B58ef Note

B58EF: Mechanical Engineering Sciences 6: Fluid Mechanics
Table of Contents
Lecture Programme.........................................................................................3
1 Fundamental equations.............................................................................4
1.a Control Volume.....................................................................................4
1.b Conservation of mass: Continuity equation.........................................4
1.c Conservation of momentum: Newtons 2nd law, the momentum
equation.......................................................................................................4
1.d Conservation of energy: Bernoullis equation.......................................4
1.d.i Hydrostatic pressure.........................................................................5
1.d.ii Energy and power.............................................................................5
1.e Exercise................................................................................................5
2 Laminar friction flow..................................................................................6
2.a Reynolds number.................................................................................6
2.b Hagen Poiseuille Flow...........................................................................6
2.c Fanning friction factor..........................................................................6
2.c.i Darcy Friction factor..........................................................................6
2.d Exercise................................................................................................6
3 Turbulent flow............................................................................................7
3.a Reynolds number.................................................................................7
3.b Transition from laminar to turbulent flow.............................................7
3.c Laminar and Turbulent flow..................................................................7
3.d Turbulent friction factor........................................................................8
3.e Exercises..............................................................................................8
4 Minor losses...............................................................................................9
4.a Sudden expansion and pipe outlets.....................................................9
4.b Contractions and pipe inlets................................................................9
4.c Other fittings......................................................................................10
4.d Exercise..............................................................................................10
5 Simple piping systems............................................................................11
5.a Review of Bernoullis equation with energy losses.............................11
5.a.i Frictional head loss:........................................................................11
5.a.ii Minor losses....................................................................................11
5.a.iii Bernoullis with reference to fluid velocity in pipes of constant
diameter..................................................................................................11
5.a.iv Bernoullis with reference to volume flow rate.............................11
5.b System curve.....................................................................................11
5.c Examples...........................................................................................12
5.c.i Example 1.......................................................................................12
5.c.ii Solution for part a) for new pipes using a first guess......................12
5.c.iii Solution using Matlab routine.......................................................12
5.d Exercises............................................................................................12
6 Pumps; Introduction and overview..........................................................13
6.a Role of pumps....................................................................................13
6.b Types of fluid machines adding energy to fluid..................................13
6.c Types of pumps..................................................................................13
6.c.i Positive displacement pumps..........................................................13
6.c.ii Roto-dynamic pumps or centrifugal pumps....................................13

6.d Relevant parameters for pumps.........................................................13
6.e Exercise:.............................................................................................13
7 Performance curve for pumps.................................................................14
7.a A pump test.......................................................................................14
7.b System curve.....................................................................................15
7.b.i Estimation from a given range........................................................15
7.c Exercises............................................................................................15
8 Pump scaling...........................................................................................17
8.a Flow parameter and head parameter................................................17
8.b Changing impeller speed...................................................................17
8.c Changing impeller size.......................................................................17
8.d Two pumps in series...........................................................................17
8.e Two pumps in parallel........................................................................17
8.f Exercises............................................................................................17
9 Complex piping systems.........................................................................18
9.a Piping systems with pipes of varying diameter..................................19
9.a.i Minor losses....................................................................................19
9.a.ii Friction losses..................................................................................19
9.a.iii Laminar flow:................................................................................19
9.a.iv Moderate turbulence in smooth pipes..........................................19
9.a.v Moderate turbulence in moderately rough pipes............................19
9.a.vi Highly turbulent flow....................................................................19
9.a.vii Transitional flow...........................................................................19
9.b Other use of Equivalent length........................................................19
9.c Exercise..............................................................................................19
10 Two parallel pipes....................................................................................20
10.a Head change between points (1) and (2)...........................................20
10.a.i Long pipelines..............................................................................21
10.b By-pass valve for a pump...................................................................21
10.c Exercises............................................................................................21
11 Three reservoirs......................................................................................22
11.a Step 1: Make some initial statements and guesses..........................22
11.b Step 2: Choose one of the flow options for reservoir B: flow from B
into C..........................................................................................................22
11.c Step 3: Choose the other flow options for reservoir B: flow from A into
B 23
11.d Exercise..............................................................................................23
2
Fluid Mechanics
Internal flows External flows
Water Pumping water, oil, etc. Ships, submarines, fish
around the world, through
and other
pipes in your car or through
liquids flexible pipes in your body
Getting water to do work
for us
- Water mills
- Hydropower stations
- Wave and tidal power
stations
Air and Compressing gas Driving through air
other Pumping it possibly at Flying through air
gases high pressure or high speed Prediction of weather and
through a duct climate on Earth, Mars,
Jupiter etc.
This Semesters topic:

Internal flows of water and other liquids
Pumping water, oil, etc. around the world, through pipes in your car or
through flexible pipes in your body
3
Lecture Programme
1. Fundamental equations
2. Review of first semester
3. Pipe friction and Laminar pipe flow
4. Turbulent pipe flow
5. Fittings and minor losses
6. Pumps
7. Pump performance
8. System head and Operating Point
9. Pump selection
10. Complex pipes
11. Branched pipes
12. Review
4
1 Fundamental equations
1.a Control Volume
A volume needed to be able to write down the relevant equations for mass,
momentum, and energy balances. They usually consist of one or more
inlets, one or more outlets and solid walls.
1.b Conservation of mass: Continuity equation
Mass cannot be created or destroyed, or Mass entering a control volume
must either increase the mass contained within the control volume or must
exit the control volume.
In steady-state situations, where quantities do not change over time
(including the density or total mass within a control volume), this shortens to
What comes in at some flow rate must also leave at the same rate.
Mass flow rate: min = min.
Incompressible fluid (such as liquids): density stays constant:
Mass flow rate, m = Density * Volume flow rate, Q = AU
Volume flow rate in = Volume flow rate out: A1 U1 = A2 U2 .
1.c Conservation of momentum: Newtons 2nd law, the
momentum equation
Momentum: mass * velocity, m U
Newton 2: Any rate of change of momentum is balanced by a force
Rate of change of momentum: d(mU)/dt = ma + m U
The total force in a direction (x, y, z, separately) on a control volume
= the sum of all body forces within the control volume (e.g. gravity)
+ the sum of all surface forces on the control volume boundary
(pressure and shear)
is balanced (=)
the sum of (x, y, z-) momentum flow rate into the volume
the sum of (x, y, z-) momentum flow rate out of the volume
Momentum flow rate in the x - direction: QU
1.d Conservation of energy: Bernoullis equation
Energy is conserved. It cannot be created or destroyed but it can be
changed into a different form of energy
Energy (J) Energy Specific Head (m)
density / energy (J/kg)
pressure (Pa)
Potential mgz gz gz z
energy
Pressure pV p p/ h= p/ ( g)
energy
Kinetic m U2 U2 U2 U2 / (2g)
energy
Between two points, 1 and 2, along a fluid stream (streamline) the total
energy is conserved (Bernoulllis equation):
5
gz1 p1 21 U12 gz2 p2 21 U22 p
p1 U12 p2 U22
gz1 gz2
2 2
p1 U12 p2 U22
z1 z2 HL
g 2g g 2g

