Escolar Documentos
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Cultura Documentos
Education
C haracter education is not new. In fact, we
can probably date it back at least to Socra-
tes. Even in the United States, it goes back as far
as the founding of the colonies (and likely far
By ther in Native American culture) (McClellan
MARVIN W. BERKOWITZ 1999). But character education has historically
and been a practice and not a science (Berkowitz
MELINDA C. BIER 2002). In other words, there has been an abun-
dance of educational methods and curricula
generated i)Ilt comparatively little research on
its effectiveness,There was a flurry ofinterest in
the first third of the twentieth century (e.g.,
Marein W Berkowitz, a developmental psychologist, is
the Sanford N. McDonnell Irofessor of Character Mu
Cation at the Uoiversit,j of MissouriSt. Louis. Jrcvi
ously, he was the Ambassador Holland Ii. Coors Profes-
sor of Character Development at the US. Air I~orce
Acadenuj and a professor of psijehologi,, at Marquette
University.
Melinda C. Bier is an affiliate assistant professor ofedu
cation at the Uu~versityof MissouriSt. Louis and the
project director of What Works in Character Educa
tion (funded hij the John Templeton Foundation) and
National Character Education Clearinghouse and
Resource Center (Funded by the U. S. Department of
Education). Preciously, she was Program Officer at the
James S. McDonnell Foundation.
NOTE: Supported by a grant from the John Teulpietnll
1oundatinii.
DCI 0.1177/00(12710203260082
SteinerAdair, C. I 989. Ilie body politic: Normal female adolescent tlevelopinent and the thvelnpinent of
eating (lisorders. In Making connections: The re/ational worlds of adolesceni girls at Loooa \l/illard
School, edited by C. (4lligan. N. P Lyons. and P J . I laoinei; 162 82. lroy NY: Ennna \Villard School.
S~~llivan, A. 1996. 1roni mentor to loose. In Urban girls: Resisting stereo!ypes, creating identi ies, editrs I by
T
B. J. Leadheater and N. \\ ay, 22649. New York: New York University Press.
latom, B. 1). 1997. Why are all 1/ic black kids u/flog together in the cafeteriar and oilier con rersat ions
about race. New York: Basi Books.
Tlinn , M. 2001 . Balancing thu equation: \Vlieri are women and girls in science, engineering and technology?
New York: National Cot mcii h)r Researelmu \Vomen.
United States I )epartmnent of Education. 2003. When schools stat/ open late: I/ic national (vahmtion of i/me
2/st Century Coonnunitt, Lea rnmgCenters Program: I iiSt tjearJinding.i. Washington, I)C: Covern I net it
Printing Office.
Walker, K. E., J. B. Crossnian, amid R. Haley 2000. lestended service schools: Putting /)rogra?nlning in p/ace.
With V. Fehleratli and C. I. Itolton. lliiladelpliia: Pnblic/Private Aotnres.
\Varcl, J. V 1996. Raising resisters. In Urban girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating u/cot Ote.s, edited by B. J.
Leadheater 111(1 N. Way, 85 99. Ness York: Ness York University Press.
\VFD Inc., NI elpomoene Institnte for \Vomeos I Iealth Research, Cirls Incorporated, and National Assoeia
hon or Cirls and \Vomsien in Sport. 2001). Achieving gender ((/Uit~/ in the gym and on the platjingfiehl.
Watertown, MA: \\ork/Fami!v Directions.
Wolfe, 1.. H. 2001 . Does it have to belike thiis~Teen women ask theirpeers about violence, hate and (h.scriio
maim: Ihe report of the leen %V~nsietiLeaders/np Development Initiativi Sort ey. Washington, I )( 3
:enter for Women Polic~Studies. Retruesed from http://www.centemsvonienpo!icv.oig/reportdossoload.
efm?BeportlD= 1.
~\T~niens Sports Foondation. 1998. The \Voomen ~s Sports Foundation Re port: Sport 011(1 teen pregnancy. East
Meadow, NY: Author
Yonniss, J., J. A. Mc! .eI!am i, and B. Maser. 2001. \o!nntary service, peel groop oriei tation, and civic engage
milent. Jomu rnal of Adolescent Research 16:4.56.
