Gebrauchs-Formulas
robert o. gjerdingen
O
ne autumn day in 1896, anton arensky invited
Rachmaninoff and Glazunov to dinner at his St.
Petersburg home to celebrate a visit from Sergey
Taneyev. A network of personal and professional ties linked
these notable musicians. Rachmaninoff, for example, had stud-
ied with Arensky and Taneyev; Arensky and Glazunov had in
turn studied with Rimsky-Korsakov. After dinner the four
composers played a musical parlor game.1 Each of them took
a sheet of paper and wrote out the initial phrase of a small
character piece for piano. When all were ready, each passed
his sheet to a colleague who extended the composition, and
this round robin continued until the sheets returned to their
starting positions. The original composer then completed the
final phrases and cadence. Example 1 shows the first of the
resulting four compositions, the one begun and completed
by Arensky.2
Few classical musicians today could play this game at such a
high level. Arensky and his guests displayed amazing musical
fluency, a score-reading ability that took in all the harmonic and
contrapuntal implications on the page, and an aural imagination
capable of devising satisfying continuations to complex musical
gestures penned by others. How were they able to do this?
The same question could be put to jazz musicians from the
1930s or to actors in the commedia dellarte from the 1630s. Two
giants from that distant world of Italian theater, in explaining
their craft, emphasized that the novice had to build up a large
memory of stored material and then learn to control it:
Niccol Barbieri (15761641): [Actors must] study and fortify
their memory with a wide variety of things such as sayings, phrases,
love-speeches, reprimands, cries of despair, and ravings, in order to
have them ready for the proper occasion.3
Pier Maria Cecchini (1563ca. 1630): [T]he actor must see to it
that his mind controls his memory (which dispenses the treasure of
memorized phrases over the vast field of opportunities constantly
offered by comedy).4
Elsewhere I have detailed how eighteenth-century musicians
built up their treasure of memorized phrases through long
apprenticeship to masters who taught them using an array of
pedagogical materials known, in the Italian tradition, as regole,
1 Adapted from the story posted by Amphissa (2007) on the website of The
Rachmaninoff Society.
2 Arensky et al. (1949, 174 [No. 1 of the four improvisations]). The four
manuscript pages of these improvisations were first published in an appen-
dix to Taneyev (1925).
3 Barbieri (1954, 53).
4 Cecchini (1954, 50).
191
MTS3302_06.indd 191
partimenti, solfeggi, and intavolature.5 Regole were exemplars of
basic patterns such as cadences and various sequences.
Partimenti were basses intended to be realized as full-fledged
compositions at the keyboard. Solfeggi were exercises in style
for voice and basso continuo, providing a storehouse of contra-
puntally and harmonically contextualized melodic exemplars
useful in partimento realizations and free composition.
Intavolature were instructional works for keyboard that offered
models of keyboard textures and figurations. Regole, solfeggi,
and intavolature filled the students storehouse of memory, and
partimenti gave the student practice in controlling and applying
that treasure over the vast field of opportunities constantly
offered by the changing bass patterns in a partimento. This
regimen may seem strange in relation to the modern music
classroom, but in its day it was simply the time-honored tradi-
tion of apprenticeship adapted to the craft of music. Apprentice
joiners spent their days learning to craft the wooden shapes
demanded by their masters, and apprentice musicians did much
the same with tonal shapes. They learned the mystery of their
craft through long years of observation, internalization, and
reproduction of a whole repertory of patterns.6
In 1921, with the experience of having conducted the pre-
mieres of Histoire du Soldat and Pulcinella under his belt, Ernest
Ansermet remarked, The teaching of composition in Russia, as
far as I can gather from what Stravinsky received from Rimsky-
Korsakov, is much more in the spirit of Medieval guild appren-
ticeship than our own generally academic instruction. . . .
Stravinsky . . . is an artisan.7 Certainly the artisanal system of
partimento training was imported to Russia in the eighteenth
century through a long series of famous maestros hired for the
court in St. Petersburg. The very first print of Neapolitan parti-
menti, by Giovanni Paisiello, was published there in 1782, and
Giuseppi Sarti even established a music school in Russia.
Whether compositional instruction in Russia became more
academic after the lapse of Italian hegemony (ca. 1806) or
remained artisanal has been unclear, at least to this author. And
so I was greatly intrigued to read Professor Taruskins reference
to Gebrauchs-formulascompositional exemplars for emulation
5 Gjerdingen (2007).
6 Dunlop (1912); Stuart (1933).
7 Ansermet (1921, 16): Lenseignement quon donne de la musique en
Russie, autant que jen puis juger par celui que Strawinsky a reu de
Rimsky-Korsakow, est beaucoup plus prsdans lespritde
lapprentissage corporatif du Moyen-Age que lenseignement aca-
dmique que est gnralement le notre. . . . Il est un trait particulier par
lequel Strawinsky ressemble encore aux hommes du Moyen-Age: il est
comme eux un artisan.
9/14/11 6:21 PM
 192 music theory spectrum 33 (2011)

