1.

INTODUCTION:

Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a

cooling tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively inexpensive

and dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The make-up water

source is used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent

to the cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or

to other units for further cooling. Cooling towers are able to lower the water temperatures

more than devices that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator in a car, and are therefore

more cost-effective and energy efficient.

1.1 Induced draft cooling tower

1
2. TYPES OF COOLING TOWER:

2.1 Natural Draft Cooling Tower

The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling

tower makes use of the difference in

temperature between the ambient air and the

hotter air inside the tower. As hot air moves

upwards through the tower (because hot air

rises), fresh cool air is drawn into the tower 2.1 Natural draft cooling tower

through an air inlet at the bottom. Due to the layout of the tower, no fan is required and there

is almost no circulation of hot air that could affect the performance. Concrete is used for the

tower shell with a height of up to 200 m. These cooling towers are mostly only for large heat

duties because large concrete structures are expensive.

2
2.2 Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower

Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated water. The

water falls downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the

water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of

mechanical draft towers depend upon various parameters such as fan diameter and speed of

operation, fills for system resistance etc. Mechanical draft uses power-driven fan motors to

force or draw air through the tower. Mechanical draught cooling tower are divided into two

types according the direction of flow of air.

2.2.1. INDUCED DRAFT COOLING TOWER:

A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge (at the top) which pulls air up through

the tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low entering and

high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation in which discharged air

flows back into the air intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as draw-through.

2.2 Induced draft cooling tower

3
2.2.1.1. Cross Flow Tower: Cross flow is a design in which the air flow is directed

perpendicular to the water flow (see diagram at left). Air flow enters one or more vertical

faces of the cooling tower to meet the fill material. Water flows (perpendicular to the air)

through the fill by gravity. The air continues through the fill and thus past the water flow into

an open plenum volume. Lastly, a fan forces the air out into the atmosphere.

Advantages:

Gravity water distribution allows smaller pumps and maintenance while in use.
Non-pressurized spray simplifies variable flow.

Disadvantages :

More prone to freezing than counter flow designs.

Variable flow is useless in some conditions.
More prone to dirt build up in the fill than counter flow designs, especially in dusty or

sandy areas.

2.3 Crossflow cooling tower

4
2.2.1.2. Counter Flow Tower: In a counter flow design, the air flow is directly opposite to

the water flow (see diagram at left). Air flow first enters an open area beneath the fill media,

and is then drawn up vertically. The water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles near the top

of the tower, and then flows downward through the fill, opposite to the air flow.

Advantages:

Spray water distribution makes the tower more freeze-resistant.

Breakup of water in spray makes heat transfer more efficient.

Disadvantages:

Typically higher initial and long-term cost, primarily due to pump requirements.
Difficult to use variable water flow, as spray characteristics may be negatively
affected.
Typically noisier, due to the greater water fall height from the bottom of the fill into
the cold water basin

2.4 Counterflow cooling tower

5
2.2.2. FORCED DRAFT COOLING TOWER:

A mechanical draft cooling tower especially consists of a blower type fan at the intake end.

The fan forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities. The

low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air intake,

the fan is more susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage

is that a forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than an equivalent

induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its ability to work with high

static pressure. Such setups can be installed in more-confined spaces and even in some indoor

situations. This fan/fill geometry is also known as blow-through.

2.5 Forced draft cooling tower

6
3. COMPONENTS OF COOLING TOWER:

The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, heater, cold-water

basin, submersible pump, drift eliminators, digital temperature detector, air inlet, nozzles and

fans. These are described below.

a) Frame : Frame structure of the cooling tower was made by the thin sheet metal. C shaped

channel were made and are screwed on the frame structure.

b) Nozzles : To spray the water on the frame, copper pipes with nozzle are used. Nozzles are

placed in such a location that water can flow in all the direction.

d) Fans : A induced draught fan was used on the top of the tower to create draught inside the

cooling tower.

e) Digital Temperature Detector: Two digital temperature detector were used to measure the

hot water temperature and the temperature of the cooling pond water.

f) Heater: A heater coil was used to supply the hot water to the nozzle.

g) Submersible Pump: Submersible pump was placed inside the cooling pond to supply

water to the heater. It can also be use to drain water from the cooling pond.

h) Float Valve : Float valve was placed at the water inlet point. Its function is to check the

water supply to the cooling pond after a certain limit.

