Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
for
Fashion
The
Complete
GuideNatural and
man-made bers
Published in 2014
by Laurence King Publishing Ltd
361373 City Road
London EC1V 1LR
tel +44 20 7841 6900
fax +44 20 7841 6910
e-mail enquiries@laurenceking.com
www.laurenceking.com
Section 1:
Animal bers
Section 2:
Plant bers
Section 3:
Man-made bers
Useful information
Introduction 8
Fibers to fabrics 12
Introducing color 44
Wool 62
Silk 104
Linen 128
Cotton 142
Resources/Glossary 248
Index/Credits/Acknowledgments 262
6
Introduction
Fashion design and textile knowledge are often taught as
separate disciplines, and knowledge of the raw materials
and processes that make up a fabric are not usually
integrated into fashion studies.
A condent understanding of fabrics, and the bers they
are composed of, is fundamental to the design process,
allowing one to make informed choices rather than arbitrary
decisions based upon surface appeal.
7
This book is intended as an easily navigable fabric lexicon Our relationship with bers and fabrics is intimate and all-
8 that explores the relationship between fashion and textiles encompassing; we are surrounded by, sleep in, and are clothed
and encourages an awareness of bers and fabrics in a broader by them. Historically textiles have been valued not only for their
fashion context. It is designed to inform the reader of the practical and aesthetic properties, but also as incredibly powerful
endless possibilities that fabrics offer to the design process. It is cultural indicators. Textiles display the artistry and ingenuity of
not intended as an exhaustive technical manual, but rather as a a civilization, the most precious examples of which even help
tool to inform, inspire, and encourage the creative use of fabrics. to denote status within society. In contemporary life an ever-
The content of the book is intended to support an essential more sophisticated and growing range of fabrics expresses the
knowledge base, which is fundamental to developing a range complex language of fashion.
of fashion products. The textile industry may be simplistically viewed as the
Focusing in turn on animal, plant, and man-made bers, supplier of the raw materials for the fashion industry, whereas in
each of the three sections considers the origins of specic bers reality the two industries are inextricably linked. Developments
within these classications, their history, provenance, and the in the textile industry invariably impact upon the fashion
processing journey to nished fabric. Additionally, it explores the industry, and vice versa. Fabrics are also incredibly powerful as
socioeconomic factors that may have inuenced the importance a strong visual indicator of a brand, often dening aspects of a
of a specic ber, in order to create an awareness of how ones brand identity.
choice of material may impact upon ecological, sustainable, and The fashion designers relationship with fabric is at the
ethical issues. heart of the creative process. The right choice of fabric is
Each section provides an extensive database fundamental to good design and is instrumental to its success.
of terminology, to encourage informed and effective The better the understanding of the material, the more effective
communication with industry professionals. This is is the symbiosis between the design and fabric.
underpinned with information about processes generic to
all bers regardless of origin. The importance of color is
explored within a separate section, and the nal chapter The future of fashion lies in fabrics. Everything comes
contextualizes the interrelationship of all the components that from fabrics.
make up the fashion industry. Donna Karan
5%
OTHER SYNTHETICS
ACRYLIC
POLY
PRO
PO
PYLE
LYA
M
NE
ID
PO
E
LY
E ST
ER
POLYESTER
45%
COTTON
CO
TTO
N
32%
OT WO
H ER OL
NA
TU
RA
LS
OT
1%
HE
RC
RA
ELL
YO
ULO
NS
4%
SIC
S
Introduction
9
Introduction
10
Fabrics: the raw material Recent decades have seen a growing appreciation of
natural bers at accessible price points. Today, exciting potential
of fashion is offered by leaps in technology with natural bers, man-made
articial regenerates, and rened synthetics. They offer exciting
options for an increasingly complex range of consumer demands.
Throughout history people have clothed themselves with natural
Sophisticated developments in man-made textiles offer a look
fabrics made from animal or plant bers. Mans ingenuity in
quite different to traditional, natural materials, and do not work
developing and processing these raw materials has become more
against them but alongside them instead. Combinations of
sophisticated over time.
microbers (the new generation of ultra-ne synthetics) with
The twentieth century heralded the invention of synthetic
regenerated yarns, silks, cottons, and linens provide new looks
fabrics, originally developed to mimic the attributes of natural
and performance potential. The emphasis placed on recycling
bers, and provide inexpensive alternatives with a low-
in our everyday life has inuenced current research into the
maintenance appeal. Brand names such as Dacron, Terylene,
development of biodegradable synthetics.
Orlon, Acrylan, and Crimplene are examples of materials
that were made from the main generic synthetics group that
includes polyamide, nylon, polyester, acetate, and acrylic. These
bers and laments are primarily derived from coal and oil-
based raw materials. The cotton and wool trade organizations
have invested in ber development technology and proactive
marketing campaigns to regain the market share initially lost to
the man-made materials.
Introduction
11
Introduction
12
Fibers to fabrics
Fibers to fabrics
As an introduction to the world of natural fabrics, this chapter
examines the processes involved in the manufacturing of textiles,
Yarn
from the raw ber through to the nished material, ready to use.
Yarns, or threads, are bers that have been spun together to
It is a generic account irrespective of ber category, whether
create a continuous length of interlocked bers. They are usually
derived from animal or vegetable sources. Each ber type will be 13
knitted or woven together to make fabric, and may be dyed
examined in detail in its respective chapter.
before or after this process.
Combing
Combing is usually an additional operation after carding, and
gives a better, smoother nish to the bers and to the eventual
fabric. Combs are used to remove the short bers, known as
noils, and arrange the remaining bers in a at bundle, all facing
in the same direction.
(opposite page) Yarns or threads, Wool ber dyed in a range of Hand carding and blending bers. Blending bers of different
visible in these frayed fabric edges, glowing fall shades in preparation Association of Weavers, Spinners, characteristics together creates
can be made of both natural and for the spinning process. This image and Dyers. innovative new yarns that can
man-made bers. Color can be captures the characteristic springy embody the best aspects of each
applied to either nished fabric or ringlets of wool ber. ber. The mixture of alpaca and silk
the yarn, which is then knitted or in this example creates a mlange
woven together to make the fabric. of both texture and color; the
alpaca lends warmth and softness
while the silk sharpens the texture by
lending it luster.
Fiber to yarn
Spinning
Twisting bers together by spinning binds them into a stronger,
longer yarn. Originally bers were twisted by hand, then a
14 handheld stick, or spindle, made the process a little more
comfortable. The invention of the spinning wheel allowed
continuous, faster spinning. Used in a domestic environment,
spinning wheels were hand or foot operated. Water-driven
spinning machines were followed by steam-driven machinery,
which took domestic spinning out of the home and into the
factory. The invention of electricity made the spinning process
much more sophisticated and, with the exception of handicraft
spinning, made it a full-time commercial enterprise.
(above) Hand spinningin this by means of a handheld wooden Twist and ply
case llama wool in Peruis a spindle, using methods that remain The direction in which the yarn is spun is called twist. A Z
labor-intensive process that is fundamentally unchanged since twist shows a right-hand angle, while an S twist has a left-
today only practiced for specialty early spinning techniques that hand angle. The tightness of the twist is measured in TPI (twists
craft purposes. The yarn is spun predate the spinning wheel.
per inch).
Two or more spun yarns may be twisted together to make
a ply, a thicker yarn, or as a way of introducing an alternative
yarn to create a mlange effect.
Useful terminology
Fibers to fabrics
Outt in double-faced 100 percent
wool jersey. The face of the cloth is
a marl, or mlange, jersey and the
reverse is a looped eece, which
resembles the fabric more usually
associated with casual cotton 15
sportswear. Designer Julien David
has fashioned a luxurious take on
the ubiquitous gray marl in this
version of the sports-luxe trend.
Fiber to yarn
Fabric construction Twill weave
Twill weave has a visual diagonal line or rib effect, caused when
the weft yarn crosses over and under two or more warp yarns.
Fabric is a exible material comprised of natural or articial
The diagonal line may also be referred to as a wale. The visual
bers that have been spun into threads or yarns. Textile fabric
16 effect is most obvious on a heavyweight cotton fabric. By
can be manufactured in several ways. The primary techniques
contrast, on a lightweight shirting cotton the diagonal rib will
are weaving or knitting, although yarns can also be knotted or
be hardly visible.
interlaced, for example by crocheting, lace making, or macram.
Unlike plain weaves, twill-weave fabrics have a different
Felting, the process of pressing together and matting bers so
appearance from the face (right side) to the reverse or back, the
that they interlock, is another alternative.
face side having the more pronounced wale. Twill weaves are
harder wearing than plain weaves of the same yarn and count,
Weaving and are therefore particularly suited to utility wear. Denim is
possibly the most famous of all the workwear fabrics, and true
denim is of twill-weave construction.
Weaving is the process of interweaving two sets of threads, the
Any ber type can be woven in this way, however the
warps (vertical) and the wefts (horizontal), on a weaving loom.
term is generically used to describe cotton fabrics.
Three basic weave types, plain, twill, and satin, form the
Twill fabrics are more pliable and have a better drape than
majority of woven fabrics. There are also several alternative
similar plain-weave fabrics, and they also tend to recover better
weaving techniques that create more complex fabrics.
from wrinkles. Higher/ner yarn counts can be used for twill
weaving and can be packed much closer together, therefore
Plain weave
producing higher-count fabrics that are more durable and water-
Plain weave is the most basic and possibly the oldest type
resistant. An example is the traditional Burberry trench coat,
of weave construction. The warps and wefts crisscross each
which was designed and made for army ofcers and worn in the
other at right angles, with each weft thread passing over one
trenches of World War I.
warp thread then under the next warp thread. Plain weaves are
Types of twill-woven fabrics include serge, annel,
sometimes referred to as taffeta weaves.
denim, gabardine, cavalry twill, and chino. Traditional iconic
A plain weave can be coarse or smooth in texture,
herringbone and hounds-tooth design fabrics, as well as Scottish
dependant on the neness or coarseness of the thread count
tartans, are all of twill-weave construction.
used to weave the fabric.
Basket weave is a variation on plain weave, where two
or more threads are bundled together and woven as one in
the warp and weft directions, resulting in a more pronounced
basket construction.
Types of plain-woven fabrics include chiffon, organza,
taffeta, and canvas.
Fibers to fabrics
17
Up-cycling
Fabric construction
Satin and sateen weaves
The most visible aspect of a satin weave is its high sheen and the Corduroy
way it reects light. Sateen, in contrast, has a dull sheen and does
not shimmer. Both, however, have a very smooth surface, due to Corduroy is described using the term wales; these refer to the
18 similarities in the way they are woven. One has a predominance raised ridges or ribs that run vertically down the fabric parallel
of warp threads to the face or right side of the fabric, while the to the selvage. The wider the wales, the lower the numerical
expression, and vice versa. The number of wales that t into 1
other has a predominance of weft threads; this prevalence of
inch (2.5 cm) is the wale count. 21-wale corduroy implies there
threads running in a single direction accounts for the smoothness are 21 wales per inch. Counts range from 1.5 to 21. 16 and
of the resulting fabric. above can be referred to as pin cord, while 3 and under is
The construction also contributes to the level of sheen sometimes referred to as elephant or jumbo cord. Corduroy was
in the fabric, although the deciding factor is the choice of ber. originally made from cotton. Bedford cord has a atter surface
with a minimal raised wale, originally made from cotton or wool.
Historically, silk yarns were used to weave satin fabrics, while
cotton was used for sateen. Today, high-quality satin is still made
from silk, while less expensive alternatives utilize man-made bers.
Cotton or cotton-rich yarns are used for sateen.
Pile weaving
When pile weaving, the warps that will eventually create the pile
are woven over rods or wires that have been inserted into the
gaps or loops of the raised alternative yarns. These then lie in
loops over the rods. When the rods are removed the loops can 21 wale
be cut to create a pile fabric, or left intact to create a loop-back
fabric. Velvet and corduroy are examples of pile woven fabric.
0 inch 1 2 3
16 wale
0 inch 1 2 3
10 wale
Fibers to fabrics
Double-cloth weaving
Double-cloth weaving creates a fabric that has two face or
right sides (double face) and no wrong or reverse side. The
fabric is constructed by using several sets of warps and wefts,
interconnected to form a cloth of two layers held together by 19
additional binding wefts.
Examples of double-cloth weaving date back to pre-
Columbian Peru, where cotton and alpaca yarns were woven to
create a warm alpaca outer layer and a comfortable cotton under
layer, all as a single fabric.
Double-cloth weaves make up well into self-lined or
double-faced coats and jackets, closed off with quasi-invisible
hand stitching that eliminates the need for facings or bindings
to nish off the raw edges.
Examples of double-cloth weave include brocade fabric,
blankets, and satin ribbons.
Fabric construction
Jacquard weaving Tapestry weaving
The jacquard loom enables the automatic production of an Considered an art form, tapestry weaving is done on a vertical
unlimited variety of designs. Prior to the jacquard process the loom. It is sometimes called weft-faced weaving because all the
warp ends had to be manually selected and lifted by a second warps are hidden, unlike fabric weaving where both the warps
20 operator apart from the weaver. This was a slow and labor- and the wefts may be visible. By only having the wefts visible
intensive process that limited the complexity of the design. it is possible to create more precise designs. Historically the
With the jacquard loom selected warps are programmed to lift imagery was usually pictorial and very often allegorical.
independently of each other, thus creating far greater versatility Kilims and Navajo blankets and rugs are all forms of
of design. tapestry weaving.
This form of weaving was developed and perfected by
French inventor Joseph Jacquard (17521834), at the advent of the
nineteenth century. The mechanism allowed for the production
of sophisticated patterns without lengthy, repetitive manual
processing. The original machines were mechanical, with the
fabric design punched onto cards that were joined to form a
chain that would direct the machine. In the early 1980s, Italian
manufacturers introduced the rst electronic jacquard machines.
The term jacquard is not specic to any loom, but indicative
of the added control mechanism that automates the design. It
refers to a type of weaving process and is also descriptive of a
type of fabric. The term can be applied to both woven and knitted
fabrics, as well as some fully-fashioned knitwear.
(left) Jacquard loom showing the (above) The oral pattern created
production of a complex double- by a jacquard loom is apparent
layer jacquard weave. Image in the light-reective satin weave
provided by CELC Masters of Linen and contrasting plain weave in
(Confdration Europenne du Lin this Alexander McQueen oyster silk
et du Chanvre). jacquard dress with tulle underskirt.
Fibers to fabrics
Ikat weaving
Before weaving, the warps or wefts are dyed different colors at
predetermined intervals along their length, using a form of resist
or tie-dyeing process. Double ikat implies that both wefts and
warps have been dyed. 21
If the dyed threads are warps the pattern is visible to the
weaver, who can adjust them to line up to each other. In some
cultures the patterns will be aligned to perfection, while in others
misalignment is preferred. Weaving with dyed wefts makes it
much harder to control the design, therefore this technique
is used when precision is not the objective. Double ikats are
the most difcult to produce. The most precise forms of ikat
weaving are the Japanese oshima and kasuri.
There is evidence of ikat weaving in pre-Columbian
Central and South America as well as many regions of South
and East Asia. However, the name ikat has its origins in the
Malay language. Today, through extensive common use, the
word describes both the weaving technique and the fabric itself.
Useful terminology
Bias Fabric cut at 45 degrees to warp and weft. This cut exploits
the natural stretch of the fabric so that it drapes well over the
curves of the body.
Cut pile Cut loops of yarn that form a pile, as with velvet
and corduroy.
Drape The behavior of the fabric, how it falls and hangs,
affected by the yarn, weave construction, weight, and nishing
processes.
Grain The straight of the fabric or warp.
Hand The touch of the fabric, warm, cool, smooth, granular,
uffy, etc.
Left-hand twill Diagonal ribs run up from bottom right to
top left on face.
Loop pile Uncut pile fabric, such as terry cloth. Ikat weave silk skirt featuring the
characteristic blurred edge of
Nap Raised surface of fabric.
the woven motif by Tamerlanes
Piece A complete length of fabric as purchased from a mill Daughters, launched in 2004 by
or wholesaler. Karina Deubner. The designers own
European and Asian background
Reversible Fabric that can be used either side up.
inuences the signature aesthetic
Right-hand twill Diagonal ribs run up from bottom left to top of cultural fusion that her unique
right on face. pieces embody. The label pays
homage to traditional crafts and
Selvage The rm side edges of the fabric running parallel to
vanishing cultures by creating one-
the warp.
off pieces incorporating nineteenth-
Union fabric Fabric with wefts and warps of different bers, century textiles from Central Asia
for example a cotton warp and wool weft. and Europe.
Fabric construction
Knitting Units of measurement for ne knits
The term knitwear refers to any fabric that has been knitted,
In the US and the UK very ne knitting, as used for hosiery, is
regardless of how ne it is. Fully fashioned knits are constructed
22 described using the term denier, which denes opaqueness.
on a knitting machine or by hand knitting. Cut-and-sew knits It is a unit of measurement for the linear mass density of bers
(T-shirts, jerseys, sweats, etc) are cut and made from fabric that composed of laments, and is dened as the mass in grams per
has been knitted. Integral knitting using advanced technology 9,000 meters.
used for seamless mens underwear and womens brassieres.
1 denier =1 g per 9,000 m
= 0.05 g per 450 m (1/20th of above)
Knitted fabrics
Knitted fabric is constructed from yarn by means of a series DPF, denier per lament, refers to one single lament of ber.
of interlinked loops. This can be achieved by hand using Several laments together are referred to as total denier.
individual needles, by using hand-operated machines, known A ber is generally considered a microber if it is 1 denier or less.
as hand-frame knitting, or by power machine, simply called
Tex is the international system and is more prevalent in Canada
machine knitting. The introduction of machine knitting turned and Europe. Tex is a unit of measure for the linear mass density
hand knitting into a craft that has gone into and out of fashion of bers and is dened as the mass in grams per 1,000 meters.
depending on social moods of the time.
The size of the stitch, whether hand or machine knitted,
dictates the neness or chunkiness of the fabric, and is dependent
on the size of the needles and the thickness of the yarn. In hand
knitting the needles are described by a number, while in machine
knitting the term gauge is used, but is also reective of the needle
size. In both cases the higher the numerical expression the ner
the knitting. Standard gauges in commercial knitting are: 2.5 for Fully-fashioned knitwear
chunky outdoor sweaters; 7 and 15 gauges are mid-weights; 18 All hand knitting is fully fashioned. This means that the garment
and 21 gauges for ne knitwear; 28 gauge is used for rugby shirts is made by increasing and decreasing the number of stitches in a
and heavier-weight loop-back fabrics; 30 is classied as superne; row to create the desired shape.
32 gauge is used for T-shirts, jerseys, sweats, etc. Machine knitting, irrespective of gauge, is further divided
into fully fashioned or cut and sewn. With fully-fashioned
machine knitting, as with hand knitting, the garment is shaped
by the increment and decrement of stitches. The amount of
fashioning used depends on the quality of the product and
machinery. Fully fashioned is more viable with expensive yarns
such as cashmere, and yarn usage and labor is decreased when
garments are fully fashioned. A really good piece of knitwear will
be totally fully fashioned, while a mass-market product may be
only fashioned at the armhole, to eliminate wastage.
(above and right) The face side (above and right) The reverse side
of jersey knitting is referred to as of jersey knitting is referred to as
plain stitch. purl stitch.
Fibers to fabrics
Iconic knitting styles
Fair Isle
This traditional technique originates from Fair Isle, a small island 23
between the Orkney and Shetland Islands in the very north of
Scotland. Originally, these sweaters were knitted using Shetland
wool by shermens wives, and were worn at sea. They traditionally
use ve to seven colors to create complex horizontal patterns, with
each sweater featuring a different pattern and color-way. Fair-Isle
knitting is notorious for its many oats of yarn, meaning that on the
reverse of the fabric the yarn oats across several needles. The
oats need to remain short to avoid snagging. Fair-Isle patterns
can now be replicated on a jacquard system without the oats,
however these are intrinsic to the authenticity of the product.
This pale gray sweater by SANS Traditional Fair Isle intarsia knit
explores the differing needle sizes designs inspired this hooded
or gauges possible in knitwear, sweater in neutral tones by
and alternates plain and purl knits Hildigunnur Sigurdardottirs.
to create the three-dimensional
striping. The armhole is fully
fashioned.
Aran
Aran is a style of Gaelic knitwear originating from the Aran Islands
off the west coast of Ireland. This style of knitting is believed to
originate from the early 1900s, although the three-dimensional
motifs used for the stitch formation have ancient megalith origins.
The knitwear was rst shown in British Vogue in the 1940s, and
became an instant success in the United States.
Traditionally, authentic Aran is hand knitted with undyed
cream wool, and occasionally natural black wool, both of which
still contain natural sheep lanolin, which provides an intrinsic
water-resistance.
Fabric construction
Cut and sew
Cut-and-sew knitwear is fabric that has been knitted and is then Useful knitting terminology
cut and sewn in a similar way to woven fabric styles. Cut-and-
sew knitwear is mainly used for styling inexpensive yarns due
Cable knitting Three-dimensional twisting effects that mimic
24 to the wastage incurred. ropes, braids, and plaits, made by crossing over stitches.
Generally shirt and sweatshirt styles are cut and sew.
Circular knitting Mainly for T-shirt fabrics, knitted on a circular
To fully fashion very ne 30-gauge garments would require
machine resulting in tubular fabric. Garments tend to spiral after
the use of very expensive yarn, and the process would be time- washing unless opened up and stentedthe process of passing
consuming, therefore manufacturing production runs would the fabric through a hot-air cabinet, which stabilizes it.
have to be very long. Course The row of loops that runs along the width of the fabric,
The majority of T-shirts are either of single jersey or equivalent to the weft in a woven fabric.
interlock fabric construction. Rib fabrics can be used for close
Double jersey All needle rib knitted fabric where both the face
body-tting styles. and reverse side are the same.
Jacquard Intricate design where every color of yarn used
is knitted into the back of the fabric when not in use.
Jersey Generically used to describe many types of knitted
fabric. Single jersey is plain knit on one side and purl on the
reverse and is used for tops. Double jersey is plain on both sides
and can be double in weight. It does not unravel when cut so is
ne for cutting and sewing more complicated styles.
Inlaid yarn Yarn that is held in place by the loops of the knitting
rather than being knitted in, making a rigid fabric with no stretch.
Plain knit The face side of basic jersey knitting, the reverse side
is known as purl.
Plated A double face knitted fabric. This technique uses two
different types or colors of yarn. One is thrown to the face side
and the other to the reverse side .The fabric is knitted using a
plating device xed to the bed of the machine.
Purl The reverse side of basic jersey knitting, the face side is
known as plain knit.
Single jersey Another term for plain knit.
Tuck stitch In knitwear, a held stitch giving a raised effect.
Welt A form of edge nishing on knitwear, usually knitted as
a separate piece, e.g. pocket.
Fibers to fabrics
Felting
Felt is a nonwoven cloth produced by matting, condensing, and
pressing bers together to form the structure of the fabric. Felted
fabrics are the oldest known to mankind and today may be soft 25
and supple or tough enough for industry use. The technique of
felting is still practiced by nomadic tribes of Central Asia, while
in the Western world felting is seen as an expression of art in
textiles with strong eco-credentials.
Wet felting is the traditional process whereby the natural
bers are stimulated by friction and lubricated with water and
alkaline, usually soap. This causes the bers to interlock and
matt together.
In industry, felting is done by a chemical process or by
using felting needles. A felting effect can be achieved using a
hot cycle on a domestic washing machine. Felting should not
be confused with fulling, which is a felting-like process, carried
out after the fabric has been constructed, similar to washing
a sweater in a washing machine at a high temperature.
Inexpensive felt is usually made with articial bers,
although a minimum of 30 percent wool is necessary for the
fabric to hold together adequately.
Loden fabric, from the Alpine regions, was originally a
felted fabric, however today lodens are usually woven, the name
referring to the feeling of the fabric rather than its true denition.
Fabric construction
(left and below) Dress and
waistcoat from Ravensbourne
graduate Sue Pei Hos collection.
The pieces feature wisps of wool
bers fused onto silka technique
26 originally developed by textile
artists Polly Blakney Sirling and
Sachiko Kotaka.
Fibers to fabrics
Crocheting
Crocheting is the process of creating fabric from yarn or thread
using a hooked needle to pull loops of yarn through other loops.
Although scholars theorize that crochet has Arabic origins, 27
there is no real evidence of it being practiced before the eighteenth
century in Europe. Ireland and northern France were centers of
crochet making, much of it done to support poor communities
whose livelihoods had been compromised, and hence it was often
considered a domestic craft. However, crocheted items sold well
to the new emerging middle classes. Crochet experienced a revival
of interest in the mid-1960s with the new-wave hippy movements
and their embracing of rural cultures.
Fabric construction
Lace making
Lace is a lightweight fabric patterned with open holes and can be
hand or machine made. The holes may be created by removing
28 threads of previously woven cloth, however more often the holes
are created as part of the lace-making process, where thread is
looped, twisted, or braided to other threads independently from
any backing fabric. Lace was rst used by priests for religious
rituals, then popularized in the sixteenth century when it was
highly valued as a symbol of wealth and status.
Originally linen, silk, gold, or silver threads were preferred,
however today cotton is also used, as are synthetic yarns for
machine-made lace.
Fibers to fabrics
Modernizing lace, Rae III, 2002,
features cotton lace and spandex
and is from a photographic series
by Georgina McNamara that
explores the relationship between
the body and the imagination. 29
The traditional associations of lace
clothing and how it works with the
human form are inverted in this
super-structured realization.
Types of lace
Some of the popular types of lace include:
Needle lace Made using a needle and thread, and the most
exible of the lace-making techniques. It can be very time-
consuming and is regarded as the purist form of lace art. Today
it is impossible to reproduce some of the ne antique lace. Types
of needle lace include punto in Aria, point de Venise, point de
France, Alenon, Argentan, Armenian, Limerick, and hollie point.
Cutwork lace Constructed by the removal of threads from
a woven background fabric. The remaining threads are then
worked on with embroidery. Types of cutwork lace include
Battenberg, broderie Anglaise, and Carrickmacross.
Bobbin lace Made using bobbins and a pillow. The bobbins
hold the threads, which are laced together and held down
onto the pillow by pins. Types of bobbin lace include Antwerp,
Flanders, Bayeux, Chantilly, Genoese, Venetian, Maltese, Bruges,
Brussels, and Milanese.
Lace knitting Technically knitting with many holes in the design
work that create the lace effect. It is considered the highest
form of knitting and was especially popular in the nineteenth
century when Queen Victoria practiced it. In parts of Russia lace
knits form part of the wedding dowry, the nest of which can be
pulled through a wedding ring.
Machine-made lace Any type of lace made by mechanical
methods rather than by hand.
Tatting A type of lace construction rst introduced in the early
As a physical material, black lace are understood by unraveling nineteenth century to imitate needle-lace work. It is created by
has diverse cultural implications threads; mesh structures are also a series of chain knots and loops, mainly used as lace edging,
in relation to sexuality, death, reconstructed through crochet and collars, and doilies.
and gender. In these artworks netting. Lace fragments are also
by Anne Wilson the webs and scanned, ltered, and printed out
networks of found black lace as paper images. These computer-
are deconstructed to create mediated digital prints are then
large horizontal topographies or rematerialized by hand stitching
physical drawings that are both and are placed in relationship to
complicated and delicate. The the found and remade lace in the
structural characteristics of lace topography.
Fabric construction
Macram
Macram is created by the interlinking of knots. It is believed to
have Arabic origins, and was used to decorate the excess lengths
30 of yarn along the edge of hand-loom textiles. It was taken to
Spain with the Moorish conquest and eventually spread to the
rest of Europe, reaching England by the late seventeenth century.
It may also classify as a form of lace making.
Macram was a popular pastime among British and
American sailors all through the nineteenth century; the
preference was for substantial square knots, which they used
to make hammocks and belts.
As well as cotton and hemp, leather is often used. Most
friendship bracelets are a form of macram.
Fibers to fabrics
Dyeing
Dyeing is the process of transferring colorant to bers, yarns,
fabrics, or ready-made garments. Colorants take the form of
dyes, which are in liquid form, or pigments, which are in ne 31
powder form.