Arensky . . . Rachmaninoff . . . Glazunov . . .

           
                       
                    
 
    
        
      
      
                 
    

                    
Taneyev . . . Arensky . . .
                        
          
9
      
 
   
       
          
                       
 

                 
                                          
16

  

               
            
  
 
    
  

example 1. A joint improvisation by Arensky, Rachmaninoff, Glazunov, and Taneyev, 1896

Arensky, Glazunov, Rachmaninoff, and Taneyev: Four Improvisations, in Serge Rachmaninoff, Polnoe sobranie sochineni
dlia fortepiano (Rachmaninoff: Complete Works for Piano), vol. 3, Muzgiz, Moscow, 1949

by the artisan apprentice.8 I thought that perhaps Arenskys
demonstrated talent for improvisation might be a by-product of
partimento-style instruction, and so I looked for a publication of
his that might show the least traces of generally academic in-
struction.
Given my limitations with the Russian language and the scar-
city of relevant material in North America, I was fortunate to find
a copy of Arenskys Sbornik zadach (1000) dlja prakticheskogo
izucheniia garmonii (A Collection of 1000 Lessons for the
Practical Study of Harmony) from 1897.9 This is a partimento
collection in all but name. It contains no explanations, no theory
of harmony, no real instructions outside of occasional descriptive
headings (e.g., Suspensions in two or three voices). Instead, it is
packed solid (over 1300 lines of single-stave exercises) with musi-
cal patterns to be absorbed and stored in memory. At its begin-
ning the young apprentice would find short and easy figured-bass
exercises in simple note values. By its end the journeyman musi-
cian would be expected to realize florid unfigured basses of forty
to fifty measures and equal in complexity to published character
pieces. The book contains both basses and melodies, what the
French call basses et chantes donnes, many of which, accord-
ing to his student Matvey Pressman, Arensky had improvised for
classes at the Moscow Conservatory: At that time there were still
no books with [extensive] harmony exercises. So he devised any
8 Taruskin (2011, 175).
9 Arensky ([1897] 1929). I consulted the 1929 reprint; Arenskys collection
remained in print until 1960.
number of melodies or basses to be harmonized according to
given rulesassignments that he improvised off the cuff.10
Arenskys Sbornik reveals many layers of style and influence.
The eighteenth-century layers are most obvious in the earlier
exercises. Almost all the rules of Italian partimenti find their ex-
emplars in Arenskys basses; even very particular and unpredict-
able eighteenth-century patterns find their place. Example 2
shows the beginning of an advanced partimento in Eb major by
Paisiello (the bass is his, the upper voices are my interpretation
of his figures) along with the analogous exercise from Arensky,
his No. 513 in G# minor (again the realization is mine). The
topic of these exercises is the simultaneous suspension of at least
two voices in the context of a famous ground bass (the basso
ostinato from Pachelbels Canon in D, which is likewise the
major-mode, B-section bass of La romanesca, known better to
English speakers as the scheme of Greensleeves).11 This inter-
locking gestaltRomanesca bass supporting parallel descend-
ing thirds, with or without double suspensionswas apparently
a jewel stored in Arenskys memory for ready retrieval. It was
the very pattern that he selected to lead off his after-dinner
improvisation (see Example 1, mm. 13, in E minor).
10 Bcher mit Harmonielehre-Aufgaben gab es damals noch nicht. So dachte
er sich irgendwelche Melodien oder Bsse aus, die nach bestimmten Regeln
zu harmonisieren warenAufgaben, die er im Stegreif erfand. Translation
from the original Russian to German in Wehrmeyer (2001, 42).
11 For eighteenth-century examples of this schema, see Gjerdingen (2007,
Chapter 2).

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 gebrauchs-formulas 193

Paisiello (1782) . . . Arensky (1897) . . .

