Escolar Documentos
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Refugee Council
Prisoners of Terrorism?
The impact of anti-terrorism measures
on refugees and asylum seekers in Britain
1 Executive Summary 5
2 Introduction 7
3 Methodology 9
Rationale 9
Advisory Group 9
Sampling framework 9
Access strategy 10
12 Prevention of terrorism 43
The range of issues discussed in the focus groups is them feel stereotyped as a threat and increases their
reected in the different sections of the report. The own insecurity.
discussions brought up a variety of perspectives and
experiences from the participating refugees and asylum
seekers. These varied between focus group locations, Perceptions of the media
as well as between the backgrounds and proles of 3. Refugees and asylum seekers feel they are being
the groups and the individual participants. The studys presented as terrorists by the media, which they consider
qualitative method enabled it to explore perceptions has had a negative inuence on public attitudes.
and experiences in depth. It did not seek to obtain a
representative picture of the views of refugees and
asylum seekers in the UK more generally. References Racism, Islamophobia and the impact on
to refugees and asylum seekers are based on the refugee integration
participants of this study, and the summary presented 4. Racism, discrimination and harassment appear to
below simply reects the key issues, experiences and have increased since 9/11 and 7/7, affecting especially
views expressed in the group discussions. The study Muslim refugees and asylum seekers, and particularly
wanted to hear directly from diverse groups of refugees Muslim women.
and asylum seekers and enable their voices to be heard
in the wider debate. 5. Refugees and asylum seekers feel that integration
and good community relations are impeded by the
hostility and stereotypes generated by an anti-terrorist
Perceptions of the terrorist threat climate. In some locations and for some refugee groups,
1. Refugees and asylum seekers are afraid of terrorist exclusion and segregation has increased.
attacks and want to support measures to prevent such
attacks. They see no difference between their and the
general publics fear and condemnation of terrorism. Policy responses to terrorism
At the same time, refugees seem to be more affected 6. Refugees and asylum seekers criticise the
by terrorist threats, as they display multi-dimensional governments approach to terrorism for establishing an
fears that include the fear of being victimised by public, automatic link between asylum seekers and terrorism.
police and policy responses to terrorism. Refugees Policies are seen as inappropriately targeting refugees
fears are also heightened by experiences of violence in and asylum seekers and having a negative impact on
their countries of origin. their lives. Distinguishing asylum seekers from terrorists
is deemed as an essential but missing premise of anti-
terrorism policymaking.
Perceptions of public attitudes
2. Refugees and asylum seekers feel that since 7/7 7. Refugees and asylum seekers feel criminalised by
public attitudes show more fear and hostility towards the general public and political discourse as well as by
refugees, especially Muslim refugees, which makes specic policy and security responses to terrorism.
9. Refugees and asylum seekers display a high sense Impact on human rights culture
of insecurity, mainly legal insecurity related to a fear of 16. Refugees and asylum seekers feel that policy
deportation. This fear is heightened by the perceived responses to terrorism, together with security measures
lack of distinction between refugees and terrorist or and public attitudes, threaten to undermine Britains
criminal suspects. human rights culture and democratic rule of law.
Prevention of terrorism
15. Refugees and asylum seekers feel that anti-terrorism
measures could create resentment, which might impede
Middlesbrough participant: [] A group of white On the face of it, there was no particular reason to
British, they started panicking seriously [when six conduct a separate study on refugees and the issue
black refugees entered a tube carriage]. [] I started of terrorism and anti-terrorist security measures. There
to feel like, what have I done, what was this, were not appeared to be no closer connection between refugees
terrorists, were just normal people. But that was the and terrorism than there was between the general
feeling, at that time in London, and I felt sorry that these population and terrorism. Having ed insecurity and
people are prisoners of terrorism. sought protection in the UK, refugees and asylum
seekers face a range of challenges in establishing their
North London participant: I have the right to support lives here, with the issue of terrorism barely registering
them [a proscribed group], [] if I cant express this, apart from the period right after 7/7 among the array
thats not right, thats a restriction, thats like putting of practical problems reported in their daily interactions
you inside a cell. That makes us like robots and I dont with agencies such as the Refugee Council.
think thats right.
Media headlines, however, suggest otherwise. Recent
Security concerns have become a prominent feature of research pointed to the national medias role in
the public and policy discourse in Britain. Following the constructing a link between national security concerns
terrorist bombings in London on 7 July 2005, a range and asylum issues. At the same time, a range of new
of new anti-terrorism measures has been debated and anti-terrorism measures has been debated since 7/7
adopted with a view to increasing public security. For and two key pieces of legislation came into force in
refugees, security concerns lie at the heart of their spring 2006. It appears that the security paradigm has
escape from their countries of origin and their claim permeated immigration and asylum policies, evident in
for protection. Their expectation is to nd security in the Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act 2006, and
the UK. specic security legislation, including provisions in the
Terrorism Act 2006, may have particular relevance for
Yet security threats can be perceived, experienced and non-nationals.
addressed in different ways by different individuals,
groups and societies. In the aftermath of the London Therefore, this study set out to establish whether the anti-
bombings, surveys were carried out to assess how terrorism discourse and measures affect refugees and
the general population perceived and experienced asylum seekers in ways that policymakers and service
the issue of terrorism and insecurities related to it. providers, including refugee supporting agencies,
Studies were also conducted with a specic focus should be aware of. To do so, the study aimed to explore
on the Muslim population, as they were assumed refugees and asylum seekers views and experiences
to be affected by a backlash, or a fear of backlash, of the impact of anti-terrorism measures on their lives. It
based on the terrorists claimed faith identity. This sought to hear directly from diverse groups of refugees
assumption has been substantiated by evidence and asylum seekers, and employed a qualitative focus
presented about the immediate aftermath of the 7 group methodology to explore a range of perspectives
July bombings. in different locations across Britain.