Until the mid-nineteenth century the primary source of
color dye and pigment was animal, plant, or mineral; the plant
kingdom being the most prolic provider in the form of berries,
roots, bark, and leaves. These natural colorants were used with
very little, if any, processing. The rst synthetic dye, a mauvine
or aniline purple, was invented by accident in a failed medical
experiment in 1856.
The Industrial Revolution was the catalyst for the mass
development of the textile industry, and in turn the development
of synthetic dyes. This resulted in a larger range of colors with
a higher level of color consistency. In addition to this the colors
were more stable under continuous washing and wearing. Today,
different classes of dye are used for different generic fabric types,
and also for different stages of textile production.
Yarn dyeing
Yarn is dyed to a color of choice before it is either woven or
knitted into a fabric. The two most common ways to yarn dye
are at package form for cotton yarns and at hank form for wool
and acrylic yarns.
Yarn-dyed fabrics tend to give a much better level of
colorfastness in wearing and washing than fabric-dyed items.
Any fabric with a stripe, check, or other type of design woven
into it will be yarn dyed. Good-quality suiting fabrics and
shirting fabrics are almost always yarn dyed, even if they are of a
solid/plain color.
Yarn-dyed fabrics are almost always more expensive than
their fabric-dyed equivalents. The process of yarn dyeing takes
longer and the minimum quantities to be ordered are always far
greater than with fabric-dyed orders. Within the design process
the selection of colors for yarn dyeing also has to be done much
earlier in the season, because the mill lead times, to weave and
then nish the fabric, are far greater.
Before a larger sample batch of yarn is dyedknown as
a dye lotsmall pieces of yarn windings are sample dyed to
colors for approval. These samples are known as lab dips, and
designers and merchandisers, as well as technologists, may all be
involved in the approval process.
Dyeing
Fabric dyeing
Fabric dyeing is also referred to as piece dyeing, and in this
instance the fabric is dyed after it has been woven. The
32 advantage of fabric dyeing is that you are able to buy much
smaller quantities than is necessary for yarn-dyed equivalents,
making it much easier and far less expensive to carry an
extensive color palette of fabric in stock. Furthermore, the lead
time involved is far shorter. For the fabric supplier or converter
there is less of a risk, because the fabric can remain in its greige
undyedstate indenitely.
Piece-dyed fabric is perfect for solid color, woven cotton
goods, as well as knitted cotton fabrics such as lightweight jersey
and interlock fabric, heavier interlocks (sweatshirts), and eece
loop-back fabric. Plain colored swimwear and underwear fabrics
are often piece dyed. Woolen fabrics for heavy outerwear, if of a
solid (plain) color, are usually also piece dyed.
Before a nal dye is agreed, lab dips are made by dyeing
pieces of fabric in a small vessel or beaker. Three shades of
the requested color are submitted for designer approval before
dyeing the sample lengths, which are usually done in 50-m vats.
Bulk production dyeing would follow after an approved sales order.
Fibers to fabrics
Garment dyeing
Garment dyeing, the dyeing of a ready-made garment, is the
least colorfast method of dyeing, but it does give a very specic
visual look. This technique also gives the manufacturer greater 33
product color exibility, because ready-made garments can be
made and kept in stock, then dyed to specic colors. The most
common product in this category is likely to be low-cost shirts
and tops.
Garment-dyed products tend to have a residue of dye
sitting along the raised seam edges, and if the sewing threads used
to assemble the garment are of a different color and composition
they will resist the dye, resulting in contrast top-stitching.
Resist dyeing
Resist dyeing refers to various methods of patterning fabric by
preventing dye reaching certain parts of it. Common methods
include the application of wax or paste and stitching areas
together. An alternative method is to use a chemical agent
within a dye that will repel a second color when applied.
Dyeing
Stitching and tying
Fabrics can be stitched or tied in specic areas to shield them
Mordants
from dye. Variations of these techniques from different cultures
A mordant is used after some dyes as a method of xing the
include ikat from Indonesia and Malaysia; tie-dye from India;
color to the fabric. Historically mordants were used as a means
34 and adire from Africa.
of altering the color and intensity of natural dyes, as well as to
improve their colorfastness. Environmental concerns have now
Chemical resist
restricted the use of some types of mordant, in which case they
A resisting agent is added to the rst dye color that is applied.
have been replaced with reactive and metal complex dyes that
When the second color is applied it will be repelled where
do not require a mordant.
it crosses the rst color. This is a common method used in
T-shirt printing.
Reversing the dyeing effect
To remove unwanted dye a process called stripping destroys the
dye by the use of a powerful reducing agent, which may damage
the substructure of the ber; the alternative is to over-dye to a
darker color, such as navy or black.
Fibers to fabrics
Useful dyeing terminology 35
Dyeing
Surface decoration
This generic term refers to any form of decoration applied to a
ready-made fabric to embellish it with texture and/or color. The
36 two most important methods of surface decorating are printing
and embroidery.
Printing
Printing is the process of creating a design on fabric by the
application of color.
Hand-block printing
The blocks are engraved with the design, which is used to
transfer the dye onto the fabric. The registration of each repeat
design is carefully positioned by hand.
Silk-screen printing
This is the original hand-printing technique and is based on
stenciling. A ne woven mesh (originally silk) is stretched over
a frame and an impermeable stencil is applied to it. The surface
to be printed is then placed underneath and ink or dye is drawn
across it and thereby forced through the areas of open mesh
circumscribed by the stencil. A series of such screens can be
used for successive layers of color.
Fibers to fabrics
Rotary-screen printing
Rotary-screen printing is less expensive than roller printing and
is suitable for large repeats and complex designs with more
than ve colors. It is also good for printing on knitted fabrics.
37
Roller printing
A fast technique suitable for large print runs. Set-up costs
include engraving the copper rollersone per color. Pigment
prints are referred to as dry prints because the fabric is
cured by heat, while fabrics printed with dyes are referred
to as wet prints.
Heat-transfer printing
Fabric and pre-printed paper are passed between heated rollers,
transferring the dye from the paper to the fabric. This is a
low-cost technique suitable for short print runs.
Ink is pressed
through the
stencil with the
squeegee to
make the print.
Surface decoration
Mordant printing
A mordantdye xativeis preprinted as a pattern prior to Useful printing terminology
dyeing the fabric. The color adheres only where the mordant has
been printed. Devor A fabric containing two or more ber types is printed
38 with a substance that burns out or destroys one or more of the
Resist dyeing bers. The result is usually a fabric that is partly sheer.
A resist substance such as wax is printed onto the fabric, which Flock print An adhesive agent is printed onto the fabric and
is then dyed. The waxed areas will not take the dye, leaving ock particles are applied.
uncolored patterns against a colored ground. Glitter print An adhesive agent is rst printed, followed by
glitter particles.
Discharge printing Ground color The base color of the fabric, or predominant color
A bleaching agent is printed onto previously dyed fabrics to of the print.
remove some or all of the color. Half tone Color graduation within an area of a single color.
Metallic print Printing with metallic pigment.
Digital printing
Digital printing has reduced the cost and time required to Over-print A design motif printed over an existing all-over print.
produce samples, allowing more experimentation. With digital Pigment print A print made from pigment and binder rather
printing there is no limit to the number of colors possible in a than dyes. Tends to sit on the fabric rather than being absorbed.
single print, and no issue with the scale of the design repeat, Placement print An image printed in a designated position
so photographic quality is the norm. Specialist software allows on a garment.
accurate color matching directly from the monitor, eliminating Repeat One complete unit of a design. A small repeat has
manual color matching. an all-over effect, while large-scale repeats need to be carefully
Digital printing is perfect for JIT (just-in-time) considered for positioning before cutting the fabric.
production. Lead times are short with, usually, no minimum Run Complete length of printed fabric.
print run. This enables companies to produce new designs Transfer print The color image is transferred from one material,
frequently, since they are not tied to stock fabric. Most digital or paper, onto the garment or fabric, usually by heat.
printers can print on any fabric by using appropriate ink. Fabric
passes through the printer on rollers, and the ink is applied
in the form of thousands of tiny droplets, then set by heat or
steam. In some cases the fabric is also washed and dried.
Water consumption is reduced by as much as 50 percent,
there are no screens or rollers to wash, there is little ink
wastage, and discharge into drains is reduced.
Fibers to fabrics
Devor
The technique of devor (from the French dvorer to devour)
is also known as burn out. It describes the effect achieved
when part of a fabric composition is eaten away by the 39
application of a corrosive paste to produce a design. The acidic
dvorant paste will eat away the areas of the fabric that are
cellulosic (rayon, cotton, or linen for example). The base weave
(silk or synthetic) will remain. The technique is particularly
effective with pile fabrics, such as a silk/rayon velvet, where the
contrast between the sheer silk ground and the texture of the
pile is pronounced.
Surface decoration
Embroidery
Embroidery is a form of surface decoration made using threads
and yarns in various stitches and combinations of stitches. The
40 process may also include the addition of beads and sequins, as
well as other applied decorative trimmings.
There are many roots to the origins of embroidery, and
similarly many differing styles reecting various cultures and
geographic regions.
Embroidery is classied depending on its under-fabric, or
according to the relationship of the stitches placement to the
fabric. Further divisions indicate whether the stitching is on top
of the fabric or through it.
Freehand embroidery
The designs are applied without regard for the weave structure
of the base fabric; it is also a form of surface embroidery.
Crewel-work and traditional Chinese embroidery are two
examples of freehand embroidery.
Fibers to fabrics
Counted-thread embroidery
The warp and weft threads of the base fabric are precounted by
the embroiderer before inserting the needle and embroidering
thread. Designs tend to be symmetrical. Needlepoint embroidery
and cross-stitch are two examples of this style of embroidery. 41
Canvas work
Threads are stitched through canvas to create a dense pattern and
completely cover the under-fabric. Canvas work requires the use
of an embroidery hoop or frame to stretch the fabric. Needlepoint,
petit point, and bergello are examples of canvas work.
Smocking
Smocking is an embroidery technique used to gather fabric,
developed in England in the Middle Ages. The gathered fabric
is held in place with decorative stitch work. It derived its name
from the tunic or smock worn by the farm laborers who favored
this technique. Before the use of elastic, smocking was used for
cuffs and necklines in place of buttons, and gave the garment
a degree of stretch.
Surface decoration
Machine embroidery
Embroidery designs can be stitched with automated machines.
Today logo badges on T-shirts, sweatshirts, and polo shirts make
the greatest use of machine embroidery.
42
Appliqu
This needlework technique uses pieces of fabric stitched or
embroidered onto a base cloth to create a design. The technique
is French in origin but extensively used in North America for
traditional quilts. West Africa and parts of India and Pakistan are
also famous for appliqu quilting.
Quilting
The technique of stitching through two or more layers of fabric
with a layer of batting in between to produce an insulative and
decorative three-dimensional effect.
Fibers to fabrics
Finishing processes Useful nishing terminology
There are many processes that can be applied to fabrics after
Antibacterial Inhibits bacterial growth.
they have been made, from traditional operations such as
brushing the surface to make it feel warmer and to compact Anti-soiling Makes stain removal easier. 43
the weave, to chemical impregnation, making the fabric water- Blowing Steam is blown through the cloth to remove creases,
repellent, or even adding re-retardant properties. Most of these and gives a specic look to the fabric.
treatments are for woven fabrics, but also include knitted fabrics, Bonding Two layers of fabric are attached or fused together,
and are executed at the manufacturing mill, although some with or without a middle layer, for depth and warmth, for
specialty nishes may require the fabric to be sent out to example foam sandwiched between two layers to provide
a specic nishing plant. structure and insulation.
Brightening agent Increases whiteness or brightness of fabric.
Calendering Process of adding luster and smoothness to
Waterproong treatments fabric by passing it through heated steel rotary cylinders.
Chemical nishes Any number of treatments applied to give
These treatments are applied to the fabric to enhance its rain- and a specialty nish.
general weather-proong properties. It is important to understand Crease-resistant A treatment that improves fabric recovery.
the difference between the terms proof and repellent. Water-
Easy-care Minimal ironing needed to nished garment.
or rain-proof implies there will be no ingress of water; this term
applies to both the fabric and the manufacturing process of the Emerized Emery-covered rollers produce a suede-like nish
garment. The manufacturing process that makes a garment to fabric.
waterproof requires either seam-taping to stop water ingress Enzymes Naturally occurring proteins that catalyse chemical
through the stitching holes or, alternatively, the inclusion of a reactions.
membrane fabric. This is a middle layer referred to as a drop liner, Milling A process that blends colors, obscures weave, and
which sits between the outer fabric or shell and the inner lining. makes the fabric more compact.
Oiling and waxing wear away with time and will need to Mill washing Any of a number of washing treatments that
be reapplied. softens and ages fabric.
Oiling (cloth) Water-repelling treatment applied to fabric.
Enhancing treatments Pre-shrunk Fabric that has been shrunk at the weaving mill
and should not shrink further.
Scouring Process of removing the grease and natural fats from
There are many treatments that change the basic appearance yarn, giving fullness to the ber and bulking up the fabric.
of the fabric.
Shower-proong Any number of applications to proof fabric
Milling and washing are generic terms for numerous
against water.
specic variations all of which will give quite different effects.
These treatments are often an inexpensive way to give added Waxing Impregnating fabric with wax to make it shower-proof.
design value to base fabrics. Denim is a fabric that benets from
experimental washing treatments.
Brushing will raise the surface of the fabric and give a
softer color bend; calendering and mercerizing will add luster
to a fabric.
Additive treatments
These are treatments that enhance the performance or
endurance of a fabric or yarn. Some treatments will make a fabric
easier to care for; other treatments will inhibit the fabrics natural
tendency to crease. Fire-retardant treatments are often required
on childrens nightwear and on display fabrics.
Examples include antibacterial, anti-soiling, easy-care, and
crease-resisting fabrics.
Finishing processes
44
Introducing color
Introducing color
Color is a powerful communicator, as complex A white surface will reect all light rays that strike it,
as language or music. while a black surface will absorb them. A colored surface,
such as red, will reect the red light, but absorb all the other
Color is fundamental to the way we experience the world; it is light rays. It could be said that white is pure light, while black
central to our visual and emotional sense of our surroundings. is the total lack of light, and both are not actually colors.
Color is the rst thing we notice, usually perceived before shape Physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642
and detail, and as children we are primarily stimulated and most 1727) pioneered the study of light in laboratory conditions
responsive to high-contrast combinations of color. Color can and formulated a logical framework for understanding color.
45
provoke strong emotive associations and reactions, even making The proof of Newtons theory, that sunlight is composed of
things feel warm or cool, exciting and stimulating, or soothing the colors of the spectrum, is apparent each time a rainbow is
and tranquil. Color has the suggestive power to affect mood formed, or when the suns rays are dispersed on the skin of
and enhance our experiences. It enriches our sense of the world a bubble, or by a lm of oil on a puddle.
and how we perceive it by helping us to interpret our visual
language. It may camouage us in times of danger, and is an
effective tool, a code that may alert us to hazardous situations Visible spectrum
and steer us to safety, even if only subliminally.
When a ray of light enters a prism, the array of colors that is
refracted through the prism appears in the following order:
Color theory Red
Orange
The ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles (492431 BC) was Yellow
the rst person to formulate a color theory. It was his hypothesis Green
that color is not the property of the object, but that it exists in Blue
the eye of the observer. This seemingly philosophical leap of Blue-violet
understanding was proven centuries later. The science of color is Violet
also known as chromatics, which takes in the perception of color
by the human eye and brain, the origin of color in materials,
color theory in art, and the physics of electromagnetic radiation
in the visible rangeor what we commonly refer to as light.
Color theory
These constituents of light are known as the visible spectrum.
Each color has a different wavelength. When light strikes Color groupings and systems
a surface certain wavelengths are absorbed, and others are
reected by its pigments or coloring. Most light sources emit The various terms used within the color-wheel models.
light at many different wavelengths, a process that gives a
surface its color. Primary colors
The term primary refers to a color that cannot be made from
In 1860, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831
other colors. Red, yellow, and blue form the primary triad.
1879) showed that light was a form of electromagnetic energy.
46
The eye is able to receive light waves between 400 and 800 Secondary colors
million cycles per second, and we perceive these cycles as color. Secondary colors are the result of mixing two primary colors,
Violet is the shortest and red the longest. for example blue and yellow mixed to produce green. The
secondary triad consists of green, orange, and violet.
Ensembles of garments in
monochromatic colors.
Introducing color
Color wheels The Itten wheel
Devised by Swiss teacher and artist Johannes Itten (18881967),
the Itten wheel shows a logical and easily remembered format
The color spectrum can be organized into wheels to help
for working with color pigments. Itten was captivated by color,
rationalize and predict color interactions. Color wheels are the
from both a scientic and a spiritual point of view, and taught
rst basic tools used in the analysis and discussion of color.
at the inuential Bauhaus School in Germany in the 1920s. He
There are many variations on the visual organization of color,
observed that colors can be classied as warm or cool shades,
some are simple in format and others highly complex, but their
and looked at how the two combined can affect each other.
principles are all linked. 47
Theoretical elements, including the Itten color wheel, generated
from the Bauhaus teachings still inform art instruction around
Pigment colors
the world today.
In subtractive, or pigment, mixtures, the primaries are traditionally
The Itten color wheel organizes the basic theory of
said to be red, yellow, and blue. If two primaries are mixed, they
the interrelationship between the primary, secondary, and
theoretically produce the secondaries orange, green, and purple.
tertiary colors in a practical graphic format. The triangle in the
If all three are mixed, they theoretically produce black.
center shows the three primary colors, yellow, blue, and red,
which cannot be created by mixing any of the other pigments.
The pigment and process wheels
Surrounding them are the three secondary colors, which are
On the conventional 12-color wheel of pigment hues, the
produced by mixing the primaries. The wheel that encircles the
primaries are red, blue, and yellow; the secondaries are orange,
primaries and secondaries is divided into 12 sectors. Six of these
green, and purple; and the tertiaries are mixtures of adjoining
are primaries and secondaries, and between each of these is
primaries and secondaries. If colors are mixed with their
another color. Itten referred to these as tertiary colors. A tertiary
complement (the hue lying opposite on the wheel), a neutral
color is the result of mixing a primary and a secondary color.
gray should be created, as indicated in the center. The 12-step
pigment wheel is the basis for working with subtractive color;
textile artists will use a subtractive wheel to create colors of yarn
and textiles by dyeing.
The 12-step process wheel also deals with subtractive
color but the three basic primaries are pureryellow, magenta,
and cyanthat upon mixing also result in purer hues. This
arrangement is the standard employed in color printing and
photography, as well as pigment manufacture.
Color theory
Light colors
The Munsell wheel
These colors are additive rather than subtractive (like pigments).
Albert Munsell (18581918) developed a partitive color system
If primary-colored lightsred-orange, green, and blue-violet
(below) based on ve primary hues, or as he referred to them,
are projected in overlapping circles, they mix to form the light
principal colors of yellow, red, green, blue, and purple. These
secondaries yellow, magenta, and cyan. In additive mixtures, the
primaries are based on after-image perceptionswhen the brain
secondaries are paler than the primaries. Where all three primaries
supplies the opposite color after staring at a particular huethat
overlap, they produce white. This system is used for lighting and
derive from hues we see in nature.
also forms the basis for video and computer graphics.
48
-
reen yello
w-g yellow ora w-
yello ellow nge
y
w- or
llo n an
ye ree ge
g
-
ee low
gr -yel
or
re ge
n
an
d-
n
ee
gr n
red
gree
green-blue-
red-violet-
green
red
The Munsell wheel
viole-
blue n
t
gree
red
-
blu blu
let d-
vio t-re
e-g e
le
re
vio
en
-
bl
ue let
vio
blue e-
-vio t-blu
blue let- blue- viole let
vio
violet
or
ye
an
ge
-
gre ellow
ora
en
red e
y
en-
ng
-
gre
green
red
gre reen
vio -
let
red
en-
g
blu
e-
bl ree
et
ol
ue n
g
vi
-
blu
e-g e-
r
blu een- blu et
l
e
blue vio
Introducing color
Perception of color Cultural reference
Our perception of color is fundamental to our ability to dene The meaning or emotional impact a color imparts will vary
our world and our emotions. Experience teaches us to connect across different cultures and can uctuate over time, acquiring
certain colors with cool or warm sensations. Color can help both positive and negative connotations throughout the ages.
us identify freshness and levels of ripeness or decay, can be an Fashion also exerts a signicant inuence on the associations we
indicator of potential illness, and help us recognize fear, anger, make with various colors. Anyone involved in the use of color
or embarrassment. for the development of fashion products needs to be conversant 49
with the codes that different colors can communicate.
Symbolic color associations rely on an audience that
Mind and matter shares the same cultural experiences. The idea that blue, green,
and violet are cool in temperature, and red, orange, and yellow
Three elements are needed to appreciate color: a light source, are warm colors is shared by many cultures worldwide. This
a subject, and a viewer. The brain interprets as color the waves association is rooted in our shared physical experience with
of light that are received by the lens of the eye. The information water, shadow, and icy climates, or re, sun, and deserts. The
received by the eye is conveyed to the brain, so the perception meaning of color seems to be generated from a psychological
of color is therefore a mental, psychological, and physical reaction to a physical experience.
phenomenon. Our perception of color is affected by the context
it exists in: what surrounds it, what other colors are next to it
and the lighting conditions under which it is seen. It is the human
eye in conjunction with the brains ability to synthesize that
informs how we distinguish the type of color seen.
Our ability to perceive texture, distance, and three-
dimensionality is affected by color: generally darker colors
appear to recede, or make things look smaller, while lighter
colors tend to have the opposite effect.
Perception of color
50
Chromatic Convergence by
Myka Baum illustrates the principle
of simultaneous contrast.
Introducing color
Color communication: No one knows exactly how precise color terms developed
in different languages, but there seems to be a correlation
the vocabulary of color between the importance of a particular commodity, or the
need to describe environmental factors, and the complexity
of descriptive color terms. Where precision is found in color
The human eye can differentiate between several million colors
language it is often inuenced by a societys environment, for
of varying hue, saturation, and tone, and we recognize that color
example, desert tribes have a large range of terms for yellows
has more than one visible quality by the adjectives we use.
and browns, conversely Eskimos possess a wide vocabulary that
The vocabulary used to describe color is often imprecise. 51
enables them to differentiate the colors and variations of snow
We say red, but red can be yellow or bluish in cast, shockingly
and ice. The Maoris have over 100 words in their vocabulary for
intense, cloyingly dark, or tender and bordering on pink.
what we would call red. Many African tribes have extensive
Differences in colors are not adequately communicated by a
color vocabularies for their most signicant possessions, cattle.
broad color name alone. Therefore, color names, such as red,
Old Germanic peoples reliance on their horses is reected in
are often coupled with evocative adjectives that enhance the
their many horse adjectives, a tradition that has passed into
communication of the color feeling, for example hellre red,
English, which also boasts a large variety of descriptive words
cherry red, or blood red.
for the coloring of horses, including roan, bay, chestnut, piebald,
and skewbald. In most cultures human hair and skin color are
Cultural necessities also descriptors that can reect quite complex shade variations to
establish a persons heritage or caste.
Thinking about colors as moods and feelings inspires
evocative or emotive language and descriptive
adjectives that can provoke recognition of very
Color trends
specic colors.
The consumers rst response is to color. Selecting colors and
forming a dened color palette is one of the rst considerations
Many thousands of colors have been apportioned names, but
when planning a range or collection.
these are generally limited. The basic color vocabulary of even
Many industries depend heavily on our constantly
the richest language is surprisingly small, often fewer than a
changing taste in color. The prediction of color trends involves
dozen words. All other color terms are arrived at by qualifying
an ongoing assessment of all the subtle factors that inuence
a basic word with the addition of light or dark, or by
consumer tastes.
illustrating the color by referencing it to an object or material,
Crazes in colors can be associated with a certain lifestyle.
such as ivory, lemon, coffee, or mahogany.
A group of colors can express a cultural attitude or inspirational
lifestyle fantasies such as sporty, classic, or ethnic. The
most enduring color trend of the twentieth century began in
the late 1980s. Inspired by the stark aesthetic of a new wave of
Japanese designers, black relentlessly encompassed all levels of
fashion, and became no longer a color to be associated with
mourning or glamor, but the ultimate expressive noncolor for
all aspects of contemporary urban life.
Simultaneous contrast
The effect produced by placing colors of the same intensity
together is known as simultaneous contrast (see opposite page).
Colors that oppose each other in the spectrum can create
striking optical effects, appearing to icker, shimmer, or even
undulate depending on the proportion and sequence they
are used in. This effect will only be fully apparent if both hues
have the same intensity. The value of each color can appear
to change in relation to the color it is placed next to. In prints or
stripes this can cause an optical icker.
Eco considerations
Consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the impact that
their purchasing habits may have on the environment. Color
forecasters identied this attitude in the 1990s and it informed
the trend for natural state fabrics: undyed, unbleached textiles
and a feel for softer, more real colors.
The environmental and social impact of producing and
nishing colored textiles can be immense and there is no doubt
that certain chemicals, dyestuffs, and nishing processes have
a negative impact on the environment. The toxins discharged
by chemical dyes and the waste of natural resources involved in Color matching. Artist Isabella
processing are a major consideration when sourcing textiles. Whitworth has experimented with
Recent years have seen nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) natural dyes to complement the
driving legislative change that resulted in 22 carcinogenic azo ethically-farmed semi-wild Eri silk.
dyes being banned in Europe. Informed choices by consumers Her swatchbook documents the
and commitment by developers of products can help protect recipe as 4 cups of onion-skin, 2
the environment. parts water, and 2 tablespoons
of white vinegar, boiled for 1520
minutes and allowed to stand for
a further 30 minutes.
Introducing color
The surface of the material that a light source falls upon consistently matching colors of barely perceptible differences.
can also affect the way we perceive the color of that material. This objective standard eliminates differences in human
Corduroy, velvet, satin, and boucl tweeds all have very different interpretation. The SCOTDIC (Standard Color of Textile
surface textures that will affect our visual perception of color due Dictionnaire Internationale de la Couleur) and the Pantone
to the level of absorption or reection of light upon the fabrics Professional System are also widely used in the fashion and
textures. If a surface is rough or porous, it will absorb a greater textiles industry.
proportion of light waves hitting it, and the color will look
darker, while a shiny surface will reect more of the light and
will therefore appear lighter. Combining color 53
Commision Internationale de LEclairage (CIE) is an
organization that was founded in 1931 at the International Colors are rarely seen or used in isolation. When working with
Commission on Illumination, following the exploration of color try to transcend the received wisdom of which colors
the need for a standardization of color. This system was based should and should not be seen together. Fashion constantly
on lights. A colorimeter was used to measure three variables demands a new perspective on color and needs to express new
of any color, the luminance (intensity of light given off), the ideas. When colors share similar visual qualities we perceive
hue, and the saturation. Together these values determine the them as harmonious or unied. Colors when juxtaposed can
chromacity of a color. The advantage of the CIE system is play tricks with our perception of them; they can appear to alter
that it provides the industry with the means of accurately and in cast, tone, or even size.
Introducing color
55
56
Introducing color
The startling, almost chemical,
astringency of citrus yellows and
acidic chartreuse are tempered
and softened by gilded axen tones
and orange-tinged saffron which
convey egg yolk, custard, and sun-
baked days.
57
Introducing color
Icy or salt-bleached tints of blue
convey a languid ozonic clarity.
Pale, liquid and patinated hues
are almost reective. Intensely
saturated blue can be electric
and invigorating. Shades with
a violet cast inject warmth, and
iconic indigo denim spans shades
from the merest tint through to the
deepest, blackened navy. 59
Medium
24.5 to 31.4 microns
24
25
26
27
40 minutes 28
Synthetic Fabric 29
30
A Sportswool garment viewed (above) Wool ber under
under a thermal imaging camera magnication, showing the many
shows the natural thermally tiny overlapping scales all pointing
31 responsive regulating aspects in the same direction. The natural
of the ber. It helps to raise the wave or crimp allows air to be
bodys temperature when in a cool trapped within the structure and
32 climate, and cools the body when lends the ber its natural insulating
the ambient temperature rises. quality.