 
 3
         
 4
       
     
 
 
  

  
  3        
      
 4
5
3
8
6
4
5
3
4
2
3
8
6
4
5
3
4
2
3
8
5
6
4
9
3
8
6
4  53  42 3
3
6
4 3
4
9
3
8
7 6 5

example 2. A partimento by Paisiello published in St. Petersburg and a similar exercise by Arensky
In Giovanni Paisiello, Regole per bene accompagnare il partimento o sia, il basso fondamentale sopra il cembalo, St. Petersburg;
Anton Sepanovich Arensky, Sbornik zadach (1000) dlja prakticheskogo izucheniia garmonii (A Collection of 1000 Lessons
for the Practical Study of Harmony), Gosudarstvennoe Izdatelstvo-Muzykalnyi Sektor, Moscow, 1929

The type of circumlocution needed to describe the Paisiello/
Arensky variation on the Romanesca schema is already cumber-
some, whether one speaks in words or thoroughbass figures.
When Arensky progressed to the more complex combinations of
his own day, he eventually abandoned any implied metalanguage
and resorted to a page of fully realized Gebrauchs-formulas
exemplars in my terms.12 That page is reproduced as Example 3.
Arensky titled this page - century Neapolitan maestro Saverio Valente (Example 5[b]),
(Motives for Modulating whose lessons may still have been used at the Naples conservatory
Sequences). Thus, these formulas were both integral, in the
sense of constituting independent modules, and connectable,
in the sense of working well when strung together in larger
ascending or descending schemes. As shown in Example 4,
the Schumannesque No. 846 fits nicely into a descending
sequence that moves diatonically to the relative minor. By con-
trast, No. 847 suggests a thoroughly chromatic sequence in the
manner of Rimsky-Korsakov. And No. 865, with its Tchaikovsky-
like intensity and initial upward thrust, suggests an ascending
sequence and a triumphant breakthrough to the major mode.
A purple expression like triumphant breakthrough may ir-
ritate some readers, yet ignoring the affective preoccupations of
this music culture would be the greater sin. These Gebrauchs-
formulas are, to be sure, describable as mere combinations of
tones and intervals. Perhaps more importantly, however, they
represent specific locations in a cultural web of emotional, so-
cial, and historical associations. When I played No. 848 for a
colleague, he smiled and said Schubert. These exemplars are
the musical equivalents of the sayings, phrases, love-speeches,
reprimands, cries of despair, and ravings that were learned in
the commedia dellarte. Gebrauchs-formulas were musical utter-
ances that meant something, and in giving them to students,
Rimsky-Korsakov and Arensky were providing starting points
for the creation of meaningful music.
Stravinskys early teachers, Fedir Akimenko and Vasily Kalafati,
were both recent students of Rimsky-Korsakov, so one could expect
to find echoes of chromatic Gebrauchs-formulas in their music. I
was thus surprised to see even standard Italian diatonic formulas
still in evidence. The first of Kalafatis Op. 9 bagatelles (1907) em-
ploys what I term the Indugio (It.: lingering or tarrying), an old
music-rhetorical strategy of delaying the arrival of an important
cadential dominant chord by means of (1) an inner pedal on the
tonic, (2) passing motions between different positions of a 6/5/3
chord over the fourth scale degree in the bass, and (3) the frequent
raising of the fourth degree as it finally moves to the fifth degree.
Below Kalafatis phrase, Example 5(a), I have placed the relevant
esempio (example, but also exemplar) by the early nineteenth-
when Glinka visited there in the early 1830s. I mention Glinka
because in the overture to Ruslan and Ludmila (183742; see
Example 5[c]), one finds the same strategy employed at a corre-
sponding location, though with the passing 5/4 over the dominant
replaced by the more common passing 6/4. Example 5(d) is taken
from Akimenkos Romance for Violin and Piano, Op. 9 (1901), and
represents a more remote derivation of the Indugio. Akimenko pro-
vides most of the features of this Gebrauchs-formula, but he recom-
bines and reinterprets them in a way reminiscent of Rachmaninoff s
command of sonority and harmonic implication.
In 1974 a window opened onto Stravinskys compositional
apprenticeship when Eric Walter White published the early
Scherzo (1902) and the substantial Sonata in F# Minor (1903
4). The Scherzo is a modest work playable by any good amateur
pianist. In its Trio one finds Stravinsky working out, in Arenskys
phrase, motives for modulating sequences. The modules that
he chose to sequence invite comparison with the Gebrauch-
formulas notated by Arensky. For instance, Example 6(a) pairs
Arenskys No. 849 (extended to fall a third) with mm. 78 from
the Trio of Stravinskys Scherzo. Similarly, Example 6(b) pairs
Arenskys No. 859 (extended to rise a second) with mm. 1112
from the same Trio.
Speaking of the Sonata in 1960, and not knowing that a
copy of it had survived in Russia, Stravinsky quipped that It
was, I suppose, an inept imitation of late Beethoven.13 Like so
many of Stravinskys bons mots, this one is both sardonic and
slyly misleading. His sonata is a virtuoso piano work very much
of its time, one that challenged Rachmaninoff, Medtner, and
other young lions of the keyboard on their own ground, even if
not always to Stravinskys advantage. Yet Gebrauchs-formulas