Hence all group discussions started out by exploring English people, we all live in this country, refugees and
participants views of the terrorist threat. Immediate English people. []
responses from all groups showed that the fear of Hull participant 2: Nothing different between
terrorist attacks was ubiquitous, and that refugees saw us, like British people or refugee people or asylum
no difference between their and the general publics seeker, or ethnic minority who live in this country.
fear and condemnation of terrorism. As the discussions Theres nothing different between them to, we scared
went on to explore those fears, a more complex of terrorists as well. We ran away from the terrorists,
picture emerged. It appeared that refugees anxieties from the, you know. Thats what we all think, nothing
went much deeper than a fear of further attacks. A different. If anything happened in this country, its
multi-layered sense of insecurity became visible, with happening to us as well, we are worried about it, we
different levels of fear relating to victimisation not only are afraid about it.
by terrorists, but also by the public, the police and
the state. Refugees were afraid of becoming victims While all participants were concerned about future
of attacks, victims of public hostility, victims of police terrorist attacks and reected on ways to increase their
errors and victims of policy responses, such as an own safety as well as that of others, it appeared that
increasingly harsh asylum process. They were afraid levels of fear were highest in the immediate aftermath
of terrorism and at the same time afraid of being linked of 7/7. Many participants recounted their experiences
to terrorism and targeted by anti-terrorist measures. around that time, and the fears attached to these. One
In that sense, the exploration of refugees fears of male participant speculated that women might be more
terrorism at the outset of the focus groups already afraid than men; however, while the women-only focus
foreshadowed the later discussions of the responses group in Birmingham spoke very openly about their
to terrorism. fears, so did many male participants elsewhere.
Indeed it appeared that views of public attitudes were people who are born here but I have friends who are
more differentiated, and in some groups positive, when British but you cannot say, you know, they have that feeling
participants thought of individuals in their locality, that I am a refugee; some of my best friends are born
and more negative when they focused on a national British, they are white people. But there are these English
discourse driven by the media. Equally problematic people who do not believe that any refugee or asylum
was the question of a change in attitudes, particularly seeker is not a terrorist. They see us as a terrorist.
as participants felt that the public image of refugees Birmingham participant 3: They look at you sitting
had already become increasingly negative over the past next to you on the bus, and they move to the next seat.
few years, so that the role of the terrorism discourse in Others, jointly: Yes.
this context was difcult to isolate.
Similar exchanges took place in the West London group,
The perception that public attitudes had not noticeably where participants gave examples of an increased hostility
changed was prevalent in Norwich, where participants in public attitudes, while also insisting they did not want
explicitly said that while the media and policy to make generalisations about British people, when it
discourse had become more hostile, local people had was such generalisations they criticised with regard to
resisted that negative inuence. Norwich, together refugees. They stressed that not all British people had
with Swansea, also gave the impression of the most negative attitudes towards refugees. A participant in
positive community relations, and the assessment of Middlesbrough, however, reecting on friends as well as
public attitudes was probably guided by that. the public, recounted that even friendships had become
strained in the aftermath of 7/7.
In Birmingham, participants distinguished between
friends or acquaintances and the general public. They
did not see a change in their friends behaviour, but Public fears and hostility
were clear that the publics attitudes towards refugees Most groups felt that 7/7 had led to a change in public
had become more negative. At the same time, they attitudes in at least two regards. Firstly, asylum seekers
struggled with generalising the public in terms of race tended to be perceived as terrorists, and secondly, as
or nationality. In the following exchange, the participant a consequence, people had become afraid of asylum
had rst criticised the government for regarding asylum seekers. Such fear then occasionally expressed itself
seekers as terrorists. in hostility towards refugees, as experienced directly
by a number of participants, and in turn led to refugees
RC: Are you mainly talking about the governments themselves becoming increasingly disillusioned, upset
assumptions or also about the British public? and fearful.
Birmingham participant 1: It creeps into the minds
of especially those people who are pure English people. Birmingham participant 4: British citizen, people
Birmingham participant 2: Yes. born in this country, think asylum seeker and refugees
RC: People who were born here, you mean? equal terror. Asylum seeker and refugees equal
Birmingham participant 1: Well, there are some murder. []
In all groups there was almost unanimous condemnation are preaching these things, they also brainwash people
of the national medias reporting of refugee and asylum here, and this breeds racism towards all foreigners.
issues in the context of the terrorist attacks. Participants
felt that the media, and specically the tabloid press, How such inuence was exerted in practice was
falsely linked issues of asylum and terrorism. In their described in the following contribution:
view, the media was guilty of stereotyping refugees, and
particularly Muslims, as terrorists, thus criminalising Middlesbrough participant: When the London
them. Participants believed the impact of such reporting bombing happened, the people on the TV, the way the
was evident in hostile public attitudes, tensions in presenters put their stories, [] they were more stressing
community relations and refugees increased feeling of about their [the terrorists] origin, where they came from,
insecurity. The following quotes illustrate the intensity and about their application for asylum, and where they
of participants views on this issue. moved. So the more they stressed on those points about
immigration, where their country of origin is, the more
Middlesbrough participant: In England, the they are attracting the general public attention to put
media here in Europe, if this terrorism attacks their hatred towards the points that they are focusing.
happened in any Arab countries, they didnt give the
same attention, you know, to talk about. But here in A number of participants criticised the medias
this country, if you are black, you are criminal, if you stereotyping of asylum seekers based on the background
are Muslim, you are criminal. of some of the terrorist suspects. While one or two
pointed out that none of the 7/7 bombers actually
North London participant: [The tabloids say it] in had a refugee background, others did not distinguish
such simple terms, its basically encouraging a sense between the suspects of the failed London attacks and
of hatred against communities and refugees. []. They the perpetrators of the 7/7 attacks. Their impression
branded us all sorts of things, terrorists now. was simply that the London terrorists included refugees.