33
34
40 minutes
Wool ber
Wool production Wool classes
Over 60 percent of global production is destined for the clothing Prior to spinning, wool is separated and graded into different
industry. Australia is by far the largest producer of wool, of quality classication categories known as wool classes. The
which the majority is from merino breeds. New Zealand is diameter of the ber is measured in microns and is the principal
the second largest producer, mainly from crossbred varieties. component in determining the classication category. Generally,
Organic wool is becoming popular but represents a very small anything under 25 microns is used for light clothing, while
percentage of global production. medium grades are used for heavy outerwear and coarse grades
for rugs. Finesse, crimp, ber length, cleanliness, and color
Sixty percent of all global wool production is are other key ingredients for consideration; grading is also
destined for the clothing market. dependent on the breed of sheep and the end purpose of the
wool. At this stage, and until the wool has been scoured and
cleaned, it is referred to as grease-wool, or wool-in-the-grease.
68
Shearing Finally the wool bers are compressed into bales ready for
packaging and transportation to the mills that will carry out the
The eece of a sheep is carefully shorn and removed in one piece. next round of processes.
Shearing represents the single greatest expense of the entire wool-
production cycle, constituting approximately 20 percent of the Wool scouring
total cost. The best lambswool is obtained from the rst shearing, Scouring is an essential cleaning process that removes both the
taken at about six months of age when the eece is at its softest grease and debris from the wool prior to spinning. Scoured
and nest. Thereafter sheep are shorn at yearly intervals. wool is usually about 70 percent of the weight of prescoured or
An alternative to shearing with hand blades or electric grease-wool.
clippers is the protein injection. A retaining net is tted over the
sheep before injecting a protein substance that forms a natural
break in the wool ber. After a week the net is removed and the
wool eece pulled off by hand.
After shearing the eeces are thrown clean-side down
onto rotating tables in the shearing sheds, where impurities and Shearing and classifying
any foreign matter are removed. Referred to as grease-wool throughout these stages
Shearing
s
Spinning mills
Scouringcardingdrawing
da
Woollen spinning Worsted spinning
Drawing Combing
Twist Drawing
Twist
Wool production
Twisting yarns of differing natural ber sources is
an interesting proposition from both a fabric and fashion
perspective, as well as being a potential marketing lever for
a brand. Twisting silk and wool together offers interesting
retail marketing possibilities, expounding the contrasting but
complementary qualities of both bers. By contrast, a brand
that is at a price-competitive level of the market could use a
cashmere and wool mixture and market the luxury aspect of the
product while not dramatically increasing the price.
In the search for something new to offer the designer, and
ultimately the end consumer, traditional woolen yarns have been
twisted with everything from cellophane to metallic yarns in the
quest for creativity and to promote the use of traditional bers
with added technology.
70
Woolen spun yarn
Yarn that has gone through the carding and drawing processes
is referred to as woolen spun yarn. As a result of these processes
the bers tend to lie in all directions, giving a fuzzy, textured
appearance. Woolen spun yarns are perfect for knitwear of
almost any machine gauge, producing sweaters that are soft,
supple and comforting, while woolen spun fabrics tend to have
a coarser hand with a less visible fabric structure than worsteds
(above) Gray cropped coat with (see right). The bers used are thicker and less even in length,
contrast sleeves in wool annel by making woolen spun fabrics a perfect medium for textured
New York designer Michael Angel.
surfaces with high tactile fabric interest, such as tweed.
The bold graphic appeal of the
chunky proportions is emphasized
by the color blocking of the
charcoal and dove gray, worn with
a beige marl-effect box-pleated
skirt in a wool and silk blend.
Worsted wool
Worsted wool is the ultimate cloth for expressing precise and
urbane classic tailoring. New wool blends lend contemporary 71
deconstructed tailoring a drapeable and supple elegance that
molds to the body and is supremely comfortable.
Traditional wool tweeds can provide an authentic rugged
durability or a soft and comfortable sporty feel in softer yarns.
New ber technologies have enhanced the natural thermal
properties of wool and make it an ideal choice for performance
and fashion sportswear.
Wool production
Producing fabric: Wool fabrics
weaving and knitting The fabrics listed here represent the most popular woolens and
worsteds in use, and would give the designer or merchandiser an
Once the yarns have been spun they are ready to be either extensive selection for designing a range or building a collection.
knitted or woven into fabric. Specialist knitting factories and The list, however, is not exhaustive. The fabrics are all primarily
weaving mills will use selected yarns to produce the woolens, made from woolen yarns, though some names are shared with
worsted fabrics, or knitwear. Biannual yarn trade fairs will other natural and/or synthetic yarns.
showcase their latest developments and new fashion colors.
These trade fairs are ideally suited to knitwear and fabric
designers, much more so than fashion designers. Each seasons
trade fairs are really the start of a new seasons collection.
72
Textured traditional
These textured, historic fabrics, with a hand-loom provenance,
express an authentic, robust, coarse, rugged aspect.
Tweed Generically describes coarse-textured woolen spun
fabrics from Scotland, Ireland, and Yorkshire, although Scottish
in origin. Today they have been made lighter in weight and are
available in all fashion colors. Tweeds are often prexed with the
town or area from whence they originated.
Harris tweed Originally hand-loomed tweed using vegetable
dyes, from the Scottish Hebrides.
Donegal tweed Originally hand-spun, with colored slubs woven
into the fabric. Now a generic term for any similar fabric.
Cheviots Traditionally twill-woven outerwear fabrics made from
Cheviot or crossbred wool varieties.
Raised surface
Hopsack Basket weave, or sometimes plain weave, with a
pronounced surface resembling its name.
Panama Lightweight plain weave with a very lightly pronounced
cross effect.
Hounds-tooth
Prince of Wales
(left) Tattersall check, a traditional
equestrian fabric, derives its Glen Urquhart check
name from an eighteenth-century
Tattersall
racehorse auctioneers at Londons
Hyde Park Corner, long before it Herringbone
became Londons premier address.
Tartans/plaids
Today the term Tattersall applies
to fabrics of any ber and checks
of any scale, as long as they
maintain the equestrian feel of
the original fabric.
74
Loopy
Fluffy, airy, or granular in texture.
Boucl The French word for curly, the fabric may be woven
or knitted. The term is applied to a yarn or nished fabric with
a curled surface.
Crpe An all-over granular effect with a very dry touch.
Moroccan Heavy crpe effect.
Insulative
Warm and brushed with a cozy, tactile surface.
Flannel Used generically for many worsted spun fabrics. May be Sensual
of plain or twill weave with napped surface to one or both sides.
Loden Brushed, raised surface, coating weight, originally from Glamorous, light, and uid with expressive drape.
Tyrol. The name also implies a specic shade of green that
Challis Very lightweight plain weave with a soft touch.
camouaged well into the local landscape.
Georgette Lightweight plain weave with a very ne
Melton Thick, diagonal-weave fabric with a raised surface.
crpe effect.
Quite rm to the touch and used for outerwear.
Mousseline Generic term for very ne, semiopaque fabric.
Classifying merino
Ultra ne
under 17.5 microns
Fine
under 19.5 microns
Fine medium
up to 20.5 microns
Medium
up to 22.5 microns
Strong
over 22.6 microns
Sumptuous hand-knitted,
heather gray, oversized sweater
in 100 percent merino wool by
New York designer Michael Angel.
The giant scale of the knit makes
an exaggerated statement,
emphasizing the coziness and
luxury of the merino yarn.
Shetland colors
The different strains of Shetland sheep still carry the Old Norse
names, which are also often used to describe the shades or
colors.
Bleget Whitish gray.
Emsket Dusky blue to gray.
Eesit Shades of ash.
Extravagant Mongolian sheep- Moget Light brown, dark belly.
wool coat by Huwaida Ahmed.
Shaela Shaded wool from dark to light.
The exceptionally long and curly
corkscrew locks are characteristic Skeget Striped sides.
of Mongolian sheep wool.
Skjuret Mixed brown and gray.
80
83
Logo for new generation of Wool plus LYCRA is a dynamic Logo for pure new wool with Light wool is super-lightweight
lightweight fabrics and knitwear. mix of new wool and LYCRA. enhanced natural stretch. wool that is truly cross-seasonal.
Through a special selection of Its ultra-ne yarns make for the
bers, this wool gives woven sheerest knitted and tailored
fabrics extra ease of movement, clothing.
comfort, and the elasticity to
recover from daily wear.
Wool and cotton logo. A special blend of yarns The Gold Woolmark denotes IWTO (International Wool Textile
providing all the performance an exciting new standard, Organization) is an International
benets of natural bers. differentiating luxurious organization covering all
garments made of the nest aspects of marketing wool for all
quality superne Australian wool. major producers.
Wool market
Ecological and ethical Ecological criteria
considerations The International Wool Textile Organization (IWTO) has categorized
eco-wool and organic wool for clarication at retail and
Wool is, or fundamentally should be, an ecologically sound consumer level. The three categories for classifying eco-wool
product, but the increase of production and desire for are: eco-wool; eco-wool products; and eco-wool containing
consistency of quality, together with the concern for maximum products. The three categories for classifying organic wool are:
return on investment, will mean that some aspects are not as organically grown wool; organic wool product; and organic
wool containing product.
ecologically or ethically sound as todays informed and aware
consumer might wish. The guiding criteria for ecologically sound wool should consider
The designer or company manufacturing the designs the following points.
needs to have its target customers in mind when selecting the Correct grazing for the ocks Appropriate eld rotation
source of its fabrics. This is not always straightforward, because minimizes soil erosion and reduces the chance of the sheep
the supply chain from sheep rearing to fabric manufacturing incurring internal parasites. Often sheep are crowded onto land,
84 has many stages that could have ecological and/or ethical resulting in overgrazing, and thus destroying the vegetation.
implications. How deeply these issues are considered is really When a eld becomes barren the grower brings in dry feed that
can add additional veggie-matter to the eece, which needs to
dependent on the brands ethos and the target customers be destroyed by means of harsh acids that can leave wool dry
expectations. and overcrimped.
A fabric manufacturer or spinner that uses yarns from
Clean water Unpolluted drinking sources.
ethical and ecologically sound sources will place emphasis on
these virtues, especially since the fabrics will tend to be more A predator friendly environment Using well-trained sheep dogs.
expensive. The eco-factor may be the USP (unique selling Healthy veterinary practices Using only certain types of
point) to justify the price differential. Similarly, sheep farmers medications and supplements.
that practice a more humane form of animal husbandry as Soil chemical control Not using herbicides and pesticides
well as sounder ecological grazing methods will also promote on elds that sheep graze on.
these aspects. Livestock chemical control Sheep are bathed in chemicals
to ward off pests and insects, which may leave a residue and
contaminate the ground water if used improperly. After shearing,
harsh toxic chemicals are often used to clean the wool, as
well as bleaching agents to whiten the wool during and after
scouring.
Carbon footprint The distance of travel from primary source
to nal destination.
Recycling has long been part of The wool shredder is an important The Door to Door Darning concept by San Franciscan performance
the industrys production cycle. part of the recycling process. artist Michael Swaine. He started the mobile free mending library xing
Fiber reclamation mills grade clothes, telling stories, and provoking the interrogation of our throwaway
incoming materials into types society.
and colors, thus saving energy on
unnecessary reprocessing before
shredding into shoddy.
87
Musk ox
Qiviut
Angora rabbits
Angora goatMohair
Nigora and Pygora
crossbreed goats Camel (Bactrian/2 hump)
Cashmere goat
Yak (Tibet)
Angora goatMohair
Color range
Alpacas naturally range in color from jet black through warm
browns, fawns, and cool grays to creamy whites at the lightest
end of the spectrum. The large range of colors and shades is
a special characteristic of the breed and hence color sorting
is highly skilled work carried out by hand and eye: the most
important part of the business. Depending on country of
classication, eeces can range from between 12 to 52 natural
colors and shades: Peru classies 52; the United States 22; and
Australia 12.
Camelids
Llama Technically llama ber is not wool because it is hollow
and has a structure of diagonal walls; however, it is referred
to as llama wool. The ber is strong and light and has good
The llama (Lama glama) is the largest of the South American
insulation properties. It is thicker and coarser than alpaca ber,
Camelidae family, believed to have originated in the mountains
with a diameter ranging from 20 to 40 microns. If the micron
of North America 40 million years ago and to have migrated
count is under 28 it may also be described as alpaca. By way
south around three million years ago. They became essential pack
of comparison, merino wool is between 12 and 20 microns.
animals as well as a source of protein for the indigenous Indian
peoples of the Andes. The Spanish conquistadors used thousands
Llama production
of llamas as a means of transporting the spoils of warfare.
Llamas are low-maintenance animals with little impact on the
At present there is only a very small commercial market
environment.
for llama ber, and it tends to be favored by hand spinners for
They are efcient and adaptable frugal foragers and adjust
organic and craft clothing.
well to free-choice feeding or once-a-day feeding schedules
based on owner convenience. Llamas are shorn either once a
Llama ber
year or once every two years. Their eece comes in four main
The four types of llama are the curaca and ccara, or classic light
colors, ranging from white through gray, brown, and black,
wool llamas, and the tapada and lanuda, or heavy wool
and is grease free.
llamas. Nearly 70 percent of the worlds llamas live in Bolivia,
90 with a smaller number in Peru. However, because the rst
llamas imported into Europe were from Peru, it is the Peruvian
terminology that is in common use today. Of the Bolivian llamas
nearly 80 percent are of the heavy, woolly-coated type, which
have eeces suitable for making yarn.
Camelids
Camel hair Camel-hair ber
Camel hair has thermostatic properties that keep The bers of the camels down undercoat are between 3/4 and 4
the wearer warm in winter and cool in summer, and inches (2 and 10 cm) in length, and do not felt easily. The outer
is believed to contain anti-rheumatic and anti- coat has coarse long hairs that are used for carpets and bedding.
arthritic properties. Among the indigenous peoples of the area, the guard hairs
are used to weave waterproof fabric for clothing, to withstand
Bactrian and dromedary are two species of camel, both Afro- extreme weather conditions.
Asiatic relatives of the South American family of camelids. The mane of the camel is used for interlinings for good-
The dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) is the one-humped quality tailoring. For clothing only the softer undercoat is used,
desert-dwelling Arabian camel, which was the rst of the two either as pure camel hair or blended with lambswool. If it has
to be domesticated. The bactrian (Camelus bactrianus) has two been tri-blended with wool and a synthetic, then the camel hair
humps and was rst domesticated some 2,500 years ago in what is likely to be of an inferior quality, or possibly even recycled.
are today the regions of northern Iran, Afghanistan, northern The very best camel hair comes from the underside of
Pakistan, and Turkistan, where temperatures are at hot and cold a Mongolian baby camel. The bers are approximately 1 to
extremes between summer and winter. Apart from some wild 2 1/2 inches (2.5 to 6 cm) long and 16 to 21 microns in diameter.
bactrian camels in the Gobi Desert, and feral dromedary camels At this standard it is almost comparable to cashmere (see
92 in Australia, camels are now completely domesticated. page 94), and is the result of years of selective breeding. By
Camel hair for commercial consumption is obtained comparison, adult camel hair has a diameter of approximately
only from the bactrian camel. The bactrian camels with the 21 to 25 microns.
best-quality hair live in the extreme climatic conditions of Inner Camel hair is traditionally used in its natural color, golden
Mongolia (northern China) and Outer Mongolia. Camel hair tan with varying tones of red. Contemporary developments
also comes from Afghanistan, Iran, Russia, and Tibet. Camels in dyeing technology allow it to respond to dye equally as
are not native to New Zealand or Australia but have been successfully as wool; however, if dyed, it is often preferred in a
introduced to supplement their domestic ber selection. range of faux natural colors, from blond to brown.
Camel-hair market
93
Italy is the principal destination for camel-hair ber; the superne
baby camel-hair ber goes to Biella, northwest of Milan, a center
for spinning and weaving ne woolen and worsted fabrics.
The remainder goes to Prato near Florence, which is another
important center for Italian fabrics. The principal nal destination
of camel-hair clothing is the United States: no other global
market has developed the same appreciation for camel-hair
clothes, especially within the menswear sector.
Camel hair
Goat ber Cashmere
Goats are from the Caprinae subfamily of the Bovidae family Cashmere goats originated high up in the plateau regions of the
of animals, and are relatives of sheep. The domesticated goat Himalayan mountains. The local Kashmiri population would
is a subspecies of the wild goats of southwest Asia and eastern spin the ber from the goats downy undercoat, weave it into
Europe, and is among the oldest domesticated species, dating ne fabric and make it into shawls known as pashminaa term
back over 10,000 years. derived from the Persian word pasham, meaning goat wool.
Most goats have the capability to yield ber; however, The pashmina shawls were highly valued by the colonial British
the most important ber-producing goats are the cashmere and who ruled Kashmir during the eighteenth and nineteenth
angora goats. Additionally, within the last few decades three centuries, and were exported all over Europe. The fabric from
hybrid goats have been developed that also produce commercial which they were made was referred to as cashmere, named after
quantities of ne ber. the province of Kashmir from where they originated.
In India and Pakistan the ber is still referred to as
pasham, while the rest of the world knows it as cashmere, a
name synonymous with luxury. Unfortunately, by association
with inferior man-made copies, pashmina now commonly
refers to a style of shawl, as opposed to the rare ber itself.
94 A genuine pashmina shawl is still hand-spun and made of
pashmina woolcashmere.
Cashmere ber
Cashmere is not a breed of goat, but a description of a goat
that has been carefully bred to produce a ne downy undercoat,
the cashmere ber. Many different breeds can produce cashmere
to some degree; however, it is the Himalayan mountain
goat (Capra hircus laniger) that is popularly known as the
cashmere goat.
For goat ber to be considered natural cashmere it must
be under 18.5 microns in diameter. No more than three percent
of the down may be over 30 microns. The ratio of ne down
to coarse guard hair needs to be above 30 percent. The ber
should measure at least 1 1/4 inches (3 cm) long, be low in
luster and have a good crimp. Cashmere from Outer Mongolia
and the Inner Mongolian parts of China is of the best quality.
Much of this is due to the extreme climate of this sub-Siberian
land, which seems to encourage the goats to grow a ner,
denser under-hair.
Through years of selective breeding, Chinese goats now
yield the most amount of ber, producing over 2 pounds (1 kg)
of raw ber per goat, of which the under-eece (the cashmere)
is about 1 pound (500 g). The 50:50 ratio of cashmere down to
guard hairs represents an excellent yield; in some countries the
goats yield approximately 1 pound (500 g) of raw ber of which
only 5 ounces (150 g) is the all-important under-down. This
30 percent ratio of guard hair to under-down is the minimum
allowed for classication as cashmere.
Practical luxury
Classic mens underwear styling reinterpreted
in a superne cashmere knit by Casa de
Cashmere. Contrary to popular belief,
cashmere ber is relatively robust and responds
well to either hand or delicate machine
washing. Weight-for-weight, cashmere is warmer
than wool, and its ultra-ne bers naturally
possess a high moisture content, allowing its
insulating properties to respond to changes in
the humidity of the air.
Goat ber
Cashmere production
Although an important and protable ber, global cashmere
Mohair
production is believed to be around one percent of the total
Mohair, from angora goats, is a luxury ber that is desired all
textile market, putting into perspective the uniqueness of this
over the world. It is admired for its luster, its softness, and its
luxurious ber.
strength, and may be one of the oldest animal bers still in use.
The traditional method of harvesting cashmere is hand
combing, which remains the preferred technique in Mongolia
The history of mohair
and parts of China. In Iran, Afghanistan, Australia, and New
Angoras are an ancient breed of goat, and the rst records of
Zealand the cashmere ber is removed by shearing, which is a
them being used for ber purposes date back to the fourteenth
faster method but does result in a higher coarse-hair content
century BC. Some believe they were native to the Anatolian
and a lower pure-down yield. Combing is carried out using
plateau region of what is now modern Turkey, while others
a coarse comb, which is pulled through the goats eece to
believe their true origin is the Himalayan plateau, the regions
remove the loose tufts. This usually happens in spring, when
around Tibet and Mongolia. Legends tell of the goats trekking
the animal is naturally shedding its winter coat. Hand combing
westward to Anatolia in great nomadic caravans with Suleiman
can take between one and two weeks to complete, but does
Shaa when eeing the advances of Genghis Khan and his
result in a far better yield, as well as ner and softer bers for
Mongol armies around 1240 to 1245. They nally settled in the
future harvesting.
region of Ertena or Angora, now part of modern-day Ankara
The ber is collected from the farmers and sorted by hand
96 and its surrounding land. The sultans of the Ottoman Empire
and eye in factories within the same regions as the goats are
banned the export of the raw eeces to try to keep the precious
herded. Efcient sorting is crucial to the production of cashmere,
ber exclusive.
and the bers need to be graded by quality and color: it is
The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, came across the
essential that no dark bers be mixed with white bers. Once
angora goats in the 1550s at the time of his ongoing conicts
sorted, the bers are washed to remove coarse hairs, dirt, and
with the Ottomans. He tried to introduce the goats into Europe
vegetable matter.
but the attempts were not successful as the breed is neither
The de-hairing stage removes the coarse outer guard
hardy nor prolic, and has high nutritional requirements.
hairs from the soft under-down, which is the all-important
Until 1847 the Ottoman province of Ankara was the only
component then used for spinning. The technology for de-
producer of angora goats and ber. They were then imported
hairing cashmere was developed in the nineteenth century in
into the United States and South Africa. Some were later bred
Bradford, Yorkshire, then the center of the British woolen textile
on Navajo Indian Reservations, where the purity of the stock
industry. Its pioneer, Joseph Dawson, guarded the secret of this
was compromised through interbreeding, resulting in angoras
complex process, which ensured exclusive production. The
with eeces of different colors. It is believed that current colored
technology has since spread, breaking the monopoly of a few
angoras originate from these mid-nineteenth-century hybrids.
specialist cashmere spinners. Investment, as well as European
In the twentieth century the goats were imported into Australia,
and Japanese technical expertise, has now brought Chinese
but only reached Great Britain in the early 1980s.
de-hairing to a high enough standard of quality for the cashmere
knitters of both Scotland and Italy.
The bers are then traded internationally. The majority are
sold to Italy, Japan, and Scotland, the three principal countries
renowned for sophisticated and innovative cashmere spinning,
knitting, and weaving. Johnstons of Elgin of Scotland is the
oldest cashmere mill still in operation.
Cashmere market
The annual global yield of pre-cleaned ber is approximately
10,000 tons; after cleaning the remaining pure cashmere is
approximately 6,500 tons. Today about 60 percent of the
worlds raw cashmere production comes from China. Outer
Mongolia contributes about 20 percent and is the second
largest global producer. Iran, Afghanistan, India, Pakistan,
and a few Central Asian republics produce the remainder.
Goat ber
The coarse kemps need to be removed after shearing, and
the eeces are graded into four categories according to their
quality, taking into consideration micron count, color, luster,
smoothness, and general cleanliness.
The eeces are processed to remove vegetable matter
and natural grease. Mohair should be washed before spinning,
and it can withstand very hot water without damaging. The use
of detergent aids the removal of the grease, and nal rinsing in
vinegar or denatured alcohol will bring out the natural shine and
luster of the ber.
Mohair market
South Africa and Lesotho produce over 50 percent of the total
output of mohair, followed by the United States (Texas), where
the breeders are subsidized by the government. Turkey and
Argentina also produce mohair ber, as do Australia and New
Zealand; their combined yield is about six percent.
Cape (South Africa) mohair is the most sought-after
98
because the animals have been genetically selected to produce
minimal amounts of kemp bers.
France, Italy, Germany, Portugal, and Great Britain are all
producers of mohair fabric and garments. France and Italy also
specialize in mohair yarn for knitting. Japan is considered to be
the largest importer of mohair fabric, especially for tailoring,
because it makes ideal trans-seasonal clothing.
Colored mohair
The predominant eece color is white, while colored eeces are
rare but becoming more popular. Colored angoras are a hardier
variety with less grease, and their eece would be described
as wavy. There are three color groups: those that range from
brown to black; those that range from tan through apricot to
red; and those from silver to blue roan. The diversity of color is
not easily duplicated with articial dyestuffs. They are, however,
sometimes over-dyed to produce a deeper intensity of color.
Naturally colored mohair eeces are popular with hand spinners.
Nigora
The nigora is a purposeful cross between an angora goat and
cashmere-producing Nigerian dwarf goat. Those that are
predominantly angora are classied as heavy nigora because of
their larger size and larger eece. Those that are predominantly
Nigerian dwarf are classied as light nigora for their smaller
size and eece. Nigoras produce three distinct ber types.
Goat ber
Alternative animal bers center part, and the ne down undercoat. The percentage of each
varies with age, sex, and geographic location, as well as which part
of the body the ber has been taken from. Good animals produce
Luxury bers are also harvested from yaks, qiviuts, and
a ratio of about 50 percent down to 50 percent hair.
angora rabbits.
The guard hairs exceed 52 microns in diameter and are
only used for making rugs and rope. The mid-hair is between
Yak hair 25 and 50 microns with fewer large crimps. The desirable soft
down, which grows before the onset of winter and sheds in the
late spring, is under 25 microns in diameter with irregular crimps
Yaks (Bos grunniens) were domesticated in the rst millennium BC
and a soft luster. Fiber length after cleaning and de-hairing is
in what is now Tibet. They inhabit the steppe regions around the
between 1 1/4 and 1 1/2 inches (3 and 4 cm) long with a micron
Himalayan plateau, living above the snow levels during warmer
count of about 18.5.
summer months and descending to lower levels in the colder
Yak ber tends to be quite even in thickness, has a
winter months. The majority of yaks are domesticated, however
cashmere-like feel and is very lofty. A one-year-old yak produces
there is a dwindling number of vulnerable wild yaks remaining.
ne ber of between 15 and 17 microns with a length of 1 1/2
In the Tibetan language yak refers only to the male, but in
to 2 inches (4 to 5 cm). Wild yak hair is usually black, while
English it refers to both the male and female animal.
domesticated animals range from black through brown and
Yaks are an essential aspect of the Himalayan mountain
shades of gray. White underbelly hair is the most rare and thus
100 community, being used as beasts of burden and for their meat,
the most valuable.
milk, ber, and skin. The majority are to be found in China,
Since the 1970s the ber has been seen as an alternative
however all the Himalayan regions have a yak population.
to ne yarns such as cashmere. However, currently the ber is
There are several species of yak. The henduan from the
of little economic value compared to other yak by-products,
alpine regions of Tibet produces the best yield, while the jiulong
and therefore it has not been fully exploited. There are now
from the plateau regions has the best ber.
considerations to develop strains that have a better ber for
production.
Yak-hair ber
Yak ber is structurally different to sheep ber: the angle
Yak-hair production
between the scales and the hair shaft on the external surface of
Yak hair is either combed or pulled in the late spring when the
the ber is smaller than that of wool, so the scales stick to the
animal sheds its winter coat naturally. On average an animal
shaft and feel smoother. It also has greater tensile strength than
produces approximately 3 1/2 ounces (100 g) of ber annually.
sheeps wool.
The ber of yaks imported into North America is often spun with
The hair is made up of three components, the coarse outer
silk or lambswool for a unique selling feature. Yak wool is not a
guard hairs, which are layered in several different lengths, a woolly
commercially viable mass-consumption ber, but is an interesting
alternative favored by craft spinners, knitters, and weavers.
101
(left) Jean Paul Gaultier subverts (above) The clean, minimal styling
the traditional craft of Aran of this wool coat by designer Elise
knit, glamorizing its practical Kim recalls the future-forward
provenance by interpreting it aesthetic of the 1960s. The style
in a uffy, luxurious yarn and features a uffy sleeve detail in a
creating open lattices between the mohair and angora blend that
traditional cable designs. showcases the angelic halo
of light trapped by the super-light
(below) Knitted angora hat clearly downy bers.
showing the halo that this ultra-ne
ber has when it traps the light,
producing an angelic downy effect.