7
4. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OFABRICATED SETUP:

NAME OF THE COMPONENT SPECIFICATION

Height of the cooling Tower 700mm

Submersible pump discharge(Q) 3.8 m cub/sec

Heater cap. 1000watt

Sump dimension 750mm*750mm*300mm

Length of condenser 3/8inch

Digital Temp. Detector 2500C

8
5. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS PARAMETERS:

To determine the cooling tower performance, there are several number of parameters are

used.

a) Range : This is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet

temperature. A high CT Range means that the cooling tower has been able to reduce the water

temperature effectively, and is thus performing well. The formula is:

CT Range (0C) = CW inlet temp (0C) - CW outlet temp (0C)

b) Approach : This is the difference between the cooling tower outlet coldwater

temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature. The lower the approach the better the cooling

tower performance; although, both range and approach should be monitored, the `Approach

is a better indicator of cooling tower performance

CR Approach (0C) = CW outlet temp(0C) - Wet bulb temp(0C)

c) Effectiveness : This is the ratio between the range and the ideal range (in percentage), i.e.

difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature, or in

other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach). The higher this ratio, the higher the cooling

tower effectiveness.

d) Cooling capacity : This is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass

flow rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.

e) Evaporation loss : This is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty. Theoretically

the evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3 for every 1,000,000 kCal heat rejected. The

following formula can be used (Perry):

9
f) Cycles of concentration (C.O.C) : This is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water

to the dissolved solids in makeup water.

g) Blow down : Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation

losses and is given by formula:

h) Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio : The L/G ratio of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water

and the air mass flow rates. Cooling towers have certain design values, but seasonal

variations require adjustment and tuning of water and air flow rates to get the best cooling

tower effectiveness. Adjustments can be made by water box loading changes or blade angle

adjustments. Thermodynamic rules also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be

equal to the heat absorbed by the surrounding air. Therefore the following formulae can be

used:

Where:

L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)

T1, T2 = hot water temperature (C) & cold-water temperature (C)

h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature

h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature

10
6. FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE:

6.1. DESIGN FACTORS:

Capacity

Heat dissipation (in kCal/hour) and circulated flow rate (m3/hr) are not sufficient to

understand cooling tower performance. Other factors, which we will see, must be stated along

with flow rate m3/hr. For example, a cooling tower sized to cool 4540 m3/hr through a 13.9C

range might be larger than a cooling tower to cool 4540 m3/hr through 19.5C range.

Range

Range is determined not by the cooling tower, but by the process it is serving. The range at

the exchanger is determined entirely by the heat load and the water circulation rate through

the exchanger and on to the cooling water

Thus, Range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the system.

Cooling towers are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one temperature to

another temperature at a certain wet bulb temperature. For example, the cooling tower might

be specified to cool 48000 m3/hr from 44C to 34C at 26.7C wet bulb temperature.

As a generalization, the closer the approach to the wet bulb, the more expensive the cooling

tower due to increased size. Usually a 2.8C approach to the design wet bulb is the coldest

water temperature that cooling tower manufacturers will guarantee. If flow rate, range,

approach and wet bulb had to be ranked in the order of their importance in sizing a tower,

11
approach would be first with flow rate closely following the range and wet bulb would be of

lesser importance.

The range increases when the quantity of circulated water and heat load increase. This means

that increasing the range as a result of added heat load requires a larger tower. There are two

possible causes for the increased range:

The inlet water temperature is increased (and the cold-water temperature at the exit remains

the same). In this case it is economical to invest in removing the additional heat. The exit

water temperature is decreased (and the hot water temperature at the inlet remains the same).

In this case the tower size would have to be increased considerably because the approach is

also reduced, and this is not always economical.