This could be indicative of how pervasive the media
Leeds participant: [The tabloids] brand especially inuence has been, leading even refugees to believe
asylum seekers and refugees as the undesirable, the that the 7/7 attacks were carried out by refugees.
outsider, the criminals.
The medias inuence on public attitudes was seen
From participants negative impressions of media as detrimental to the development of social and
reporting, the discussions moved on to consider the community relations more generally and in the longer
impact of such coverage on society. Many participants term. The effects were described in terms of a culture
felt that the medias inuence on public attitudes could of blame and disrespect, and a creation of divisions
not be underestimated. between people.
Birmingham participant: Another way in which the Leeds participant: [T]he media is reckless. Whatever
media do really make a mistake. Because when they they are reporting translates into the message that the
Many participants reported experiencing abusive Birmingham participant: But a terrorist can be
and discriminatory behaviour arising from negative black, can be English, can be anyone. Open your mind,
public and media attitudes. They gave examples of your head.
such behaviour directed against refugees and asylum
seekers, and against Asian, black and Muslim people The perceived consequences of stereotyping were
more generally. They saw this emanating from a public illustrated with some examples of racist or xenophobic
equation of asylum seekers and terrorists on the one incidents after 7/7. The rate and severity of incidents
hand, and a racialisation of terrorists on the other. At varied considerably across the different geographic
the same time, it was not always possible to establish locations, with almost none recalled in the Norwich
a causal connection between the terrorism discourse and Swansea groups, and considerably more in Hull,
and increased racism, xenophobia and discrimination, Middlesbrough and London. A direct link between
as refugee communities and minority ethnic people these incidents and the 7/7 attacks was often not
tended to be in already disadvantaged positions obvious, except in the number of cases referring
prior to the terrorist attacks. The direct and negative to abuse experienced on public transport. Perhaps
impact of the terrorism discourse on Muslim refugees, unsurprisingly, almost every group had an example
however, was felt across all groups, and participants of a negative experience when using public transport,
deplored the media and public stereotyping of Muslims usually the bus, relating to either passengers or the
as terrorists. A potential negative impact on community driver. With the terrorist attacks in London, Madrid
relations and refugees integration into British society and New York targeting mass transport, people were
was seen as a cause for concern, though in practice likely to feel under pressure and reminded of terrorism
this appeared to depend largely on local contexts. when conned to a cramped public space shared with
strangers. Participants experience of abuse in these
situations could be interpreted as evidence for the
Racism and discrimination public stereotyping of refugees as terrorists on national,
An exasperation and disbelief about public stereotyping racial and religious grounds.
on the basis of migration status, race and faith were
palpable among participants. Leeds participant: I think there are some visible
changes in the local community. I heard many stories of
Middlesbrough participant: Such a bad step attempts to harassment and attack. [] The people we
to take from the media, from everybody. What will quite often meet in the bus stare at us and sometimes
happen in the future, where it is no black people, it is have a very unfriendly attitude, they just show us an
no Muslims perpetrating these things? Because we unwelcoming sort of attitude. I myself remember that
already stereotyping, these are terrorists, these are I was harassed once or twice by members of the local
bad people. community. It was immediately after the July attack.
Another participant issued a plea for open- Middlesbrough participant: And all the people in
mindedness: the bus, theyre scared. I know many British people
Participants also reported experiencing discrimination Harassment and concerns about safety
in more institutional forms, usually in the context of Participants recalled a number of incidents of physical
new security measures. The areas of employment and harassment, and it appeared that some groups,
banking were mentioned with specic examples. The particularly Muslim women, were considerably more
following example indicated the negative impact new affected than others. Participants of the young persons
banking security measures have had on the operation of group, as well as some participants, mainly parents, in
refugee community organisations. This was in addition other groups, felt that young people were at particular
to racist attitudes reported by another participant. risk of abuse. Concerns over personal safety therefore
Difculties with banks were also mentioned by a refugee varied according to gender, faith and age, as well as
network in London, although not as part of a focus location. They were most pronounced in the case of
group discussion. The key problem emerging over the Muslim women, although a more general example
past year appeared to be the requirement of forms of deserves to be quoted as well:
personal identication that many refugees do not hold.
Leeds participant: [Working as a postman], the
Middlesbrough participant: We were trying to area that I was delivering mail was a white area. You
open a bank account []. They are not accepting the could not see a black or an Asian face. So especially
travel document, and I think, the whole foundation were after what I saw on TV, I was insecure. Maybe its what
trying to build, an organisation we try to build, we dont I created in my own mind but I was so insecure, I had
know. Many of the group theyve got to produce an ID. to quit my job. That was not the only reason, but part of
So it has an impact, a direct impact, theyre afraid now the reason was that I was not feeling secure at all. An
[that] terrorists are trying to open a bank account. Ethiopian being involved [in the failed London attacks],
it created some community tension, and made me feel
With regard to employment, examples from Swansea insecure. The area Im living it, which is predominantly
showed the direct link made between certain refugee Asia and refugee communities, I feel safe there, but
nationalities, in these cases Palestinian and Algerian, delivering post in that white area was difcult for me, I
and terrorist activities. One participant recalled an was feeling insecure.
unofcial reaction received from a university when
discussing a potential job applicant from Algeria: Most agreed that this feeling of insecurity was especially
prevalent among Muslim women wearing the hijab.