N
a
A Lake
GA
e ng
Do L Se
l
T
K H IN
n
Dn KIRGHIZ A
iep STEPPE
er I
Lake
TER
Zayzan M
O n MAN CH U R I A
EA
U rule
Ke
GR
N
Sea T
Lake A
of Azov Sy Balkhash Ili I N G O B I
Aral rD
S
UST-URT ary
PLATEAU Sea a
C A
U C
Caspian
A S
Black Sea Mt Elbrus
5642 m U Issyk Kul A N
S H Bosten
S Hu
KYZYL-
Sea N
KUM E Dunhuang
T I
Ki
Urmia Hu
TA URU
ES
Z SH K2
He
KU Hotan
O
Merv
KA
8611 m
A Demavend g
PO
5604 m U an
RA
u
TA
D H
G
IN
KO
M
du
In
RA
an DESERT
O
Antioch
M
E
Yellow
S
atr
Sea
es
Palmyra
M
Seleucia PLATEAU
Dead Sea H OF TIBET se
t
tle
j gt
s
Su I
n
SYRIAN PLATEAU
Ya
DESERT M Dongting
Poyang
OF IRAN A L A S Hu East
Gulf
Gulf d us A Y Hu
of Suez In China Sea
Ga
of Aqaba IN LS
Pe
DO ge
n
si s Everest L
HI
HE
Ni
THAR
Mekon
8848 m
r
an -G
le
JA
Gu D ESERT A utra an
A
G
R
G
iw
A
ET
g
Ta
N
IC PL IN
e
A
of
Mt Sham Gulf of it
d
3035 m ra
St
Oman
Ho
ng
Lake ada
Salween
S
Nasser Narm
e
N UB IA N
a
Arabian Sea
N
D ES ER T Gulf
ALI
D
L- KH of Hainan
N
A
BA Bay of
Arabian
O
SI
RU
P
Tonkin
TS
Bengal
R
WE
A
A
Basin H
C Mek
G
i l
RN
ST
H ong
C
Kris TE
hn a
ER
i p
I
EAS
Goa
N
So uth
G
p i
HA
D
Blue
ite Nile
Ras Dashen
C hi na Sea
MALAY PEN
of A Andaman
N ile
Lake Islands
n e
India
Yemen
Y
ETHIO PIAN
C
L L E
PL ATEAU
a
rl Nicobar Sulu
A O GAD E N sb Islands Sea
IN
V
India
e
St
The silk routes, or Silk Road as they 4,000 miles (6,500 km) long. As well exchange, and thus a signicant
are collectively known, are a series as the luxury of oriental silk, these factor in the development of the
of ancient interconnecting trading routes carried other commodities great civilizations of China, India,
routes that link China and the West. such as tea, spices, and medicine, Egypt, Persia, Arabia, and Rome.
The map shows the main arterial and were also a conduit for ideas,
trading route from East to West, over technical knowledge and cultural
(left) Menswear by Etro from the (above) This Thai fabric is a typical
Spring/Summer 2009 collection. Jim Thompson design where a
The glowing Asian-inspired saffron traditional fabric has been rescaled
tones exemplify the exotic appeal and treated with contrasting
of silk shantung. random raised weft ikat stripes.
(left) Silk stripe top and silk panne (above) Sand-washing silk gives the
velvet pants by Vivienne Westwood fabric a scuffed and tactile peach-
from the Spring/Summer 2009 Do it bloom surface. The treatment
Yourself collection. lends this languid full-length crpe
de chine slip dress by Narciso
Rodriguez a relaxed elegance.
Billowing extreme-proportioned
djellaba-style silk chiffon dip-dyed
tunic by Antoine Peters.
Spider silk
Web spinners, such as spiders, produce silks that have been
used for medical applications and telescope sights. In the future,
genetic modications may see spider silk being developed as a
ber in its own right.
115
(left) Hand-spun silk yarn recycled (above) This elegant raw silk shift
from shredded Nepalese saris. The dress by A Dtacher references
resulting yarn has an intense color the clean silhouettes of the 1960s,
vibrancy that is informed by the popularized at the time by such
random nature of the raw material. fashion icons as Jackie Kennedy.
The natural inconsistencies lend it a The textured slubs inherent in the
textured feel, similar to tussah or raw yarn, and the pronounced visible
silk. The hand spinning is carried weave, are desirable characteristic
out by womens cooperatives that features of raw silk fabric associated
provide fair wages and generate with the Indian subcontinent.
funds for educational programs.
Silk ber
Silk production After about 35 days and four moltings, the silkworms
are 10,000 times heavier than when they rst hatched, and
a little over 3 inches (7.5 cm) in length. The silkworms are
The best-known of all the natural bers is produced using the
removed from the trays and covered with straw, to which
substance secreted by the larvae of the silk moth as a shroud
they can attach their cocoons. The insect spins a cocoon
to protect itself while in the cocoon, during the transformation
by secreting a continuous lament of broin protein (liquid
into a pupa and eventually a moth. Several other insects
silk), which protects it while in the cocoon. This liquid silk
produce silks, but only the silk derived from moth caterpillars
is coated in sericin, a water-soluble protective gum, which is
has been used extensively for textiles. Silk production today is a
produced in two of the silkworms glands. Liquid silk is forced
combination of both modern technology and ancient techniques
through spinnerets, openings in the silkworms head, and as the
rst developed and perfected by the Chinese many centuries ago.
substance comes into contact with the air it solidies. Within
two or three days the silkworm will have spun approximately
Cultivation 5,500 feet (1,600 m) of lament, and be completely encased in
its protective cocoon.
After this entire process the silkworm metamorphoses
Silkworm breeding depends on a highly developed agricultural
into a moth. However, in sericulture it is necessary to kill the
system capable of sustaining the large-scale cultivation of
chrysalis, either by steaming, baking in the sun or hot air, or
mulberry trees. One hectare of mulberry trees yields 11 tons
by soaking in salt water, before it reaches the moth stage. To
of leaves, which will in turn sustain 440 pounds (200 kg) of
obtain the lament, silk cocoons are sorted by ber size and
cocoons, which produce 88 pounds (40 kg) of raw silk. Specially
ber quality. Defective cocoons are carded and immediately
reared Bombyx mori moths are so inbred that they can no
spun, while a certain number of perfect cocoons are set aside
116 longer survive in the wild, and are blind and ightless. They must
for breeding the next generation of silkworms. Approximately
be raised under careful, temperature-controlled conditions in
12 pounds (5.5 kg) of cocoons will generate 1 pound (500 g)
well-ventilated, closed rooms, because they are unable to live in
weight of raw silk.
the open air. The moths lay their eggs on specially treated paper
placed on bamboo trays. When the eggs hatch, the caterpillars
are fed on the leaves of the white mulberry tree, Morus alba.
(above) This haunting design from (above) The highly cultivated Bombyx mori moth is
John Galliano for Dior, Fall 2000, unique among the moth species in that it produces
beautifully expresses the crisp cocoons that are uniformly pure white in color and
sculptural properties of tightly texture. Centuries of in-breeding and controlled
woven silk. cultivation have resulted in color consistency and a
reliably ne lament.
The nest fabrics are woven from threads made by Organzine: The raw silk is given a preliminary twist in one
reeling together the laments from only four cocoons. direction, then two or more of these threads are twisted together
in the opposite direction. Generally, organzine demands the best
quality raw silk and is used for the warp threads, which bear the
tension of the loom.
Mommes
Silk is traditionally measured by weight. The momme
(pronounced mommy) is the unit system used in the silk industry,
and quanties the density of silk as opposed to the thread
count, as used for cotton fabrics. It originates from the Japanese
cultured pearl industry.
Silk production
Primary nishing processes Weaving
Primary nishing involves several processes that prepare the Silk weaving follows a similar process to other bers and yarns.
silk for dyeing. First the silk must be de-gummed to remove Warping This prepares the warp by rolling all the warp yarns
the sericin, a process that is usually carried out by the dyer and onto a beam under the same tension, and strictly parallel to
involves boiling the silk in soap, detergent, or enzymes. This each other.
process has a great effect on the quality of subsequent dyeing. Pirning The weft, or crosswise yarns are put onto a pirn, which
Defects in dyeing can be due to inadequate de-gumming, or is placed inside the shuttle in order to lay the weft yarn between
ber damage by overly harsh processing. Bleaching may also be the warp yarns.
required if a pure white color is desired. Nonstop high-speed weaving has been made possible by the
introduction of automatic pirn-changing and shuttleless looms
that employ compressed air to shoot the weft yarn between the
Fabric weighting warp yarns.
Despite technological advances, certain types of silk
Silk is purchased by weight, and the amount of weight that silk cannot be made on high-speed machinery, particularly complex
loses in the process of de-gumming (20 to 25 percent) is a major novelty fabrics, or those that reproduce the traditional effects
consideration. Common practice in the silk industry is that of that were developed on the original punch-card jacquard looms.
weighting the fabric by loading it with a nishing substance,
in order to compensate for the weight lost in the de-gumming
process. The loading process increases the volume of the Dyeing
118 thread and gives the silk a characteristic heavy and supple hand,
lending the fabric crispness, luster, and a rm feel. Taffeta is the There are two main ways of dyeing silk fabrics. The rst method
most common heavily weighted fabric. Weighting may also is to dye the yarns before they are woven into fabricsthese are
lend the cloth better ame-retardant and crease-resistance known as yarn-dyed or dyed-woven (e.g. taffeta, duchesse satin,
properties. Weighted silk is generally less compactly woven and many pattern-woven fabrics). Multiple colors can be woven
than unweighted silk, so less silk is used in the manufacture together in one cloth. Up until the early nineteenth century, this
of the cloth. was the only method of dyeing silk, and today the same basic
Weighting is usually done during the dyeing stage. techniques are used for this process, skeins of raw silk being
In order to weight a colored silk, stannic chloride is used, soaked in tanks full of dyestuff.
followed by treatment with sodium phosphate. Black silks The second method is to dye after weaving; fabrics dyed
may be weighted with metallic mordants such as iron salt. in this way are referred to as piece-dyed fabrics (e.g. crpes,
Due to the complexity of processes and problems related to twills, etc). Industrial scale piece-dyeing was introduced in Lyon,
chemical pollutants, mineral loading is now almost obsolete. France, in the mid-nineteenth century. The fabric is fed into the
Today weighting is almost exclusively achieved by grafting dye bath through two cylinders, or xed to a round jig, which
acrylic monomers (usually methacrylic amide) using ammonium is then immersed in the bath. The fabric is then xed, rinsed
persulfate as an initiator. and dried.
Weighting can have a remarkably positive effect on the
ability of the ber to take dye, since the types of salts used have
been traditionally used as dye mordants. The term pure dye
silk indicates that weighting was not added at the dyeing stage.
s s
Cocoons sorted by size and quality
Empty cocoons collected
Approx 12 lbs of cocoons yield 1 lb raw silk
s
Maceration
119
s
Reeling
Several processes to extract silk lamentthen wound onto bobbins,
producing a long smooth thread
s
Thrown threads
The application of twist to give alternative end uses
s
De-gumming
Preparation for dyeing
Weaving
sSpinning Knitting
Yarn-dyed or Yarn-dyed or undyed Yarn-dyed
piece-dyed
f p
Silk production
Additional nishing processes
The purpose of these processes is to restore the fabrics natural
brilliance, softness, and characteristic hand, counteracting the
drying effects of previous treatments.
Special care
Deterioration of silk is accelerated by exposure to dust and dirt
(which will, over time, cut the bers), and light and grease, so
it should always be cleaned and stored in a dark environment.
Insects may also attack it, especially if it is left dirty. Silk has a
moderate to poor elasticity and can lose up to 20 percent of
its strength when saturated.
Muga silk
The muga silk moth, Antheraea assamensis, is a wild and semi-
wild species that lives only in a restricted area in Assam, India,
and produces a special type of wild silk. The villagers in this
forested region gather the cocoons in the wild and then semi-
cultivate them from the eggs of the wild moths that emerge.
Tussah silk
Tassah or tassar moths, Antheraea mylitta and Antheraea proylei,
are wild and semi-wild silk moths respectively. Tussah is the
most commonly used of all the wild varieties, and lends its name
to a particular type of silk.
Ethical considerations
Silk fabrics Sumptuous
The fabrics listed represent the most popular silks in use and
These dense, three-dimensionally expressive silks feature
would give any designer or merchandiser an extensive selection
complex textures.
for designing a range or building a collection. The list, however
is not exhaustive. Brocade An elaborate and richly gured jacquard, often with
The fabrics are all primarily made from silk yarns, though metallic threads.
some names are shared with other natural and/or synthetic yarns.
Jacquard Refers to both the loom and the resulting patterned
fabric.
Velvet A cut warp pile fabric. 100 percent silk velvet is rare and
extremely costly. Silk is usually combined with rayon to achieve
a beautiful drape.
Cloqu A woven double cloth where the two sets of warp and
weft yarns have a different shrinkage potential that produces a
three-dimensional blister effect.
122
Shantung A crisp, slubbed, and sheeny silk woven from wild silk
originating from the Shantung province of China.
Silk fabrics
Sheer
Ethereal and whisper-ne or stiff, transparent, and gauzy
in structure.
124
125
Silk fabrics
Section 2
126
Plant
ber
berss
127
128
Linen
The development of new blends and nishes for linen
Linen reects a heritage and aspirational lifestyle
ensures that this ancient ber remains relevant to the demands
that speaks of renement and quality.
of the modern consumer. Synthetic blends can improve crease
recovery, create exciting new textures, and offer aspects that
Linen has been highly valued for many centuries for its
appeal to both premium brands and price-competitive markets
incomparable hand and unique visual appeal. It embodies a
seeking to experience previously unattainable luxury products.
desirable, authentic, low-key luxury that continues to transcend
the vagaries of fast fashion.
Linen ber possesses unique practical properties that,
coupled with a subtle and rened touch, have assured its fashion
longevity. It has become synonymous with a classic, relaxed The history of linen
elegance and is the supreme choice for comfort in hot weather.
Its cool, absorbent properties are well recognized the world over Linen is the oldest textile in the world, predating cotton and
and are unparalleled by any other natural ber. possibly even wool, and is known to have been in use during
Linen has a very specic tactile appeal; smooth and the Stone Age. Since then its popularity as a clothing textile
lustrous to both the eye and hand, the ber is almost silky in has risen and fallen with the changing times, but it is thankfully
texture, yet embodies a springy freshness. It can also express once again being appreciated for all it has to offer the
a robust personality in heavier weaves that may lend it a contemporary consumer.
satisfying drape. Conversely, lighter weights can have an almost
featherlight aspect evocative of the draperies of Ancient Egyptian
and Greek cultures.
Pure linen will always endure in contemporary fashion.
Its natural creasing lends clothing made from it an unmistakable
character, while its inherent anti-static properties make it
fall away from the body, utter, and undulate in response
to movement.
129
130
Luxury linen
Guaranteed traceability
Irish linen is a valuable and desirable commodity and if spun
Club Masters of Linen is a collective mark registered by
or woven in Ireland can carry the Irish Linen Guilds logo of the European Confederation of Linen and Hemp (CELC,
authenticity. This assures it is a luxurious product worthy of Confderation Europenne du Lin et du Chanvre). The mark
global recognition. guarantees 100 percent European traceability to each stage
In the mid-1990s the Living Linen Project was set up to of processing ax into linen fabric. Spinners and weavers must
record rst-hand information about the linen industry in the follow a stringent set of rules to be able to use the mark of
authentication.
twentieth century, since it is considered integral to the countrys
cultural identity. The seal of excellence is available for three categories of fabric:
(Source: Notes from a lecture by Mr Daniel McCrea to Pure linen
students of the Irish Linen Guild, 1971) Linen union (cotton warp and linen weft)
Linen-rich ber (51 percent linen; 49 percent other bers)
CELC (Confdration
Europenne du Lin et du
Chanvre) is a nonprot-making
trade organization for linen (ax)
and hemp in Europe. Masters
of Linen, based in Paris, is a
subsidiary of CELC, providing
information and promoting
European quality linen.
137
Ecological considerations
knitting single jersey fabric with less propensity to shrinkage.
Linen production The use of liquid ammonia makes linen into a wrinkle-free and
non-iron fabric, while prewashing stops it shrinking.
The fundamental principles of producing linen yarn from the
ax plant have changed little since early Roman times. However,
modern technology has revolutionized the efciency and
exibility of the yarn, and the speed at which it can now
Cultivation
be produced.
Flax is one of the few crops still produced in Europe. Russia,
Flax processing is labor-intensive, requiring skilled
alongside other countries of the Federation, is currently turning
workers; however several by-products are also produced
much of its land over to ax production. The majority of the
including linseed oil for linoleum, soap, fuel, and cattle
production is tow, the lower-grade shorter bers. France sows
feedmeaning there is minimum wastage.
about 60 percent less but produces a much greater quantity of
long-line bers. Flax production in Northern France, Belgium,
Todays technology and the Netherlands is relatively small by global production
standards but it is considered to be by far the best quality. Of the
three countries France is the largest producer.
Until recently linen production was in the domain of specialist
Canada and China are two of the principal ax producing
manufacturers, however todays advanced technology has
countries, between them producing just over 50 percent of
allowed it to be more widely produced. Technological advances
total global production. India and the United States are also
have also improved the quality of the crops at both the growing
important producers. In Africa both Egypt and Ethiopia produce
and nishing stages, so fungal attacks are now averted in the
ax while in Eastern Europe, Russia, the Ukraine, Belarus, and
eld. The shuttleless loom means that smaller weaving sheds can
the Baltic countries of Latvia and Lithuania are expanding their
be used, while mechanical pretreatments have made linen into
ax production.
a modern fabric that maintains its age-old advantages. Enzymes
smooth out the bers making them softer and ideally suited for
138
Linen yarn
Flax harvesting
s
Scutching mills
Rippling = removes seeds
Retting = separates bers from stalks
Threshing = extracts long-line bers
Hackling and drafting = combs out shot bers (tow)
untangles and processes into slivers then into roves
s
Tow spinning Scutched ax spinning
(short bers) (long-line bers)
s s
Knitting or weaving
139
Cottonizing
Traditional cotton machinery is sometimes Long bers (linen ax) processed
used to process linen bers in a similar way to through a turbine after scutching.
cotton, an alternative and faster production
process that requires less equipment. However,
the bers tend to lose their linen characteristics.
Linen production
Retting Threshing
Retting is a process used for all bast vegetable bers, to separate The process consists of beating or threshing the material in
the ber from the stalk. This can be achieved through the use of turbines, which extract the long ax bers from the epidermis,
chemicals, although these are harmful to both the bers and the shive, and short bers known as tow. The resulting long bers
environment. Alternatively, and ecologically more prudent, the of scutched ax are also referred to as long-line ax; this is then
stalks can be immersed in warm water tanks. Through sufcient sorted by hand and classied according to color and cleanliness.
soaking and the introduction of enzymes, bacteria will form and
decompose the pectin that binds the bers together.
Historically, the stalks were left in the elds in the fall Hackling and drafting
where nature would naturally decompose the binding agent.
This process was known as wind retting. In some areas the Hackling combs out the short broken bers or tows as well
stalks were left to soak in shallow river areas, however this may as untangling the bundles, rollers then process and divide the
contaminate the water. bundles to form continuous slivers that are further processed by
The ax is then collected and pressed into large bales and means of doubling and drafting; this evens out the weight and
stored until it is time to extract the bers. produces roves that are ready for the nal spinning process.
140
141
Units of measurement
Using a yarn count is a way of grading linen according to the (above) An exquisite Grs gown
neness of the ber. inspired by the Parisian couturier
Madame Grs. Designer Yiqing
In the United States linen yarn is measured in LEA. The ner the Yin has deftly created sculptural
yarn the higher the LEA number. organic forms that snake effortlessly
around the body, constructed from
1 LEA = 1 x 300 yards (yarn) to the pound weight, nely pleated linen and mounted
40 LEA = 40 x 300 yards to the pound weight on an almost invisible Sophie
(i.e.12,000 yards) Hallette illusion tulle.
Linen production
142
Cotton
143
(opposite page) Cotton is the most (above) Freshly picked raw cotton.
commonly used natural ber. The
production and export of cotton (right) Organic jeans by Dutch
extends to more than 100 countries, brand Kuyichi. Cotton denim is the
with an estimated 350 million ultimate democratic fashion fabric,
people involved in its production, eternally desirable to all consumers.
farming, transportation, and
manufacturing.
144
Tree wool
Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484425 BC), observing Indian (above) John Smedley Mill in
cotton, wrote: there are trees which grow wild there, the fruit Matlock, Derbyshire. While the
of which is a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of area was important for knitting
sheep. These early poetic observations endured, as cotton was cotton hosiery it was Manchester
popularly believed to be some form of tree wool. This concept (Lancashire) that enjoyed the
continues today: in the Germanic languages the word for sobriquet of cottonopolis as
cotton, baumwolle, literally translates as tree wool. the undisputed capital of the
nineteenth-century global
cotton trade.
Egyptian cotton
When the southern US ports were blockaded by the northern
Union during the American Civil War (18611865), Britain and
France, the main buyers of Confederate cotton, had to nd an
alternative source. They found it in Egypt, but at the end of 145
the Civil War they turned their allegiances back to the cheaper
American cotton. Through the British, the Egyptians made
heavy economic investments in their cotton industry, and
the sudden departure of their two primary buyers sent their
economy into spiraling decit and eventual bankruptcy. To
protect its investment, Britain seized control of the government
and later made Egypt a British protectorate. Cotton remained an
important commodity and was one of the reasons Britain held
on to Egypt, until it seized full independence in 1956.
Far West
147
Gossypium hirsutum
Maya civilization, Central America
Gossypium barbadensa
Inca civilization, South America
Gossypium herbaceum
Once in full bloom, the owers
(left) last approximately three
Harappan civilization, South Asia
days before dropping, leaving the
remaining pods, or cotton bolls
(right). The white hairs that cover the
seeds are the cotton ber.
Gossypium arboreum
Egyptian civilization, North Africa
Indo Pakistan subcontinent
Cotton ber
Cotton production
Processing cotton
From raw material to nished yarn and fabric The production of cotton is generally efcient, with less than
10 percent of the picked weight lost in the subsequent processes
of converting the raw cotton bolls (seed cases) into pure ber.
Cultivating/harvesting
Harvesting
s One hundred million rural households around the world are
involved in cotton production, the majority of which happens
Modular bales
within the developing world where cotton continues to be
In the eld
picked by hand. In Europe, Australia, and the United States, on
the other hand, it is mechanically harvested by one of two types
s
of harvesting machine, depending on the cotton variety grown.
A cotton picker removes the cotton from the boll without
Ginning seed cotton damaging the plant, while a cotton stripper machine strips the
Fibers separated from seed pods, entire boll from the plant. Strippers are used in climatic regions
linters and unwanted matter that are too windy to grow the picker varieties of cotton.
Usable cotton = about 35% of pre-ginned weight In some cases a chemical defoliant is rst used to remove
the leaves; alternatively, natural defoliation would occur after a
Cleaned cotton referred to as temperature freeze.
lint cotton After harvesting the land is tilled. The conventional
method is to cut down the reaming stalks and turn the soil ready
Fiber classication for pricing purposes for the next round of seed planting. The alternative method,
known as the conservation method, leaves the stalks and the
plant residue standing on the surface of the soil, and the new
seeds are planted through the litter that remains.
s
After harvesting a machine known as a module builder
compresses the cotton into large modular blocks that are
148 Spinning mills covered and temporarily stored in the elds. These are collected
Further cleaning processes to form batts. by specially designed trucks and transported to the gin.
Carding to produce slivers then combined to equalize
thicker and thinner parts to consistent size.
Rovings then spun into yarn
s
Fabric mills
(Weaving/knitting)
(opposite page) Mechanized (above) Seed cotton ready for Naturally pigmented Peruvian
cotton harvesting in the the ginning process. Pakucho cotton from Ecoyarns.
United States.
Cotton production
Luxury cotton Sea Island cotton
The term Sea Island is applied only to extra-long-staple
Luxury cotton is dened as cotton with characteristics far
cotton. However, unlike Egyptian cotton, it is not applied to the
superior to those of the standard varieties and nishes.
Gossypium hirsutum species but only to Gossypium barbadense,
A longer-staple ber tends to be more desirable, because
also known as Pima and Creole cotton. This species grows as
it can withstand additional combing processes that in turn will
a smaller bush requiring full sun and high humidity and rainfall;
make it smoother and ner to the touch. Long-staple cotton
it is also sensitive to frost. The plant has a natural antifungal
may be obtained from many different countries or regions.
property that contains the chemical gossypol, making it naturally
Egyptian, Sea Island, and Pima are all names that denote
insect-repellent and therefore an ideal candidate for organic
a traditionally luxurious and ne-quality product. The pedigree
cotton. The cotton bers are particularly long and silky.
of their heritage assures the consumer that the product they are
The species is now cultivated widely across many
buying has an added value. They also provide a USP (unique
countries, although its pedigree can be traced back originally
selling point) for brands targeting a more discerning customer.
to pre-Spanish-conquest Peru, then subsequently to the West
Indies. Barbados was the rst British colony to export cotton
Egyptian cotton and is possibly the original source of the name.
Whereas Egyptian cotton conjures up the idea of
luxurious woven fabric, Sea Island cotton is associated with
Egyptian cotton is used for clothing and household linens alike;
luxurious ne-gauge knitwear.
however, it is possibly for bed and bath linen that the name most
evokes a product of luxury and quality. The term is applied to
all cotton grown in Egypt; however, less than half of Egyptian
cotton has the desirable extra-long staple length.
Ironically, the cotton species that best produces this
extra-long staple is an indigenous American plant, Gossypium
barbadense. The French and English introduced Native American
cotton into Egypt at the time of the American Civil War, when
the northern Union ships were blockading southern ports to Luxury cotton types
stop the export of Confederate cotton. Egyptian cotton became
a realistic alternative, with the advantage of shorter shipping
times to that of cotton from India. Today the term Egyptian
150 cotton is also applied to another indigenous American species, Egyptian cotton
Gossypium hirsutum.
In summary, the term Egyptian cotton can be applied Gossypium hirsutum
to either of the two long-staple varieties. Most importantly the and
term Egyptian used as a prex implies luxury and renement Gossypium barbadense
and is considered the ultimate in cotton.
Two long-staple cotton varieties grown in Egypt
Pima cotton
Gossypium barbadense
151
Luxury cotton
Cotton lisle Cotton cupro
Cotton lisle is similar to mercerized cotton in that all the lint Cupro is made from pure organic cellulose bers reborn from
and threads are burnt off to give a smoother touch. It is used the discarded linters that are a by-product of processing cotton.
for expensive cotton underwear and socks. The fuzzy down, when processed, is perfectly round in cross
section, with a naturally silky smooth nish, and possesses many
of the attributes of cotton, such as moisture management.
Filo di Scozia
Filo di Scozia is a registered trademark that represents the The history of cupro
highest grade of cotton fabric or yarn. It is two-ply, combed,
long-staple, double-mercerized cotton. It has the unique Cupro ber was rst developed and produced in Germany in the
characteristics of brilliance, softness, and a silky touch and, above late 1890s, and was rst used for laments of copper silk for
all, the ability to maintain these characteristics over time. Filo di lightbulbs. By the early 1900s, manufacturer J.P. Bemberg had
Scozia is used for the very best cotton knitwear and hosiery. converted production to the more lucrative product of articial
silk for the clothing and textile industries. Bemberg Seide (silk)
was ner than the nest silk and stronger than articial silk; it
was used for clothing, internal padding, linings, and stockings, as
advertised by Marlene Dietrich (see Rayon, page 217).
The manufacturing process was taken to Japan, where by
the early 1930s cupro was being manufactured by Asahi Kasei.
The company is today one of few producing cupro bers,
trademarked as Bemberg.
Cupro production
Linters are ultra-ne silk-like bers that remain stuck to the
seeds of the cotton plant after it has been ginned. The cellulose
that constitutes the cotton linters is dissolved in an ammoniac
copper oxide solution and processed with caustic soda before
being passed through a spinneret. The regenerated solution
is hardened, the copper and ammonia are removed, and the
caustic soda neutralized. Cupro is usually manufactured as ne
lament yarns, and is both hypoallergenic and anti-static. The
name cupro is derived from the cuprammonium process used
to make the bers.
Ecological sustainability
Cupro makes use of a by-product from harvested cotton
recycling what would otherwise be waste materialfrom a
renewable raw material. However, the chemicals used in
processing can cause concern.
154
1 bottle = 13 gallons
cotton = 6,600 gallons
rayon = 92 gallons
polyester = 2 gallons
Water
Cotton is a thirsty crop, a fact that is fast presenting problems
to countries whose economic growth overly relies upon the
cotton industry but whose geographical position suffers from
water shortages. Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, both once part of
the former Soviet Union, have in parts been turned into a desert
through the excessive cultivation of cotton, which in turn has
also led to the shrinking of the Aral Sea.