Heat Load

The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process being served. The

degree of cooling required is controlled by the desired operating temperature level of the

process. In most cases, a low operating temperature is desirable to increase process efficiency

or to improve the quality or quantity of the product. In some applications (e.g. internal

combustion engines), however, high operating temperatures are desirable. The size and cost

of the cooling tower is proportional to the heat load. If heat load calculations are low

undersized equipment will be purchased. If the calculated load is high, oversize and more

costly, equipment will result. Process heat loads may vary considerably depending upon the

process involved. Determination of accurate process heat loads can become very complex but

proper consideration can produce satisfactory results. On the other hand, air conditioning and

refrigeration heat loads can be determined with greater accuracy

12
Tower Size

If heat load, range, approach and wet-bulb temperature are held constant, changing the fourth

will affect the tower size as follows:

a) Tower size varies inversely with approach. A longer approach requires a smaller tower.

Conversely, a smaller approach requires an increasingly larger tower and, at 5F approach,

the effect upon tower size begins to become asymptotic. For that reason, it is not customary

in the cooling tower industry to guarantee any approach of less than 5F.

6.1 Tower size V/S Approach

6.2. FILL MEDIA EFFECTS

In a cooling tower, hot water is distributed above fill media and is cooled down through

evaporation as it flows down the tower and gets in contact with air. The fill media impacts

energy consumption in two ways:

13
*Electricity is used for pumping above the fill and for fans that create the air draft. An

efficiently designed fill media with appropriate water distribution, drift eliminator, fan,

gearbox and motor with therefore lead to lower electricity consumption.

* Heat exchange between air and water is influenced by surface area of heat exchange,

duration of heat exchange (interaction) and turbulence in water effecting thoroughness of

intermixing. The fill media determines all of these and therefore influences the heat

exchange. The greater the heat exchange, the more effective the cooling tower becomes.

There are three types of fills:

a) Splash fill media. Splash fill media generates the required heat exchange area by splashing

water over the fill media into smaller water droplets. The surface area of the water droplets is

the surface area for heat exchange with the air.

b) Film fill media : In a film fill, water forms a thin film on either side of fill sheets. The

surface area of the fill sheets is the area for heat exchange with the surrounding air. Film fill

can result in significant electricity savings due to fewer air and pumping head requirements.

c) Low-clog film fills : Low-clog film fills with higher flute sizes were recently developed to

handle high turbid waters. Low clog film fills are considered as the best choice for sea water

in terms of power savings and performance compared to conventional splash type fills.

6.3. WATER DISTRIBUTION

Optimize cooling water treatment : Cooling water treatment (e.g. to control suspended

solids, algae growth) is mandatory for any cooling tower independent of what fill media is

used. With increasing costs of water, efforts to increase Cycles of Concentration (COC), by

cooling water treatment would help to reduce make up water requirements significantly. In

large industries and power plants improving the COC is often considered a key area for water

conservation.

14
Install drift eliminators : It is very difficult to ignore drift problems in cooling towers.

Nowadays most of the end user specifications assume a 0.02% drift loss. But thanks to

technological developments and the production of PVC, manufacturers have improved drift

eliminator designs. As a result drift losses can now be as low as 0.003 0.001%.

Fans : The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air through the

system. The fan has to overcome the system resistance, which is defined as the pressure loss,

to move the air. The fan output or work done by the fan is the product of air flow and the

pressure loss. The fan output and kW input determines the fan efficiency.

The fan efficiency in turn is greatly dependent on the profile of the blade. Blades include:

Metallic blades, which are manufactured by extrusion or casting processes and therefore it

is difficult to produce ideal aerodynamic profiles Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) blades, are

normally hand moulded which makes it easier to produce an optimum aerodynamic profile

tailored to specific duty conditions. Because FRP fans are light, they need a low starting

torque requiring a lower HP motor, the lives of the gear box, motor and bearing is increased,

and maintenance is easier.