Swansea participant: [H]e said, tell me the This visible sign of faith, interpreted also as an indicator
speciality and the nationality. I said mathematics and of irreconcilable difference, made them particularly
microbiology and he said no, ask her to change [her vulnerable to stereotyping, abuse and harassment.
speciality subjects], because shes from Algeria, she While this impact has by no means been restricted to
can never get a job in this area. refugee women, and has been recognised as a problem
in European countries since the 9/11 terrorist attacks,
Here the stereotyping of refugees on the basis of many refugee women have found this a new and extra
nationality was presumably linked to Algerian asylum burden added to their already precarious situation.
seekers in detention or under control orders in connection The following experiences recalled in the Glasgow
with the ricin trial last year (in which they were cleared). group were discussed in similar tones in Swansea,
The following participant adopted a broader perspective Birmingham and London.
on discrimination by linking it to more general forms of
abuse directed against refugees. Glasgow participant 1 (with interpreter): After
what happened in London in July, the impact for
Glasgow participant: We are abused by all Algerian women, for example, people were afraid to
communities. You go to get a job, no you are a terrorist, wear the scarf, because they were being targeted or
a terrorist that creates another terrorist in society, you intimidated, or go to the mosque.
know. They feel abused by everyone in the society.
Glasgow participant 2: [M]y friend who lives in
While this raised the issue of resentment triggered London. Shes wearing the hijab. Before the 7/7 she
by abuse and exclusion (further discussed in section was very happy, free, you know, no people look at
The young persons group in London also pointed to The young peoples reaction to their feeling of insecurity
safety issues arising for Muslim girls. At the same time, after the terrorist attacks aimed to protect themselves
they had signicant concerns about the safety of all from public hostility by forming a tight-knit group based
young people who were identiable as black Muslim on their national origin and faith.
refugees. As young people, they considered their public
lives as involving greater exposure to hostile public
behaviour compared to the lives of older people, who Impact on Muslim refugees
operated in fairly closed circles of interaction. In this All groups stressed the negative impact of the terrorism
context, the young East London participants spoke discourse on Muslim refugees, with safety concerns
about their own fears of going outside, as well as their facing Muslim women and youth constituting only one
parents fears. aspect. At the root of the problem they saw an equation
of Muslims with terrorists, manifest in media reporting,
East London participant 1: I always hear people public attitudes and policy responses to terrorism.
in other areas getting attacked, at the bus stop, at
the mosque or something like that, yeah. Parents are Birmingham participant: They say terrorism is Muslim,
always warning about that. That kind of stuff makes you but I dont understand, who is terrorist? Terrorism is not
scared to go outside. Muslim. Even Muslims are scared about terrorism.
East London participant 2: Parents are scared as
well, you get locked in your own house. [] Norwich participant 1: When we speak about
East London participant 3: Parents go on about it terrorism, I think all focus just about Muslim.
a lot. Norwich participant 2: Exactly.
East London participant 2: Parents go on, I Norwich participant 1: I dont know why. All
means since [7/7], its affected every household. Every Muslims are not terrorists.
household worries. Norwich participant 2: He is right. This needs to be
more qualied. Now, the public opinion, the public eyes
While these fears were explicitly placed in the context of look just at Muslim as terrorists. The Muslim people is
the terrorist attacks, both 9/11 and 7/7, wider concerns not terrorists, its some of them.
about racism seemed also at play, together with an Norwich participant 1: Were anti-terrorists.
But the consensus was that the media did not allow Glasgow participant: [E]specially when the 7/7
for such differentiation and reection. Participants felt happened in London, theres a lot of tension within
strongly that it was the media that had generated the communities. There was a lot of fear and scepticism
public perception of Muslims as terrorists. within refugee communities in Glasgow.
West London participant: The whole thing goes Regardless of their local situation, some participants
back to the media. One of the connotations that the voiced concerns about the potential negative impact
media use very frequently, is Muslim terrorism, of public hostility and stereotyping on refugees ability
Muslim terrorism, Muslim terrorism. to make and maintain social contacts and to integrate
into British society.
Norwich participant 2: Im 45 years old, I never
ever heard Muslim terrorist []. North London participant: I think excluding one
RC: So thats a new term? community, I mean admittedly, its mainly the Muslim
Norwich participant 2: For me its new. population thats most affected. But targeting them as
RC: Where do you hear it? a whole has affected the other communities such as us.
Norwich participant 2: I hear here [in Britain]. Thats where the danger lies. Its had a knock-on effect
Norwich participant 3: In the media. on other communities, thats why we feel the same, we
Norwich participant 2: Yes, in the media, exactly, dont feel we can integrate properly into society and
I watch TV. I never ever heard it before, Muslim do things as we wish, because were essentially looked
terrorist. upon as, I dont know, as terrorists or some other brand
they come up with.
However, such advantages of diversity were not This analysis suggested that growing racial divisions
experienced by the young people in the East London and hostility mirrored refugees experiences with inter-
group. They felt quite strongly that the terrorist attacks ethnic and perhaps terrorist violence in their home
had encouraged young people to form groups based countries, which they had sought to escape by coming
exclusively on race, faith and, primarily, national origin, to Britain. In this way, refugees were thought to be
which they saw as drivers of segregation. Such groups particularly affected by social and community tensions,
replaced a shared sense of belonging, of Britishness, in addition to problems they faced on the grounds of
which participants considered desirable but beyond race and faith.
their reach. Since the 2001 terrorist attacks and
discourse, they felt increasingly isolated from, and not While participants continued to feel much safer in Britain
accepted by, their British-born peers, and in turn did than in their country of origin, many pointed to increasing
not really feel they belonged to Britain. difculties in developing relationships with British people
and establishing trust in a context of stereotyping based
East London participant 1: [T]hey have to belong on, and exacerbating, fear and insecurity.
to a group.