IIESEAIiCII BASEI) CIIAHAC]ER EDUCATION 7:3
Denver Public Schools 1929; Dewey 1909; Griggs 1906; llaviland 1921; MacCuurt
1920) antI even some substantive research on the topic (Ilartshornc and May 1928
1930). Nonetheless, interest in character education waned in the middle third of
the twentieth century, and little research was done. in the past thirtyfive years,
contemporaly researchers have turned their expertise and attention to character
education. hence, a substantial body of information has begun to accrue concern-
nig the effectiveness of character education. This article will examine sonic of what
we now know about effective practice.
What Is Character?
It is difficult to discuss the effectiveness of character education without first
considering its goals. The central goal ofcharacter education is the development of
character in students. Therefore, before we address the research on effective ch~u
acter education, we iieecl to consider what we mean by character and its (levelop
ment. Character can be defined in vanous ways and is indeed used in clifft~rent
ways in common speec1~.\Ve consider someone a character if they act atypically.
We also commonly refer to having character, but sometimes that character is
good or bad. It is unlikely that a school that proposes a charactereducation ini-
tiative is interested in either generating a bunch of characters or promoting the
developiiient of had character in students. What we really mean in this field
when we invoke character is sociomoral competency. Character is the complex set
ofpsychological characteristics that enable an individual to act as a moral agent. in
other words, character is multiflhceted. It is psychological. It relates to moral func
tionmg. In the Brst authors moral anatonly, seven psychological aspects of cliarac
ter are identified: moral action, moral values, moral personality, moral emotions,
moral reasoning, moral identity, and foundational characteristics (Berkowitz
1.997).
This is likely not a complete taxonomy, but it helps to understand that when one
functions (or fails to function) morally, it may be due to any one or sotne set of these
psychological characteristics. For instance, if two equally well off people individu-
ally find a wallet with money and identification in it, and one returns it intact while
the other takes the money and discards the wallet (perhaps even bragging to his or
her kids about how clever it was to take the money), we can imagine many reasons
for these different responses to a moral situation. Person A may have more highly
developed empathy and feel for the person who lost the wallet. Or Person A may
have a heightened sense of moral sensitivity and be more likely to notice that this is
a moral issue to begin with. Or Person A may have more mature moral reasoning
leading to a better understanding of what the right action is. Or Person A may be
better at perspective taking and is able to put himself or herselfin the shoes of the
wallets ossmer, Or Person A may have been raised with a different set of values. Or
Person A mayhave a more highly developed conscience. Or... Or... In fact, it may
bP (Inc to ~onieset of these characteristics. The point is that character is complex,
multifaceted, and psychological and that it comprises the moral side of a person.
74 TIlE ANNALS OF TUE AMERICAN ACADEMY
Each of these characteristics develops over the life span and especially in child-
hood and adolescence (Damon 1988). The predominant impact on this comes
from family (Berkowitz and Gmych 1998; Lickona 1983), but schools can also be a
developmental force (Berkowitz and Grych 2000; Liekona 1991; Gottfredson
2001). For families or schools to influence character development optimally, they
need to understand the complex nature of character and to apply effective princi-
pIes that have been empirically shown to positively impact the development of the
many parts of the moral person.
Before we turn to that question, however, it is worthwhile to note tile wide array
of outcomes that have been demonstrated by effective character education. Char-
acter education has been demonstrated to he associated with academic motivation
and aspirations, academic achievement, prosocial behavior; bonding to school,
prosocial and democratic values, conflictresolution skills, moralreasoning matu-
rity, responsibility, respect, self-efficacy, self-control, self-esteem, social skills, and
trust in and respect for teachers. Furthermore, effective character education has
been demonstratedl to meduce absenteeism, discipline referrals, pregnancy, school
failure, suspensions, school anxiety, and substance use. Clearly, when it is effective,
it svorks. \Vhat we need to know is what makes a charactereducation initiative
efh~ctiveor ineffective,
Quality ofimplementation
It seems selfapparent, but one of the most critical factors in the effectiveness of
character education is the faithfulness with which it is implemented. Typically, it
falls to classroom teachers to implement character education, and typically, they
are not adec1uately trained to implement it accurately or completely. Research ha.s
consistently demonstrated that fur character education (or any form of interven
tiorm for that matter) to work, it must be fully and accurately delivered (Colby et al.