A 85-92% efficiency can be achieved with blades with an aerodynamic profile, optimum

twist, taper and a high coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop ratio. However, this efficiency

is drastically affected by factors such as tip clearance, obstacles to airflow and inlet shape,

etc. Cases reported where metallic or glass fibber reinforced plastic fan blades have been

replaced by efficient hollow FRP blades. The resulting fan energy savings were in the order

of 20-30%and with simple payback period of 6 to 7 months (NPC).

15
7. COOLING WATER CHEMISTRY :

Cooling towers are dynamic systems because of the nature of their operation and the

environment they function within. Tower systems sit outside, open to the elements, which

makes them susceptible to dirt and debris carried by the wind. Their structure is also popular

for birds and bugs to live in or around, because of the warm, wet environment. These factors

present a wide range of operational concerns that must be understood and managed to ensure

optimal thermal performance and asset reliability. Below is a brief discussion on the four

primary cooling system treatment concerns encountered in most open re-circulating cooling

systems.

Corrosion : Corrosion is an electrochemical or chemical process that leads to the destruction

of the system metallurgy. Figure illustrates the nature of a corrosion cell that may be

encountered throughout the cooling system metallurgy. Metal is lost at the anode and

deposited at the cathode. The process is enhanced by elevated dissolved mineral content in

the water and the presence of oxygen, both of which are typical of most cooling tower

systems.

There are different types of corrosion encountered in cooling tower systems including pitting,

galvanic, microbiologically influenced and erosion corrosion Loss of system metallurgy, if

pervasive enough, can result in failed heat exchangers, piping, or portions of the cooling

tower itself.

16
7.1. COROSION CONTROL METHOD:

1. Cathodic Polarization

Process of changing the anodic or cathodic potential or both to reduce the driving force of the

corrosion reaction is called polarization. Polarization reduces the driving force of the

corrosion reaction and minimizes metal loss by changing the potential of either the anode or

the cathode or both so that the difference in potential between them is reduced to a minimum.

If the amount of oxygen diffusion to the metal surface can be controlled, the corrosion

reaction can be polarized. This is achieved by cathodic corrosion inhibitors. They form a film,

which prevents the diffusion of oxygen to the cathode side.

2 Anodic Polarization

Anodic surfaces can be polarized by formation of an oxide layer. This film formation is

accomplished by a mechanism known as chemisorption. Stainless steel naturally forms such

films. This unfortunately is not always the case with all metals. Most metals must be aided by

the addition of such anodic corrosion inhibitors as chromate, nitrite, etc.

3. Passivation

When corrosion reactions are completely polarized, the metal is said to be at passive state

At this point there is no difference in potential between the anode and cathode areas, and

corrosion ceases. When polarization is disrupted in a passive metal at a given point, a very

active anodic site is set up, with resultant accelerated local corrosion, particularly if the metal

was strongly anodically polarized.

17
Corrosion Inhibitors

The principal method of controlling corrosion in cooling water system is by means of

chemical corrosion inhibitors. Their function in preventing corrosion lies in their ability to

insulate the electric current between the cathode and anode. If the insulation effect occurs at

the anodic site, then the inhibitor is classified as an anodic inhibitor and if the cathodic site is

insulated then the inhibitor is classified as a cathodic inhibitor.

Corrosion inhibitors are classified as anodic, cathodic or both depending upon the corrosion

reaction each controls. Inhibition usually results from one or more of three general

mechanisms. In the first, the inhibitor molecule is adsorbed on the metal surface by the

process of chemisorption, forming a thin protective film either by itself or in conjunction with

metallic ions. In second mechanism inhibitors however merely cause a metal to form its own

protective film of metal oxides, by increasing its resistance. In the third type inhibitor reacts

with a potentially corrosive substance in the water.

Anodic inhibitors build a thin protective film along the anode increasing the potential at the

anode and slowing the corrosion reaction, the film is initiated at the anode although it may

eventually cover the entire metal surface. Because this film is not visible to the naked eye so

the appearance of the metal will be left unchanged.

Cathodic inhibitors are generally less effective than the anodic type. But they often form a

visible film along the cathode surface, which polarizes the metal by restricting the access of

dissolved oxygen to the metal substrate. The film also acts to block hydrogen evolution sites

and prevent the resultant depolarizing effect.