155
156
161
163
Cotton fabrics
Smooth
These fabrics have a polished effect.
Chintz A Hindi word for printed cloth with a glazed surface,
originating in India in the seventeenth century and made
popular during the Raj. Now generically used to imply
ower-printed fabric.
Cir French in origin. A high-gloss look is achieved by
impregnating the fabric with wax and heating and pressing it.
Lawn Very ne, lightweight plain-weave fabric with a crisp nish
originating in Laon, France.
Sateen Satin-weave fabric with a polished sheen to the
face side.
164
165
Authentic
Utility cottons.
Calico Generic name for lighter-weight plain-weave, coarse-yarn
fabric, sometimes used for making a muslin.
Canvas Generic name for plain-weave coarse fabric, often
undyed, in many different weights.
Cheesecloth Thin, loosely woven, plain-weave Indian cloth
originally used in the food trade but made into an iconic
1960s hippy fabric.
Duck Plain weave with a canvas-like feel.
Hopsack Straight-weave construction using roughish yarns,
often with a slub.
Repp Has a pronounced weft rib effect.
Ticking A heavy diagonal-weave fabric striped with
a colored yarn.
Toile Generic name for a straight-weave fabric.
(above) The functional styling of (above) Youthful tunic dress
this cotton twill jacket by designer in different shades of cotton
Walter Van Beirendonck references chambray by New York brand
authentic World War II ight jackets, A Dtacher. The casual denim-
and has been garment dyed in like appearance of chambray is
colors specially selected by the created using a white yarn in the
designer. weft and an indigo yarn in the warp
of the weave.
Cotton fabrics
166 Alternative plant bers
167
Jute production
Jute, or burlap as the fabric is better known, is one of the
The ber is produced from the outer skin or stem of the plant.
cheapest natural bers to produce and is the second most
The rst process is retting, which involves immersion in running
important vegetable ber after cotton in terms of usage, global
water. Stripping follows, usually done by women and children,
consumption, production, and availability.
and involves removing the nonbrous matter to reach the bers
Jute is native to the monsoon regions of the world,
on the stem.
growing during the monsoon season. The most important
region for jute has always been Bengal in the Ganges delta,
Ecological sustainability
where it was an integral part of the local culture.
Jute has very strong environmental credentials, because it does
not require excessive watering, fertilizers, or pesticides. It is a
The history of jute
fast-growing plant with a good yield ratio of ber to weight and
During British rule of India in the nineteenth and early
acreage. It can be recycled several times within its life cycle and
twentieth centuries jute was shipped to Dundee in Scotland to
also has important biodegradable properties.
be processed and woven, and was an important part of their
economy until the 1970s, when it was usurped by synthetics. In
Bangladesh it was once referred to as the golden ber, because
it represented the largest foreign currency into the country.
Demand dropped and local farmers burnt their crops rather than
sell at unsustainable prices; however, recently there has been an
increase in demand and prices have risen steadily. Bangladesh
and West Bengal, in India, are still the principal producers of jute,
while China and Thailand also have a strong jute production.
Today jute is an important component in the automotive
industry because it is high in both tensile and ductile strength:
168
its strength and lightness of weight make vehicles more fuel-
efcient and thus a better ecological proposition. The ber is
also used for paper, lm, composite materials, and geo textiles
in environmental engineering.
Jute ber
Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable ber that is coarse and strong.
Jute bers are composed of mainly cellulose but also lignin, a
wood ber. It could therefore be described as a ber that is part
textile and part wood.
The plant is of the Corchorus genus and is native to
tropical and subtropical regions. The two varieties are white,
or Indian, jute (Corchorus capsularis), and tossa jute (Corchorus
169
Bast bers
Hemp In North America, hemp was primarily grown in Kentucky and
the Midwest. The American Declaration of Independence was
drafted on hemp paper, and Betty Ross made the rst American
Hemp is the generic name for the entire Cannabis family of
ag from hemp canvas. Americas rst president, George
plants. There are several cultivated varieties and subspecies, as
Washington, was a hemp farmer and recommended that it be
well as wild and feral cannabis. Cannabis sativa L. subsp. sativa,
planted everywhere. The early republic became an important
commonly known as industrial hemp, is the variety grown for
Western producer, inventing and developing machinery to better
ber and other nondrug-related purposes. Conversely, Cannabis
produce the ber and its importance in nineteenth-century
sativa L. subsp. indica is the variety grown for both recreational
America was second only to King Cotton.
and medical drug use. By contrast to its industrial relative, this
variety has poor ber qualities. The principal difference between
In the nineteenth century 80 percent of the worlds
the two varieties is the level of THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) that
fabric was made from hemp.
each secretes.
The production of hemp in Western countries is growing
The advent of steam-driven iron ships using steel cables
steadily to meet the growing eco-demands of contemporary
rendered hemp almost redundant for naval purposes. In addition,
society. In Canada the export of hemp seeds increased by over
the development of synthetic bers in the twentieth century
300 percent during 20072009.
further reduced its reign. DuPont and William Randolph Hearst,
industrialists who had nancial interests in the petrochemical
The history of hemp
and timber industries respectively, were major adversaries of
China has the oldest tradition for hemp cultivation, where it was
hemp cultivation, viewing it as a nancial threat and lobbying
used for rope, clothing, shoes, and early forms of paper. Hemp
the government until The Marijuana Tax Act was passed in
remains have been found in ancient Chinese pottery dating back
10,000 years. In Japan many traditional kimonos were decorated
with images of hemp because it was considered a beautiful plant.
In medieval Europe hemp was rst cultivated on a small-scale
domestic basis, and most communities would have had access to
a hemp eld for domestic cloth and rope production: hemp was
easier to produce than ax for linen. In Germany and Italy, hemp
was also used for culinary purposes, in soups and as llings
in pies. Under the reign of Elizabeth I of England (15581603)
all landowners were obliged to grow hemp for sails and rope
for naval use. Commercial hemp production in Europe vastly
expanded in the eighteenth century with colonial and naval
expansion, and it was popularly said that the British Empire was
built on hemp. It was an essential element of shipbuilding, being
170
used for sails, ropes, and oakum (tarred ber preparation used to
pack joints of timber ships). During the Napoleonic Wars many
military uniforms were made of hemp, favored for its strength
and low cost. Hemp was considered a commercially viable plant
because it produced a high volume of ber to the ratio of land
used for its cultivation.
The term money for old rope was coined after old
hemp rope was recycled to make early bank notes.
Hemp ber
Industrial hemp is an efcient crop that has multiple uses. The
most valuable part of the plant is its bers for production for the
fabric industry, and it is also extensively used for biodegradable
plastics and biofuels. It contributes to the construction and
automotive industries as well as the health-food and cosmetics
industries. It is second only to soy in its nutritional value, is
highly digestible, and an effective unsaturated oil. Hemp has
good thermal values and resists decay and infestation.
Colors range from creamy white, shades of brown and
gray, as well as green and black. The bers are strong and
durable, resist mold, have good absorbency, and offer protection
against ultraviolet light.
Hemp production
Years of selective breeding have produced many different-
looking varieties of hemp plant. Since the 1930s the focus has
been on the production of strains that offer poor sources of
drug material. The plants are long and slender with bers that
are between 3 and 16 feet (1 and 5 m) long running the full
length of the plant. If the plant is harvested before it owers it
will produce ner bers and be less effective as a potential drug 171
source, although the THC is already much lower in industrial
hemp. Male and female plants need to be planted together
because it is the female plants that produce seeds for the next
crop. Good seeds are integral to successful hemp production.
In some parts of the world hemp is still harvested by hand,
The contemporary styling of
otherwise the greater majority is now machine harvested. It is
this wedding dress by Nepalese
cut about 1 inch (2.5 cm) above ground level and left to dry. designer Sanyukta Shrestha belies
Traditional methods of separating the bers included dew and its fabrication from hemp, which is
water retting. One involved oating the bundles of harvested usually associated with casualwear.
hemp in water, while the other made use of natural ground The London College of Fashion
graduate combines a sustainable
dew and bacterial action. Modern retting involves mechanical
approach with handcrafted
thermo-pulping. Hemp can also be cottonized by a process luxury. Most of the natural bers
similar to that used for ax. used in her bridal collections are
Hemp is not easy to spin but does make for a very good hand-spun and woven by village
blend when used together with cotton in a 50:50 ratio. women in Nepal. She adheres to
ecological and social sustainability
guidelines, with fabrics sourced
Hemp can be made into fabrics as diverse as the from ethical and Fairtrade-certied
nest lace through to heavyweight industrial canvas. manufacturers.
Bast bers
Hemp market
Hemp is cultivated all over the world, although in the United
Kenaf
States it is still illegal to grow hemp; however some states
Kenaf is a species of hibiscus with visual similarities to jute. The
have granted licenses for industrial hemp. Canada, the United
word kenaf has Persian etymology, however in different parts of
Kingdom, and Germany lifted the ban in the 1990s but within
the world it is known by several other names, including bimli,
the European Union and Canada a license has to be issued
ambary, ambari hemp, deccan hemp, and bimlipatum jute.
for its cultivation, described as industrial hemp for nondrug
Kenaf has a long history of cultivation in parts of Africa,
purposes. Japan, under American inuence, restricted the
India, and Thailand. Today the major producers are China and
growth of hemp in 1948 and is one of the few Eastern countries
India. The traditional uses for kenaf have been rope, twine, and
to have prohibited its cultivation.
coarse cloth, as well as fuel and nutrition. It is an ideal candidate
Up until the mid-1980s the old Soviet Union was the
for sustainable ecological cultivation because it requires the
largest hemp producer, much of it being cultivated in Ukraine
minimum use of pesticides and fertilizers. The emerging uses
and the parts of Russia close to Poland. The worlds premier
for it today span engineering applications, insulation paper, and
institute for the development of hemp is still situated in Ukraine,
clothing-grade cloth, as well as providing vegetable oil from the
where it develops new varieties with improved ber content,
seeds. The bers are naturally white and do not need to undergo
increased yield, and low THC.
any bleaching processes for either paper or cloth uses.
Other important producers of hemp include China, North
Kenaf is not produced in vast quantities and may not
Korea, Romania, and Hungary.
become commercially viable without nancial investment
India produces a variety of hemp known as Sunn or
and enthusiasm.
Bombay hemp.
Ecological sustainability
Hemp is ecologically and sustainably important, and is often
Nettle
referred to as the worlds most useful plant. It is nontoxic in
Fabric made from nettle dates back at least 2,000 years, but
use, renewable, and nonpolluting during its life cycle. It needs
lost its popularity with the growth of the commercial cotton
few if any pesticides, crops grow quickly, and around 100 days
industry. During World War I it was used to make German
after harvesting the soil is left in better condition because it
military uniforms after blockades made cotton unobtainable.
has been replenished with nutrients and nitrogen. In addition
The common stinging nettle has potential for ber
hemp controls topsoil erosion and produces a great amount
crop production; it is far stronger than cotton and ner than
of oxygen.
other bast bers. It is an ecologically sustainable plant requiring
The seeds and stalks, as well as the general fermentation
far less water and no chemical pesticides or fertilization. It also
of the plant, produce an oil that may be used as biodiesel: as a
sustains many varieties of invertebrate species.
low-energy fuel it is better than other similar crops. It can also
Investigations into nettle as an alternative eco-ber are
be used for biodegradable plastics.
currently limited to a specialist clothing market. Fabrics are
172 Hemp paper is eco-friendly because it does not require the
perceived as being of good quality because of their long staple
bleaching processes of wood pulp. About 1 acre of hemp will
lengths, sometimes matching that of Egyptian cotton. Nettle
produce the same paper quantity as around 4 acres of trees.
yarns and fabrics can be mercerized; the ber is also naturally
biodegradable.
173
Banana
Bamboo Bamboo ber
In China, bamboo is often referred to as the plant of Bamboo ber is strong and durable with good stability and
a thousand uses. tensile strength.
At microscopic level bamboo has a round cross section,
Bamboo is a stem ber, a perennial evergreen of the grass making it smooth to wear next to the skin. In the United
family. It is of great cultural signicance in many East Asian States its softness has earned it the description of cashmere
countries, where it has been used for thousands of years as a from plants. The surface of the cross section is covered with
building material, for ornamental garden design, and also as micro-gaps and micro-holes. The microstructure allows fast
a source of nutrition. Today, through technology and a will absorption and evaporation, and bamboo fabric beats cottons
to nd sustainable organic products to meet the demands of absorbency rate more than threefold. It will wick away and
the textile industry, it has been developed as a ber by evaporate perspiration instantly, keeping the wearer drier and
Beijing University. cooler. It is also believed that the ber will keep the wearer one
Bamboo ber has several unusual characteristics that or two degrees cooler in a summer climate than other natural
help to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and to re-enrich land bers, which is perhaps why it is marketed in some Asian
that may have been drained of its nutrients through non- countries as air-conditioning dress.
sustainable methods of cultivation. The yield per hectare of Bamboo kun is a natural substance within bamboo that
bamboo is greater than that of most tree plantationsbecause protects the plant from pests and pathogens (biological agents
the plants can grow close togetherand exceeds the yield for causing disease in the host plant), and it is this substance that
cotton on the same size of plantation. prevents bacteria from surviving in bamboo fabric that has not
Moso bamboo is Chinas most important bamboo been chemically processed.
crop, for which the Hebei Jigao Chemical Fiber Company has Bamboo also has anti-static characteristics that make it
the patent for a key processing method. Moso is the Chinese sit well next to the skin and not cling. These qualities are used
word for the giant bamboo Phyllostachys pubescens. Crops can to promote bamboo as an ideal fabric for active sportswear
be grown without chemical intervention, and bers, yarns, and clothing, especially for sports that generate a high degree of
fabrics are sold under the trade name of Shanghai Tenbro, the perspiration. It is for these reasons that it is described as the
majority of which is exported. perfect eco-performance fabric.
174
Bamboo
Bamboo rayon
Bamboo rayon (or viscose) is produced in a similar way to
Processing bamboo rayon other wood pulp celluloses, with the use of chemicals. Some
companies use closed-loop-processing methods to capture
and reprocess the solvents used, but unfortunately this method
Bamboo stalks and leaves crushed tends to remove the antibacterial properties and ultraviolet
s
(UV) protection present in the original plant.
Bamboo linen
The term bamboo linen is used for what is also referred
Placed in sodium hydroxide solution for
to as mechanically processed bamboo. The leaves and soft
several hoursforms alkali cellulose
s
brous inner parts of the stalks are extracted by means of
high-pressure steam and mechanical crushing; natural enzyme
retting and washing are used to decompose the bamboo to
enable the extraction of the ber.
Excess chemical solution removedfurther
Litrax, a Swiss company, has pioneered 100 percent
crushedleft to dry for 24 hours
s
eco-friendly processing of bio-bamboo ber yarn and textiles.
Its Litrax-1 natural bamboo is enzymatically extracted. It
is classied as a bast ber and credited with a high level of
softness. Depending on the nal product requirement, Litrax
Carbon disulde addedforms gel-like
recommends blending Litrax-1 natural bamboo with merino
substance
s
wool, Supima or Egyptian cotton, silk, or with Lenzing
TENCEL or lyocell ber.
s
Further chemicals addedcreates rayon
solution
176
s
Solution forced through spinneret into
sulphuric acidviscous solution hardens
converted into cellulose bamboo ber
s
Spun into yarns ready for weaving or knitting
Ecological sustainability
Bamboo is a naturally grown and sustainable resource that
does not require pesticides or chemicals, partly because of
the anti-microbial and anti-fungal bamboo kun (also spelled
kuhn). Bamboo biodegrades naturally through exposure to
soil and sun. It is a naturally regenerative tropical grass with
an extensive root system that self-replenishes, and some
species can grow as much as 55 inches (140 cm) a day. It also
has the ability to improve and replenish soil in degraded or
eroded areas, as well as generating more oxygen than the
same acreage of trees. Bamboo offers a far greater rate of
conversion of greenhouse gas to oxygen than any other plant,
as well as regenerating itself almost immediately after each
harvesting. The more bamboo that is planted the greater the
photosynthesis, resulting in a reduction of greenhouse gases.
Garments made from bamboo are completely biodegradable at
the end of their life cycle.
177
Bamboo
Leaf bers Pia
Pia is obtained from the leaves of the pineapple plant. Although
Leaf bers can be produced from the strands of bers that run native to several parts of the world, it is in the Philippines that it
through the leaf and hold it in place, and are classied as hard is used as a ber for clothing purposes. Strands are hand scraped
bers, as opposed to bast or soft bers. The classication is from the leaves of the plant then hand knotted, one by one, to
quite uid, because some may actually be softer than bast bers. form a continuous lament. The ber is soft and lightweight,
Fibers such as rafa and pia may never make commercial easy to care for, and has a good translucent luster. It is usually
sense on a global scale, however they do represent interesting white or ivory in color.
alternatives as well as, in the case of pia, being inherently linked The laments are traditionally woven on a hand loom into
to cultural identity. pia cloth and made into the barong Tagalog, an embroidered
shirt worn for formal occasions and wedding ceremonies by
Filipino men, and sometimes women.
Abac
Abac, also spelt abak and pronounced ah buh KAH, is the Rafa
plant from which Manila hemp, also known as daveo and
cebu hemp, is produced. The ber has been produced in the Rafa palms (Raphia) are native to the tropical regions of Africa,
Philippines since the 1800s; however commercial plantations Madagascar, and Central and South America. The bers are long
were started by Britain and the Netherlands in the early 1920s and thin and absorb dye well. Rafa is used for shoe, hat, and
in Borneo and Sumatra. It is also cultivated in Central America, bag production, as well as for decorative textiles.
where it has been sponsored by the United States Department
of Agriculture.
It is not commercially used as a clothing ber but there
are developments underway hoping to unearth its viability
as a sustainable alternative.
Abac production
The abac leaves form a sheath that grows from the trunk of
the plant. The bers range in length from 5 to 11 1/2 feet (1.5
to 3.5 m) and are extracted from the sheaths in a three-stage
process. The rst, tuxing, is the separation of the outer and
inner sheaths of the leaves, followed by stripping the bers then
sun drying. Once the bers have been separated they are sold
as Manila hemp, named after the countrys capital.
178
179
Leaf bers
Section 3
Man-made
ber
berss
180
181
Man-made bers can be formed to render the exact
properties and functions required for their end use.
Global market
Man-made bers and fabrics represent a signicant force within
Natural bers, in contrast, generally maintain the characteristics
global production, and their production continues to increase
of their original source, sharing the coding of its DNA even
each year. By the early 1990s the two principal natural bers
after undergoing modern processing techniques. Man-made
wool (animal) and cotton (plant)represented just over half
bers may also be blended with natural bers to give the
of global production, and man-made bers just under half. In
nished fabric the benets of both the characteristics of nature
20 years the balance has switched, with man-made bers now
and the application of science.
representing nearly 70 percent of all global ber production.
China is the principal producer of man-made bers, with
Europe, collectively, being the second largest producer. Other
key countries include India, Japan, South Korea, Pakistan,
Taiwan, Brazil, the United States, and the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS, comprising countries that were once
part of the Soviet Union).
Sustainability
It is wrong to assume that man-made bers are not eco-
friendly; the next generation of man-made bers could be a
way toward completely sustainable production. Many new raw
Global Market materials come from renewable or recycled resources; are light
and durable; use clean energy sources; and require little land
Early 1990s usage or water consumption in their production, furthermore
representing a low carbon footprint.
Categorizing man-made
50%
bers
To help clarify the ambiguities and complexities of the different
types of man-made ber, this book groups man-made bers
into two principal chapters: synthetic and articial. The chapter
on synthetics covers bers made from chemicals and derived
from such fossil fuels as oil and coal (excluding metallic yarns).
The articial bers chapter is subdivided into plant cellulose
and bio-engineered bers. Plant cellulose bers are regenerated
from such natural sources as wood; the term articial
182 implying that they cannot be converted into ber without
2010s chemical intervention.
The section on bio-engineered bers describes a new
generation of bers that bridge the gap between ber and
polymer science, and may use proteins, sugars, or starches as
their starting point.
50%
!Synthetic
!
Articial
Chemical compounds Regenerated from natural sources
from fossil fuels
s s s
Polyester Cellulose Biopolymer bers
Naturally occurring polymers Bio-engineered proteins
Polyamidenylon
Aramids
(aromatic polyamides) s s
Acrylic and modacrylic Acetatetriacetate Corn ber
Mined
s
Metallic
183
Global market
184 Synthetic bers
s
Melt spinning
Fiber-forming substance
s
Wet spinning
Fiber-forming substance
s
Dry spinning
Fiber-forming substance
s
Gel spinning
For high strength and
185
s s s s
Fibers solidifydrawn (stretched) to align molecular chain, which orients
them along the ber axis for greater strength
Yarn
After extrusion, while the bers are solidifying or after they
have solidied, the laments are drawn (stretched), which
aligns the molecular chains orienting them along the ber axis,
making them considerably stronger. Groups of laments are
joined together to form ber bundles, which then become the
lament yarn.
Fiber properties
Most synthetic bers are round in cross section, but they can
also be oval, star-shaped, trilobal, or hollow. Trilobal cross
sections have optically reective properties, while hollow bers
help to trap air for added warmth and lightness. Synthetic
textile bers are often crimped to provide more bulk. Fiber
surfaces can manufactured to be dull or bright; dull surfaces
reect more light than bright ones, which tend to transmit light
and render the ber more transparent.
188
Sportswear
For sportswear and performance clothing, polyester is an ultra-
efcient fabric; there is almost no limit to what technology
can build in to the ber. Polyester bers are strong and do not
absorb moisture, making them perfect for the application of
chemical treatments and nishes, such as waterproong and
re-retardant nishes. The ber has low absorbency, making
it resistant to staining; fabrics can be pre-shrunk and will not
stretch out of shape. 189
Future fabrics
Textile researchers in the United States are currently developing
a form of polyester as a super ber to rival Kevlar in
strength, to produce bulletproof vests.
Polyester
Processing polyester Polyester production
lament yarns
s
Polyester is manufactured in several ways: commonly as
lament yarns (individual ber strands of continuous length)
or staple bers (laments that are cut to short predetermined
lengths) that are easier for blending with natural bers. Staple
bers are processed like laments, but a spinneret with more
Polymerization numerous holes is used during the melt spinning process.
Dimethyl terephthalate and ethylene glycol with a The emerging ber-forming substance extruded from
catalyst are heated to high temperatureresulting the spinneret is rst cooled and then drawn on heated rollers
chemical, a monomer alcohol, is added to to three or four times its original length. It is then compressed,
terephthalic acid and heated to higher temperature forcing the bers to fold and crimp, and reheated to set the
resulting clear molten polyester is extruded through slot crimp. Tow is lament that has been loosely drawn together
to form long strands and is used for staples that are cut into different lengths for
blending. When blending with cotton, polyester is cut into
1 1/4 to 1 1/2 inches (3.2 to 3.8 cm) lengths; when blending
with rayon the lengths are 2 inches (5 cm). Alternatively,
s
polyester can be manufactured as berll, often referred to as
batting, which is a voluminous mass used as padding in quilts
and for cold-weather clothing.
Drying
Strands are cooledcut into tiny chipsdried to
prevent irregularities
s
Melt spinning
Polymer chips are melted to syrupy liquidforced
through tiny holes of spinneretemerging bers
are united to form single strandyarn diameter
determined by number of holes in spinneretmore
chemicals may be added for additional nishes
(NNO3-retardant, anti-static, or other)
s
190 Drawing
Once extruded from spinneret, it is pliable and
stretched to ve times its original lengththis aligns
molecules for stabilityas bers dry and solidify
they strengthendiameter and length dependent
on end purpose of yarn
s
Winding
After drawing, yarn is wound onto large bobbins
or at-wound onto packages ready for knitting or Elegant, relaxed styling by Italian brand Corneliani.
weaving into fabric The single-breasted jacket is made from a tactile
synthetic microsuede, and features a zipped
removable inner chest piece of self-fabric, worn with
soft trousers made from boucl cotton jersey and a
mlange wool turtleneck.
Polyester
Ecological sustainability Triexta
Triexta is a generic designation assigned to a sub-group of
polyester bers that include naturally occurring polymers in
The source of bers is only one part of environmental concern.
their makeup. The chemical name for the polyester in use is
It can take 700 years before plastic bottles in landll start to
polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT); the organic compound
decompose. While polyester does not biodegrade, it can at
component is propanediol (PDO).
least be recycled almost to its virgin state.
PTT was rst patented in the early 1940s and used to
make carpet bers, being commercially unsuitable for clothing.
Recycled polyester production has the potential
DuPont has researched and further developed the ber,
to keep billions of plastic (PET) bottles from landll
resulting in the marketing of its Sorona branded product.
by using post-consumer plastic instead of virgin
The ber can be used for knitted or woven fabrics, and is
materials for ber and clothing production.
ideal for sportswear because it is exceptionally durable, stain-
resistant, and softer and smoother than traditional polyester.
US manufacturer Foss uses seventeen PET bottles to produce
For performance clothing it offers exceptional recovery from
sufcient ber for one sweatshirt made from its Eco- ber
stretch deformation, said to be at least twice that of traditional
(1 pound/0.5 kg of ber is produced from ten bottles). In 2010
polyester or nylon. Izod, Timberland, and Calvin Klein have all
Issey Miyake collaborated with Teijin on a collection using their
used Sorona in their collections.
recyled polyester. The large Japanese chemical company has
The bers are in part made from ingredients from
developed specialized equipment to revert used polyester back to
renewable sources; production is also more energy efcient
its original source material of dimethyl terephthalate, removing
since ber extrusion is carried out at a lower temperature
all impurities, such as color dyes. These impurities had, until
than that of traditional polyester extrusion, resulting in fewer
recently, been the obstacle to producing longer and softer ber
greenhouse-gas emissions.
threads (and a more luxurious feel) than those of conventional
recycled polyester, seen frequently in outdoor sportswear;
without them, the material can also be used repeatedly. Miyake
is quoted as saying that he felt that it could be used for
something more if the impurities in recycled polyester could
be removed. (From an article by Michiyo Nakamoto, Financial
Times, 8/12/2010.) Patagonia and Henri Lloyd are two out of
more than a hundred companies that collect their products from
customers and pay Teijin to recycle them.
The Euro 2012 football kits (strips) designed by Nike for
France, Croatia, Holland, Poland, and Portugal were said to
be the most environmentally sustainable to date, made almost
entirely from discarded plastic bottles with the inclusion of
a small percentage of organic cotton. Nike said that using
discarded plastic saves a third of the energy it would take to
produce the same product from virgin polyester.
192
193
Polyester
Polyamide (nylon) The history of polyamide nylon
Polyamide (nylon) was the rst commercially The invention of nylon is attributed to Wallace Carothers,
successful synthetic polymer. working at DuPont. The ber in its yarn and fabric form was
intended as a replacement for silk. It made its debut in the
Nylon is a generic term for a family of synthetic polymers United States in 1935; however, it did not go into general
called linear polyamides. Tactel ber and CORDURA production until 1940and no consumer item ever before had
fabric are just two of the trademarked products made from caused such nationwide excitement. After eighteen months of
nylon; GORE-TEX and ripstop frequently use nylon in their making stockings, the United States entered World War II and
production processes. all nylon production was diverted to the war effort, primarily for
parachutes. This created a black market for nylons (stockings).
Nylon ber was so synonymous with stockings
and so fundamental to postwar fashion that the Although the United States is credited with the
term nylons became the term by which all invention of nylon, bers made from polyamide
stockings were known. were also being developed in Germany during
the same period.