1.d.i Hydrostatic pressure
In a stagnant fluid, where one point is at an elevation z1= h and a reference
pressure (p1=0),
and the other point at a reference height (z2=0), the pressure at that point
will be p= g h. This h= p/( g) is also referred to as the static head, which
can be used to rewrite Bernoulli
U2 U2
z1 h1 1 z2 h2 2 HL
2g 2g
z : elevation
h : static head
U2/(2g) : dynamichead
h + U /(2g) : stagnation head
2
1.d.ii Energy and power

Power is the rate of change of energy
the rate at which energy is flowing through
the rate at which energy is converted
the rate at which energy is generated
the rate at which energy is transmitted
the rate at which energy is consumed
Units: 1 watt = 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 kg m2 / s3
Types of Energy and power

Energy Energy per Power
volume
(Linear) mechanical work: Fd F / m2 = p FU
(Rotational) mechanical: T T
Electrical: QV IV
Potential/pressure/Hydrau p V or m g p o or g H p Q or g H Q
lic: H
Fluid-kinetic: m U2 U2 QU2 or
AU3
1.e Exercise
Calculate
The static pressure of stationary water in a pipeline 120 m below the
water surface.
[1177 kPa]
6
The jet velocity of water emerging into air from a pipeline with a head of
50 m. [31 m/s]
The dynamic head of water flowing at 2 m/s. [0.2
m]
The stagnation pressure of water flowing at 3 m/s with a static head of
5 m.
Pumping water: Calculate
the hydraulic power flow at a flow rate of 20 litres per second up to a level
of 30 m higher.
[5.9 kW]
The hydraulic power imparted to water by a pump if it provides a flow rate
of 15 m3 /hr and if there is a pressure rise across the pump of 40 bar.
[16.7 kW]
the torque on the shaft rotating at 1200 rpm for both pumps
7
2 Laminar friction flow

Shear stress, (units N/m2 = kg/ (m s2) = Pa)
Shear force F= A, where A is the surface along which it is applied
u
For Newtonian fluids: shear stress (in a Cartesian geometry)
y
u
or (in a cylindrical geometry, such as a pipe),
r
where (units kg m1 s1) isthe dynamic viscosity.
For water = 0.001 kg/(ms), for standard air at ground level, = 1.79105
kg/(ms).
Sometimes, the kinematic viscosity is used: (units m2/s).
2.a Reynolds number
u Au 2 D2U02 u2
Ratio of momentum flow rate (inertial forces) J m
u U u D U0 U0D
2 2
to shear forces 0 gives Re U 2 or Re .
r D r D0 D
Using the kinematic viscosity, = ,
this is same as Re= U0D/.
2.b Hagen Poiseuille Flow

Net force = 0 = p r 2 p p r 2 2 r x
=
x 0
r p and also

u
2 x r

u r p 1 dp r 2 dp

r
=
2 x
du 2 dx r dr u 4 dx C
1 dp
u(r )
4 dx
R2 r 2
dp 32U0 L 128Q L
p L
dx D D D 3 D
2.c Fanning friction factor

In Bernoulli, gz1 p1 21 U1 gz2 p2 21 U2 p ,
2 2
it is useful to compare energy terms against kinetic energy / dynamic head

Fanning friction factor, f, is defined such that p 4f DL 12 U0 .
2
gz1 p1 21 U12 gz2 p2 21 U22 4f DL 21 U22

8
16 16
Fanning friction factor for laminar flow in a circular pipe: f
U0D Re
2.c.i Darcy Friction factor
NB: Many people and books use the Darcy friction factor, defined such that
p f DL 21 U02 . Then fDarcy = 4 fFanning = 64 / Re
2.d Exercise
Calculate for a flow rate of 1 l/min the Reynolds number, Fanning friction
factor, pressure drop and dynamic pressure (in pascal), specific energy loss
(in joule per kilogram), head loss and dynamic head (in metre) for water (=
1000 kg/m3; = 0.001 kg/(m s)), an oil (= 800 kg/m3; = 0.03 kg/(m s)), and
air (= 1.225 kg/m3; = 1.79105 kg/(m s) ) flowing through pipes of length
5 m and 50 m, and diameter 10 mm and 250 mm.
[water in 5m/10mm pipe: Re= 2122; f = 0.0075; 22.5Pa; 340Pa; 0.23J/kg;
2.3mm 34.6 mm]
3 Turbulent flow
3.a Reynolds number
Reynolds number, Re = U D /
measures the inertial forces the momentum flow rate, U2 D2, against
viscous shear forces, U / D D2
Low Reynolds number Viscous forces dominate
At low Reynolds numbers, small perturbations in the flow field get
smoothed by viscosity
Laminar flow
High Reynolds number Inertial effects dominate
At high Reynolds numbers, small perturbations may have enough inertia to
keep going
Turbulent flow
3.b Transition from laminar to turbulent flow
Transition from laminar to turbulence depends on
The Reynolds number
The initial state of the flow
The roughness of the boundary
There is no fixed value of critical Reynolds number
A rule of thumb is that the flow in a pipe is laminar if Re < 2000 and
turbulent if Re > 3000, with a typical nominal transition point of Re~ 2300
3.c Laminar and Turbulent flow
Laminar flow
o Flow is fully defined and fluid particles follow well-defined
streamlines
o Laminar flow can be steady
u(r ) r 2
o Fully developed velocity profile in circular pipe: 1 .
UMAX R
o UMAX = 2U0, where UMAX is the centre-line velocity and U0 given by
U0 =Q/A
Turbulent flow
o Is always unsteady
9
o It is impossible to write down a full description of the flow

