
incident beam. The spectrum obtained from the mercury source is shown in (Fig). When the
telescope is brought in line with the collimator, the central white image is observed. On either side
of the white images , grating spectra of different colours are obtained
6. The difference between the two readings of left and right for each spectral line gives 2 for that
line. Hence the angle of diffraction g is obtained for each line. The angle of diffraction for the
prominent green line of the mercury spectrum is noted as g . The wave length of the green line g
is assumed . If it is the first order spectrum , m = 1 .
Sing
The number of lines per metre N = m Lines /m
g

13
14
 Diagram:

Table No: 1 Observation:

Value of 1 M.S.D
Least count = 100 = 20 main scale divisions
Total number of V.S.D
0 0
10 1
1 M.S.D = (or )30' Total number of vernier scale divisions = 30
20 2
Least count = 30 = 1
30
Colour Vernier-I Vernier-II Mean = =
MSR VSC CR 1 MSR VSC CR 2 = sin -10
10 m
div div 1 2 Nm
2

D.R

Violet-1

Violet-2

Blue

Blue
green
Green

Yellow-1

Yellow-2

Orange

Red-1

15
Red-2

d) CALCULATIONS
FORMULA:

The wave length of any spectral line

sin
10 10 mts
Nm
Where
- Angle of diffraction in (degree)
m - Order of spectrum
N - Number of lines per unit length in the grating in lines/metre
sin g
N
m g
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
To find N :

sin g
N = l/m
m g
g = 5461 1010 m ; m = 1

N =Sin (...............) = ....................... lines /metre

1X5461X 1010

N = .................. lines /metre

The wave length of any spectral line

sin
(Violet - I) 10 10 mts
Nm
= X 10-10metre

= ..................... metre.
RESULT (Inference and analysis):
1. The number of lines per metre length of the grating = .. 105 lines/metre
2. The wave length of the lines in the mercury spectrum have been determined and found as
i) Violet (I) = 1010 m
ii) Violet (II) = 1010 m
iii) Blue = 1010 m
iv) Blue green = 1010 m
v) Green = 1010 m
vi) Yellow(I) = 1010 m

16
 vii)Yellow (II) = 1010 m
viii)Orange = 1010 m
ix) Red(I) = 1010 m
x) Red(II) = 1010 m
xi) Red(III) = 1010 m

STEP 3: PRACTICE/TESTING
Questions with answers: VIVA VOCE
1. In the present experiment , what class of diffraction does occur and how ?

2. What is plane transmission diffraction grating ?

3. What is reflection grating ?

4. How are commercial gratings made ?

5. What type of grating do you use for your experiment ?

17
18
 Experiment Number: 4

Lab Code / Lab : U15PHP101/201/ Physics Laboratory

Course / Branch : BE/B.Tech.
Title of the exercise/experiment: Determination of Viscosity of a liquid Poiseuilles flow Method.
________________________________________________________________________
STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
a) OBJECTIVE OF THE EXERCISE/EXPERIMENT
To determine the coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid by poiseulles Flow method
STEP 2: ACQUISITION
b) Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities/material required Quantity
1. Stop clock 1
2. Graduated burette without stopper 1
3. Retort stand with clamp 1
4. Capillary tube 1
5. Beaker 1
6. Water 1
7. Metre scale 1
8. Rubber tube 1
9. Pinch cock 1
c) Procedure for doing the exercise/experiment:
Steps Description (in full)
1.
Formula: The coefficient of viscosity of the liquid = ga4 ht (Newton Second / Metre 2)
8lv
2. The graduated burette is mounted vertically in the stand. A rubber tube is connected to
the bottom of the burette and in the other end a capillary tube is inserted and placed in a
horizontal position as shown in figures. The length of the capillary tube is measured (l)
(Metre).
3. The given liquid is poured into the burette. The height of the liquid level is made such
that there is a stream line flow (i.e., for an output of 4 to 8 drops per minute) When the
liquid level reaches zero mark a stop clock is started and the time for the liquid level to
reach 5, 10, 1530cc marks are noted (Table).
4. The height of 0, 5, 10, 15 .30cc marks above the table is measured. The height of the
axis of the capillary tube (h0) above the table is also measured. Let h1 and h2 be the
heights of two marks above the axis of the capillary tube.(see the figures below).
5. The liquid volume V between these marks flows through the capillary tube in time t
seconds under the mean pressure head h is calculated and the values are tabulated
( refer the tabular column).
6. From the observed values of Tables the product (ht) can be determined for certain
volume (V) of the liquid flow through the capillary tube and the values are noted in