12 Arensky ([1897] 1929), numbered as lessons 84467. 13 Stravinsky and Craft (1960, 28).

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 194 music theory spectrum 33 (2011)

example 3. Compositional exemplarsGebrauchs-formulaspublished by Arensky

from the Rimsky-Korsakov circle remain close to the surface. rejoinder to the standard thematic assertions of the galant style.14
Example 7, taken from the Andante, shows Stravinskys ascend- The compositional utility of such a Gebrauchs-formula helped it
ing and descending presentations (mm. 78 and 1920 respec- survive well into the nineteenth century, especially in social cir-
tively) of a module closely related to the opening gesture of cles where connotations of aristocratic poise were still welcome.
Arenskys No. 865 (seen previously in Example 4[c]). Example 8 displays four Prinners in chronological order. The
What I never expected to find in such a chromatically ad- first comes from the well-known opening Allegro of Mozarts
vanced sonata was a Prinner. What, you might ask, is a Prinner? Sonata in C Major, K. 545 (1788). Mozart presents two bars of
During the eighteenth century it was the most common riposte
to an opening thematic gambit, something like an all-purpose 14 See Gjerdingen (2007, Chapter 3).

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 gebrauchs-formulas 195

  3 
No. 846          
         
 4       

    
   34    

       
     


  
No. 847
           
    

 


        
          

  
No. 865 
               
  
  
 
    

   

            



  

 
         

example 4. Three of Arenskys Gebrauchs-formulas and their implied sequential continuations

INDUGIO

6 6
(a)    
 3       
Kalafati . . .
 
4 4 4 4 4
   
  8 
        
     
     
 3   

        
 8      
6 6 6 6
4 4

INDUGIO
(b) Valente . . . 6 6
4
4

 2 






 













 4        
 2   
4
6
4
4 5

INDUGIO
(c) Glinka . . .                 
                
6
     
4


   
       
 
  
   
   
 
  
  

4
6
4 5

INDUGIO
(d)
 
Akimenko . . .
 3                        4        4             
6 6 6

 4 
  
     
 3                    
  4      
 

6 6 6
5
4 4 4

example 5. Instances of the Indugio schema by (a) Stravinskys teacher Kalafati, Trois bagatelles pour piano, Op. 9, No. 1, Scherzino,
mm. 12631 (M. P. Belaieff, Leipzig, 1907); (b) the Neapolitan maestro Saverio Valente (ca. 1790, Ms. Q.13.17, fol. 5v, Noseda
Collections, Milan Conservatory Library, Milan); (c) Mikhail Glinka, Ruslan and Lyudmila, mm. 4853 (vol. 14 of Mikhail Glinka,
Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, Muzyka, Moscow, 1966); and (d) Stravinskys teacher Akimenko, Deux morceaux pour violon et piano,
Op. 9, No. 1, Romance, mm. 1519 of the Pi mosso section (M. P. Belaieff, Leipzig, 1901)

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 196 music theory spectrum 33 (2011)

(a) No. 849 Stravinsky . . .

  3    
         
       4   

     
 

     3    
   
           
  4 

(b) No. 849 Stravinsky . . .