1977; Kam, Greenberg, and Walls 2003; Solomon et al. 2000). Whereas this point
may seem so obvious that it is not worth repeating, the fact of the matter is that
many programs and program evaluations fail to monitor the level and quality of
implementation and likewise fail to build in adequate safeguards to mnaximize time
likelihood of full imnplementation. Effective character education requires fidelity
in implementation, therefore implementers riced to ensure such fidelity.
A subissue of this concern with implementation quality, arid one that has not
been adequately addressed in the researcii literature, is exposure. Given the high
mobility rates in many schools, quality implementation may still not be effective if
students are not present during implementation. Most researchers do not examine
the levels ofexposure of students in character-education initiatives. While it seems
fur to assume that students with greater exposure will benefit more from character
education than will students with low exposure in the same schools, the relation
ship between exposure and outcomes may not be straightforward (Allen, Philliber,
and lloggson 1990; Solomon, Watson, and Battistich 2001).
76 TIlE ANNAI,S OF T!-IE AMERICAN ACADEMY
Project (Hawkins et ah. 1992) are multicomponent models that include classroom
management, curricular, socialskill training, parent involvement, and/or school
reform elements. This is not to say that monolithic initiatives cannot work; rather,
that comprehensive initiatives seem to be particularly effective, especially when
character is broadly defined and diverse outcome goals are targeted.
avoiding a meliance on negative messages andl behavioral rules, the students show
increaseti selfefficacy, selfregumlation, character development, ammdl academid
achievement (Ryan and Patrick 2001; Wentzel 2002). In a series of studies on a
national high school data set, it was demonstrated that attachment to parents and
school were the two mnanm predictors ofreduced risk beltavior (Resimick et al. 1997).
Furthermore, the school predictors of student bonding to school were found to be
positive classroomn management, tolerant (nonliarsh) disciplinamy practices,
involvement in extracurricular activities, smaller schools, good pllysical health, and
avoidance of cigarette smoking (Bonny et al. 2000; MeNeely, Nonnemaker; and
Blum 2002).
Clearly then, when designing and implementing a charactereducation initia-
tive, it is of great importance to intentionally target strmdents phenomnenohogical
perspective of the school (amid classroom) as a caring community and their subse-
quent einoliomial bonding to the school and classroom, as 1)0th a goal and a mea
smmrecl ni mtcome or mediating variable.
Leadership is key
One of tile fictors that practitioners will repeatedly affirmsi is that the school
leader is the most critical individimal in the success or failume of a charactereduca-
tion initiative. Certainly, it is possible to create an islandof sanity within a classroom
in a school that does not meaningfully embrace character education (Urban 2003),
but that serves only the stumderits who pass through that classroom. To positively
impact an entire school, the school pm icipaLs role is essential (l)efloehie and
Williams 2001; Lickona 1991).
The Character Education Partnership identifies three imuiportant aspects of
character: imniderstanding, commitment, action. While these are intended to apply
to the student developmental outcomes of character e(lucatiOfl, tlley can apply to
staff development as well, An effective principal needs to (1) get it, (2) buy into
it, and (3) live it. In other words, leadimug a school of character requires that the
principal first hilly understands what quality character education entails (mnost do
not). Then the principal must really connmnit to this vision and trulywant to make it
happen under his or her watch. Finally, the principal must have the requisite skills
to enact quality character education amid then to live it out both personally and
programmatically.
PATHS (Greenberg et al. 1995), a well-researched character-education pro-
gram, recently reported that principal buy-in (interestlcommitmnent) was one of
two critical factors necessary for effective implementation (Kam, Greenberg, and
Walls 2003). But buy-in is only part of this triumvirate of leadership attributes.
Whereas some identify the task of charactereducation leadership to be largely
exhortation (Mumrphy 2002), others argue that the core function of school leader
ship goes much deeper. Valentine, Triunble, and Whitaker (1997) argue fur leader
competency. Jackson and Davis (2000), in a blueprint for middle school reform,
argime for the principal to be a principal change agent who relies on staffempow-
78 Im: ANNALS OF rIlE Asll:IIIcAN A(:Almuy
cation and formnd that quality of character education is significantly related td) stan
dlamdizedl test scomes (Bcnninga et al. forthcoming).
Staff development
Staffinvolvement and conimnitment to character education is critical to effective
implementation, just as it is to all instructional innovations or edumcational reforms
(Ilimide 2003). Kamn, Greenberg, and \Valls (2003) report that immmplememitation of
PATI-IS depended heavily on teacher commitment.