East London participant 2: To defend themselves, Leeds participant: The experience that you pass
for safety reasons. Youre only in a group where youre through as an asylum seeker or refugee is not one that
accepted. I think if you have English friends, theyre like, makes you feel, yes I belong here, I want to be a part
oh, your people do that, dont they. You always have to of this life, I want to feel British. What happened after
explain yourself. the July attack, everything made it worse. There were
East London participant 3: Youre not accepted times went I felt all alone. [] And you feel so helpless,
as British. excluded, you feel like surplus, like you have nothing to
East London participant 2: Exactly. Are you saying lose, and that is perilous. [] For me, with all that I read
there was some point in time when that was different? in the newspapers, which portray me as an outsider, an
Yes, before September 11. I think that was totally alien, a criminal, as good-for-nothing, it is hard for me. I
different. wish I felt all positive, that I could say I belong here.
East London participant 1: There was never
a mention of nationality, like you meet people, like, While the public reaction to the terrorist attacks was
what is your name, where do you live, you start like seen as adding to the feeling of isolation and exclusion
a conversation about other things, but now you meet experienced by individuals going through the asylum
each other, rst thing, like one of the rst questions in process, government policy that has determined
your conversation, like, where youre from. not only the asylum process but also the response
East London participant 2: What religion are you, to terrorism was perceived as jeopardizing good
has become the second question now. community relations and integration more widely.
East London participant 3: Im British no, no, no.
Where are you from North London participant: I think its [the terrorist
East London participant 4: originally, yeah. attacks] also had an impact on how we can integrate
East London participant 2: Legally we are British, with English people, for instance our neighbours or
but we dont feel like we are... friends, colleagues, etc. And ultimately theyve got
East London participant 5: accepted. views about us and we cant as individuals defeat, its
impossible to break the views they have against us
Views in Middlesbrough were equally pessimistic. because of government policy. Therefore its made
A participant described what he considered the integration with neighbours or colleagues and friends
breakdown of multicultural society after 7/7. much more difcult than we would like to.
Participants referred to a broad range of policies they Other participants pointed to the contradictory nature
considered relevant to their lives and linked to the of some of the new rules and policies and suspected
terrorism discourse. Some policies were mistakenly that this was due to the policies focus on targeting
assumed to be direct consequences of 7/7, others were asylum seekers in the wake of the terrorist attacks.
seen in the wider context of the terrorism discourse after
9/11. The overwhelming impression was that policy Leeds participant 1: Those new policies, people think
responses to terrorism were inappropriately directed at are inuenced by what happened in July, the terrorist
refugees and asylum seekers. attacks, and their relation with asylum seekers. The ve
years limbo, and the contradictory policy, Integration
This was the common thread tying together an array Matters, and then the recent one, electronic tagging
of policies that participants criticised in the context of Leeds participant 2: Yes.
responses to terrorism. These ranged from stricter family Leeds participant 1: and monitoring. People
reunion and marriage rules to a withdrawal of family feel they are being targeted because of what happened
amnesty, and from Section 4 and voluntary returns in July.
programmes to immigration offences sentencing and ID
cards. A number of participants spoke about their feeling
of insecurity related to detention without trial under the Perceptions of government approach:
Terrorism Act, and in two groups participants had heard linking asylum seekers with terrorists
about refugees being arrested, and then released without Despite varying levels of policy awareness, all groups
charge, under the Terrorism Act, based on their political criticised the governments response to terrorism for
or religious contacts. While objecting against pre-charge establishing a direct link between asylum seekers and
Critical views of the denition of terrorism The focus groups conrmed that it was important to
The widespread perception among participants that refugees, both at the asylum application stage and in
policy responses to terrorism tended to equate asylum the integration process, that their political activities,
seekers with terrorists led many of them to question including support of resistance struggles, could be
the governments understanding of terrorism. While recognised in the context of rights-based movements
most were unfamiliar with the exact legal denition in their countries of origin, as opposed to terrorist
set out in the Terrorism Act , many were able to give activities. That distinction was identied as the basis for
examples of how the government has classied certain seeking protection from political and state persecution.
people, organisations and activities as terrorist. They Some participants felt that the governments broad and
felt the governments understanding of terrorism had loose understanding of terrorism no longer allowed it
shortcomings on three separate accounts: an imbalance to make that distinction, thus undermining everyones
between condemning individual terrorist activities while right to seek refuge from persecution.
committing violence against civilians in countries such
as Iraq and Afghanistan; a construction of a hierarchy North London participant: [T]he way they dene it
of victims of terrorism; and a lack of distinction between in the Act is completely one-side because it disregards
terrorists and legitimate forms of resistance. community feeling. For instance, the old saying, one
mans terrorist is another mans freedom ghter, is
Many participants diverted to foreign policy issues completely true, isnt it. [] If you call somebody a
when discussing the governments denition of terrorist because theyre resisting against a government,
terrorism. They were particularly concerned about the because of persecution, against the state, because they
Glasgow participant: [S]ince 7/7, bad laws came In Glasgow and Swansea, the issue of deportation
out. Like all asylum seekers cases should be deported of criminals and terrorists prompted reections on
to their countries. This law never been before the attack the relationship between criminal law, which applied
in London. It just came after the attack. So immigration to everyone equally, and immigration law, which
and Home Ofce become really tough with asylum allowed discrimination on the basis of nationality. One
seekers and refugees, and it made wrong decisions participant argued for a simple principle of equality:
against good cases.