19
 table.
Diagrams

20
Table No: 1. Time taken for the liquid flow

Burette
Reading
X10-6 m3
Trial -1

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

21
 Table No: 2.
Height of the axis of the tube from the table h0 = m
Range Height of Height of the h1 = (hi h0) h2 =(hf h0) h =(h1+h2) /2 ht
v initial level final level
from the table from the table
hi hf
X 10-6 m3 X 10-2 m X 10-2 m X 10-2 m X 10-2 m X 10-2 m m-sec

0-5
5-10
10-15
15-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40

Mean (ht) = ............................. Metre Second

Table No: 3
To find the radius of the capillary tube using Traveling microscope
Least count of Traveling microscope= Value of one main scale division
Total number of vernier scale division
Least count = 0.05 cm
50
Least count = 0.001cm
Microscope Reading
C.R = MSR + (VSCxL.C) Diameter
Position MSR 10-2 m
-2 VSC in div x 10-2 m
10 m
Right
Left
Top
Bottom
Mean radius (a) =..........m
d) CALCULATIONS
FORMULA:
The coefficient of viscosity of the liquid = ga4 ht (Newton Second / Metre 2)
8lv
Where,
density of the liquid (Kilogram/Metre 3)
g - acceleration due to gravity in (Metre/Second 2)
a radius of the capillary tube in (Metre)
l length of the capillary tube in (Metre)
v- volume of the liquid comes out of capillary in time t secs in (Metre 3)
h average pressure head height in (Metre)
h1- height of the initial liquid level from the axis of the capillary tube in (metres)
h2- height of the final liquid level from the axis of the capillary tube in (metres)

22
 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
Formula Used: = ga4 ht ( Ns/m2)
8lv
Here, =
g = 9.8 metre/second 2
a = ................... metre
ht = ............... metre. Second (mean value from tabular column)
l = ............... metre
v = 5x10-6 metre 3.

= ............................... ( Newton Second/Metre 2)

.........

= ............................ (Newton Second/Metre 2)

RESULT (Inference and analysis):

The coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid = 10-3 (Newton Second/metre 2)

STEP 3: PRACTICE/TESTING
Questions with answers: VIVA VOCE
1. Define viscosity and the coefficient of viscosity

2. How dose the coefficient of viscosity change with temperature?

3. Which quantity requires greatest care in its measurements? Why?

4. How is expressed in SI units? How is this unit related to poise?

5. Can you use this method for all types of liquids?

6. Is there any difference between friction and viscosity?

Questions:
1. Define critical velocity
2. Does viscosity vary with temperature?
3. What is the effect of pressure on coefficient of viscosity?
4. What is stream line motion?

23
24
 Experiment Number: 5

Lab Code / Lab : U15PHP101/201/ Physics Laboratory

Course / Branch : BE/B.Tech.
Title of the exercise/experiment : Determination of Youngs Modulus by Non-Uniform
Bending method
STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
a) OBJECTIVE OF THE EXERCISE/EXPERIMENT
To determine the youngs modulus of elasticity of the material of the given beam by non-
uniform bending.
STEP 2: ACQUISITION
b) Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities/material required Quantity
1. Traveling microscope 1
2. Two knife edge supports 1
3. Screwgauage 1
4. Metre scale 1
5. Weight hanger with set of weights 1
6. Pin 1
7. Magnifying lens 1
8. Vernier caliper 1
c ) Procedure for doing the exercise/experiment:
Steps Description (in full)
1. Formula:Youngs modulus of the material of the beam E = Mg l3 Newton / metre2
4bd3 y
2. When a beam is loaded at the mid point and symmetrically supported on two knife
edges the bent beam would not form an arc of a circle . This type of bending is called
non-uniform bending . The maximum depression is produced at its mid point .
3. The weight of the hanger is taken as the dead load W . The experimental bar is brought
to elastic mood by loading and unloading it a number of times with slotted weights .
With the dead load W suspended from the midpoint , the microscope is adjusted such
that the horizontal cross-wire coincides with the image of the tip of the pin . Now the
reading of the vertical scale is taken .
4. The experiment is repeated by adding weight in steps . Every time the microscope is
adjusted and the vertical scale reading is taken . Then the load is decreased in the same
steps and the readings are taken . From the readings , the mean depressions of the
midpoint for a given load can be found .
5. The length of the bar between the knife edge is measured as l . The bar is removed
and its mean breadth b is determined with a vernier caliper and its mean thickness d
with a screw gauge .
6. From the observations , the youngs modulus of the material is calculated by using
given formula .