o Instead, one has to describe an averaged flow
o No single solution exists, only empirical correlations, for
1/n
u(r ) r
example 1 with
UMAX R
n ~ 5 at Re~ 3000,
n = 6 at Re~ 104,
5
n= 7 at Re~ 10 ,
n= 9 at Re~ 106
o UMAX ~ 1.27 1.15 U0, (The higher n, the closer is UMAX to U0)
3.d Turbulent friction factor

1 /D 2.51
Empirical formula: Colebrook formula: 2.0log10
4f 3.7 Re 4f
: Surface roughness (e.g. in mm);
:/D: relative surface roughness (dimensionless)
4f: Usually it is given for the Darcy friction factor. This is for the Fanning
friction factor. To show the correspondence to the version given
elsewhere, the factor 4 has been kept explicitly, rather than divided out
with the other numerical values.
This is an implicit function f appears both, on the left hand side and the
right-hand side of the equation. You cannot get the value out explicitly in a
single step. Approaches:
a) use an approximation
Blasius : only useful for smooth pipes if Re <~ 10 5 : f = 0.079 / Re1/4
Highly turbulent in rough pipes: Re > 3500 D/ : f ~ 1 / ( 2.28 4 log10 (
/D ) ) 2
Haaland:
In a way, this uses the Colebrook formula
1 /D 1.11 6.9 with an initial guess of f ~ 0.033 and fiddles
1.8 log10
4f 3.7 Re with the roughness term and the number at
the front to give good results.
Serghides:

A 2log10 3.7 Re
/ D 12

In a way, this goes through the Colebrook formula
three times where it uses a first guess of f ~ 0.01 in

B A2 the right-hand side of the Colebrook formula to
2

B 2log10 3.7/ D Re f A
2.51A
C2BA
calculate an estimate of the friction factor with the
name A. This is then used for f in the right-hand

side of the Colebrook equation again, this time to
2.51B
C 2log10 3.7/ D Re get another estimate of the friction factor with
name B. And a third time, for C. Those estimates
are then used in an extrapolation to get even closer to the true answer
10
b) Solve it iteratively (as in the MATLAB routine posted on VISION)

For Q= 30 l/s; D = 120 mm; and = 2 mm, you enter f = fmoody(0.03,
0.12,0.002).
First, the script decides whether to go for the laminar or turbulent
friction factor.
If it decides on the turbulent, it calls the subfunction Colebrook
In that subfunction it makes a first guess of the friction factor using
the initial guess from the Serghides formula.
The first guess is then entered into the right-hand side of the
Colebrook formula to give a new guess.
This new guess is compared with the previous one.
If the difference between the two guesses is less than 1 part in 105,
we have found a solution which is good enough for anybody.
Note : Colebrook is for Darcy friction factor, converted to Fanning in
fmoody.
3.e Exercises
1. Calculate the Fanning friction factor for water flowing at volume flow
rates of 1 l/min, 100 m3/hr and 1 m3/s through pipes made of a smooth
surface, PVC or concrete with diameters 20 mm or 250 mm; Calculate
the head loss (in m) in a pipe of length 50 m.
2. Find an optimum pipe diameter for a 500 m-long concrete pipe to carry
water at 25 m3/s while minimising capital costs (e.g. cost = a0+a1D+a2D2
or cost = a D b , 1.1<b<1.4) and operational costs (minimise frictional
losses)
4 Minor losses
All components apart from lengths of pipe which make up a pipeline system
Inlet and Outlet
Valves
Bends
Couplings
Junctions
At each fitting, some energy will be lost
Quantify that in a way similar to frictional losses
Minor loss coefficient K: K 12 U ; p K 12 U ; HL K 21g U
2 2 2
4.a Sudden expansion and pipe outlets

Assumptions:
U1 and U2 uniform across pipe
No frictional losses
Fairly horizontal streamlines at
expansion
p1 = pa = pb = pc Force on left side
is p1 A2
Balance equations
Mass : A1 U1 = A2 U2
Momentum: p1 A2 p2 A2 = A2 U2 (U2 U1 )
Energy: p1 / + U12 = p2 / + U22 +
11
2

2
A1 D1 2
Loss coefficient K 1 or K 1

A2 D 2
Outlet into tank or into the open: Expansion to essentially an infinite pipe:
K= 1

4.b Contractions pipe inlets.
and
Streamlines no longer horizontal at
expansion pb pa
But Vena Contracta with area AC = CC
A2
and expansion following
( CC=AC/A2 also depends on A1 and Re)
2
1
K 1
CC
Loss coefficient depends strongly on shape of contraction.