Swansea participant: [I]f people are having family
Such perceptions of policies, regardless of their here, have established their own life here, they have to
accuracy, gave rise to anxieties about deportation and be treated like anybody else. If they commit a crime,
a general feeling of insecurity. Participants revealed a then they have to go to prison. I think the British
In the following exchange, the two participants agreed It appeared to be this perceived lack of distinction
in principle that terrorists or other criminals should be between terrorist and criminal suspects on the one
prosecuted, but could be seen to argue for a separation hand and refugees and asylum seekers on the other
of immigration and criminal law proceedings. The rst that heightened refugees sense of insecurity.
speaker appeared to call for terrorist suspects to be
dealt with in the existing criminal law system, not
under the broad detention and deportation provisions
of immigration law, and the second speaker seemed
to insist that asylum seekers be treated according to
immigration provisions, and not criminalised in the
asylum process.
Many participants regarded community and cross- engagement in public activities that could be regarded
community activities as distinct from political as political by the Home Ofce. In Middlesbrough,
engagement. The notion of politics was given a narrow participants disagreed about the relevance and role of
interpretation of party politics at one end of the spectrum political engagement but all professed feeling reluctant
and political extremism leading terrorism at the other to speak and act freely.
end. This was contrasted with community activities,
ranging from cultural initiatives to inter-faith dialogue to While registering an overall scepticism towards formal
consultations with the police, which were preferred over political engagement, the discussions also revealed that
formal politics and more prevalent among participants. those participants who had been interested or involved in
Activities in this informal realm appeared not to have political discussions, groups and activities had become
changed much since 7/7. While in one of the London increasingly cautious in their engagement as debates
groups participants criticised the lack of formal political about measures under successive Terrorism Acts
engagement among refugees and RCOs, this was not progressed. As presented below, participants in Norwich,
seen as related to the terrorism events and discourse. Middlesbrough and North London explicitly raised the
problem of a decrease in refugees public involvement,
Some participants saw their participation in community especially engagement of a more overtly political nature.
and civic life more directly as a form of political The exception to this increasingly reluctant approach to
engagement. These included individuals from refugee civic engagement was the young peoples group in East
groups with a tradition of engagement in political London. Participants came from a pre-exiting group that
independence movements relating to their region had formed after 7/7 as a defensive support system to
of origin, as well as those with a personal history of enable young refugees to tackle community tensions
public and political activism. Men appeared to be and negative public perceptions.
overrepresented among these participants, and they
were more outspoken than women in their criticism of To explore attitudes towards civic and political
the implications of the new legislative measures. participation in the context of the terrorism discourse,
groups were asked directly about the measures under
In the focus groups composed mainly of asylum the Terrorism Act 2006 that relate to expressing political
seekers, the prevailing reluctance to engage in civic views and participating in political activities. These
and political life was explained in different ways. include the new provision against encouraging, or
Participants in Hull were wary of political tensions glorifying, terrorism, and the older but recently expanded
dissecting their country of origin, which they found provision that proscribes organisations based on their
reected in communities from their country here in perceived afliation with terrorist activities.
the UK. In Swansea, one participant active in cross-
community initiatives felt that political involvement was The majority of participants were not aware of the exact
linked to extremism. In Norwich, participants felt that provisions of the law, though many had heard, in one
during the asylum process, which in their case had form or another, about the glorication offence, which
been ongoing for years, legal insecurity precluded any had been extensively discussed in the media. There
West London participant: For example, I know a lot Glasgow participant 1: I dont think its right, even
of people who see what happens on the Palestinian at home for example, father and mother you cant say
Drawing this link between political engagement and North London participant 3: Before I went on
immigration status suggests that participants feel that protests and marches, we used to take placards of
universal rights (freedom of speech and assembly) have [organisation x], which people see as terrorist group,
been particularised and tied to specic circumstances. other people see them as freedom ghters. And I have
The following example, relating to the citizenship stage the right to support them, because thats my thinking,
of the immigration process, illustrates this further: feeling towards them. I dont care about what they think,
its my feeling, and if I cant express this, thats not right,
North London participant 1: I know many people thats a restriction, thats like putting you inside a cell.
who are [] in the UK for a long time, theyve go the That makes us like robots and I dont think thats right.
right to apply for citizenship to get British passport. But North London participant 2: True.
this year, many of those people get refusal letter from RC: Specically about [organisation x], you
Home Ofce and it says, we know of your contact with mentioned they are outlawed. How does that affect you
[organisation x], so because of security reasons, we personally?
refuse to give you citizenship. North London participant 1: People who came []
RC: Are you saying the citizenship application because of their sympathy to [organisation x] they came
involves a test of your political convictions? to this country. In this case, today, European countries
North London participants 1 and 2 jointly: Yes, it and England as well, says [organisation x] is a terrorist
does. Now it does. [organisation]. In this case, for example, because I came
North London participant 2: Like he says, Ive come to this country to improve myself and freely to talk about
across many people whove come to me and asked me everything, to talk about every politic issues and to talk
to read the letter theyve got. And it says in the letter my language, and if I sympathise to [organisation x], to
clearly, because of your past activities, were unable to live freely and to sympathise to [organisation x], but in
give you citizenship, because of state security. this case I should go to another country from the UK to
RC: How many people do you think might be live freely.
affected?
North London participant 1: I know a few people, This exchange shows participants frustration of getting
theyre my friends, like 6, 7 people, they applied and caught in a circle of political restrictions that spans the
they got this letter from Home Ofce. So they have no UK and their country of origin.
any right to apply.
North London participant 2: They cant travel,
cause they dont have any passport.
RC: How does the Home Ofce know about their
afliation?
North London participant 2: When you come
to the country, youre asked to say why you suffered
persecution.
RC: Thats at the asylum stage.
North London participant 2: Exactly. And if you
explain your feelings, and your involvement with the,
say for instance, [organisation x], then youre giving
the Home Ofce evidence that youre involved with
the [organisation x], even if its just as a sympathiser.