194
195
rain
transpiration
abrasion-
Exterior resistant
outer shell
(left) Cross-section diagram of (above) Two high-durability woven
the layers of fabric required to fabrics. The green one has been
protection achieve optimum performance nished with a heavy-duty water-
in a range of temperatures and repellent coating. The blue one
weather conditions. The GORE-TEX has been treated with a nish that
GORE-TEX membrane prevents moisture from offers slight moisture proong. This
membrane penetrating the inner layers, while additional functionality is provided
allowing the wearers skin purely by the coating on the
protection to breathe. fabric and is not a function of the
weave, yarn, or ber used in the
soft inner manufacture of this particular fabric.
liner
Interior
transpiration
Polyamide (nylon)
CORDURA Nylon ripstop
CORDURA fabrics are durable woven or knitted fabrics Ripstop is a term given to any type of lightweight woven fabric
with an exceptional strength-to-weight ratio. Constructed from (including silk, cotton, polyester, or polypropylene) that has a
high-tenacity nylon ber, weight for weight the fabrics are said visible, slightly raised rib crosscheck surfacea thicker thread
to offer best-in-class tear and abrasion resistance. Introduced in a diamond pattern. While any ber can be used to weave
by DuPont in the late 1960s as a development of more robust ripstop, nylon is the key yarn used in its production. The
nylon, the fabric trademark is now owned by INVISTA. interlocking nylon thread pattern, woven through the lighter
CORDURA fabric was rst used in military material at regular intervals, stops any tear from spreading.
applications where durability and performance were an Ripstop fabrics with Nomex bers, a kind of aramid ber,
advantage. In the 1970s brands such as Eastpak started to use are used by reghters; with a camouage print it has military
the fabric for backpacks and luggage. By the late 1980s lighter applications; and it is also used in everyday clothing with or
weight fabrics had been introduced for clothing; these now without functional requirements.
classic fabrics are widely used today as reinforcement panels in
workwear, skiwear and motorcycle clothing by labels including
Dickies, Jansport and Dainese, where maximum abrasion
resistance is required.
Today there are many different CORDURA fabrics,
available in a wide variety of weights, blends, constructions and
nishes including laminates, double weaves, two- and four-
way stretch knitted and woven fabrics. CORDURA Denim
and CORDURA NYCO fabric ranges are based on blends
of cotton and INVISTA nylon, which offer the added comfort
advantages of cotton; CORDURA Naturalle fabrics have
the appearance of cotton; CORDURA Lite fabrics are often
pack cloths, ripstops and dobby weaves. All can be coated,
uncoated or laminated depending on end use requirements,
which include fashion, outdoor clothing, workwear and
military uniforms.
198
These high-performance
ergonomic leather motorcycling
gloves by OSX London incorporate
the extremely protective properties
of Kevlar at the knuckles to prevent
injury in the event of impact.
Future fabrics
Because of economic factors, production of acrylic bers today
is centered in the Far East, Turkey, India, Mexico, and South
America, although a number of European manufacturers
continue to produce; production in the United States has
ended. The largest producer of acrylic yarn is the Spanish
Italian company Monteber SpA, rst formed in 1957 and now
producing acrylic bers under the trade name of LEACRIL in
both Spain and Italy and with a joint-venture company in China.
199
Acrylic bers
Acrylic properties
Acrylic (PAN) can be dened as bers that are composed of
linear macromolecules with 85 percent or more (by mass)
acrylonitrile repeating units in the chain. Acrylonitrile, an oil-
based chemical obtained by reacting propylene with ammonia
and oxygen in the presence of a catalyst, is polymerized to
form polyacrylonitrile, a synthetic resin, which is then used to
make acrylic bers.
Additional chemicals are used to improve the bers
ability to absorb dye. Acrylic benets from a good level of heat
and shape retention (it is crease-resistant) and has a low level of
water absorption. It is a resilient, durable, and low-maintenance
ber with the added benet of quickly wicking moisture to the
surface where it evaporates and dries.
The majority of acrylic ber production is destined for
the garment industry; a lesser percentage is for furnishing
fabrics and a further small amount has an industrial end use. It
is a common substitute for wool.
Modacrylic
Modacrylic (MAC) bers are a modied form of acrylic, which
have less than 85 percent and more than 35 percent (mass)
acrylonitrile repeating units in the chain and are formed from
a combination of coal, air, water, and oil. Modacrylic is used
for ame-retardant garments, childrenswear and babywear, and
in soft toys; also fake fur and wigs. It is primarily a German
development, rst introduced in the early 1940s and produced
on a large scale from 1954 by Bayer AG, a German chemical
and pharmaceutical company. It was also produced in the
United States during a similar period, in the forms of Eastman
Kodak Companys Verel (acrylonitrile and vinylidene chloride),
Dynel (acrylonitrile and polyvinyl chloride), and Monsantos
SEF. Because of their low moisture content, bers can build up
static charges, but modacrylic fabrics are resistant to moths,
mildew, and creasing during wear.
200
202
Ecological sustainability
Olen bers are inexpensive to produce and said to be
relatively environmentally friendly, owing to the few by-
products of the manufacturing process (particularly during
dyeing); they are also easily recycled. Tyvek ProtectiveWear by
DuPont is an olen material that is already 25 percent recycled.
203
204
205
Polyurethane
Spandex ber LYCRA
Today there are many different variants of LYCRA spandex
ber, each designed to excel in a specic end-use, from Xtra
Spandex bers are elastic or rubber-like bers that are used in
Life LYCRA ber, which is said to have up to a tenfold
a variety of garments to improve t and function. Spandex is
greater resistance to chlorine compared to ordinary spandex
differentiated from other bers by its high stretch and recovery.
yarns, to Easy Set LYCRA ber, which is especially suited
Spandex bers are composed of long polymer chains that
for use with heat sensitive bers. Proprietary, brand-specic
are networked together. In the unstretched or relaxed state,
process distinguish LYCRA spandex and its competitor
these long polymer chains are randomly coiled. As the ber
brands from generic spandex bers.
is stretched the coils straighten out, allowing the ber to
elongate without breaking. When the force stretching the ber
The LZR Racer
is removed, the polymer chains quickly return to the normal
The LZR Racer swimsuit (made from spandex-nylon and
coiled state and the ber returns to essentially its original
polyurethane) was developed as a collaboration between
length. To be called spandex, a ber must be composed of
Speedo, the Australian Institute of Sport, NASAs low-speed
at least 85 per cent (by weight) segmented polyurethane and
wind tunnel testing facilities, and ANSYS uid-ow analysis
when stretched to three times its original length and released, it
software system. Comme des Garons worked on the design
recovers rapidly and substantially to its initial length.
of the swimwear, which was tested by Olympic athletes.
Elasticated yarn may be constructed with a spandex
The FASTSKIN material is designed to mimic sharkskin. The
ber core and a covering ber. This can provide bulk, improve
suit allows better oxygen ow to the muscles; its compression
abrasion resistance, and provide a nal fabric with the
panels hold the body in a hydrodynamic position; it repels
appearance and feel of the covering ber, but with a level of
water and increases muscular exibility. The seams of the
elasticity that will not be achievable with the covering ber
suit are ultrasonically welded and the material quick-drying
alone. Spandex ber can also be incorporated directly into a
(eliminating drag); the suit is also chlorine-resistant.
fabric structure composed predominantly of another ber type.
The success of the LZR Racer in improving competitive
In this case the spandex ber will be hidden within the fabric
swimming times (up to 5 percent) at international level
structure, while providing the desired t and comfort.
caused a re-evaluation of apparel rules by FINA, swimmings
governing body worldwide.
206
s
applications. The nal spandex thread is most commonly
produced from this solution in a process called dry-spinning.
In the dry-spinning process, the polymer solution is delivered
into a dry-spinning cell where the solvent is evaporated and Prepolymer further reacted with diaminediluted
recovered for re-use. Lastly, the bers may be treated with a with solventspinning solution created
nishing agent to improve the downstream textile processing.
s
Pumped into ber-producing cellForced
through spinneret
s
Fiber is coalesced by removal of solvent
Solvent is evaporated and recovered
for re-use
s
Fibers producedsticky texture enables
strands to adhere
s 207
Fibers treated with nishing agent for better
textile manufacturingspooled and shipped
Polyurethane
Synthetic rubber The history of synthetic rubber
The two principal synthetic rubbers used in the fashion Experimentation with synthetic rubber was in progress in
industry are neoprene and Ariaprene. Neoprene is commonly Germany and Russia at the turn of the twentieth century,
associated with wetsuits but today has applications in many but it was the increase in price of natural latex rubber
areas of fashion. that concentrated research to nd a synthetic, inexpensive
replacement, leading to the development of neoprene by
Ariaprene is the biodegradable alternative to DuPont. The invention was based on the research work at
neopreneit is solvent- and toxic-free and also Notre Dame University of Julius Nieuwland, from whom
available in a wide selection of lightweight rubber DuPont purchased the rights to the patent. Arnold Collins, a
fabrics. chemist in Wallace Carothers unit, rst produced neoprene
while investigating by-products of divinylacetylene. The name
Louis Vuitton, Chanel, Michael Kors, Balenciaga, Lanvin, and of neoprene was adopted in the late 1930s; it is a generic not a
Vera Wang have all used a synthetic rubber in their collections. trade name, since it is sold as a raw material for compounding
rather than as a nal product. Following an intensive marketing
campaign, neoprene was in great demand by the end of the
same decade.
Future fabrics
Todays eco-friendly, nontoxic alternative is Ariaprene,
developed at the turn of this century, which has been designed
for reuse several times within closed-loop recycling processes,
after which it will safely decompose.
209
Synthetic rubber
Metallic yarns of medieval European weaving for cloth of gold and greatly
contributed to the Italian Renaissance. Yarns were produced
using very thin gold or silver strips, which were spirally wrapped
Although not a synthetic substance, metals are discussed
or spun around a core yarn of silk, linen, or wool.
in this chapter because, just as oil needed for synthetic
ber production is extracted from the ground, metals are
Samite
also mined.
The most luxurious of all the cloths of gold was samite, a
heavy silk fabric interwoven with gold and silver threads. It was
Today, aluminum or aluminized yarns have
so important to the economy of the Venetian Republic that the
generally replaced gold and silver, the metallic
silk-weaving guilds distinguished samite weavers from all other
laments being coated with transparent lms to
silk weavers.
minimize tarnishing.
Samite was the fabric of kings, high-ranking nobility,
The most common fabrics in use today that utilize metallic
and the clergy; its high status included it among the
threads are lam and brocade.
luxuries forbidden to the urban middle classes under
various sumptuary laws of the Middle Ages and
The history of metallic bers Renaissance Europe.
Samite has also been discovered along the Silk Road and is
The ancient world
especially associated with Sassanid Persia, the last pre-Islamic
Fabrics with golden threads have been produced for millennia.
Persian Empire.
There are biblical and Ancient Greek and Roman references to
these precious fabrics; mythological accounts of the Golden
Zari
Fleece may have implied fabrics woven through with gold.
Cloth of gold should not be confused with gold embroidery-
The ancient Greek city of Byzantium (today Istanbul)
work. Zari (Jari or Zardozi) is gold and silver embroidery
was a center of production for these exotic fabrics, as were
threadwork or supplementary weft-threads, which has its
neighboring areas of the Muslim world. Metallic fabrics made
origins in Mogul India and Persia and is still in use today in
their way into Europe by way of trade with the Italian city-states
India, Pakistan, and parts of Iran. Threads of gold and silver
of Genoa, Venice, and Lucca, which in turn became the centers
were also used in weaving and supplementary threadwork in
China and numerous other regions of Southeast Asia, Sumatra,
and the Malaysian peninsula. The Dobeckmun Company
(USA) is credited with the rst production of modern metallic
ber, shortly after the end of World War II.
210
211
Metallic yarns
212
Articial bers
Cotton ber
Cotton yarns
Cotton fabrics
Cellulose
The history of Ecological sustainability
articial cellulose ber
In contrast to previous production, the new generation of
Early experiments cellulose articial bers is made from sustainable wood sources,
The term cellulose has been used since the late 1830s, when usually grown in forests or on marginal land. There is no need
the French chemist Anselme Payen discovered the substance, for synthetic fertilizers or pesticides; irrigation is reliant purely
having isolated it from plant matter and determined its on rainfall. The yield of cellulose from beech and eucalyptus is
chemical formula. Hermann Staudinger established in the 1920s efcient; new processing methods have resulted in sustainable
that cellulose is a linear polymer, a polysaccharide. production methods with reduced carbon footprint and limited
The development of cellulose acetate during the 1860s pollutionall of which help to protect the environmental.
was the earliest of the investigations into celluloses practical
application, although the rst spun acetate yarn did not appear
until the 1920s. It was articial silk, also known as rayon Acetate and triacetate
or viscose, that was the rst articial ber, and had several
incarnations from the end of the nineteenth century. Acetate is produced from wood pulp or cotton linters. It is a
low-cost ber that can be smooth and soft, with good draping
The development of articial bers could accurately qualities. It is favored as a substitute for silk in such fabrics as
be described as both a social commentary on the satins, brocades, and taffetas, and can be blended with cotton
ckleness of fashion and the genesis of the mass and silk. The noun acetate is made up of the stem acet,
fashion we all enjoy today. meaning acetic acid or vinegar, and the sufx -ate.
Without these early experiments to nd inexpensive Cellulose acetate was developed as early as
alternatives to natural bers, there might not have been the the mid-nineteenth century; the rst yarns at the
impetus or imperative to experiment further and develop the beginning of the twentieth.
technically more sophisticated synthetic fabrics of the second
half of the twentieth century. Acetate and triacetate are separate chemical compounds.
Acetate ber is a modied (secondary) acetate; triacetate is a
New generation plant cellulose bers primary acetate, without a cellulose hydroxyl group and with
Early man-made bers, termed articial, focused on using a higher ratio of acetate to cellulose bers.
regenerated plant (wood) cellulose. By the middle of the Acetate bers have been sold as Setilithe, Plastiloid,
twentieth century the focus of attention, for man-made bers, and Bioceat (Mazzucchelli); triacetate as Tricel/Arnel
had turned to oil and the resulting synthetic bers (polyester, (Celanese Corporation).
polyamide nylon, aramids, acrylics, polyolens, spandex, and
synthetic rubbers). Today the tide is turning; current concerns
regarding our dependency on oil and the increasing shortage
of arable land has instigated developments that embrace a
new breed of clean man-made (articial) bers, which are
made into technically sophisticated fabrics, often for a premium
high-prole market sector. These new cellulose fabrics are no
longer seen as substitutes for natural fabrics, but as desirable
in their own right.
214
215
216
Cuprammonium rayon
Around the same time as Chardonnet submitted his patent,
another Frenchman, Louis-Henri Despeissis, patented the
process to produce bers from dissolving cellulose in a
solution of copper salts and ammonia. His work was based on
217
discoveries by Eduard Schweizer in the 1850s. Cuprammonium
rayon went into production in the early years of the twentieth
One-shouldered violet rayon crpe
century, as Bemberg silk.
de chine knotted dress by New
York brand A Dtacher exploits
the supple drape and silk-like
characteristics of rayon to create
a sophisticated and sensuous form.
Rayon
Modern commercial rayon Production of rayon
In the 1890s a group of British inventors (Charles Cross,
Edward Bevan, and Clayton Beadle) patented a commercially The traditional method of production uses cellulose from
viable method of producing articial silk. both wood and lignin, while newer methods need lignin-free
cellulose as a starting point.
Manufacture began in England at silk rm
Courtaulds around the turn of the twentieth century. Chemistry
Processed cellulose (ground from wood pulp) is dissolved in
Large-scale commercial production was launched in the United sodium hydroxide (caustic soda). Excess liquid is removed
States in the 1910s. There, the fabric was rst referred to as by passing it through rollers. The resulting pulp is shredded,
articial silk, followed by the unpopular name of glos; but by creating a crumbly substance called white crumb, which is
the mid-1920s the term rayon had been ofcially adopted. In then exposed to oxygen, then reacted with carbon disuldea
French rayon means ray or beam of light, which is an evocative process known as xanthation. The result of this process is
description of the fabrics visual appearance. By contrast, the yellow crumb (cellulose xanthate). Caustic soda is again used to
European designation, viscose, is more pragmatic, being dissolve the substance, which in turn produces a viscous yellow
descriptive of the processing method used to produce the ber: solution: viscose (sodium cellulose xanthate).
production of a highly viscous solution.
Post-formation
Mid-century developments After ripening, viscose is ltered to remove any undissolved
During the 1940s the physical properties of rayon were particles, and air bubbles are removed. The viscose solution is
changed to produce high-tenacity rayon (HTR), which is nally extruded through a spinneret into sulfuric acid to form
extremely strong and used for industrial purposes. Further rayon laments, which are drawn to straighten the bers and
developments in the 1950s resulted in the production of high- then washed to remove chemical residues. If staple bers are
wet-modulus rayon (HWM), which has greater strength when required, the laments are cut to determined lengths.
wet, allowing it to be machine-washed.
Rayon
Lyocell
Trees NMMO Lyocell is a cellulose ber made from wood pulp.
(see page 227)
In broad terms, lyocell can be described as a
In the United States the ber has been given its own (rayon)
sub-category, dened as cellulose fabric obtained by
Pulp
an organic solvent spinning process (U.S. Federal Trade
s
Commission). Solvent here implies the agent into which the
ber-forming substance is dissolved as part of the spinning
process (see Polymers and polymerization, page 186).
f
The process by which the ber is produced is said to
Dissolve be eco-friendly; the raw materials used are from sustainable
sources. The nished fabric has an advantage over traditional
s
rayon in that it is less prone to shrink and is far stronger.
Spin Purify
s
Wash
p
s
Dry
s
Crimp and cut
s
Staple ber yarn
s
220
Fabric
s
Garment
221
Lyocell
Properties of lyocell bers Applications
There are several versions of the ber, one of which features
chitosan, which is derived from the chitin found in crab shells
The fabrics have a highly crystalline structure continuously
(treated with alkali sodium hydroxide). Chitin is the second
dispersed along the ber axis. This gives good tensile strength,
most abundant natural polymer and, if of medical grade, has no
that can match that of polyester while sharing cotton-like
allergenic potential. In fabrics such as Lenzing TENCEL C,
qualities; it has good volume and a soft touch. Long lament
chitosan is marketed as providing a cell-regenerating effect,
bers are used to manufacture silk-like yarns, and so the
creating what the company calls pure cosmetics from
nished fabrics have a good luster and drape well. Untreated,
textiles. The ber is well-suited for lingerie and bedlinen since
the fabric is prone to pilling and has a natural reluctance to
it inhibits bacterial growth and is anti-inammatory.
absorb dye.
TENCEL is also used within the automotive sector,
in carpets, seat covers, and as a brous powder to reinforce
TENCEL
injection-molded components. It is also available as a 5050
Lyocell is better known by the brand name TENCEL. The
blend with either standard or organic cotton.
ber is made from eucalyptus, an evergreen plant that grows to
a height of up to 131 feet (40 m). Eucalyptus grows quickly and
does not require articial irrigation, use of pesticides, or gene
manipulation. It is cost-effective, providing a good yield ratio
of cellulose per acre of land; the trees grown for TENCEL
production are from sustainably managed plantations.
Fabric processing is closed-loop but does require a
substantial amount of energy. Eucalyptus trees are shipped
from South Africa to Europe, which has carbon footprint
implications. The processes used to dye or texture lyocell
sometimes include toxic chemicals, although this is dependent
on the converter.
222
Lyocell
Lenzing Modal
Modal is processed from beech trees, which are thought to
be unbeatable when it comes to improving soil quality. Beech
is extremely resistant to pests and environmental damage.
Lenzings Austrian beech groves are sustainable and need no
articial irrigation; the wood is not transported over long
distances. Processing is said to be carbon neutral, and any
chemical used is recovered and recycled; bleaching today is
done through oxygen technology. The fabric is biodegradable.
Their inherent softness means that Modal fabrics retain
their touch after repeated washes. Particularly well suited for
blending with cotton (as both have similar properties), Modal
is seen in lingerie, sleepwear, and socks.
Applications
There are several varieties of the ber, including Lenzing
Modal LOFT, which has great loft (ber thickness) and is
ideal for towels. ProModal is a combination of Modal and
TENCEL, offering both softness and performance.
Spun-dyed Modal is dyed during processing, the
pigment (color) being embedded directly into the ber matrix.
This eliminates the need for the yarns or fabrics to be dyed
later by a third-party converter, saving water and energy and
reducing the possibility of harsh chemicals being used.
Applications
Fabrics are soft and smooth and breathe, offering the most
benet when worn next to the body: Seacell fabrics are ideal
for intimate apparel and bedding.
Lyocell
Lyocell processing
Eucalyptus trees
s
Pulped wood TENCEL sheets
s
Balls of TENCEL bers
s
Dyed TENCEL bers
s
chambray with a light sheen and
good drape.
227
Biopolymer bers
Corn ber The history of corn ber
Plentiful supplies of corn (also known as maize)
Corn bers were rst developed during the 1940s at the USDA
grown in the heartlands of the United States are now
Northern Regional Research Laboratory. Corn proteins were
a source of commercially viable man-made bers
dissolved in alkali, extruded through spinnerets, and cured with
obtained from 100 percent annually renewable
formaldehyde. Production was discontinued in the 1950s owing
resources.
to the popularity of high-performance synthetic bers.
The possibility of producing ber from corn was revisited
PLA (polylactic acid) ber can be developed from any naturally
in the 1990s by Dow Chemical Company and agricultural
derived sugars. It is mostly produced from corn but can also
commodities company Cargill. This second generation of corn
come from beets.
ber is processed from sugars and carbon in corn to create the
CargillDow-branded PLA resin NatureWorks is sold
polymer (poly)lactic acid. The new ber designation PLA was
as Ingeo ber. Originally an American development, Ingeo
assigned in 2002 by the Federal Trade Commission, which
is now a joint venture with a Japanese company. Other bers,
ruled that while technically a type of polyester (created from
yarns, and fabrics produced from or containing corn sucrose
repeating units linked by esters), the ber exhibits signicant
include Biophyl from Advansa (Germany), Lactron and
differences from the generally understood existing denition.
Ecodear from Kanebo and Toray respectively (Japan), and
Sorona from DuPont.
Corn ber properties
The ber is high in strength and stability, has low ammability,
is more resistant to ultraviolet (UV) light and is more
hydrophilic (attracting water) than common synthetics. Once
blended with cotton or wool, it forms a fabric that is light
and wicks moisture away from the skin. Corn ber is spun
into yarn for woven or knitted textiles. Diesel is one of several
fashion companies using Ingeo yarns.
228
Ecological sustainability
Producing ber from corn is a low-cost process involving
little fossil fuel; it is not derived from petrochemicals; and
it uses abundantly available raw material. A lower level of
energy is required than in the manufacture of other articial
bers, producing signicantly fewer greenhouse gas emissions.
Additional energy reductions are achieved during dyeing and
nishing fabrics through lower temperatures and shorter
processing times. Garments made from corn ber, once
discarded, can be returned to the earth, degrading into natural
compost with the passage of time. However, there is concern
that an increasing amount of the corn cultivated in the United
States is genetically modied.
229
Corn ber
Soybean ber The history of soybean ber
It is believed that soybean (or soya) was rst Soybean ber was rst pioneered by Henry Ford in the
harvested in China more than 5,000 years ago. mid-1930s and referred to as soy wool. Chemists Robert
Boyer and Frank Calvert were employed by the automobile
The soybean was widely grown throughout Asia and remains manufacturer to produce an articial silk, which resulted in the
a major crop in China, Japan, and Korea, where it is a common ber known as Azlon. As with most early bioengineered bers,
food source; cultivation has spread worldwide since the its popularity was overtaken during the 1950s by synthetics.
nineteenth century. It was introduced into the United States Modern methods of production, using soybean proteins and
almost by accident in the early 1800s when Yankee clippers, polyvinyl alcohol, were developed at the turn of the twenty-
trading with China, often used soybeans as inexpensive ballast. rst century by Guanqi Li at the Huakang R&D Centre in
Today the United States is the largest producer of soybeans. China. Today garments made of soy ber tend to be targeted
Branded soybean bers include SOYSILK. at a mid-market consumer, however, as demand increases, it
should become inexpensive to produce.
230
231
Soya ber
Milk ber (casein) Milk ber properties
Milk proteins have been extracted since Ancient Egyptian Milk protein fabrics have certain wool-like characteristics, and
times. Casein paint, similar to tempera, was used extensively so the preferred bers for blending are wool and cashmere.
until the advent of acrylic in the 1960s. Fabrics breathe and capture and dissipate moisture, supposedly,
as efciently as wool.
Research into milk ber production dates back to
the 1930s in both Italy and the United States, and
resulted in ber production later in the decade. Milk ber production
Lanatil was the rst Italian ber patented, followed by the The main component of milk ber is casein, a type of protein
American brand Aralac. During the 1940s milk ber was found mainly in cows milk; it is most often combined with
used as a wool substitute, but it fell victim to the rise of the acrylonitrile, the chemical compound used to make acrylic.
low-price synthetics marketed during the 1950s. Early milk The casein (or protein) is rst dissolved in water and
ber suffered from weaknesses when introduced to water; alkali. The ber-forming substance is extruded through a
the introduction of acrylic and blends has produced stronger spinneret; the resulting viscous solution is then immersed in an
contemporary bers. Japanese company Toyobo produced acid bath to neutralize the alkali, and additional solutions are
Chinon from 30 percent casein and 70 percent acrylonitrile in used to treat the ber. Finally, the ber is stretched to align the
the 1960s. molecules for added strength. The process is similar to those
Branded milk ber yarns include Milkol, made from for producing other rayon bers.
organic milk; Milkotton, a cotton and milk protein ber;
Milkwood (Lenpur), a milk and wood cellulose; and QMilch,
produced from waste milk, which is an exceptionally smooth
ber more akin to silk than to wool.
232
(left) Milk unsuitable for food (above) The proteins in milk ber
production provides the raw have characteristics similar to
material for recent milk ber those of animal hair bers, and
developments. The casein is fabrics made from it behave much
extracted from the milk and like wool. The bers are uffy and
processed to form a regenerated springy and work well in blends with
protein ber. wool, cashmere, and Lenpur.
Useful information
Working with fabrics Agents
The selection of fabric is fundamental to the creative and An agent is a middle person or company that represents the
commercial viability of a collection and should realistically interests of a fabric mill or mills. Agencies enable mills to show
precede any design development work. Fabric is the medium their fabric collections to designers and buyers internationally.
that expresses two of the essential ingredients of fashion The fabrics are shown on header cards that consist of
designcolor and tactile appeal. Both are key considerations at a large swatch of fabric used as a feeler for touch and drape,
the conceptual stage of designing and planning a collection. a range of color options, and all the information regarding
A mood board is usually compiled at this stage construction and composition. Agents do not carry stock but
to consolidate a variety of inspirational sources, and to help organize the ordering and delivery of sample lengths and
communicate a concept or theme; it helps to focus direction eventual production.
and to make objective and strategic design decisions. This
is especially important when working as part of a team.
Importers and stock houses
Sourcing fabrics These are fabric wholesale companies that buy fabrics from
domestic and foreign mills in large quantities and then sell the
fabric on, usually without any minimum requirements.
Trade fairs
These are shows or fairs where international fabric mills Converters
come together to showcase all their new fabric designs and
developments for the forthcoming season. Generally designers Converters buy large volumes of greige piece goods (unnished
and buyers will request samples, which are then forwarded for fabrics) directly from the mills, then dye, print, and nish the
sampling, prior to ordering bulk fabric for production. fabric into smaller quantities, according to market trends. They
work closely with designers and manufacturers to allow a quick
response to trends in color and print, without the commitment
Mills required from large fabric minimums.
Sourcing fabrics
Sourcing considerations It is also important that the selected fabrics reect the
brand image and the target consumers perception of the brand.
Certain consumers respond to specic types of fabrics positively.
Fabric type For example, natural bers may give added value, or high-tech
performance bers may provide a unique selling point for certain
Sourcing fabrics requires an informed sensitivity to the different categories of products.
personalities that fabrics possess, coupled with an instinctive
creative approach. Consideration of the suitability of different
ber types for specic products underpins effective sourcing. Sustainable considerations
To work with the inherent nature and properties of the
fabric, manipulate a large piece of cloth and drape it; observe The geographic origin of the ber and processing of the fabric
how it relates to the body and consider how it feels next to the may also be relevant considerations. The carbon footprint and
skin. It may be stiff, structured, and hold pleats crisply, or it may ethical and fair-trade issues regarding manufacture may make
be dense, uffy, and sculptural, or conversely have a tactile and certain choices inappropriate. How a fabric needs to be looked
supple drape that clings to the body. The structure and tightness after throughout its life cycle and, ultimately, how it will be
of the weave is important because it will affect the hand and disposed of are growing concerns that are impacting on all levels
drape, the way the fabric behaves, and its potential durability. of the market. Awareness of these issues is on the rise, as shown
by the recent founding of the Sustainable Apparel Coalition,
which includes over 80 powerful global brands (including
Purpose and market Nike, PUMA, Gap, H&M, Marks & Spencer, and Burberry)
representing more than one-third of the worlds apparel
Another important aspect is the suitability of the chosen fabric production, as well as government, educational, and non-prot
for its intended purpose. The lifestyle of the target consumer organizations.
needs to be taken into consideration to identify how the
products will be used, laundered, and the expected level of wear
and tear. Fabrics from reputable mills are usually pretested for Cost, sizing, and fabric direction
an identied range of uses. Alternatively fabrics can be sent for
independent testing to specialist laboratories. This is especially Pricing awareness is vital in todays competitive market, and the
useful for high-performance clothing. price per meter or yard needs to consider the width of the fabric
in the costing.