A well-rounded contraction can reduce the loss coefficient to under K~ 0.05:
Inlets: just like contractions from infinity:
flush/square: K= 0.5, slightly rounded: K= 0.2;well rounded K = 0.04;
protruding K= 0.8
4.c Other fittings

Elbows
Regular 90, flanged........0.3
Regular 90, threaded......1.5
Long radius 90, flanged..0.2
Long radius 90, threaded0.7
Regular 45, threaded......0.4
Long radius 45, flanged..0.2
Return bends
180 , flanged........0.2
180, threaded......1.5
Tees
Line flow, flanged........0.2
Line flow, threaded......0.9
Branch flow, ..........flanged 1.0
Branch flow, .......threaded 2.0
Union
Threaded ....................0.08
12
Valves
Globe valve, ......fully open 10
Angle valve, ......fully open 2
Gate valve, fully open....0.15

closed......0.26
closed......2.1
closed....17
Swing check valve,

Forward flow2
Return flow..
Ball valve, fully open....0.05

1/3 closed....5.5
2/3 closed210
4.d Exercise
Analyse a branching pipe consisting of sections of 15 mm-diameter PVC
pipes
A common section (15 m long) with a well-rounded inlet, a globe valve,
fully open, and threaded Tee junction
A continuing section (5 m long) with a regular, threaded 90 elbow, two
long radius flanged 45 elbows, a gate valve, either wide open or fully
shut, and an outlet
A branch section (3 m long) with two long-radius flanged 90 elbows, a
gate valve, either wide open or fully shut and an outlet
Analyse the two cases where either the branch is fully closed and the line
fully open, and the other way round
Find the friction and loss coefficients and head losses for flow rates of 0.5, 1,
5, and 10 litres per second.
5 Simple piping systems

5.a Review of Bernoullis equation with energy losses
Along a streamline, between point 1 (e.g. an inlet) and point 2 (e.g. an
outlet): Z1 H1 2g1 U1 Z2 H2 2g1 U2 HL .
2 2
Z refers to the physical elevation, H to the static head, H= p/(g),

and U2/(2g) to the dynamic head (all in units [m]).
HL denotes the head loss between points 1 and 2, made up of friction losses

along the pipe and minor losses in fittings
5.a.i Frictional head loss:
Hf 4f DL 2g1 U2 , using either f= 16/Re for laminar flow or Colebrooks formula
for turbulent flow (or an appropriate approximation or referring to the Moody
diagram).
5.a.ii Minor losses
Each fitting results in a head loss of HL, i Ki 1

2g
U2.
13

5.a.iii Bernoullis with reference to fluid velocity in pipes of constant

diameter

0 Z2 Z1 H2 H1 21g U12

A1 2
A2

N

1 4f DL i 1Ki 1
2g
U12 .
One can always choose a reference level, e.g. Z1 = 0, and a reference
pressure, e.g. H1 = 0.
If the diameter is constant, the velocity is constant throughout.
One can still include a nozzle or diffuser at the outlet. This does not affect
the dynamic head elsewhere in the pipeline, and the nozzle or diffuser can
be treated as a fitting with a minor loss coefficient of K 1.
A0 2
A2
Incorporating all these simplifications gives 0 Z H 4f L

D
i 1Ki
N
1
2g
U2.
5.a.iv Bernoullis with reference to volume flow rate

Using U= Q/A = 4Q/ (D2), Bernoullis can be re-written as
L 8
0 Z H 4 f i 1Ki
N
Q2 .
D g D
2 4
Often, the static head and elevation difference can be lumped into a single
head, Z .
Often, all minor losses can be lumped into a single loss component, K = Ki .
L 8Q 2 L 8
0 Z 4 f K 2 4 or, using C 4 f i 1Ki
N
2 4 : 0 Z CQ .
2
D g D D g D
5.b System curve
Bernoullis equation states the condition that all the terms on the right-hand
side have to add up to zero if the pipeline consists of pipes and fittings. The
right-hand side itself contains a description of the piping system and what
happens in it. As a result, the right-hand side alone is called the System
curve and the sum of those terms is called the System head:
L 8Q 2
HS Z 4 f K 2 4 Z CQ 2
D g D
The system curve starts at a fixed value, Z or Z+H, at zero flow rate and
then increases like a quadratic equation .
Note, however, that the number C does depend on the flow rate so it isnt a
true quadratic. In most practical cases the variation in f with the flow rate,
and the effect on C are small and can often be neglected.
5.c Examples
5.c.i Example 1
A water tank in the loft is 5 m above a tap. The water level is maintained at
1 m above the outlet from the tank into the pipeline of length 20 m.
The pipes are made of copper with diameter 15 mm. Surface roughness
when new is = 0.0015 mm, and = 0.01 mm when old. The pipeline has
the following fittings: a flush, square inlet, six standard threaded 90 bends,
two threaded Tee junctions (Line flow), a safety gate valve (fully open), and a
tap with a globe valve
a.Find the maximum flow rate when new and old
b. Determine the valve setting to achieve a flow rate of 10 l/min
c.Find the maximum flow rate in the old system if the tank is almost empty
14
5.c.ii Solution for part a) for new pipes using a first guess
Z = Z2 Z1= 0 5 m = 5 m
H= H2 H1= 1 m
(Outlet at tap into atmosphere but 1 m of water above the inlet into the
pipe
Since the water level is maintained, we can lump those together into Z=
Z+H= 6 m
L= 20 m, D= 0.015 m, /D = 10 4 , K= 22.45
Looking at the /D = 10 4-curve on the Moody diagram we think that fa ~
0.005 might be a reasonable first guess.
With that, we have numbers for all parameters in the system curve apart
20 8Q 2 2
from the flow rate: HS 6 4 0.005 22.45 2 a 4 6 80.17 106 Qa .
0.015 g 0.015
(Subscript a for flow rate to show that this is just a first guess of the flow
rate)
Bernoulli states that HS = 0. Qa2 = 6/80.17106= 74.810 9 . Qa =
0.274 l/s.
Having worked out this first guess we can actually work out a Reynolds
number, Re= 23,200 and use Moody to get a better estimate of f: fb=
0.0063:
20 8Qb
2
0 6 4 0.0063 22.45 2 Qb 0.256 l/s .
0.015 g 0.0154
The new flow rate gives Re= 21,740. Using this, Moody gives a better
estimate of f:
fc= 0.0064, which then gives Qc = 0.255 l/s.
Using that gives Re= 21,638 and Moody gives fc= 0.0064, which then gives
Qc = 0.255 l/s.
This procedure could be repeated many more times, but one see that the
results wont change anymore within the precision given here (three decimal
places).
5.c.iii Solution using Matlab routine
Download L6Ex1_watertank.m, SysHead.m, and fmoody.m into a
directory.
Run L6Ex1_watertank and it does it for you
5.d Exercises
1. Determine and plot the system curve, and find the flow rate, for a 2.3 km
pipeline delivering an oil [density 850 kg/m3; dynamic viscosity 0.03 kg/
(ms)]
down by 35 m, made of a 1 m diameter steel pipe with a total minor loss
coefficient of K= 32.
2. Determine and plot the system curve, and find the flow rate for the
Example 2 if the supply point provides water at a pressure of 2 bar.
3. Determine and plot the system curve to bring water up a hill by 76 m
through a 250 m-long pipeline made of a 250 mm-diameter PVC piping
with a total minor loss coefficient of K= 65. Determine the additional
head required to result in a flow rate of 10 l/s.
15
6 Pumps; Introduction and overview