25
 Note: Diagrams
l Beam

P
C

A B
Load

Youngs modulus by non-uniform bending

Table No: 1. To find l3/y

Least count of Traveling microscope= Value of one main scale division
Total number of vernier scale division
Least count = 0.05 cm
50
Least count = 0.001cm
S.No Load l Microscope Reading Mean Depressio l 3 / y
Loading Unloading n for load
MSR VC OR MSR VC OR of 100gm
Units 10-3 kg 10-2 10-2 Div 10-2 10-2 Div 10-2 10-2 10-2 m m2
m m m m m m
1. W

W+50

W+100 90

W+150

W+200

Mean (l3 /y) = ............... metre2

Table No: 2. To find thickness of the beam using screw gauge
Least count = 0.01 mm Zero Error =
Zero correccin =
S.No PSR HSC OR = PSR + C.R = OR + ZC
-3
X 10 m In div (HSC X L.C) 10-3 m
-3
10 m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

26
 Mean thickness (d) = ................... m

Table 3: to find the breadth of the beam using vernier caliper:

L.C = 0.01 Cm

Main scale Vernier scale Observed Correct

S.No Reading (MSR) coincidence Reading Reading
(VSC ) (OR) CR = OR
div ZC
Unit 102 m div 102 m 102 m
1
2
3
4
5

Mean (b) = ................ m

c) CALCULATIONS
FORMULA:
Mg l3
Youngs modulus of the material of the beam E = Newton / metre2
4bd3 y
M load applied (Kilogram)
g Acceleration due to gravity (Metre second2 )
l Distance between the two knife edges (Metre)
b Breadth of the beam (Metre)
d Thickness of the beam (Metre)
y Depression produced for the load (Metre)
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
Youngs modulus of the material of the beam E = Mg l3 Newton / metre2
4bd3 y
M = 100 X 10-3 (Kilogram)
g = 9.8 ( Metre second2 )
b = ....................... (Metre) (mean value from tabular column)
d = ....................... (Metre) (mean value from tabular column)
3
l / y = ...................... (mean value from tabular column)
Youngs modulus of the material of the beam E = Mg l3 Newton / metre2
4bd3 y
E = .............................. Newton/ metre 2
..................

E = ..................................... Newton/ metre2

27
RESULT (Inference and analysis):
Youngs modulus of the material of the beam = .. Newton / metre2 (or) Pascal

STEP 3: PRACTICE/TESTING
Questions with answers: VIVA VOCE
1. What do you mean by stress and strain ? State Hookes law?

2. Define the terms a) Youngs modulus b) Beam and c) Cantilever .

3. How are longitudinal strain and stress produced in your experiment?

4. What do you mean by neutral layer of a bent beam ?

5.How do you ensure that in your experiment the elastic limit is not exceeded?

6.Which dimension breadth , thickness or length of the bar should be measured very
carefully and why ?

7. What is the SI unit of Youngs modulus ?

8. Will the value of youngs modulus obtained by you change , if the length , depth or
breadth of the bar is altered ?

9. Why do you place the beam symmetrically on the knife edges ?

Question
1. How will you determine the unknown mass of given body ?
2. How will you determine the relative density of the given material ?
3. What are the assumptions used in developing a simple theory concerning the bending of the
beam ?
4. What is the difference between the geometrical moment of inertia and the physical moment of
inertia?