And theyre using that now, that sort of evidence,
against people.
The asylum determination process asylum process they considered inuenced by the
Most participants who were still in the asylum process, issue of terrorism. These ranged from Section 4 and
especially the groups in Glasgow, Middlesbrough, voluntary returns programmes (of particular concern to
Birmingham and Hull, were convinced that the terrorist the Iraqi participants in Hull) to a perceived withdrawal of
attacks and the public discourse on terrorism had a an amnesty for asylum seeking families. The following
direct and negative impact on the asylum determination exchange in Glasgow illustrates this.
process. They felt that the governments default position
was to equate asylum seekers with terrorists and that Glasgow participant 1: The victim part that started
this was directly reected in an increased refusal rate after the 7/7 for asylum seekers, everyone can feel it,
of asylum cases. everyone whos an asylum seeker can feel that. When
they was targeting them, when they was dealing with
Birmingham participant 1: The government try to their case. Everything was very, very tough after the 7th
equalise the person who is an asylum seeker or refugee of July. []
with a terrorist. They dont see there is no connection Glasgow participant 2: It was coming, the amnesty.
between the two. The asylum claim should be viewed Just because of the terrorism, they stopped.
on its own sake. Glasgow participant 3: Yes, thats true. We expected
Birmingham participant 2: That is how we see it, in last August a new amnesty to give to families. It was
anyway. Some of us have a problem because of that ready to come out but once the attack happened, they
thing which happened [i.e. 7/7]. withdrew the amnesty, so we couldnt benet from it.
Birmingham participant 1: They tried to link it and Glasgow participant 4: Of more than 10,000
to make it very, very difcult for an asylum application to families that are in Glasgow or in Scotland, more than
come through. They tried to tighten the rules as much 7000 or 6000 were refused. Theres a link between
as they can. what happened to London and the refusal rate thats
happening up here in Scotland.
These concerns about cases being decided on the
basis of terrorism-related suspicions rather than merit While criticising the perceived negative impact of
were mirrored in the following, more general remark by anti-terrorism measures on the asylum determination
a London participant. process, many participants also emphasised that
they sympathised with the governments intention of
North London participant: On the issue of asylum keeping terrorists out of Britain. Some pointed out that
applications, one, it can be said that theres a change the government had to react to the terrorists abuse
of culture, because whats happened now is, every of the asylum system, and that Britain had the right
application is refused by the Home Ofce regardless to increase its efforts against terrorists entering the
of its merits. country. In Middlesbrough, one participants explanation
of the increased refusal rate with discrimination against
In addition to pointing to an increase in refused asylum those asylum applicants who resembled the regional
claims, participants identied other aspects of the and ethnic prole of known terrorists, was countered
Birmingham participant: If they can really prove Based on this experience, a harsher asylum process,
that this person is connected with terrorists back motivated by the ght against terrorism, may in fact
home, I can support them to refuse this person. It defeat its purpose and instead increase insecurity by
would threaten the country, they shouldnt come into re-directing people from legal to illegal routes.
my country. This will be ok.
Police reporting requirements may play a role in this
However, what participants elsewhere regarded development, at least in so far as they appear to
as problematic was not a situation where terrorist support perceptions of an increasing harshness of
connections could be proved, but where such the asylum process. A number of participants spoke
connections were merely assumed. They outlined the of personal experiences relating to stricter reporting
negative effects that the generalised assumption of requirements in more intimidating environments. Some
a correlation between asylum seekers and terrorists asylum seeking participants, especially in Glasgow and
could have, especially on certain groups of asylum Norwich, had the impression that the London bombings
seekers. With regard to Algerian refugees, for example, either started or increased the requirement for asylum
participants were concerned about the negative impact seekers to report to authorities on a regular basis.
on asylum seekers from Algeria caused by associating
all Algerians with terrorism. Algerian participants in Norwich participant: I didnt use to go to police
Swansea and Glasgow voiced their concerns about station until 7 July. It started exactly after this event.
a perceived high refusal rate of applicants from They sent me a letter, you should go to the police
Algeria, based on associating all applicants with a station and report quickly. Before that I lived nearly
few high prole suspects from Algeria. They felt such three years without.
stereotyping hurt the most vulnerable, those who were
seeking protection from terrorism. One participant, from a Christian background, gave
an example where reporting requirements appeared
The perceived increase of refusal and deportation rates stricter for Muslim asylum seekers than for others, in
was seen to undermine the functioning of the refugee this case dating back to the period before July 2005.
protection system in a number of ways. In addition to
the exclusion from protection of those in need, the issue Leeds participant: The Eritrean and I were asked to
of irregular entry or stay was raised. A Leeds participant sign in once a month the Christians and those two
had experienced that the widespread assumption that Muslims, we were sharing a NASS accommodation,
asylum cases were refused without consideration of one of them was signing every week, the other,
their merits prompted potential asylum seekers either Mohammed, was asked to sign in every single day.