6.a Role of pumps
Referring back to the system curve, pumps are used to provide the energy or
head required to do one or more of the following at a desired rate of delivery
(flow rate Q).
Increase the potential energy (Z)
Provide the required pressure (H)
Provide the change in kinetic energy ( r (U22 U12) )
Overcome the head losses (HL)
6.b Types of fluid machines adding energy to fluid
Pumps: for moving liquids, such as water, oil, blood, food stuffs
Important terms: elevation and losses
Fans: for moving gases; Important terms: losses; Types of fans
o Open propeller-type fans (desktop or ceiling-mounted)
o Ducted propeller type fans (e.g. in simple extractor fans)
o Centrifugal fans (Ventilation & Air conditioning systems)
Compressors: such as tyre/bicycle pumps
Important terms: pressure difference and losses
6.c Types of pumps
6.c.i Positive displacement pumps
Moving wall forces fluid at specified flow rate, regardless of the head loss
Very precise flow rate selection possible
Flow rate cannot be affected by valves but must be controlled by
speed of pump
Possibly dangerous situation if obstruction downstream
Piston in cylinder: Alternating suction stroke and discharge stroke;
useful for small to medium flow rates; but fluctuating flow rate, though
can be smoothed by surge chamber or several pumps working out of
phase
Peristaltic pumps: Flexible tubing is squeezed by rotating rollers
Fluid does not come in contact with moving machinery; commonly
used in medical application; only useful for very small flow rates;
discharge in little bursts
Gear pumps: Set of two gear wheels or several vanes move fluid
Can achieve very constant flow rate; useful for small flow rates
6.c.ii Roto-dynamic pumps or centrifugal pumps
Rotating impeller in stationary housing
Uniform flow rate, but depends on head loss and can be controlled by
valves
Medium to large flow rates
Depending on shape of impeller, could be radial-flow, mixed-flow, or axial-
flow pump
6.d Relevant parameters for pumps
Flow rate to be delivered, Q
Head required at that flow rate, Hp
Power consumption, Pin
16
Impeller shape and size, D

Impeller (piston) speed, W
Head and power consumption for various flow rates must be found for each
impeller shape using a particular impeller size and rotation rate.
6.e Exercise:
none have an afternoon off
7 Performance curve for pumps

7.a A pump test
Q Ps (kPa) Pd (kPa) I (A)
(m3/hr)
0 -25 367 18.0
114 -29 333 26.2
182 -32 292 31.0
227 -39 236 36.0
250 -43 216 37.0
273 -46 188 37.3
318 -53 105 39.0
Note: The motor driving the pump is a 341 -58 50 41.5
3-phase motor, and the
conversion from measured current to electrical power is Pel = 627V * I,
with I in Ampere.
Steps:
pd ps p ps
1. Convert pressures and levels to head: H p z d z s 0.6m d
g 9810
2. Convert the current to electrical power input, Pin
3. Calculate the fluid power (hydraulic power), PH= gHQ
4. Calculate the efficiency
5. Plot H vs. Q
6. Fit a curve to it
In most cases, a curve of the

form HP = H0 B Q2 works
very well.
In that case, you can plot
H (m)
H vs. Q2 and fit a straight

line through the points
Q (m3/h)
17
Q HP (m) Pin PH
(m3/h (kW) (kW)
)
0
114
182
227
250
273
318
341
18
7.b System curve

Most sensible cases: HP = H0 B Q2
Either provided by manufacturer as a graph or table, or can be
estimated from a given range (sometimes on a label on the pump)
Important points:
Shut-off head: the head/pressure when all valves are closed this is
usually the highest possible head/pressure which the pump can provide
needed for pipeline design
Best-efficiency point: The pair of flow rate and associated head at which
the pump is most efficient (around 70 to 80%). This should near to the
normal operating conditions
Maximum flow rate: the highest flow rate which the pump can give
without collapsing
7.b.i Estimation from a given range

If you are given only a range (or if you have two measurements)
Flow rate: Q1 to Q2
Head: H1 to H2
Usually with a given rotation rate and power figure to indicate the
electricity demand
Assume HP= H0 B Q2: two unknowns and two equations (one for each pair
of flow/head)
H H
B 1 2 and H0 H1 BQ12
Q2 Q1
Best-efficiency point usually somewhere in the middle of the available flow
range.
7.c Exercises
1. Determine the performance curve and BEP for a pump with an impeller
diameter of 60cm, running at 1200rpm from the following test data
using an oil with density 870 kg/m3 and pressure gauges at the level of
the impeller inlet eye and 0.5 m higher up in the discharge pipe:
1 l/s: -20 kPa, 320 kPa; 207 W
19
3 l/s: -40 kPa. 250 kPa; 339 W