28
29
 Experiment Number: 6

Lab Code / Lab : U15PHP101/201/ PHYSICS

Course / Branch : BE/B.Tech.
Title of the exercise/experiment
: Determination of Velocity of Sound and Compressibility of
Liquid Using Ultrasonic Interferometer
________________________________________________________________________
STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
a) OBJECTIVE OF THE EXERCISE/EXPERIMENT
To determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves in the medium of different liquids using
ultrasonic interferometer.
To determine the compressibility of the given liquid.
STEP 2: ACQUISITION
b) Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities/material required Quantity
1. Ultrasonic interferometer 1
2. Quartz crystal of natural
1
frequency 2 MHz
3. Micrometer and sensor 1
4. Liquids ( Kerosene, benzene and
1
CCl4 as source).
c) Procedure for doing the exercise/experiment:
Steps Description (in full)
1. 2d
Formula: Wavelength of ultrasonic waves m
n
1
Compressibility of the liquid K m 2 /N
2
2. High frequency generator :
It generates alternating field of variable frequencies. The frequency generator is used to
excite the quartz plate placed at the bottom of the measuring cell at its resonant
frequency. The excited quartz crystal generates ultrasonic waves in the experimental
liquid in the measuring cell.
3. Measuring cell
Measuring cell shown in Fig has a double walled vessel with a provision to maintain
temperature constant. At the top of the cell a fine micrometer screw is fitted. With the
help of this screw, the reflector plate placed in the cell can be lowered or raised through
a known distance. The reflector and the quartz crystal (mounted at the bottom of the cell
) are parallel to each other. When the alternating field from the frequency generator is
applied to the crystal, it gets into resonant vibrations.
4. The high frequency generator is switched on and the alternating field from the generator
30
 is applied to the quartz crystal. The quartz crystal produces longitudinal ultrasonic
waves. The ultrasonic wave pass through the liquid and gets reflected at the surface of
the reflector plate.
5. If the distance between the reflector and crystal is exactly a whole multiple of the sound
wavelength, standing waves are formed within the medium. This results in the formation
of acoustic resonance and causes a change in the potential difference at the generator
which excites the crystal. Due to this, anode current of the generator becomes
maximum. The change in the anode current can be measured from the micrometer fitted
with the frequency generator
6. The distance between the reflector and crystal is varied using the micrometer screw such
that the anode current decreases from maximum and then increases upto a maximum.
The distance of separation between successive maximum or minimum in the anode
current is equal to half the wavelength of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid.By noting
the initial and final position of the micrometer for one complete oscillation ( maxima-
minima maxima), one can determine the distance moved by the parallel reflector as
shown in Figure.
7. Thus n numbers of successive maxima or minima are recorded for a distance d. The
total distance moved by the micrometer screw is given by
n
From the value of , the velocity of the
2d
d (or) wavelength
2 n
longitudinal ultrasonic waves is calculated using the relation v , where v is
the frequency of the generator which is used to excite the crystal. After determining the
velocity of the ultrasonic waves in liquids, the compressibility of the liquid is calculated
1
using the formula K 2 where is the density of the liquid. The experiment is

repeated for different liquids.

Diagrams

31
Table No: 1.
Reading for n Oscillations
Given liquid - ................. L.C = 0.01 mm

Number Reading for Oscillations 2d

of PSR HSC Correct

n
maxima 10-3m Div Reading d -3
10 m
= PSR + 10-3 m
(HSCLC)
n

n+5

n+10

n+15

n+20

n+25

Mean () = ............... m

d) CALCULATIONS
FORMULA:
i) Velocity of ultrasonic waves in a given liquid v m/sec

2d
ii) Wavelength of ultrasonic waves m
n
1
iii) Compressibility of the liquid K m 2 /N

2

= frequency of the generator which excites the crystal in hertz

d = distance moved by the oscillator in metre
n = number of oscillations
= density of the liquid in kg/m3

32
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
Formula Used:
1. Velocity of ultrasonic waves in a given liquid v m/sec

2. Wavelength of ultrasonic waves 2d m

n
3. Compressibility of the liquid K 1 m2 /N
2
= 2 MHz

= .........Kilogram/Metre3

= ........... (mean value from tabular column)

(i) Velocity of ultrasonic waves in given liquid v = metre / second

v = 2 X106 X( .................)

v = ............... Metre / Second

(ii) Compressibility of the liquid K 1 metre2 /Newton

2

K = ......................... Metre2 / Newton

RESULT (Inference and analysis):

1. Velocity of ultrasonic waves in a given liquid v = . (Metre/second)
2. Compressibility of the liquid K = (Metre2/Newton)

33
STEP 3: PRACTICE/TESTING
Questions with answers: VIVA VOCE
1. What are ultrasonics ?

2.What is piezo electric effect ?