Participants experiences with the police varied issue for refugees, particularly Muslim refugees. Their
considerably, mainly based on location but also to examples can be summarised with the following quote:
some extent on age, gender and faith. The Hull,
Middlesbrough, East and North London groups North London participant: I think the most
reported a range of negative encounters with the signicant thing is the stop and search. Asian, for
police, although only the Middlesbrough incidents instance, theyre stopped now. It used to be the black
appeared directly related to terrorism. The Birmingham people and now its the Asians, isnt it. Its shifted. Its
group gave a number of examples of the police not now you stop and search an Asian, and thats the norm
taking appropriate action to protect refugees. Other of the police, I think.
groups had little or no experience of police actions that
involved refugees, and the Swansea group viewed the The young peoples group in East London also
police in a very positive light. considered themselves targeted by the police and
reported many low level encounters with the police,
in which they felt singled out on the basis of their
Experiences of police actions national origin. They explained the dilemma they faced
Most experiences participants had with the police did in terms of seeking safety in numbers on the one hand,
not appear to be related to terrorism, although many and being targeted by police because of their public
were interpreted by participants in light of the terrorism presence as a group. They perceived their own safety
discourse. This suggested that examples chosen by concerns clashing with those of the police, instead of
participants illustrated their own feelings as well as receiving support from the police.
perceived police attitudes. These feelings and attitudes
show refugees precarious sense of safety, as well as East London participant 1: You need to stick with
their perceptions of how the police approach the issue people, like, in case something happens, you know,
of terrorist threats. they can help you.
East London participant 2: But if youre sticking
Many negative examples recounted by participants with people, the police will treat you differently.
involved young Muslim men. As the Hull and North East London participant 3: Yeah, thats the thing.
London discussions were men-only groups, their prole East London participant 2: But we use groups like
may have skewed the nature of the examples given. At that for protection.
the same time, an increase in the proportion of young
Asian men subjected to stop and search has been Negative experiences reported in other groups included
reported elsewhere. The examples also correspond incidents that appeared indicative of xenophobic
with participants perceptions of attitudes towards attitudes displayed by the police. This was clearly
Muslim refugees more generally (section 7). the case in Hull, where participants appeared to live
in an environment of hostility coming from both the
Participants in London, Hull, Birmingham, Middlesbrough public and the police. Nevertheless, participants
and Swansea all cited stop and search practices as an found explanations for the tough police approach
In this case, police action increased refugees sense of A participant in the East London group sought to
insecurity, as well as their feeling of being targeted as move beyond such general distrust of the police,
terrorists on racial or nationality grounds. which also dominated the young peoples discussion.
After recounting a negative encounter with the police,
described as an inappropriate response to a violent
Perceptions of the role of the police racist incident, she reects on her willingness to
Based on their experiences, a number of participants address the prejudice against refugees she considers
reected on the polices role in the ght against endemic in the police forces.
terrorism. A Hull participant pointed to the right of the
police to maintain security, including national security, East London participant 1: [M]y sister till now, she
even if it involved harsh and possibly discriminatory cannot hear the word police, she literally cant stand
actions. A Birmingham participant felt more uneasy the word police, shes just blatant, I hate them. My
about this. During the discussion, she referred response was, I really need to work with them, I need
repeatedly to the police shooting of Mr de Menezes in to get into their work. Somebody needs to get in there,
London after 7/7. and you know
East London participant 2: sort them out.
Birmingham participant: [T]he guy that [got] killed, it East London participant 1: Really. They really cant
made me angry, it made me more hurt. Before they attack do this to people. []. How many young people do you
a person who can have a bomb, they have to be careful. hear about who are being beaten up by, whatever, and
[] They need to be careful and check who is who. I was they died. But nobody follows it up, because hes young
really afraid when all this happened. I want them to be and black. Nobody cares. And if youre a refugee, thats
more careful, who is doing it, who is not doing it, so that even worse. You aint even from this country; why did
they dont kill a person who didnt do it. you come here, you know, thats the rst thing you hear.
Leeds participant 1: The campaign against terrorism West London participant: If people are
is irrational, inconsistent and disturbs harmony and unsympathetic then the politicians want to crack
societal growth. And it is uncivilised, that means it tries down because they need the support of the people.
to resolve conict in ways that breed further hate and Therefore, the issue of terrorism, and people feel, like
violence, bringing about more destruction and disorder Somalis, Eritreans, Ethiopians, which basically because
to the country. It is also undemocratic, because it of the situation back home and of the situation here, felt
creates dark holes where civil liberties and freedom more and more marginalised. And this is a big problem.
of conscience are threatened by a totalitarian style of They took away part of the condence you had. In the
governance. Its also immoral, because it is degrading system. Because the fact that they came here is that it is
and dehumanising with no respect to the basic natural a better system, it respects human rights and protects
virtues of humanity. people and so on. So this kind of thing [terrorism] is
very hurtful. And also the response [to terrorism].
Impact on human rights culture Another participant saw persistent racism as a cause
Refugees have ed to the UK to seek safety and for disillusion.
protection from persecution. Many participants
stressed that in eeing authoritarian regimes where Leeds participant: People look to England for
their public and private lives were subjected to the freedom and democracy, and you expect to be treated
exercise of arbitrary power and violence, they sought like a human being, because here is civilisation, here is
a future in a democratic country where the rule of progress. But I never expected in the 21st century that
law was accountable and grounded in universal racism would be an issue in Britain. I thought it was
human rights. The group discussions revealed that long gone and buried, but it is still bright.
many participants had become disillusioned about
nding such democracy and human rights in the In addition to personal experiences of marginalisation,
UK. Most of them still felt much safer and freer than discrimination and racism, participants also attributed
in their country of origin, but their disappointment their disillusion directly to a changed policy environment
was palpable. They worried that public attitudes after the terrorist attacks, in which laws were seen to
and political reactions to the issue of terrorism be adopted that removed peoples rights.
were threatening their safety and protection, and
that policy responses and security measures had North London participant 1: [A]fter 7/7 attacks it
begun to undermine some of the human rights they made it easier to put laws that takes away rights, human
expected to nd in the UK. rights away from people.
A West London participant described refugees loss Some participants explained that any policies and
of condence in Britains human rights system, based measures which could be seen as infringing on
on their increasing marginalisation in the context of the peoples rights were of particular concern to them as
terrorism discourse. refugees, rstly because they felt targeted by those