The standard widths for different fabric types have until
recently been 36, 45, or 60 inches wide (90, 112, or 150 cm),
with some specialty fabrics as narrow as 18 inches or as wide
as 150 inches (45 or 375 cm). Today most fabrics are made to a
Useful fabric sampling vocabulary standard 60 inches (150 cm) wide, which is a more cost-effective
width for a layout (the economical arrangement of garment
Color-ways Alternative fabric color options. pattern pieces onto the fabric) and also best suited for general
Drape The way the fabric hangs and moves. factory production.
Dye lot Minimum meterage required to dye to a specic color. Further cost considerations when selecting fabrics include
one- and two-way directional fabrics and fabric matching.
Hand/Touch Describes the characteristics of a fabric
e.g., soft, rm, etc. A one-directional fabric implies that the design (printed
or woven) needs to be cut in a single direction. Alternatively,
Lead times The length of time it takes to receive the fabric
(usually applies to bulk fabric).
a one-directional fabric may imply that it has a pile or raised
surface and that the fabric must be cut with all garment pattern
Minimums Minimum meterage required to place an order
pieces following the same direction. One-directional fabrics are
to produce a fabric.
less cost-effective than two-way fabrics. Fabric matching further
Print runs Minimum meterage required to print a design increases fabric usage or costing.
or color.
Sample color For sampling purposes; not all color options
may be available, sample color implies the available color.
Testing
238 Sample lengths Small meterage required to make a
prototype sample. Fabrics from reputable mills will have been pretested with all
Swatches Small fabric pieces used in preselecting the relevant information available for the buyer, designer, or
a fabric range. merchandiser. Alternatively, fabrics may be sent for testing
to independent laboratories, which is particularly useful for
performance clothing.
Useful information
Standards
Transparent information and the assurance of recognized
certications can be useful in evaluating the environmental
and social impact of fashion products. The 12 principles
outlined in the Green Chemistry section (page 244) take into
consideration the impact of material production at a chemical
level, and the most widely recognized sustainable certications,
which assure various aspects of more responsible production,
are compiled in the certications chart (overleaf ). Some of the
certications are consumer-facing (such as the FAIRTRADE
mark), and are used almost as a brand in their own right,
as a mark of integrity and added value. Others, such as the
Better Cotton Initiative, actively unite those involved in ber
production into a global community. Some of these standards
are owned by umbrella organizations that strive to inspire the
acceleration of sustainable practices throughout the textile Buyers sourcing denim at The
value chain; for example, Textile Exchange (formerly Organic Future Fabrics Expo in London.
The header cards at the top of the
Exchange), owners of the Organic Exchange and the Global
fabric hangers provide detailed
Recycling Standard, focuses on minimizing the harmful information about the fabric, such
impact of the global textile industry, and maximizing its as ber content, weave, weight, and
positive effects. fabric width, as well as certications
and information about the
sustainability credentials of the ber
and its processing.
Sourcing considerations
Certications
Social, economic, and environmental aspects of The Better Cotton Initiative (BCI) brings together
cotton production. producers, ginners, mills, traders, manufacturers,
retailers, brands, and civil society organizations in a
unique global community committed to developing
Better Cotton as a sustainable mainstream commodity.
Water efuent, air emissions, energy consumption, The bluesign system uses Input Stream
worker safety, consumer safety, RSL/chemical residues, Management process to assess textile products,
responsible use of resources. from bers and yarns to fabrics and nal products;
components for textile products, chemicals and
dyestuffs, and textile processing techniques.
Water efuent, air emissions, energy consumption, Materials, sub-assemblies, and nished products.
worker safety, consumer safety, social criteria, RSL/
chemical residues, responsible water use.
Worker safety, social criteria, environmental impact. Certies producer organizations and traders, helping
them to capitalize on market opportunities.
Organic, GM, water efuent, worker safety, consumer GOTS includes but is not limited to bers, yarns, textiles,
safety, social criteria, RSL/chemical residues. and garments.
Water efuent, energy consumption, worker safety, GRS covers products containing pre- and/or post-
consumer safety, social criteria, responsible water use. consumer recycled raw materials.
IWTO offers standards and test methods for the Full Test methods provide the objective, technical, and
measurement of wool ber, yarn, and fabric properties. scientic measurements required for issuing IWTO test
certicates.
Since 2012, IWTO collates various Life Cycle Analysis
data and information from across the wool industry As regards wools environmental credentials, wools
to provide a better-informed assessment of the LCAs now look at all areas of the industry on a cradle-
240 environmental attributes of wool ber. to-cradle basis.
Organic, worker safety, social criteria. Made-By applies to environmental and working
conditions throughout the entire supply chain of
products, covering afliated fashion brands.
Useful information
Stages include Requirements
BCI focuses on cotton production at farm level. BCI principles outline that Growing Better Cotton means initially meeting a set of minimum
Better Cotton is grown by farmers who: requirements including pesticide use, water conservation, habitat
1. Minimize the harmful impact of crop protection practices protection, ber quality, and decent work principles. Once the minimum
2. Use water efciently and care for the availability of water criteria are met, farmers need to show continuous improvement to remain
3. Care for the health of the soil qualied.
4. Conserve natural habitats www.bettercotton.org
5. Care for and preserve the quality of the ber
6. Promote decent work.
A multi-attribute standard covering ve categories. C2C certies products Basic, bronze, silver, gold, or platinum product rating to reect continuous
made with materials that are safe for humans and the environment, improvement. Products must be optimized over time to reach higher levels of
designed for reutilization (e.g. recycling or composting), and manufactured certication and become ideal C2C products.
using renewable energy, water stewardship, and social fairness. Materials All materials in a nished product and their chemical ingredients must be
are designed for reuse in biological or technological cycles. identied, then scored on their impact on human and environmental health,
and cyclability. Materials are scored on their ability to be reused in biological
or technological cycles. The product manufacturing process is evaluated for
renewable energy use, water stewardship, and social fairness. www.c2ccertied.org
Fairtrade standards for producers ensure the farmers receive a fair and Farmer organizations as well as Fairtrade licensees (businesses
stable price and the Fairtrade Premium, which they choose how to invest in selling nished products) are inspected regularly and are required
their businesses and communities. to report on sales.
www.fairtrade.org.uk
GOTS-licensed farms and bers are certied to internationally recognized Products must meet all the standards throughout the entire supply chain to
organic standards by an accredited certication body. be certied to GOTS. Companies trading in GOTS certied products must be
certied and inspected by an accredited certication body.
GOTS covers the entire processing chain, including manufacturing, dyeing, www.global-standard.org
weaving, knitting, CMT, nishing, packaging, labeling, distribution, and Soil Association Certication is one body which can certify to GOTS. If a
wholesale. textile company is certied to GOTS by Soil Association Certication, they
can use the trusted Soil Association symbol on their approved products, as
well as the GOTS symbol. www.soilassociation.org
Tracks and documents the purchase, handling, and use of pre- and/or post- GRS-labeled products must contain a minimum of 5 percent pre- and/or
consumer recycled raw materials. Environmental processing impact and post-consumer recycled raw materials. Labels state: Made with recycled
social criteria are also assessed. [raw material]x% pre-consumer and x% post-consumer.
www.textileexchange.org/content/standards
Pre-industrial waste is now not included.
Standards and test methods cover all stages of the wool supply chain, from IWTO test certicates can be obtained from IWTO licensing labs.
greasy wool to scoured wool, carded wool, sliver, top, yarn, and fabric.
All standards and specications can be found in the IWTO Red and
IWTO collates and analyzes LCA data from various stages of the supply White Book.
chain including co-products within the sheep production system, water
footprints, product wear life, recycling, and carbon cycles. The report on wools LCAs can be downloaded from the IWTO website.
www.iwto.org 241
Environmental impact of raw materials, social conditions in factories, Each partner brand has a scorecard published online and in Made-Bys
product distribution. annual report. Supply bases are thoroughly analyzed to custom develop
targets with brands, culminating in an action plan to improve the supply
chain through training and workshops.
www.made-by.org
Certications
Certications
Consumer safety, RSL/chemical residues. Textile raw materials, intermediate products, and end
products at all stages of production, including textile
accessories, dyes, and textile auxiliaries.
Water efuent, air emissions, energy consumption, Tests, audits, and certies environmentally friendly
worker safety, consumer safety, social criteria, RSL/ production sites throughout the textile processing chain
chemical residues, responsible water use. including spinners, weavers and knitters, yarn dyers and
textile nishers, and garment manufacturers.
Water efuent, air emissions, energy consumption, Predominantly yarn producers and fabric producers.
worker safety, consumer safety, social criteria, RSL/
chemical residues, responsible water use.
Organic raw materials, genetic modication. The Organic Content Standard (OCS) covers the use
of certied organically grown materials in any product.
The 100 logo may be used for products with at least
95 percent organically grown material, as long as the
remaining percentage is not the same type of material.
Organic raw materials, genetic modication. The Organic Content Standard (OCS) covers the use
of certied organically grown materials in any product.
The Blended logo may be used for products containing
at least 5 percent organically grown material. The
remaining percentage may be the same variety of
material.
Organic cotton, genetic modication. OE 100 covers the use of 95100 percent certied
organically grown cotton ber in yarns, fabrics, and
(Formerly called Organic Exchange) nished goods.
Organic cotton, genetic modication. OE Blended covers the use of 595 percent certied
organically grown cotton ber in blended yarns, fabrics,
and nished goods for suppliers starting to introduce
organic cotton.
242
Organic, genetic modication, worker safety, consumer Soil Association certication is awarded to producers,
safety, social criteria, RSL/chemical residues. processors, and suppliers according to GOTS standards.
Useful information
Stages include Requirements
Every stage of production of raw materials, intermediate products, and end Products are allocated to one of four product classes based on how
products is measured against required criteria, which must be met without intensively they will come into contact with the skin. Testing parameters
exception. include banning lawfully prohibited, regulated, and harmful substances,
and ensuring colorfastness and a skin-friendly pH-value to safeguard
consumer health.
www.oeko-tex.com
Textile processing elements audited include: Evidence must be provided that at least 30 percent of total production
no use of environmentally damaging auxiliaries and dyes is already certied under Oeko-Tex Standard 100, and manufacturing
waste water and exhaust air treatment processes must in general meet stipulated criteria for environmental
optimization of energy consumption friendliness. Social criteria stipulated in Oeko-Tex Standard 1000 must
avoidance of noise and dust pollution be fullled.
introduction of environmental management system www.oeko-tex.com
quality management system.
Every production and processing stage at all sites is assessed. Certication All production sites involved in the production chain for an Oeko-Tex 100
can be for any stage up to and including garment manufacture. plus garment must fulll the requirements of Oeko-Tex Standard 100 and
Oeko-Tex Standard 1000.
www.oeko-tex.com
Tracks and documents the purchase, handling, and use of certied Products meeting the OCS and containing 95100 percent organically
organically grown material in any product, but does not cover production grown material should be labeled as:
processes. contains organically grown [raw material] or
contains 100% organically grown [raw material] as long as the product
does not also contain conventional ingredients of the same raw material.
www.textileexchange.org/content/standards
Tracks and documents the purchase, handling, and use of certied Products meeting the OCS and containing 595 percent organically grown
organically grown material in any product, but does not cover production material should be labeled as:
processes. contains X% organically grown [raw material]
www.textileexchange.org/content/standards
Tracks and documents the purchase, handling, and use of 95100 percent Must use at least 95 percent certied organic cotton ber, exclusive of
certied organic cotton ber in yarns, fabrics, and nished goods, but does thread and non-textile trims or accessories.
not cover production processes.
Can label goods Contains organically grown cotton if they are 95 percent
or more cotton, and the remaining material is not cotton.
www.textileexchange.org/content/standards
Tracks and documents the purchase, handling, and use of certied Certied goods must contain a minimum of 5 percent organic or organic in
organically farmed cotton ber in blended yarns, fabrics, and nished conversion cotton.
goods, but does not cover production processes.
Labels state: Contains x% organically grown cotton.
www.textileexchange.org/content/standards
243
Harvesting of raw materials, production, processing, manufacturing, Certied goods must meet the requirements outlined by the GOTS standard.
packaging, labeling, exportation, importation, and distribution of all natural They can then be labeled with the Soil Association Organic symbol, which is
products including bers, yarns, textiles, and garments. the most widely recognized organic symbol in the UK.
Source: Adapted from Eco-Textile Labelling Guide 2010, second edition, and Eco-Textile Labelling Guide 2012, third edition, EcoTextile News
Certications
Green chemistry
There are 12 principles that explain what the denitions of green Use renewable resources When possible the feedstock (or
chemistry should mean in practice, as set out by Paul Anastas material used to make the product) should come from renewable
and John Warner. They help to dene the true ecological, ethical, resources. For example, there is research being done to make
and sustainable credentials of a raw material or product. These chemicals out of products such as corn instead of coal or oil. Also,
should be considered seriously by anybody looking to source when choosing a feedstock look at waste from other reactions
or work with green fabrics for ethical reasons rather than pure being made in the lab.
marketing potential.
Reduce derivatives Derivatives are chemicals that are used
Prevention Preventing waste is better than treating or cleaning it to cause a temporary effect in the process. This could be a
after it is formed. This is self-explanatory. Currently there is a whole chemical that protects a certain part of the substance that is later
industry built on cleaning waste. It is very expensive to treat waste removed, or it could be a chemical that causes a temporary
and contain it. The waste has to be monitored even after it has change in a property so that a reaction can take place. Using
been contained. derivatives should be avoided when possible. They do not end up
in the nal product and only increase waste.
Atom economy When creating materials it is important to
maximize the incorporation of all the materials used into the nal Catalysis Use selective catalytic reagents over stoichiometric
product. In other words, waste as little material as possible. For reagents. A catalyst helps a reaction occur with less energy, plus
example, if the process has 50 percent atom economy, then half it speeds the reaction.
of the materials that are used turn out to be waste. Only half of the
Consider the end Design for the proper disposal of the item.
materials actually end up as product.
The product that is made should break down into nontoxic
Less hazardous synthesis Processes should be designed to use substances after it has been used. This way the product will not
and generate substances that have little to no toxicity. Plan the remain and build up in the environment.
process of creating the materials to use substances that are not
Use real-time pollution prevention Methods need to be further
toxic and to produce substances that are not toxic. This is often
developed to allow real-time monitoring of chemical processes.
easier said than done!
This includes monitoring while the process is happening, detection
Designing safer chemicals Chemical products should be and control of the formation of hazardous substances, and
designed to function well while reducing toxicity. Reducing monitoring after the substance has been disposed of.
toxicity of the products reduces hazards to people and to the
Accident prevention The substance and the form of the
environment.
substance (liquid, gas, etc.) should be carefully chosen to
Safer solvents Whenever possible avoid the use of additional minimize accidents during the chemical process. Accidents
substances such as solvents and separating agents. When these include re, explosion, and accidental release.
substances are needed they should be nontoxic.
Energy efciency Energy efciency should be considered when
(Source: Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice, Paul T. Anastas
designing and producing a product. The energy requirements
and John D. Warner, Oxford University Press, 2000)
should be minimized since they impact the environment and raise
cost. When possible, processes should be conducted at room
temperature and pressure.
Biodegradable
The terms degradable and biodegradable have
different implications
Useful information
Seasonal cyclical industry process
p
fp
f
Fiber processing mills and converters
Color and trend
Yarn spinning, dyeing,
forecasting
weaving and knitting, and nishing fabric
s
fp
fp Fabric suppliers (mills) trade fairs
p
Research and creative
design process s
i p Sample patterns
p First garment prototypes
s s s
New season strategies
Retail research Brand merchandising f Design and pattern
Customer analysis
Sales and prot analysis fp
fp Design to market evaluation amendments
Fabric and garment
p
Press/public relations (PR)
considerations technology
Sourcing and supply chain
s
critical path
i
Consolidating orders Selling collection from
f f
sample range
Ordering production
Customer fabric and trimmings Trade shows
Issuing production Agentsdistribution
i s
Pre-production
f samples
f
Production Production
To wholesale technology
Supply liason
and/or retail
Quality control (QC)
245
Design
Manufacturing
In a competitive, consumer-savvy market good design is
instrumental to a companys success. Todays designer needs Today offshore manufacturing is not only the domain of
a wide skill and knowledge base, from marketing knowledge inexpensive volume brands, but also many high-prole labels
to manufacturing skills. Design schools produce multitalented take advantage of the cheaper labor costs the developing
graduates that are ripe for French, Italian, and American world has to offer. The choice is between manufacturing
design companies. hub and the quality level of the factory. Better brands will be
more selective with their trimmings and may well have these
transported from other global sources. For example, today
Design product management around 60 percent of mens tailoring is made from fabric
sourced in a different country from where the production is
This is a wide area, which has gone through radical changes based. Thirty percent of T-shirt cotton is grown and knitted into
and expansion in recent years. There is now a need for fabric, then shipped to be manufactured in another country or
more graduates within merchandising, buying, and product even continent. While this travel increases a companys carbon
development departments, dealing with anything from sourcing footprint and questions its ethics, the lure of a better margin
to branding; range-building and line-planning to product does nothing to dampen its resolve.
distribution.
Liaising with offshore manufacturers creates problems
with communication even if the accepted lingua franca is Quality control
English. At retail, information technology has made information
instant: once it took a few weeks to know a bestseller, now its Once this was only a component discipline of the manufacturing
possible by return. process; today, with the explosion in offshore manufacturing, it
has become all-important. QC is now as much a part of buying
or product development as it is a manufacturing component.
Pattern cutting
Pattern cutting for higher-end products and tailoring is still Fabric suppliers
usually carried out domestically. However, for the greater
majority of clothing the patterns are cut in the country of The majority of Far East manufacturing takes advantage of its
manufacture, the advantages being cost and proximity to domestic fabric production, especially with cotton piece goods.
the factory. Therefore, fabric sourcing would be part of the same exercise
as sourcing the manufacturing production.
Garment technology
Sales
Technologists were historically linked to the factory, where
they could be hands-on with issues as they arose. Today they Once the collection is ready or launched, it is the task of the
deal with problems long-distance, requiring greater accuracy of sales department to generate sales. Depending on the size of
information and better communication. the company this could be handled in-house or by an agent/
representative. Sales to foreign countries can be via a fashion
246 trade fair or given over to an agency or distributor in the
respective country that has a better understanding of national
characteristics and particular requirements.
Useful information
Trade fairs Fabric trade fairs
These showcase all new fabrics and color directions for the
Yarn trade fairs next season. Trend directions tend to be six months ahead of
the wholesale fashion trade fairs, although many companies
The purpose of a yarn trade fair is to showcase a new seasons also show stock or short lead-time fabrics.
yarn and color direction. Fabric trade fairs are now global. Fairs of varying sizes
can be found in any country that has a textile and/or garment
Expol Paris, France. Yarns, textile bers, and fashion services. industry. In some cases these fabric fairs are combined with
parallel fairs promoting industry and commerce.
Indigo Paris, France. Prints. Same time as Premire Vision. Internationally acclaimed fairs can be found in all the
fashion capitals of the world. The most important, from a
Intercot Changing venue. Global approaches to organic yarns fashion perspective, remain the traditional fairs of France, Italy,
and textiles. Germany, Japan, and the United States.
Pitti Imagine Filati Florence, Italy. Yarns and bers. Premire Vision Paris, France. Very important biannual fair
with forecasting, accessories, and print halls. Also Moscow,
Peru Moda Lima, Peru. Luxury yarns such as vicua Tokyo, Shanghai, and New York.
and alpaca.
Denim By Premire Vision Paris, France. Smaller shows
Printsource New York, USA. Triannual international print concentrating on denim and related materials.
design and nishing.
Fabric at Magic New York, USA. Fabrics, trimmings, and
Yarn Expo Beijing, China. Centralized for the whole of China. color trends.
Trade fairs
248
Resources/Glossary
Useful information
Useful organizations and publications
The following organizations, services, and publications can provide useful information
regarding a variety of different aspects of the bers and fabrics discussed in this book,
from the raw material to the nished product.
Fabric and color publications advanced manufacturing efciency, Comprehensive information on the Canadian
There are many textile and color journals published and is associated with the highest quality llama and alpaca industry.
worldwide. Some are factual while others are manufacturers. Cape Mohair Wool:
creative and inspirational, and of great use when Uruguay: Wool Secretariat Secretariado Uruguayo www.cmw.co.za
starting a design collection. De La Lana (SUL): www.wool.com.uy A group of South African mohair textile
Works to promote and develop all aspects of production companies.
Eco Textile News, UK, 6 issues. Uruguayan wool in a similar way to the larger Cashmere and Camel Hair
Journal Du Textile, France, 42 issues. Australian Woolmark Company. Manufacturers Institute:
Mood Textiles, Italy, 4 issues. Wool is Best: www.woolisbest.com www.cashmere.org
Noa Color, Japan, 2 issues. A factual guide to the Australian wool industry. US-based international institute for research
Provider (View On Color), Netherlands, 4 issues. The Woolmark Company: and promotion of camel hair and cashmere.
Selvedge, UK, 6 issues. www.wool.com.au Colored Angora Goat Breeders Association:
The Society of Dyers and Colourists, UK, 10 issues. The aim of the company and organization www.cagba.org
T Design Living Textile Tendence, is to improve the protability of wool growers Promotes the development and marketing of
Italy, 4 issues. by building and sustaining demand. It also colored angora goats and ber.
Texitura, Spain, 2 issues. aims to increase productivity through research Import and Export of Vicua.
Textil Wirschaft, Germany, 52 issues. development and marketing. It was formerly (US Wildlife Services):
Textile Asia, Hong Kong, 12 issues. the IWS (International Wool Secretariat) and www.fws.gov
Textile Forum, international, 4 issues. was formed in 1937 primarily by Australian Information on legalities and restrictions on the
Textile History, UK, 2 issues. wool growers who recognized the need to trade in
Textile Horizons, UK, 6 issues. promote their product worldwide. In 1998 vicua ber.
Textile Month, UK, 6 issues. the IWS became The Woolmark Company International Alpaca Association (Peru):
Textile Outlook International, UK, and continues this work. It has ofces in www.aia.org.pe
6 issues. approximately 20 countries and representation Peruvian-based association
Textile Report, France, 4 issues. in 60. It also has design and development with extensive information on
Textile Research Journal, US, centers in Biella, Italy and Ichinomiya, Japan. all South American camelids
12 issues. It also encourages industry partner projects. and their hybrids.
Textile View, The Netherlands, 4 issues. Central to the company is the Woolmark, Pygora Breeders Association:
Textiles Eastern Europe, UK, 1 issue. which is an international trademark that www.pygoragoats.org
Textiles, UK, 4 issues. promises high quality performance and ber US-based association dedicated to the
View Point, The Netherlands, 2 issues. content. It also conrms that the products on advancement and
which it is displayed are of pure new wool. well-being of pygoras.
Wools of New Zealand: Roseland Llamas:
Wool
www.fernmark.com www.llamas.co.uk
Australian Wool Innovation Ltd:
Works to promote and develop Informative site regarding
www.wool.com.au; and
all aspects of New Zealand wool. It originally llama attributes.
Australian Wool Services:
used to promote interior textiles and since Yampa Valley Yaks:
www.wool.com
1996 now includes apparel textiles. www.yampayaks.com
Both are part of the Australian Woolmark
Zque Fiber: www.zque.co.nz Colorado-based site dealing
Company, which is considered to be the
Ethically sourced New Zealand merino wool with yaks.
worlds leading wool ber textile authority, with
with an accreditation program that ensures
over 60 years of experience.
British Wool Marketing Board:
environmental, social, and economic Silk
sustainability as well as animal welfare, with Peace Silk suppliers:
www.britishwool.org.uk
traceability back to the source. www.ahimsapeacesilk.com
Central marketing system for
UK eece wool. Suppliers of peace silk.
International Wool Textile Organization: Luxury animal bers Silk Association of Nepal:
www.iwto.org Australian Alpaca Association: www.nepalsilk.org
Representing the worlds wool textile trade www.alpaca.asn.au European Union-funded trade organization for
and industry, including spinners, weavers, and Comprehensive information on the Australian silk producers and exporters.
garment manufacturers. alpaca industry. Silk Mark Organization of India (SMOI):
Merino Advanced Performance Australian Cashmere Breed www.silkmarkindia.com
Programme MAPP: and Fleece Standard: Silk quality mark organization sponsored by the
www.mapp.co.nz www.acga.org.au Textiles Ministry.