3.What is an acoustic grating ?

4. What is inverse piezo-electric effect ?

34
35
 Experiment Number: 7

Lab Code / Lab : U15PHP101/201/ Physics Laboratory

Course / Branch : BE/B.Tech.
Title of the exercise/experiment : (i) LASER GRATING
________________________________________________________________________

STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
a) OBJECTIVE OF THE EXERCISE/EXPERIMENT
To determine the wavelength of the given laser source of light using grating.

STEP 2: ACQUISITION
b) Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities/material required Quantity
1. He-Ne laser 1
2. Grating 1
3. Screen 1
4. Paper 1
5. Pencil. 1

c) Procedure for doing the exercise/experiment:

Steps Description (in full)
1. sin
Formula: The wave length of laser source
Nm
2. Helium Neon laser is kept horizontally and switched on. The grating is held normally to the
laser beam .This is done by adjusting the grating in such a way that the respective laser beam
coincides with the beam , coming out of laser source.
3. After adjusting for normal incidence, the laser light is exposed to the grating and it is
diffracted by it, on the other side of the grating on the screen. The diffracted laser spots are
seen.
4. The distance of different orders from the center spot ( x m ) are measured. The distance
between the grating and screen ( D) is measured using the following formula , is calculated
sin
. The wavelength of laser light is found with the formula,
Nm
5. The number of lines in the grating is assumed , it may be taken as 592885 lines per
metre. It can also be measured from the experiment using known wavelength of the standard
sin
source, using the formula
Nm

36
 Table No: 1:
S. Order Distance. Readings of diffracted image Mean
No Of between Left side Right side sin

Diffraction grating Xm tan X m X Nm
and 10-2m 10-2m tan m
Xm D
screen D
D X 10-10
10-2m metre
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
3
2

Mean = ................................. metre

d) CALCULATIONS
FORMULA:

sin
Wavelength of Laser Light
Nm
is the angle of diffraction (degree)
m is the order of diffraction
N Number of lines in the grating per metre.

Sample calculation: (For 1st value)

sin
Wavelength of Laser Light
Nm
Order of diffraction M = 1
Number lines in the grating N=...................... Lines / metre
= Sin(.............) (metre)
.............. X 1

= ........................ metre

RESULT (Inference and analysis):

The wave length of laser source is = .. X 10-10 metre
37
38
 (ii) Particle Size Distribution Using Diode Laser
________________________________________________________________________

STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
a) OBJECTIVE OF THE EXERCISE/EXPERIMENT
To determine the particle size of the given lycopodium powder using He-Ne laser source or
diode laser..

STEP 2: ACQUISITION
b) Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities/material required Quantity
1. Laser source 1
2. Lycopodium powder 1
3. Screen 1
4. metre scale 1

c) Procedure for doing the exercise/experiment:

Steps Description (in full)

1. mD
Formula: Particle size a m
Rm
2. When LASER is passed through a glass plate spread with fine micro particles , the beam gets
diffracted by the particles and circular rings are obtained on the screen . By measuring the
radii of the rings and the distance between the glass plate and the screen , the size of the
particle can be determined .
3. The laser beam is incident on a glass plate dusted with lycopodium or talc powder ( Fig 8.a )
Dust particles on the glass plate act as a randomized two dimensional grating and produces a
diffraction pattern on the screen . The diffraction pattern consists of faint concentric circles
4. We may not see more than three orders . Measure the radii (Rm )of the dark rings from its
centre to the central bright spot as shown in fig and the values are recorded as in the table.
The distance (D) between the glass plate and the screen is noted .
5. Assuming the wave length of laser source , the particle size can be determined from the
given formula corresponding to each order and the mean value can be found . The dark room
is preferred to see the diffraction pattern clearly and for better results