            3
          
        4    

  
       3  
  
  
       4  

example 6. Two of Arenskys Gebrauchs-formulas paired with (a) mm. 78 of the Trio from Stravinskys early Scherzo for Piano; and (b)
mm. 1112 of the same Trio movement. Stravinsky: Scherzo for Piano, Faber, London, 1974

 6  6
descending ascending
         
  8                 8        

   
       68           
 6 
 8     
   

example 7. From the Andante of Stravinskys early Sonata in F # Minor, two presentations (descending: mm. 78; ascending: mm. 1920)
of sequences based on modules quite close to the opening of Arenskys four-voice exemplar No. 865. Stravinsky: Sonata in F# Minor, Faber,
London, 1974

PRINNER
6
(a) 
5
       
Mozart . . . 4 3

   
   


                  
  

  

  

  
4 3 2 1

PRINNER
(b) Chopin . . . 6 5
 3 
4
         
3

 4              


 
   

            
   
   3             

     
  4         
 4 3 2 1

PRINNER
(c)
3     
Rubinstein . . . 6 5 4
   
3

 4               
                  
 3                                  
    
      
4         

4 3 2 1

PRINNER
(d)  2 
Stravinsky . . . 6 5

4 3

         
 4          
 
  2     
           
 4        


    
 
4 3 2 1

Example 8. Instances of the Prinner schema by (a) Mozart, Sonata in C Major, K. 545 (Klaviersonaten, Ser. 9: Group 25/Vol. 2 of
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Neue Ausgabe smtlicher Werke, Brenreiter, Kassel, 1986); (b) Chopins Piano Concerto No. 1 in E Minor,
Op. 11, I, mm. 6168 (Probst-Kistner and M. Schlesinger, Leipzig, 1833); (c) Rubinsteins Piano Concerto No. 4 in D Minor, Op. 70, II,
mm. 1320 (Bartholf Senff, Leipzig, 1872); and (d) Stravinskys Sonata in F # Minor, IV, mm. 16368

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 gebrauchs-formulas 197

ROMANESCA
  
     
Kalafati . . .

6                         
  8          
  
 
              
6    
8             
  
  


example 9. An obvious presentation of the Romanesca schema in the first movement of Kalafati, Sonata in D Minor, Op. 4, No. 2, I,
shortly before the return of the second theme, M. P. Belaieff, Leipzig, 1900
FONTE
minore
Tchaikovsky . . .

 2      
4                   
     
    
  2        
  4      

  

 

maggiore
              
                    

            
   
       
   

example 10. My adaption of a famous theme from Tchaikovskys Symphony No. 6, showing how closely it conforms to an archaic double-re-
prise form, including the Fonte digression after the double bar, a typical feature of the galant style

opening statement, and then two bars of Prinner riposte (he
slightly departs from the norm by placing the standard bass in
the implied tenor voice). The second Prinner is from Chopins
first piano concerto (1830), the major-mode theme of the first
movement. Four bars of opening statement lead to a two-bar
Prinner riposte and then to a harmonic feint, through a
Phrygian cadence, toward the relative minor. Chopin matches
the 23 bass suspension in his Prinners first half with a 43
soprano suspension in its second half, and makes the first half
harmonically more urgent by means of a tenor line that rises
C#D#E (thus creating a #4/2 chord over the bass A4 in place
of the more relaxed and common 5/3). The third Prinner is the
opening theme from the slow movement of Anton Rubinsteins
fourth piano concerto (1864). Much like Chopins theme,
Rubinsteins follows a four-bar opening gambit (a Meyer in
my taxonomy15) with a two-bar Prinner riposte and then a two-
bar half cadence. The final Prinner of Example 8 is by
Stravinsky, the opening theme of the Andante B section of his
sonatas final movement (1904). Two bars of opening gambit
lead to two bars of Prinner riposte, though the expected melodic
termination on F# is delayed so as to elide with what becomes a
melodically extended restatement of the theme.
Over the years, in public lectures on the schematism of eigh-
teenth-century music, I have found audiences quite willing to
accept the premise that people who wore powdered wigs might
have behaved musically in stereotypical ways. Leonard B.
Meyer, one of my own teachers, argued that nineteenth-century
composers retained many of these same schematisms but went
to great lengths to conceal them.16 One feature that may distin-
guish Russian compositional technique in the later nineteenth
century from, say, German, is the use of far less concealment
(e.g., the example from the Rubinstein concerto). When
Stravinskys teacher Kalafati chose to employ the Romanesca
schema in a large sonata for piano, he did so in a way that calls
attention to it (Example 9). And when Tchaikovsky, in the first
movement of one of the repertorys most heart-rending and
psychologically intense symphonies (No. 6, 1893), chose to offer
a theme of hope and redemption (characteristically marked ten-
eramente, molto cantabile, con espansione), he laid it out in a form
barely distinguishable from that of small Italian minuets from
the first half of the eighteenth century: statement, restatement,
Fonte digression, return of statement. Example 10 makes nota-
tionally explicit the correspondence between Tchaikovskys

15 Ibid. (Chapter 9). 16 Meyer (1989, 22241).

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 198 music theory spectrum 33 (2011)

         cadence
ROMANESCA ROM. VARIANT
                                   
 
  
     
Arensky . . . Rachmaninoff . . .
      