4 l/s; -45 kPa, 220 kPa; 395 W
5 l/s; -55 kPa, 180 kPa; 470 W
7 l/s; -80 kPa, 40 kPa; 700 W
2. Estimate the performance curve from the label printed on the pump
as:
Flow 25 330 m3/hr; Head 67 45 m; 600rpm; 100 kW
20
8 Pump scaling
8.a Flow parameter and head parameter
1. The flow parameter measures the flow rate against impeller size and
Q
speed: Q
D3
2. The head parameter measures the head against impeller size and speed:
gH
H 2 2
D
are dimensionless and can be used to re-scale the performance curve
Both
for different impeller speeds and impeller sizes.
8.b Changing impeller speed

With a given performance curve of the pump running at speed , the
performance curve for the same impeller running at a different speed , can
be found by using the head and flow parameters:
At : HP= H0 B Q2
At : HP= H0 B Q 2
But we also know gHP / (2D2) = gHP / ( 2D 2) or HP = ( / )2 HP
if we have at the same time Q / ( D3) = Q / ( D 3) or Q = ( / ) Q
From that we get immediately that H0= ( / )2 H0
H0 HP
To find B , we re-write the system curve for HP as B which turns
Q 2
H0 HP H0 HP
2 2
into B . Comparing this with the system curve for

Q 2
2
Q2
HP gives B = B.
Knowing the performance curve at one speed gives us the performance
2
curve at another speed as HP H0 B Q .
2
8.c Changing impeller size

Same as for changing

speed, except with HP = (D /D )2 HP and Q = (D /D )3
Q:
The shut-off head changes to H0= (D /D )2 H0
H0 HP D 0 D P
2 2 4 4
D
H D H D H0 HP D
B turns into B B .
Q 2 D
D 6 2
Q
D

Q 2
D
D 2 D 4
HP 0
H 2
B Q .
D D
in series
8.d Two pumps
Same flow rate goes through both pumps, each adds its own head:
For identical pumps: H2Ps 2HP 2H0 2BQ 2
8.e Two pumps in parallel
Pressures are the same at the inlet of the two pumps, and their outlet,
respectively. Different fluid goes through, and the sum of the individual flow

21
rates is the total flow rate. If the pumps are identical, the flow splits evenly
into Q/2: H2Pp H0 14 BQ
2
8.f Exercises
Choose one of the pumps from section 7.c. Plot on one graph the
performance
curves for the original case, the rotation rate increased by 40%,
the size by 40%, and two the original pumps, in series and in parallel.
9 Complex piping systems

Complex piping systems might include things as pipes of different diameter,
branched pipes, and several supply or discharge points. It can be difficult to
write down the system curve for such a system, let alone solve it to find the
total flow rate and the flow rates in individual sections.
Basic tools
We know how to write the system curve in each individual section, which
gives a head (or pressure) change from one end of the section to the other
as a function of the flow rate in that section.
At a branch point, where one pipe splits into two branches or where two
pipes join to continue in a single pipe, the flow rate through one section is
equal to the sum of the flow rates in the other two sections.
At a branch point, the unique value of the local pressure or head applies to
the three system curves associated with the three sections linked to that
branch point.
Following one particular path in that system, the total head or pressure
change is the sum of the head or pressure changes in the individual
sections making up that path.
22
9.a Piping systems with pipes of varying diameter

8Q 2 8Q 2
Basic system curve: H L 4f K1
g 2D14
L1 L2

4f2 D 2 K2 K3
1 D1
g 2D 24

.
Choose one diameter as a reference diameter, for example D2 :
2
8Q
Re-arranged to: HL 4f1 D12

L
4f
D2 5
D1
L2
2 D2 K
1 D1
D2 4
K2 K3
g 2D24
9.a.i Minor losses
Minor loss coefficient K transformed to an equivalent minor loss coefficient:
.
4
Ke K D
2
D1
9.a.ii Friction losses

5
L1 8Q 2 Le 8Q 2 f1 D2
Concept of equivalent length: 4f 4f2 4 gives Le L1
g D1 D2 g D2
1 D1 2 4 2
f2 D1
9.a.iii Laminar flow:

64 16 D1 16 D2 D1 D1 D2 4
f1 f
1 f1 f2 gives Le
L1
Re1 Q Q D2 D2 D1
9.a.iv Moderate turbulence in smooth pipes
Blasius for Re <~ 105:
1/ 4
0.079 D1 D2 1/
4
D1
1/ 4
D1
1/ 4
f1 0.0198 f1 0.0198 f1 f2
Re11 / 4 Q Q D2 D2
4.75
D
gives Le 2 L1
D1

9.a.v Moderate turbulence in moderately rough pipes
Using Blasius is a good enough approximation
9.a.vi Highly turbulent flow
Tricky
9.a.viiTransitional flow
Laminar flow in some pipes, turbulent in others: tricky
9.b Other use of Equivalent length
Some refer to equivalent length of a fitting as the length of pipe which
D
results in the same loss as that fitting: Le K.
4f
9.c Exercise

Find and draw the equivalent system curve for a pipeline consisting of a
flush/square inlet into a pipe of diameter 50 mm and length 30 m (going
down by 5 m), with two 90 elbows, then a fitting to a 25 mm pipe of length
20 m, (going up again by 2 m) also with two 90 elbows and an outlet.
(Assume both pipes have a surface roughness of 0.1 mm).
Compare the equivalent system curve with the sum of the individual system
curves.
23
Hint: First identify regions which are tricky, then choose one of the
diameters as your reference to calculate the equivalent minor loss
coefficients and appropriate equivalent lengths for the friction losses.
10Two parallel pipes

A pipeline splits in two pipes which rejoin later:
Applications:
a) to reduce pressure drops and, consequently, power requirements on
pump.
b) As a by-pass around a pump: a pump is installed in one branch and a
valve; this allows to start up the pump safely and to control the flow
rate.
10.a Head change between points (1) and (2)
Assuming that points (1) and (2) are the same height, z1=z2, and that the
flow goes from (0), splits a (1), joins at (2), and goes to (3):
L
Hb h1 h2 4fb Dbb Kb 8Q b2
g 2D b4
and L
Hc h1 h2 4fc Dcc Kc 8Q c2
g 2D c4
,
together with continuity: Q Qb Qc .