39
Diagram:

Laser

Glass plate with

fine particles Screen

D
Particle size determination by LASER

1,2,3,4 order of spectrum

40
 Table No: 1: Determination of particle size:

Sl.No Distance Order of Distance Particle size

between diffraction between the
screen and central mD
glass plate bright point a
Rm
(D) and nth
fringe
Rm
Unit X 10-2 m X 10-2 m X 10-5 m

1 1

2 1

3 1

Mean a = ............... metre

d) CALCULATIONS
FORMULA:
mD
Particle size a m
Rm
m Dark ring order
Wave length of laser source in 1010 m
D Distance between the glass plate and screen in 102 m
Rm Distance between the central bright point and nth fringe in 102 m
Sample calculations: (for 1st value of the tabular column)
mD
Particle size a m
Rm
M = 1;
= ...................... metre

Rm = .................... metre

D = ....................... metre
a= .......................................
.............

a = .............................. metre
RESULT (Inference and analysis):

41
Average Particle size (a) = .. X 10-6 metre

42
 STEP 3: PRACTICE/TESTING
Questions with answers: VIVA VOCE
1.What is laser ?

2.What is stimulated emission ?

3.What is He-Ne laser ?

4.What is meant by optical pumping ?

5.What are the characteristics of laser radiation ?

6. Describe how transitions in Helium Neon laser occur ?

7. Name two uses of laser beams in industries

Questions :
1. What are the properties of LASER ?
2.What is the principle of LASER?
3.Define diffraction
4.What is interference
5.Distinguish between interference and diffraction
6.What is the effect of particle size on fringe pattern ?

43
________________________________________________
(iii) Determination of numerical aperture and acceptance angle Optical Fibre
________________________________________________________________________

STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
a) OBJECTIVE OF THE EXERCISE/EXPERIMENT
To determine the numerical aperture and the acceptance angle of an optical fiber.

STEP 2: ACQUISITION
b) Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:

Sl.No. Facilities/material required Quantity

1. Laser source 1
2. Optical fibre cables of various length 1
3. Optical fibre connectors 1
4. Mandrel for optical fibre 1
5. Numerical aperture 1
6. Laser power meter 1

c) Procedure for doing the exercise/experiment:

Steps Description (in full)

1. Formula: Numerical aperture = NA n0 sin a
r
Acceptance angle =
d
2. Using LASER, we can find the numerical aperture of the fibre optic cable. The given LASER
source is connected to the optical fibre cable, The other end is exposed to the air medium in
the dark place.
3. The emerging light is exposed on a plain paper. Now we get illuminated circular patch on the
screen.
4. The distance from the fibre end to circular image (d) is measured using metre scale. Similarly
the radius of the circular image is also measured.
5. Thus the acceptance angle is calculated. From the acceptance angle, the numerical aperture
of the cable is found out by using the formula.

44
 Diagram:

Acceptance angle a
Core
Cladding

Determination of Numerical Aperture and acceptance angle

S.No Distance from the Radius of Acceptance

fibre end to circular angle NA n0 sin a
circular image image r
d X10-2 metre r X 10-3 a
d
metre
1
2
3
4

Mean (NA) = ........

d) CALCULATIONS
FORMULA:
Numerical aperture = NA n0 sin a
r
Acceptance angle =
d
Where,
n0 = Refractive index of air
a = Acceptance angle in radian
r radius of the circular image in metre
d = Distance from the fibre end to circular image in metre.

45
Sample calculations: (for 1st value of the tabular column)
Numerical aperture = NA n0 sin a
r
Acceptance angle =
d
Where,
r = ................... metre

d = ................... metre

a = r/d

a = ................
...............

a = ................. radian

n0 = 1

NA n0 sin a

NA = 1 X Sin (............)

NA = ..............

RESULT (Inference and analysis):

Numerical aperture of the optical fibre = ..
Acceptance angle of the optical fibre =

STEP 3: PRACTICE/TESTING
Questions with answers: VIVA VOCE
1.Define numerical aperture.

2.What is the principle used in fibre optic communication system ?

3.Define acceptance angle.