            
  
  

   FONTE     
        
FONTE
      
cadence plagal cadence
                     
7

 
        
Glazunov . . . Taneiev . . .
   
   
          
     
       

PRINNER FONTE

                           
half cadence
 
12
     
   

   
Arensky . . .
      
            
        
 

         cadence
ROMANESCA
                                            
cadence*
 
17

  

               
             
     
* almost note-for-note from Fenaroli partimenti: ascending Rule of the , then cadenza composta
Example 11. The joint improvisation of Arensky, Rachmaninoff, Glazunov, and Taneyev, annotated to draw attention to the survival of a
number of eighteenth-century Italian commonplacesGebrauchs-formulas

theme and the double-reprise form of countless small galant Gebrauchs-formulas that facilitated Arenskys after-dinner parlor
movements.17 game. As a final musical illustration I present, in Example 11,
Regardless of whether these composers absorbed the con- an annotated score of the joint improvisation of Example 1. My
stituent Gebrauchs-formulas of the repertory from extensive ex- annotations mark off the many eighteenth-century schemata
perience or through guided tutelage, having such exemplars in still operational that autumn evening in 1896. When Taneyev
memory made possible fluent composition and improvisation. begins a Prinner but Arensky takes it up in mid-flight and
Stravinsky received training in this tradition, as an artisan in completes it (mm. 1314), we might ask the same question of
Ansermets view. Ansermet went on to say that The fault of Arensky that one of Pushkins characters put to a Neapolitan
academic instruction is to be theoretical and speculative instead improvisatore: Astonishing. . . . How can it be that someone
of being operational.18 It was the shared operational knowl- elses idea, which had only just reached your ear, immediately
edge offered by historically, culturally, and affectively situated became your own property, as if you had carried, fostered, and
nurtured it for a long time?19 The answer, of course, is that
17 Most minuets modulate before the double bar. One eighteenth-century the ideain all its improbable specificitywas already there
genre that, like Tchaikovskys theme, does not, is the amoroso. For a set of tucked away in the improvisers memory, a gift to him from
amorosi, see Gaetano Pugnani ([ca. 177174] 1991), Op. 8. his master.
18 Ansermet (1921, 16): Le tort de lenseignement acadmique est dtre
thorique et spculatif au lieu dtre opratif [paraphrasing M. Maritain]. 19 Pushkin (1990, 255).

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 gebrauchs-formulas 199
works cited
Akimenko, Fedir Stepanovych. 1901. Romance, Op. 9, No. 1.
In Deux morceaux pour violon et piano, Op. 9. 211. Leipzig:
M. P. Belaieff.
Amphissa [pseud.]. Four Piano Improvisations. The
Rachmaninoff Society. http://www.rachmaninoff.org/board/
viewtopic.php?f=3&t=199 (accessed 25 May 2011).
Ansermet, Ernest. 1921. Loeuvre dIgor Strawinsky. La revue
musicale 2 (9): 127.
Arensky, Anton Stepanovich. [1897] 1929. Sbornik zadach
(1000) dlja prakticheskogo izucheniia garmonii (A Collection
of 1000 Lessons for the Practical Study of Harmony). Repr.
Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe Izdatelstvo-Muzykalnyi Sektor.
Arensky, Anton Stepanovich, Aleksandr Konstantinovich
Glazunov, Serge Rachmaninoff, and Sergey Ivanovich
Taneyev. 1949. Four Improvisations. In Polnoe sobranie
sochineni dlia fortepiano (Rachmaninoff: Complete Works for
Piano). Vol. 3. Ed. Pavel Lamm. 17477. Moscow: Muzgiz.
Barbieri, Niccol. 1954. What is a Buffoon? Trans. and ex-
cerpted in Actors on Acting: The Theories, Techniques, and
Practices of the Worlds Great Actors, Told in Their Own Words.
2nd ed. Ed. Toby Cole and Helen Krich Chinoy. 5355.
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reprintinfo.asp. DOI: 10.1525/mts.2011.33.2.191
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