Omie of the vastly underutilized components of quality character education is
staff dlevelopmiient. Typically, this is so either because the delivery systems were
never built into the character education model or because it isjust too expensive (in
terms of 1)0th money and time). Many effective character-edimeation models either
require or strongly recommend staff development or offer it as an option (e.g.,
Child Development Project, Responsive Classroom, Community of Caring, Fac-
ing Ilistory and Ourselves, Learning for Life, Life Skills Training, Reach Out to
Schools).
As with principals, if staffdo not understand the imlitiative, they will likely imple-
ment it ineffectively or reject it for the wrong reasons. If they do not value it, then
they will not implement it effectively (if at all). If they do not know how to imiiple
ment it, then again they will likely imuplement it ineffectively.
1993) has long relied upon aim Aristotehiami principle that character is fommned in
large pamt through habitual behavior that eventually becomiies internalizedi into vir-
tues (charactem). Traditional socialemotional learning (Greenbemg et al. 1995) has
meliecl upon niome behavioral models of learning audI dcvelopimiemmt and tlierefome
dlependled heavily omi chassroomii lessons that climectly tcach social and emttotional
skills. This same ~ipproach has beemi clominamit in mitch ofthe schoolbased pr~v~mi
tiomi literature (Tappe, GalerUnti, amid Baily 1995).
Fimmthcrmome, it is clear that many of the initiatives amid milodlels that imicompomate
clircet skill training are quite effective. In many cases, direct skill tmainimig is a mod
umle iii a mnord comprehemisivc appmoach to character education (Ilawkimis et al.
2001; Weissberg, Barton, and Shriver 1997). This works particularly well when
trainimmg those skills import which the eomiiprehemisive approach relies, for example,
teaching listemlimtg skills so that coopemativc learning can be effedtive, or teaching
peer comiflictmesolutiomi skills so that class mileetings can be effective.
Parent involvement
More amid more schools are recognizing that they mieed to he proactivc about
incorporating p~trentsinto the life of the school and imito their chilcirens learmiimig iii
gemmeral. Primiciple 10 of the Character Eclimcation Pamtmierships 11 Principlcs of
F ffective Character Edmmcatiomt (Lickona, Schiaps, amid I ~ewis 2003) assemts tI tat
schools miiust recruit paments and commmmnity niemiibers as full partners in the dhar
actcmhuilding effort. CIIARACTERpIus (http://www.csd.org), baSed imi St.
RESEARCI 1-BASEI) d:I lAtiAc:rEli EDUCArIoN SI
Closing Thoughts
It is clear that character education is~umieffective means of promoting both stim
dent sociah/mnoral/emotional dievelopment anti academic achievememit. As one
scrutinizes simceessful character education imiitiatives, it is also clear that (1) charac-
ter edhmcation is goodl education and that (2) character education comes in a wide
variety of forums. Some of those forms are effective and others are not; however,
there is great variety in the formnms of character education that do sumcceed. Never-
theless, it is important to examine those characteristics olefiective character cdiii
cation to identify the activeingredliemits that miiake them work. This discussion has
attempted to highlight sortie of those ingredients: comprehensive, multifaceted
approaches; approaches that target amid succeed at pmomoting student bondimig to
school; committed and informed school leadership; integrating character and aca-
demic education; integrating character education and prevention edmmcation;
annple and appropriate staffdevelopment; direct teaching ofrelevant personal and
social skills; parent involvement; and studemit reflectiomi anti grappling with moral
issues; adumlts modeling good character.
Clearly, more research is mieeded to umndemstand better how and when chamacter
educatiomi is most effective. Nomiethehess, enough is ahmeaciy known to help edumca
tots design effective initiatives that will foster the development of character iii
students.
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Iwo chmalhc:~ngesfor researchiem-s of sclmoolbased action
to identify effective approaches to preverut probiemum
behavmms and promote positive yommth development and
to support the widespread imnuplemnemitation arid
suistainability of evidencebased preschool throu.mgh high
school pmactiee In this article, the authors describe mute
grated social, emotional, and acadlemie education as a
useful framework for comuceptuahizing schoolbased pos-
itive youth clevehopniemut pi-Og liming. We then meview
findlings fronu selected exemmuplauy studies and research