46
47
 Experiment Number: 8

Lab Code / Lab : U15PHP101/201/ Physics Laboratory

Course / Branch : BE/B.Tech.
Title of the exercise/experiment
: Determination of acceleration due to gravity using
Compound pendulum
________________________________________________________________________
STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
e) OBJECTIVE OF THE EXERCISE/EXPERIMENT
To determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) using the compound pendulum
STEP 2: ACQUISITION
f) Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:
Sl.No. Facilities/material required Quantity
1 Compound pendulum 1
2 Stop clock 1
3 Meter scale 1
Procedure for doing the exercise/experiment:
Formula: meter/ second2

l - is the length of the equivalent simple pendulum corresponding the time period T in
meters
T- time period in seconds
l/T2 - is found from graph between distances of the various holes and time periods of
pendulum(T)

Procedure:
The compound bar pendulum AB is suspended by passing a knife edge through
the first hole at the end A. The pendulum is pulled aside through a small angle (not
more than 4o) and released, whereupon it oscillates in a vertical plane with small
amplitude. The time for 10 oscillations is measured.

Steps Description (in full)

1. Formula: meter/ second2

l - is the length of the equivalent simple pendulum corresponding the time

period T in

48
 meters
T- time period in seconds
l/T2 - is found from graph between distances of the various holes and time
periods of pendulum(T)

2. The compound bar pendulum AB is suspended by passing a knife edge through the first hole
at the end A. The pendulum is pulled aside through a small angle (not more than 4o) and
released, whereupon it oscillates in a vertical plane with small amplitude. The time for 10
oscillations is measured.
3. From this, the period T of oscillation of the pendulum is determined. In a similar manner,
periods of oscillation are determined by suspending the pendulum through the remaining
holes on the same side of the centre of mass G of the bar.

4. The bar is then inverted and periods of oscillation are determined by suspending the
pendulum through all the holes on the opposite side of G. The distancesd of the top edges
of different holes from the end A of the bar are measured for each hole. The position of the
centre of mass of the bar is found by balancing the bar horizontally on a knife edge. The
mass M of the pendulum is determined by weighing the bar with an accurate scale or balance.

5. A graph is drawn with the distanced of the various holes from the end A along the X-
axis and the period T of the pendulum at these holes along the Y-axis. The graph has two
branches, which are symmetrical about G.
6. To determine the length of the equivalent simple pendulum corresponding to any
period, a straight line is drawn parallel to the X- axis from a given period T on the Y- axis,
cutting the graph at four points A, B, C, D.

7. The distances AC and BD, determined from the graph, are equal to the corresponding
length l. The average length l = (AC+BD)/2 and l/T2 are calculated. In a similar way, l/T2 is
calculated for different periods by drawing lines parallel to the X-axis from the
corresponding values of T along the Y- axis
8. l/T2 should be constant over all periods T, so the average over all suspension points is
taken. Finally, the acceleration due to gravity is calculated from the equation g= 42(l/T2).

49
Diagram:

Table No: 1: Measurements of time periods (T) and Distance of Holes

No.of Distance of Knife Time taken for 10 oscillations Time period

No. of holes Distance of Knife (Sec) Time Period
from A edge from :(cm) (T) (Sec)
Trial-1 Trial-2 Mean

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
50
 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

Table 2 : To find the value of g:

S.NO Length equivalent of simple

pendulum
l/T2
Mean (m/s2 )
2
AC BD (m/s )
(m) (m) l= (AC+BD)/2
(m)

STEP 3: PRACTICE/TESTING
Questions with answers: VIVA VOCE
1. What is compound pendulum?

2. Define: g. What is its Unit.?

51
3. How g vary from place to place?

4. What happens when the center of suspension coincides with C.G.?

5. What is meant by the equivalent length of a compound pendulum?

52
 Experiment Number: 9

Lab Code / Lab :PHP101/PhysicsLaboratory

Course / Branch : BE/B.Tech.
Title of the exercise/experiment : Determination of frequency of the given tuning
fork by Meldes String Apparatus

STEP 1: INTRODUCTION
Objective of the exercise/experiment:

To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained vibrator (tuning fork) by Meldes

string apparatus.