18
Examples include:

Chromates
Orthophosphates
Zinc
Polyphosphates

Synergic Blends like

zinc-chromates
chromate-polyphosphates
chromate-orthophosphate

7.2. SCALING:

Scaling is the precipitation of dissolved minerals components that have become saturated in

solution. Factors that contribute to scaling tendencies include water quality, pH, and

temperature. Scale formation reduces the heat exchange ability of the system because of the

insulating properties of scale, making the entire system work harder to meet the cooling

demand. Deposits typically consist of mineral scales (i.e.CaCO 3. CaSO4 CaF2, etc), corrosion

products (i.e. Fe2O3, Fe3O4, CuO etc), particular matter (i.e. clay, slit), and

microbiological mass.

7.3. DEPOSIT CONTROL METHODS

Softening (sodium or hydrogen zeolite exchange, lime softening and demineralization

all remove the ions that cause scale formation)

Acid feed (acid neutralizes alkalinity in the water, thereby preventing carbonate

formation)
Side stream filtration (Side stream filters are used in some cooling tower applications,

with 1 to 5 % of the cooling water flow passing through the filter. Several type of

media are used but sand is the most common, operating at a 10 % to 20 % efficiency

level. For greater efficiency, anthracite or mixed media can be substituted. If the

19
 suspended solids are in the range of 10 to 30 ppm, 50~75 % removal can be achieved,

and in highly turbid waters, 90 % removal is possible. In general a side stream filter

allows cooling water turbidity to approach the turbidity of the filter effluent. With oil

contamination side stream filters are impractical because of rapid fouling of the filter

medium.

Use of Polymeric Deposit Control Agents

A polymer is defined as macromolecule consisting of a number of repeating units of

building blocks. These units are referred to as monomers. Modern technology has made it

possible to build chains of various lengths and compositions by varying the polymerization

conditions and the monomer groups incorporated into the structure. The behaviour of a

polymer results primarily from two factors: its chain length or molecular weight and its

functional group.

These polymeric deposit control agents include, Scale inhibitors, Dispersants, Flocculants

7.4. WATER TREATMENT

Almost all well-managed cooling towers use a water treatment program. The goal of a water

treatment program is to maintain a clean heat transfer surface and preserve capital while

minimizing water consumption and meeting discharge limits. Critical water chemistry

parameters that require review and control include pH, alkalinity, conductivity, hardness,

microbial growth, biocide and corrosion inhibitor levels. Depending on the quality of the

make-up water, treatment programs may include corrosion and scaling inhibitors, such as

organo-phosphate types, along with biological fouling inhibitors. Historically, chemicals have

been fed into the system by automatic feeders on timers or actuated by conductivity meters.

Automatic chemical feeding tends to decrease chemical dosing requirements. Current

technology allows chemicals to be monitored and controlled online 24-7 in proportion to

20
demand. This ensures results and can allow cycles to be increased. Where overfeed is

prevalent, it can reduce chemical feed, too. Water treatment is required in cooling towers to

prevent corrosion of the system, build up of scale and for microbiological control. Typically

this is carried out through one of the following:

Direct chemical dosing (to prevent scale and prohibit corrosion)

Acid dosing (to control ph and scale)
Ozone dosing (or other microbial treatment to prevent microbial growth)
Pre-treatment of make-up water (e.g. Water softening, reverse osmosis)
Side stream filtration (to prevent solid build up)
Cover exposed areas of cooling towers (to reduce algal growth)