8Q 2 8Q 2
Cc 4fc Dcc Kc : Cb g 2Db 4 Cc g 2Dc 4
L L
Since Hb=Hc and using Cb 4fb Dbb Kb and
b c
2
Qb 4fc Dc Kc Db
Lc
2
Q C Db
4
or b c or Lb or,
Qc Cb Dc
Qc 4fb Db Kb Dc

Q C
Db 2
using Qb=Q-Qc and (Q-Qc)/Qc = Q/Qc 1 : 1 c or,
Qc Cb Dc
Qc 2 Cb Dc 4

using Q 2 .
Cb Cc

Db 2
Dc
Db
Since the head loss in one branch is equal to that in the other, the head loss
contribution from that parallel section to the overall system curve is equal to
that from one of the branches only, i.e using the system curve for either
branch b using Qb only or for branch c using Qc only.
The system in the figure at the top of the page then has three sections which
can either be written as HS z1 z0 CaQ 2 z2 z1 CbQb z2 z3 Cd Q 2 or as
2
HS z1 z0 CaQ 2 z2 z1 CcQc z2 z3 Cd Q 2 . Taking the second version,

2
24

2
together with Z= z3 z0, this can be re-arranged to HS Z CaQ 2 CcQc Cd Q 2
Qc 2
or HS Z Ca Cc Cd Q , when then can be used as the system curve for
2
Q
the complete piping system (remember that Cc still contains the friction
factor as a function of Qc rather than Q )
10.a.i Long pipelines
In long pipelines, minor losses will be much smaller than the friction and can
5 /2 5 /2
Qb fc Lc Db Q fc Lc Db
be ignored: or 1 .
Qc fb Lb Dc Qc fb Lb Dc
Assuming turbulent flow, and the equivalent length concept based on the
1/ 4 4 /7 19/ 7
fc Qb Dc Qb Lc Db
Blasius correlation (10): : .
fb Qc Db Qc Lb Dc
fc Qb Dc
4
Qb Lc Db
Using laminar flow, gives
fb Qc Db Qc Lb Dc

10.b By-pass valve for a pump
In some cases, a by-pass valve is used to start a pump safely or to control
the flow rate.
There, the pipe sections are very short, and the main components are the
pipe in one branch and the valve in the other all other fittings and friction
losses can be ignored.
Take a pump with a performance curve HP = H0 B Q2 and a valve with a loss
coefficient K in a pipe of diameter D. If the flow through the rest of the
system is Q and the flow through the by-pass section is Qb, then the flow
through the pump section is QP = Q + Qb.
Using the fact that the pressure change across the pump section and across
the by-pass section are the same and using K K g 2D 4 we get:
8
H H B Q Q K Q 2 .
2
P 0 b b
B H B
This can be re-arranged to Qb 2 Q Qb 0 Q 2 .
2
K
B KB KB
B H0 1
With Cb , the solution is Qb 2
1 1 Cb Q .
KB BCb Q Cb

Then one can use this equation in HP K Qb to find the operating point.
2

10.c Exercises
1. A penstock (= big pipeline) of total length of 22 km takes water at a rate of up to 80 m 3/s

from a reservoir to a hydropower station while keeping losses to a minimum. Consider
five alternative solutions: (ie
calculate the head losses):
a. a single steel pipe of diameter 5 m
b. two parallel steel pipes of diameter 2.5 m each over the entire length
c. a single section with 5 m and length 15 km followed by a section with two parallel
pipes with 2.5 m each.
d. As in c) but with the added constraint that one of the pipes in the parallel sections
ends up being 10 km long while the other pipe stays at 7 km.
e. As in c) but one of the pipes in the parallel section has a diameter of 2 m while the
other has a diameter of 3 m.
2. A pump with performance curve HP= H0 B Q2 = 13 m 2.1108 Q2 (Q in m3/s) in a
circulating water loop in smooth pipes of diameter 10 mm, length 11 m and minor loss
coefficients 18 is fitted with a by-pass valve.
25
a. Draw a graph of the flow rate against the loss coefficient due to the by-pass valve.
b. Determine the valve setting required to achieve a flow rate of 1 litre per second.
26
11Three reservoirs
The case of three reservoirs
each linked by a pipe to a
common branch point:
This is best shown by

example:
ZA = 30 m; ZB= 7 m;
ZC= 0 m;
L1 = 300 m, D1= 300
mm, f1, K1
L1 = 150 m, D2= 300
mm, f2, K2
L1 = 100 m, D3= 300
mm, f3, K3
The solution wants to find

the flow into or out of each reservoir.
11.a Step 1: Make some initial statements and guesses

We know that the flow will certainly be out of reservoir A and into reservoir C.
However, it not possible to say a priori whether reservoir B will drain or
receive fluid.
Knowing that there will definitely be a flow from A to C, we can estimate the
order of magnitude of the flow by considering the simple pipeline system
consisting of reservoir A, pipe 1, pipe 3, and reservoir C: The system curve
for that system is
0 = HS = ZC ZA + (4 f L1/D1 + K1 ) 8 / (g2D14) + (4 f L2/D2 + K2 ) 8 / (g2D24) ]
Q2 ,
Neglecting minor losses for the first guess, and using the fact that both pipes
have the same diameter, this simplifies to 0 = ZC ZA + 4 f ( L1+ L2)/D1 * 8
Q2 / (g2D14)
which gives a flow rate of Q0= 0.26 m3/s and an associated friction factor f0 =
0.004.
This could be refined by adding minor losses, or we can do a simple fudge by
increasing the friction factor slightly say to 0.005.
11.b Step 2: Choose one of the flow options for reservoir B:
flow from B into C
This can also be phrased that the flow from reservoirs A and B joins at the
junction and that the combined flow then flows through pipe 3 into reservoir
C. The basic equations are:
Continuity Q1 Q2 Q3
Bernoulli for A to C:
UA2 UC2 L1 8Q12 L3 8Q3 2
hA z A hC zC 4f1 K1 2 4 4f3 K3 2 4
2g 2g D1 g D1 D3 g D3
27
Bernoulli B to C:
UB2 UC2 L2 8Q2 2 L3 8Q3 2
hB z B hC zC 4f2 K2 4f3 K3
4
g D2 D3 g D3
2 2 4
2g 2g D2
Use
D1 = D2 = D3 = D
All reservoirs at atmospheric pressure, hA= hB= hC= 0
Reservoir surfaces ~ stagnant: UA= UB= UC= 0
zC = 0
Ignore minor losses
constant friction factor f ~ 0.004
The second and third equation can be re-arranged to :
32f 32f
zA
g D