STEP 2: ACQUISITION
Facilities/material required to do the exercise/experiment:

S .No. Facilities/material required Quantity

1 Electrically maintained tuning fork 1

2 stand with clamp and pulley 1
3 A light weight pan 1
4 A weight box 1
5 Digital Balance 1
6 A battery with eliminator 1
7 connecting wires 1meter

53
Figure Transverse Mode

Figure Longitudinal Mode

54
Formula used:
For longitudinal mode,

For transverse mode,

Where,
n Frequency of the vibrator (Hz)

M Sum of the mass of the pan and mass placed on the pan ( 10-3 kg)
l Length of each loop ( 10-2 m)
g Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
m The linear density of the string ( 10-3 kg)
Observation:
Mass of pan = 20 10-3 kg Voltage = 6 V

i) Transverse Mode:

Total length of
Total mass Length of
Mass in span No of the vibrating
S. No (M) each loop
10-3 kg loops string
10-3 kg 10-2 cm
10-2 cm
1

Mean

55
 Total length of
Total mass Length of
Mass in span No of the vibrating
S. No (M) each loop
10-3 kg loops string
10-3 kg 10-2 cm
10-2 cm

Mean
ii) Longitudinal mode:

Calculation:
Mass of 1.50 meters string = 2.5 x 10-3.kg
Linear density, m =

m= g = 9.8 m / s2
For transverse mode,

n= . Hz
For longitudinal mode,

n= .. Hz
STEP: 3
56
RESULT (Inference and analysis):

1. Frequency by Transverse arrangement is Hz

2. Frequency by Longitudinal arrangement is Hz

57
Viva Questions

1. What do you mean by Frequency?

2. Define Resonance.

3. What do you mean by Progressive wave?

4. What is the difference between transverse and longitudinal wave?

5. Why the frequency is different in longitudinal mode when compared with the transverse
mode?

58
59
 Experiment Number: 10

Lab Code / Lab :PHP101/PhysicsLaboratory

Course / Branch : BE/B.Tech.
Title of the exercise/experiment : Determination of efficiency of a Solar cell

Step 1: Objective

To determine the efficiency of a silicon cell (solar) and study its characteristics

Facilities required

Solar panel, milliammeter, 60 W lamp, rheostat, luxmeter and voltmeter.

Step 2. Acquisition
FORMULA

Efficiency,

Pmax = Maximum Power output

Power input = Voltage x current (mW)
Area of the solar panel = length x breadth x No. of solar cells (cm2)
Light power input = Luxmeter reading x Value of 1 Lux (0.001 mw/cm2)
x area of the panel in cm2

Step 3 : PROCEDURE

A solar panel consisting of several solar cells is connected in series with an ammeter and parallel
with a voltmeter. The load is connected in parallel to the voltmeter. First solar panel is marked with its
boundary with chalk. The lamp is placed and then light intensity is measured using the luxmeter. Now the
solar panel is placed on the box and for various value of load (200, 400, 500, 800 ..... 3000) the
corresponding voltage and current readings are noted.
Power = Voltage x Current
Now the lamp is brought closer and the light intensity is increased. Similarly for every load,
corresponding voltage and current readings are noted Pmax is noted for every table.

60
 Figure Lux Meter circuit diagram
A graph is drawn by taking load on X-axis power on Y-axis for two different intensities. One more graph is
drawn by taking voltage and the corresponding current along the axes.
OBSERVATIONS

Light intensity = ..Lux

S.No Load () Current (mA) Voltage (Volt) Power (mW)

1.

10

61
11

12

13

14

15

Light intensity = Lux

S.No Load () Current (mA) Voltage (Volt) Power (mW)

10

11

62
12

13

14

15

CALCULATIONS

Area of solar panel = Length x Breadth x No. of solar cells cm2

Light power input = Luxmeter reading x value of 1 lux x area of the panel in cm2
(Since 1 Lux = 0.001 W/cm2)

1. Efficiency, when light intensity = lux & Pmax

x 100

2. Efficiecny, when light intensity = lux & Pmax

x 100

63
Model Graphs

Load Vs Power

Voltage Vs Current
RESULT

o Efficiency of solar panel for lux =

o Efficiency of solar panel for lux =
o Net (Mean) efficiency of solar panel =

64
Viva Questions

1. Define Solar Cell

2. What is Photo Voltaic Effect?

3. Define efficiency and quantum efficiency as related to solar cell?

4. Explain how electric current is developed across the solar cell?

5. Define Short circuit current (ISC).

6. Define Open circuit voltage (VOC).

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