8. GENERAL IMPROVEMENT PROCEDURES

The following could be fruitful options to improve energy efficiency of cooling towers:

i. Follow manufacturers recommended clearances around cooling towers and relocate or

modify structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust

ii. Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis

21
iii. Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan balance

iv. In old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new square spray

nozzles that do not clog

v. Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill

vi. Install nozzles that spray in a more uniform water pattern

vii. Clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles regularly

viii. Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins

ix. Cover hot water basins to minimize algae growth that contributes to fouling

x. Optimize the blow down flow rate, taking into account the cycles of concentration (COC)

limit

xi. Replace slat type drift eliminators with low-pressure drop, self extinguishing PVC

cellular units

xii. Restrict flows through large loads to design values

xiii. Keep the cooling water temperature to a minimum level by (a) segregating high heat

loads like furnaces, air compressors, DG sets and (b) isolating cooling towers from sensitive

applications like A/C plants, condensers of captive power plant etc. Note: A 1Ccooling water

temperature increase may increase the A/C compressor electricity consumption by

2.7%. A 10C drop in cooling water temperature can give a heat rate saving of 5 kCal/kWh in a

thermal power plant

xiv. Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity to continuously optimize the

cooling tower performance, but consider seasonal variations and side variations

22
xv. Monitor liquid to gas ratio and cooling water flow rates and amend these depending on

the design values and seasonal variations. For example: increase water loads during summer

and times when approach is high and increase air flow during monsoon times and when

approach is low.

xvi. Consider COC improvement measures for water savings

xvii. Consider energy efficient fibre reinforced plastic blade adoption for fan energy savings

xviii. Control cooling tower fans based on exit water temperatures especially in small units

9. CONCLUSION:

After operating the cooling tower in Natural Draft Mode and Induced Draft Mode, it was

found that the temperature of the cooling pond decreases more rapidly when the cooling

tower is operated in Induced Draft mode than than the Natural Draft Mode. It is because,

23
when the induced draft fan is switched ON at that time the induced fan creates a pressure

decrease inside the cooling tower so more air from the atmosphere enter into the cooling

tower from all the four end, so the water air surface area increase, and the air takes the heat of

the water more rapidly than in the natural draft mode.

It was also concluded that, the performance of the natural draft cooling tower varies

according to the seasonal changes like the summer and winter. But the induced draft cooling

tower gives relatively constant performance.

So it is better to use induced draft cooing tower in plant than the natural draft cooling

tower.

9. REFERENCES :

1. Bonneville Power Administration. (1991, November). Optimizing Cooling Tower

Performance. Technology Update, pp. 1-4.

2. Clayton Technologies. (2011). Clayton Cooling Towers. Indore, India: Clayton

Technologies India Pvt. Ltd.

24
3. Daeil Aqua Co., Ltd. (2004, May 10). Cooling Tower Thermal Design Manual.

Retrieved August 2011, from Cooling Tower Technical Site:

http://myhome.hanafos.com/~criok/english/publication/thermal/thermallisteng.html
4. Federal Energy Management Program. (2011). NASA Marshal Space Flight Center

Improves Cooling System Performance. Huntsville, Alabama: US Department of

Energy.
5. General Services Administration. (2011). Water Management: A Comprehensive

Approach for Facility Managers. In Water Management Guide (pp. 1-140). Kansas

City.
6. Ken Mortensen. (2003, May). How to Manage Cooling Tower Water Quality. RSE

Journal, pp. 1-4

7. Muhammad Yousuf. (2010). Cooling Tower Treatment Manual. Mirpur Mathelo:

Fauji Fertilizer Company.

8. N.C. Department of Environment and Natural Resources. (2009). Water Efficiency

Manual. North Carolina: N.C. Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

9. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. (2011). Cooling Towers: Understanding Key

Components of Cooling Towers and How to Improve Water Efficiency. US

Department of Energy.
10. Ray Congdon, Rand Conger, Mike Groh, Roger van Gelder. (2011). Cooling Tower

Efficiency Manual. In R. C. Ray Congdon, Cool Tunes (pp. 1-26). Washington DC:

Water Smart Technology Program.

11. Saving Water. (2011, August). Improve Control of Cooling Tower Water. WATER

SMART TECHNOLOGY, pp. 1-2.

12. SPX Cooling Technologies. (1986). Cooling Tower Performance. USA: Cooling

Tower Information Index.

13. SPX Cooling Technologies. (2005). Corrosion Protection for Cooling Towers. Kansas:

SPX Cooling Technologies.

14. Sydney Waters. (2010). Water conservation. Sydney: Sydney Waters

25