2 5
2
2
L1Q1 L3Q3 and z B
g D2 5
2
2
L2Q2 L3Q3 . To shorten the
32f
equations, I use c 0.5404 .
g 2D 5
Now these two equations are re-arranged so that the two contributing branch
flows are expressed as a function of the combined flow:
2 z L 2 z L
Q1 A 3 Q32 0.185 0.333Q32 and Q2 B 3 Q32 0.0864 0.667Q32 .
cL1 L1 cL2 L2
These can be inserted into the continuity equation, Q1 Q2 Q3 to give
0.185 0.333Q32 0.0864 0.667Q32 Q3 .
2
For this to have a real solution, Q3 must be less than 0.185/0.333 = 0.556
and less than 0.0864/0.667 = 0.13 so it must be less than the smaller of
the two, which gives as the maximum flow rate for the left hand side 0.13 =
3
0.361 m /s.
Since the left hand side starts at a positive number when Q3 is zero and then
gets smaller, we can work out whether there is a point between zero and
0.361 by inserting 0.361 into the left hand side:
0.185 0.333 0.3612 0.0864 0.667 0.3612 0.142 0.376. Now we know that
the left hand side is always larger then 0.376 for all theoretically possible
flow rates but the left hand
side is always less than 0.361
so there is no real solution.
This is illustrated by the plot of
the right-hand side (green
solid line), the real component
of the left-hand side (blue
dash-dotted line), and the
imaginary component of the
left-hand side (red dotted line):
The equals of the right-hand
side and the real of the left-
hand side occurs after the first
kink in the dash-dotted line,
where the left-hand side has developed an imaginary part
28
11.c Step 3: Choose the other flow options for reservoir B:

flow from A into B
This can also be phrased that the flow from reservoir A splits at the branch
point, some flows into B and some into reservoir C. The basic equations are:
Q1 Q2 Q3
UA2 UC2 L1 8Q12 L3 8Q3 2
hA z A hC zC 4f1 K1 4f
2 4 3
K3 2 4
2g 2g D1 g D1 D3 g D3
UA2 UB2 L1 8Q1 2 L2 8Q2 2
hA z A hB z B 4f1 K1 2 4 4f2 K2 2 4 .
2g 2g D1 g D1 D2 g D2
2 z A L1 2
Go through same steps to get to Q3 Q1 0.551 3Q12 and
cL3 L3
2
Q2
z A z B L1 Q 2 0.282 2Q 2
cL2 L2
1 1 to give 0.551 3Q12 0.282 2Q12 Q1 .
3
This has a real solution for
the flow rate of Q1 = 0.3752 m /s..
11.d Exercise
Change the height of reservoir B to ZB= 12 m, and use flush inlets/outlets to
reservoirs and a flanged Tee-piece (line flow A C ; branch flow into B)
29

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B58EF: Mechanical Engineering Sciences 6: Fluid Mechanics

6.c.ii Roto-dynamic pumps or centrifugal pumps....................................13

This Semesters topic:

gz1 p1 21 U12 gz2 p2 21 U22 p

1.d.ii Energy and power

Units: 1 watt = 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 kg m2 / s3

Types of Energy and power

2 Laminar friction flow

2.c Fanning friction factor

it is useful to compare energy terms against kinetic energy / dynamic head

gz1 p1 21 U12 gz2 p2 21 U22 4f DL 21 U22

o It is impossible to write down a full description of the flow

3.d Turbulent friction factor

b) Solve it iteratively (as in the MATLAB routine posted on VISION)

4.a Sudden expansion and pipe outlets

Loss coefficient depends strongly on shape of contraction.

4.c Other fittings

Gate valve, fully open....0.15

Swing check valve,

Ball valve, fully open....0.05

5 Simple piping systems

Z refers to the physical elevation, H to the static head, H= p/(g),

Each fitting results in a head loss of HL, i Ki 1

5.a.iii Bernoullis with reference to fluid velocity in pipes of constant

Incorporating all these simplifications gives 0 Z H 4f L

5.a.iv Bernoullis with reference to volume flow rate

6 Pumps; Introduction and overview

Impeller shape and size, D

7 Performance curve for pumps

H vs. Q2 and fit a straight

7.b System curve

7.b.i Estimation from a given range

3 l/s: -40 kPa. 250 kPa; 339 W

8.b Changing impeller speed

into B . Comparing this with the system curve for

8.c Changing impeller size

9 Complex piping systems

9.a Piping systems with pipes of varying diameter

9.a.ii Friction losses

9.a.iii Laminar flow:

10Two parallel pipes

together with continuity: Q Qb Qc .

HS z1 z0 CaQ 2 z2 z1 CcQc z2 z3 Cd Q 2 . Taking the second version,

This is best shown by

The solution wants to find

11.a Step 1: Make some initial statements and guesses

B58EF: Mechanical Engineering Sciences 6: Fluid Mechanics

11.c Step 3: Choose the other flow options for reservoir B:

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