Performance-based fabric developments Information on the Australian breed evolved
incorporating from the bush goat. Linen
New Zealand merino wool. British Alpaca Society: CELC: Confdration Europenne du Lin
Merino New Zealand: www.bas-uk.com et du Chanvre (Linen and Hemp):
Comprehensive information on the British
249
www.nzmerino.co.nz www.belgianlinen.com
Represents the merino producers of alpaca industry. A non-prot-making trade organization for
New Zealand and promotes the merino Canadian Llama and Alpaca Registry: linen in Western Europe. Afliated countries
characteristics of brightness/whiteness, www.claacanada.com are Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy,
strength, extra staple length and thus
Useful information
about recommended brands social and regenerated CO2-neutral wool fabrics The Chemistry of Textile Fibres,
environmental status at the point of sale produced in the Prato region of Italy. R.H. Wardman and R.R. Mather
and on its website. Eco Circle: www.ecocircle.jp/en/ (RSC Publishing, 2010)
Rite Group: www.ritegroup.org.uk Polyester ber producer Teijin has Eco Chic: The Fashion Paradox, Sandy Black
Founded by UK retailer Marks & Spencer, developed an innovative eco-recycling (Black Dog, 2008)
University of Leeds, and Ecotextile News, it system, Eco Circle, to reuse post-consumer An Economic History of the Silk Industry
provides advice and information to drive garments to make new bers. Giovanni Federico (Cambridge University Press,
forward sustainable and ethical production Ragtex, Textile Recycling Association: 1997)
of textiles and fashion products. www.textile-recycling.org.uk Fair Trade
SCP (Sustainable Cotton Project): The Recylatax Bonded scheme helps A. Nicolls and C. Opal
www.sustainablecotton.org local authorities, charities, and other (Sage Publications, 2005)
Founded in 1996, the SCP encourages organizations set up recycling services for Fashion and Sustainability: Design for Change,
information-sharing among farmers, reuse of clothing and shoes. Kate Fletcher and Lynda Grose
about biological farming techniques, and TRA (Textile Recycling Association): (Laurence King, 2012)
educates manufacturers and the consumer www.textile-recycling.org.uk Fashion and Textiles
about the importance of supporting local The association has members Colin Gale and Jasbir Kaur
industry in order to develop a Cleaner internationally, and facilitates the work of (Berg, 2004)
Cotton industry. secondhand shoe and clothing collectors, Fashion Zeitgeist
The Sustainable Angle: graders, and reprocessors. Barbara Vinken (Berg, 2005)
www.thesustainableangle.org TRAID: www.traid.org.uk Fashioning the Future
A not-for-prot organization dedicated Charity recycling organization. Suzanne Lees
to education and the promotion of Waste Online: (Thames & Hudson, 2005)
sustainability in the fashion industry. The www.wasteonline.org.uk Global Silk Industry: A Complete Source Book
Sustainable Angle presents exhibitions, An overview of recycling with facts, gures, R. Datta and M. Nanavaty (Universal Publishers,
manages an extensive fabric library, and details of what happens to the clothes 2005)
and liaises with the fashion industry on we recycle. Run by Waste Watch. Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice
responsible sourcing strategies. Paul T. Anastas and
Sustainable Apparel Coalition: Man-made bers John D. Warner
www.apparelcoalition.org AFMA (American Fiber Manufacturers (Oxford University Press, 2000)
An international trade federation founded in Association): The Green Imperative
2011 that aims to reduce the environmental http://bersource.com/afma/afma.htm Victor Papanek
and social impact of the fashion industry. BISFA (Bureau International pour la (Thames & Hudson, 1995)
Sustainable Cotton Initiative: Standardisation des Fibres Articielles): Green is the New Black
www.wwfpak.org www.bisfa.org Tamsin Blanchard
The initiative focuses on some of the International association of man-made ber (Hodder & Stoughton, 2007)
most important, and poorest, cotton- producers. Hemp for Victory: History and Qualities of the
producing areas (e.g. Australia, Pakistan, CIRFS (Comit International de la Rayonne et Worlds Most Useful Plant
India, and Central Asia). The Sustainable des Fibres Synthtiques): www.cirfs.org Kenyon Gibson (Whitaker Publishing, 2006)
Cotton Initiative is aimed at reducing European Man-made Fibers Association An Insiders Guide to Cotton and Sustainability,
water use for the irrigation of cotton, while Simon Ferrigno (MCL Global, 2012)
safeguarding the livelihood of the local Further reading Mantero 100 anni di storia e di seta
farmers. As such, the project will contribute Guido Vergani (Fos Editoria e
and exhibitions
to the biological, economic, and social Communicazione, 2002)
The Book of Silk
sustainability of these focal regions. Seven Deadly Colors
Phillipa Scott
Textile Environmental Design (TED): Andrew Parker (Free Press, 2005)
(Thames & Hudson, 1993)
www.tedresearch.net Silk
Chinese Silk: A Cultural History
Chelsea College of Art and Designs Jaques Anquetil
Shelagh Vainker
collaborative projects looking at creating (Flammarion, 1995)
(The British Museum Press, 2004)
textiles with a reduced impact on the Silk
Colour
environment. Mary Schoeser
Edith Anderson Feisner
Textile Exchange: (Yale University Press, 2007)
(Laurence King, 2006)
www.textileexchange.org Small is Beautiful: Economics
Colour
A charitable organization committed to as if People Mattered
Helen Varley, ed.
expanding organic agriculture, with a E. F. Schumacher (Vintage,1973)
(Marshall Editions, 1998)
specic focus on organically grown bers, Sustainable Fashion and Textiles
Colour: A Workshop for Artists
such as cotton. Kate Fletcher (Earthscan Publications, 2008)
and Designers
Vote Hemp: The Sustainable Fashion Handbook, Sandy
David Hornung
www.votehemp.com Black (Thames & Hudson, 2012)
(Laurence King, 2005)
US advocacy group that holds Techno Textiles 2
The Colour Eye
comprehensive information on all aspects Sarah E. Braddock Clarke
Robert Cumming and Tom Porter
of hemp, from legislative and sustainable and Marie OMahony
(BBC Books, 1990)
issues to production and retail information. (Thames & Hudson, 2005)
Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We
World Fair Trade Organization:
Make Things, William McDonough and
www.wfto.com
Michael Braungart (Vintage, 2009)
Global authority on fair trade.
Cotton, Beverly Lemire (Berg, 2011) 251
Cotton: The Biography of a Revolutionary Fibre,
Recycling organizations Stephen Yafa (Penguin, 2006)
Cardato: www.cardato.it
Italian organization for recycled and
Useful information
Breaking: (1) The process of adding a Changeant: Different colors in the warp and Color-way: One of several alternative color
soft hand and brilliance to the surface weft threads produce a fabric that appears combinations.
of silk fabric. to change color depending on the angle it Color wheels: The color spectrum organized
(2) One of several processes in ax is viewed at. Also referred to as two-tone or into wheels to help rationalize and predict
production, which converts the raw material shot fabric. color interactions.
into linen yarn. Chardonnet silk: An early cellulose-based Combing: Process of making bers smooth
Brightening agent: Increases whiteness or articial silk, which was highly ammable. prior to spinning.
brightness of fabric. Charkha (or churka): An Indian precursor to the Comfort stretch: Implies approximately a
British Color Group (BCG): British color cotton gin, used for long-staple cotton but two or three percent stretch in a fabric,
consultancy. not adequate for short-staple varieties. provided by the knit or weave structure,
Broadcloth: A term for fabric over 5 feet Chenille: Yarn or fabric with a furry, velvety or by the inclusion of a spandex yarn.
(1.5 m) wide, cotton or woolen. caterpillar appearance. Commision Internationale de LEclairage
Brocade: Rich fabric with woven raised pattern. Chemical nishes: Treatments applied to fabric (CIE): Founded in 1931 following
Brushed: Fabric with a brushed, raised surface. to give a specialty nish. the exploration of the need for a
Brushing: Process that removes loose bers Chrome dye: Type of dye typically used on wool. standardization of color.
and can raise the surface of the fabric China grass: One of two types of ramie, a bast Como: Italian city and region famous for
for warmth. vegetable ber of the nettle family, also manufacturing silk, and still the center of
Bt cotton: Naturally occurring soil bacterium known as white ramie. the Italian silk industry.
Bacillus thuringiensis. Chinoiserie: Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Complementary hues: Opposite colors on
Burlap: American-English term for jute or hessian. trend inuenced by orientalism. a color wheel.
Chintz: A nishing process on cotton fabric that Composite materials: Engineered materials
C produces a glazed surface. made from two or more constituent
Cable knitting: Knitted three-dimensional Chitin: A natural polymer that can be found in materials with signicantly different physical
twisting effects that mimic ropes. crab shells, among other places. or chemical properties, that remain
Calendering: The process of adding sheen to Chitosan: A ber substance produced from separate and distinct on a macroscopic
fabric using heated steel rotary cylinders. chitin. level within the nished structure.
Canvas work: Form of embroidery that Chroma: The saturation or brightness of a Concession (retail): A dedicated retail space
completely covers the under-fabric. color. The term also denes the purity and within a large department store that is
Carding: Process of brushing raw or washed strength of a color. rented or allocated to a specic brand. This
bers to ensure that they are thinned out Chromatic: Having a hue. gives the brand a retail presence it may not
and evenly distributed to facilitate spinning. Chromatics: The science of color. Chromatics normally be able to obtain.
Carding can also be used to create mixes considers the human perception of color, Condensers: Machines that separate the web
of different bers or of different colors. color theory, and the eyes and brains or batt into predetermined weight strands
Carding machine: A device featuring a series perception of color. as part of the spinning process.
of rollers that straighten and align bers into Chrysalis: Pupa case, the third of four life Contrast: The visual difference between colors.
an orderly mass. See also Carding. stages (embryo/larva/pupa/imago) of the For example black and white are high-
Cash crop: Crops grown for money as silk moth. contrast colors.
opposed to domestic subsistence. Circular knitting: Knitted on a circular machine Converter: A company that buys greige fabric
Cashgora: A blend between cashmere resulting in tubular fabric. then dyes, prints, or nishes it.
and mohair, one of three types of ber Clip: A generic term applied when clipping Cooking: A term in silk processing that refers
produced by nigora goats. or shearing a herd of angora goats. Also to the cocoons being immersed in boiling
Cashmere: The ne, downy undercoat refers to the amount of wool cut from a water to soften the sericin, also referred to
produced primarily, but not exclusively, ock of sheep at one shearing. as maceration.
from the Himalayan mountain goat Closed-loop processing: In textiles, usually Cotton belt: Term used to describe the cotton-
(Capra hircus laniger), popularly known refers to methods of capturing and growing regions of the US.
as the cashmere goat for its ne, downy reprocessing the solvents used in the Cotton count: Numerical expression for size
undercoat. manufacturing of man-made bers. of yarn, denoting a certain length of yarn
Ccara: One of two light wool types of llama. CMYK system: The four-color screen system for a xed weight, in this case the number
See also Curaca. used to reproduce color photographs: of 840-yard lengths or hanks per pound
Cebu hemp: See Manila hemp. cyan, magenta, yellow, black. weight.
Celanese Corporation: The producer of the Cocoon: Pupa casing made by the silk-moth Cotton gin: An abbreviation of cotton engine,
rst commercial acetate yarn, originally larvae. this machine separates the cotton bers
called American Cellulose & Chemical Color Association of the United States from the seedpods. The American inventor
Manufacturing Company; today a global (CAUS): Color standards and forecasting Eli Whitney (17651825) is credited with
chemical company. organization, established in 1915. Its current inventing the modern gin in 1792, patented
Cellulose: This organic compound is the title dates to 1955. in 1794.
primary structure to all green plants, forming Colorant: Dye or pigment coloring substance. Cottonizing: Method of processing linen
the primary cell wall and also part of the Colored angoras: Hybrid angora goats. or hemp bers using cotton processing
secondary wall. Color fade: Loss of color due to light, washing, machinery.
Cellulose bers: Natural and man-made bers or other agencies. Cottonopolis: A term used to describe
regenerated from plants, such as viscose Colorfast: Fabrics dyed in colors that resist Manchester, England, as the most
and modal. fading. important city for cotton manufacturing in
Cellulose I and II: The correct designation for Color harmony: Color relationships in the world in the nineteenth century.
natural and regenerated cellulose. proportion to each other. Cotton picker: A machine used to remove
Chacu: An Inca ritual involving the communal Color Marketing Group (CMG): A color the cotton from the boll without damaging
rounding up of vicua, once every three to forecasting service. the plant. 253
four years, for shearing and releasing back Color migration: Color moves from one part Cotton stripper: A machine that strips the
into the wild. This practice continues today of the fabric to another. entire boll from the cotton plant.
as part of the Peruvian governments vicua Color value: See Value (color).
conservation policy.
Glossary
Counted-thread embroidery: The warp and Denim: A cotton twill-weave fabric where Dye: Pigment dissolved in a uid for dyeing.
weft threads of the base fabric are counted the wefts pass under two or more warps Dyeing: The process of transferring colorant
and bear a relation to how the surface is producing a diagonal rib effect. The fabric to bers, yarns, fabrics, or ready-made
embroidered. was originally called serge de Nmes from garments.
Course: In knitting, the row of loops that runs the French town where it was made. Dye lot: A batch of yarn that has been dyed
across the width of the fabric, equivalent Design repeat: A complete unit of a textile together in the same vat.
to the weft in a woven fabric. design, which may be repeated in one of
Covalent bond: A chemical bond several ways. E
characterized by the sharing of pairs of Devor: A partially sheer fabric containing Egyptian cotton: Gossypium hirsutum and
electrons between atoms forming a polymer. two or more ber types. One of the bers Gossypium barbadense. All cotton grown
Crease-resistant: Fabric that has been treated is eaten away to produce a pattern by in Egypt is called Egyptian cotton, however
to improve its recovery. screen printing with an acid that burns out it is these two cotton species, with an extra-
Creole cotton: Gossypium barbadense, or devours the natural ber to reveal the long staple, that produce the luxury fabric
a luxurious long-staple cotton. sheer synthetic base laments. synonymous with the name.
Crpe: Yarn or fabric with a high twist that has Dhoti: Traditional unstitched cloth garment Elastane: The generic term for stretchy fabrics
a granular texture. worn wrapped around the lower body. and yarns.
Crewel-work: A form of freehand embroidery. Considered authentic formal attire for men Elastic modulus (modulus of elasticity): The
Crimp: A natural or articial wave to the ber in the Indian subcontinent. mathematical description of a substances
or yarn. Direct printing: Commonly used industrial tendency to be deformed elastically (non-
Crocheting: Decorative technique that creates printing method. Dyes, thickeners, and permanently) when a force is applied.
fabric by using a hooked needle to pull mordants are printed directly onto the Elastomer: A rubbery material composed of
loops of yarn through other loops. fabric. polymers, capable of recovering its original
Crocking: A rubbing test for colorfastness. Discharge printing: Color is chemically shape after being stretched.
Cross-dyeing: The dyeing of a component removed from parts of the fabric to reveal Ells: English measuring system from the Tudor
in a mixture of bers where at least one the base color. Alternatively, adding an period, whereby 30 to 40 ells was equal to
is colored separately to produce a additional color that is unaffected by the 35 to 50 yards (32 to 46 m).
mlange effect. discharging agent. Embossing: A relief pattern is embossed onto
Cross-stitch: Style of counted-thread Disperse dyes: Mainly used for polyester, the fabric, usually by a heated press.
embroidery. disperse dyes contain particles that scatter Embroidery: Handicraft surface decoration.
Cuprammonium: A compound composed on the ber to produce the color. Designs are stitched onto fabrics using
of copper sulfate and ammonia used to Distributor: A person or organization involved threads and yarns. Beads, sequins, and
produce cellulose bers such as cupro. in making a product or service available for other applied decorative trimmings can
Cupro: A ber derived from the discarded use by a consumer or other retailer. be embroidered onto the fabric.
linters that are a by-product of processing Double-cloth weaving: Weaving technique Ends: Warp threads.
cotton, frequently used for linings. that creates a fabric with two face or right Enzymes: Proteins that catalyse/accelerate
Curaca: One of two light wool types of llama. sides and no wrong or reverse side. chemical reactions.
See also Ccara. Double face: Any fabric that has two face Eri silk: A type of wild silk gleaned from the
Cured: In the printing process, a term for a sides and no reverse side. eri silk moth.
color that has been xed. Double jersey: All needle rib-knitted fabric Eri silk moth: Philosamia ricini, a type of wild
Cut-and-sewn knitwear: Knitted garments where both the face and reverse side are silk moth found only in India, it feeds on the
made by stitching together preknitted the same. See also Jersey. castor plant and producing silk yarn from
fabric, in much the same way as woven Drape: The behavior of the fabric, how it its cocoon is considered to be ethical and
garments are made. handles, falls, and hangs. equivalent to organic rearing.
Drawing and nisher drawing: Two processes Ester: Any of a class of organic compounds
D that further improve the evenness and that react with water to produce alcohols
Damask: Figured fabric, with the gure (design) regularity of yarn, prior to nal spinning. and organic or inorganic acids.
of a contrasting weave. Usually constructed Each technique gives a uniquely different Extrusion (extruded): Forcing a viscous liquid
with satin-weave warps and wefts in sateen character, in both appearance and feel, to through a device to form lament bers.
weave. Named after Damascus in modern- the fabric and end product.
day Syria. Dreyfus, Camille and Henri: Swiss industrialists; F
Daveo: See Manila hemp. early producers of cellulose acetate yarn. Fabric dyeing: Dyeing process that occurs
Deccan hemp: See Kenaf. Dromedary: Camelus dromedarius, the single- after weaving the fabric. Also known as
De-cortication: The removal of the hard outer humped Arabian camel, not used in the piece dyeing.
bark from plants such as ramie. production of camel-hair ber. See also Face: The correct side of the fabric.
De-gumming: The removal of sericin as part of Bactrian. Fair Isle: A traditional, complex hand-knitting
silk production. In the production of ramie Dry prints: Pigment-printed fabric with colors technique featuring horizontal patterns
it is the process of extracting the bers prior that have been heat-set. using ve to seven different colors, and
to spinning. Ductile: Easily molded or shaped. originating in Fair Isle, north of Scotland.
De-hairing: The removal of coarse outer guard Ductile strength: The mechanical property Fairtrade: An independent labeling scheme,
hairs from the soft under-down of animal describing how much deformation a initiated in the Netherlands for food
bers in preparation for spinning. material can sustain before fracturing. production, it has now been extended
Denier: A unit of measurement used to DuPont: American chemical company to textiles; particularly cotton. The label
measure the linear mass density of bers. founded in 1802. In the twentieth century it assures the consumer that the product has
Several laments together are referred to as led the polymer revolution by developing met the international Fairtrade standard
total denier. The system is used in the US successful materials such neoprene, nylon, for production and is eligible to carry the
254 and Britain for hosiery. LYCRA, and Teon. FAIRTRADE mark, which guarantees that the
farmer has been paid a premium above
the market value of their commodity.
Useful information
Fashioned: In knitting, increasing or Gauge: Describes the neness or chunkiness of Hollow ber: A tube-like man-made ber that
decreasing stitches forms the garment a knitted garment achieved by needle size provides good insulation.
shape. and spacing. Homespun: Cloth woven on a small domestic
Fast (color and light): Does not lose color with Geo textiles: Permeable fabrics that, when scale. The term can also suggest a
exposure to light or after washing. used in association with soil, have the ability desirable rustic craft appearance that
Felt: A nonwoven fabric made by matting and to separate, lter, reinforce, protect, or implies a handmade authenticity.
condensing bers together. drain; usually made from polypropylene or Horsehair: Originally tail and mane hair, now
Felted: A matted appearance. polyester. a generic term for canvas interlining
Felting: Process of making felt. Gin: The building where cotton is processed. generally used in tailoring.
Fiber: A long, thin, exible structure. Plant and See also Cotton gin. Huacaya: Pronounced wuakiya, one of two
animal bers are spun to create yarn. Ginning: Generically implies the complete types of alpaca, producing a dense, soft,
Fibrillation: A natural defect to which silk is process of preparing cotton. sheep-like ber with a uniform crimp. See
prone, and which occurs if the outermost Glazed: Smooth, glossy surface on fabric. also Suri.
layer is roughened up off the laments by GM cotton: Genetically modied or transgenic Huarizo: An alpaca-llama crossbreed.
harsh washing or abrasion. The resulting cotton. Hue: Color. Pure hue has no other color mixed
brils reect light, giving a peach- Grease-wool: The term used to describe wool in with it.
bloom effect. This effect is also purposely before it has been cleaned and scoured, Hydrocarbon: Any chemical compound that
reproduced over the whole surface of also known as wool-in-the-grease. consists of only hydrogen and carbon.
the fabric by scufng with an enzyme Green chemistry: Twelve principles that aim
treatment or mechanical abrasion. The to help dene the true ecological, ethical, I
result is a desirable, tactile, sueded or and sustainable credentials of a raw Icelandic wool (sheep): Wool from the eece
sand-washed silk. material or product. of Icelandic sheep, which is double layered,
Fibrils: Nanometer bers. Green ramie: One of two types of ramie, a made up of ne cashmere-like inner bers
Figure/gured: A motif or raised part of the bast vegetable ber of the nettle family. and coarser, medium outer bers.
design that contrasts with the ground fabric. Greige: Fabric in its raw state, before it has Ikat: A weaving technique where the wefts
Filament: A single, continuous strand of ber. been bleached, dyed, or nished. and/or warps are dyed different colors
Any man-made yarn of one or more strands Ground color: Usually a print term indicating at predetermined intervals. The designs
running the entire length of the yarn. the background or main color of the fabric. produced when using this technique
Fire-retardant: Able to delay or prevent Guanaco: Lama guanicoe, a member of the appear to have a blurred effect.
combustion. South American Camelidae family. Indigo: A naturally derived plant dye still in
Fixing: Method of making a dye colorfast on Guard hairs: Coarser outer hairs that protect popular use for denim products to provide
a fabric by use of a mordant. the ner under-hairs or down on many the distinctive shade of blue that fades
Flax: Linum usitatissimum, an annual herb of animals. desirably.
the Linaceae family used to make linen. Industrial hemp: The term given to the variety
Float: A portion of yarn that extends under or H of hemp (Cannabis sativa L. subsp. sativa)
over adjacent warps or wefts. The term is Hackling: Process by which the short, broken grown for ber and other non-narcotic
also used in knitting when the yarn oats linen bers, or tows, are combed out, purposes.
across several stitches. leaving only the desirable long bers, ready Inert gas: A gas that does not chemically
Fluoropolymer: An organic polymer with large, for spinning. react under a set of given conditions.
multiple-unit molecules that consist of a Hair sheep: A type of sheep that does not Ingeo: A high-performance trademarked
chain of carbon atoms to which uorine produce wool. biopolymer ber made from corn.
atoms are appended. Halo effect: The effect created by the ne Inkjet printing: Droplets of ink are transferred
FTC (Federal Trade Commission): The US downy surface of angora yarn that, in pale or propelled onto almost any medium.
regulatory body for consumer protection, colors, appears slightly luminous in the light. Common means of printing on home
which monitors accurate labeling in Hand: The touch or feeling of the fabric. computer printers.
that country. Hank: Unsupported coil of yarn. The ends are Inlaid yarn: Yarn that is held in place by the
Fulling: A nishing process that compresses tied together to maintain the shape. Also loops of the knitting rather than being
fabric by means of heat, steam, and called a skein. knitted in.
pressure. Hank dyed: Dyed as yarn. Intarsia: A knitted fabric with several solid
Fully fashioned: A term applied to knitwear Header cards: Also known as a fabric colors in one row of knitting. The pattern is
when each piece is knitted to the exact hanger, the header card is a large fabric formed by stopping one color and twisting
shape required by increasing and swatch, or feeler, used for displaying in a new color over the needles each time
decreasing stitches. and demonstrating the quality of a fabric. there is a color change.
Information regarding ber types, yarn Interlining: A rmer fabric that is applied to
G count, width, weight, and nish appear on parts of the outer fabric of a garment
Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand: (1869 the card that supports the swatch. to give a stronger hand or rmer shape,
1948) A major political and spiritual leader Hemp: The generic name for the entire usually on collars and cuffs and chest
of India and its independence movement, Cannabis family of plants. panels in tailoring.
commonly known as Mahatma (Great Soul). Henduan: A breed of yak from the alpine International Color Authority (ICA): Color
He exhorted Indians, both rich and poor, regions of Tibet, producing the best ber prediction organization.
to spin khadi (homemade cloth) in support yield. See also Jiulong. Isan: Northeastern area of Thailand where ikat
of the independence movement, which High-tenacity rayon (HTR): An extremely strong weaving is traditionally a specialty.
resulted in a boycott of British textiles. rayon developed in the 1940s for industrial Itten wheel: Color wheel devised by Johannes
Gang-slit: One of several slitting processes in purposes. Itten (18881967) to document a logical
the production of metallic yarn, producing High-wet-modulus rayon (HWM): A strong format for working with color.
micro-width yarns. rayon that retains its strength when wet, 255
Garment dyeing: Dyeing ready-made developed in the 1950s.
garments. Himalayan mountain goat: Capra hircus
laniger, popularly known as the cashmere
goat.
Glossary
J L Loop-back fabric: Type of pile-woven fabric,
Jacquard: A type of weaving or knitting Lab dips: Small pieces of yarn windings or with the loops left intact.
process and a type of fabric. In woven fabric swatches sample dyed for approval Luminosity: Refers to color value. The lighter
fabric the process allows for an unlimited prior to larger dye lots and bulk production a color the greater is the reection of light
variety of designs, in knitwear it implies that dyeing. back to the eye. Lighter colors are therefore
every color of yarn used is knitted into the Lace: Fabric or trim made up of intertwined or more luminous than darker colors.
back of the fabric when not in use on the embroidered threads. LUREX: The brand name of a type of metallic
face side. Lam: Fabric woven with metal laminate, often yarn, usually a synthetic ber, with a vaporized
Jacquard loom: Developed by French inventor gold in color. layer of aluminum. The term may also refer to
Joseph Jacquard (17521834), the loom Lamination (1): Part of a manufacturing fabric that contains metallic yarn.
features a string of punch cards that can process to produce metallic yarn; the LYCRA: A trade name for a spandex fabric
be processed mechanically in the correct process seals a metal layer between two made by DuPont and now produced by
sequence. layers of a selected ber. INVISTA.
Jamewar weave: An intricate Kashmir weaving Lamination fabrics (2): Bonding or sealing two Lyon: French city and region famous for
technique producing expensive shawl or more fabrics together. manufacturing silk, and still the center of the
fabrics worn, originally, by nobles. Lanolin: Produced from wool grease. Medical- French silk industry.
Japonisme: Eighteenth- and nineteenth- grade lanolin is hypoallergenic and
century trend inuenced by orientalism. bacteriostatic. M
Jersey: Generically used to describe many Lanuda: One of two heavy wool types of Maceration: See Cooking.
types of knitted fabric. Single jersey is plain llama. See also tapada. Machine embroidery: Automated
knit on one side and purl on the reverse Layout: The placement of garment pattern embroidery.
and is used for tops. Double jersey is plain pieces onto the laid fabric in the most Macram: Fabric created by the interlinking
on both sides and can be double in weight. economical format prior to cutting. In mass of knots.
It does not unravel when cut so is ne for production, this process is usually executed Manila hemp: Also known as daveo and cebu
cutting and sewing more complicated styles. by computer. hemp and produced from the leaves of the
Jiulong: A breed of yak from the plateau LEA: A US measuring system for grading the abac plant.
regions of Tibet, producing the best ber. neness of linen Manufacturing hub: Describes an important
See also Henduan. 1 LEA = 1 x 300 yards (yarn) center of manufacturing, and is often used
Johnstons of Elgin: The oldest cashmere mill to the pound weight. in reference to the developing world.
still in operation, located in Elgin, Scotland. Lead time: The amount of time it takes to Margin: A gross margin implies the difference
JIT (just-in-time): A production strategy aimed manufacture fabric and or garments and between buying and selling a product
at reducing stock by manufacturing only the delivery transport time. before overheads have been deducted.
when necessary. Lehnga: Long skirt and top traditionally worn by Net margin is the prot after overheads
Jute: A coarse, strong, bast vegetable ber. Muslim women in India and Pakistan. have been deducted.
Light wheel: Based on the additive color Marl yarns: Two different-colored yarns twisted
K system, this wheel shows information together.
Kapok: Vegetable seed ber from the concerning light rays and transparent color. Mashru: Meaning permitted, a fabric
kapok tree. Used for lighting and as the basis for video development using silk warps and cotton
Karakul: Also known as Persian lamb, this sheep and computer graphics. wefts, which allowed Muslim men to wear silk.
has a tight glossy curl, often in black or gray. Lignin: A chemical compound commonly Mauvine: First synthetic dye, discovered
Kasuri: Japanese type of ikat weave. derived from wood and an integral part of in1856 by William Perkins.
Kemps: Short, thick, coarse, stiff, hollow bers the cell walls of plants. Medulated bers: Intermediate bers on an
on coarser wools, such as those of angora Linear polymer: A polymer in which the angora goat, less coarse than the kemp
goats, usually unaffected by dye. molecules form long chains without bers but coarser than the true mohair bers.
Kenaf: A species of hibiscus with visual branches or cross-linking; all ber-forming Mlange: A mix of colors worked together in
similarities to jute. polymers are linear in structure. yarn or fabric form.
Keratin: Animal protein found in wool, hair, Linen Board: Established in 1711, The Board Mercerized cotton: See Mercerizing.
nails, feathers, and horn. of Trustees of the Linen Manufacturers of Mercerizing: A caustic soda solution is applied
Khadi: Indian hand-spun, hand-woven cloth Ireland was set up to develop the Irish linen to cotton yarn and/or fabric to give it a
made from cotton, silk or wool, traditionally industry. more lustrous and smoother appearance.
spun on a domestic spinning wheel called Linenopolis: A term used to describe Belfast in Named after John Mercer who invented the
a charkha. the nineteenth century. technique in the mid-nineteenth century.
Khadi hand-loom: Indian hand-spun, hand- Linen union: Fabric with a linen weft and a Merino: A distinctive breed of sheep originating
woven cloth of either cotton, silk, or wool. cotton warp. in Spain but now the source of the bulk of
Kimono: Traditional Japanese costume made Lint: Cleaned cotton. Also describes a fuzzy Australian wool production. A luxury wool.
from silk. surface. Linen is lint-free. Meta-aramid: One of two aromatic
King Cotton: A term used to describe the Linters: Fuzzy down removed from cotton as polyamide bers (the other is para-aramid),
nancial importance of cotton production to part of the ginning process. primarily used for re-protective clothing.
the US economy in the nineteenth century. Living Linen Project: Records rst-hand Metallic yarns: Yarns containing metal threads
Knitting: Method of constructing fabric from information about the linen industry in or metallic elements.
yarn by a series of interlinked loops. Refers Northern Ireland in the twentieth century. Microber: Fine man-made ber or lament
to hand and machine techniques. Llama ber (or llama wool): Referred to as that is under 1 denier.
Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann (1818 ber because, technically, llama hair is not Micronaire: A system for assessing cotton ber
1884): German chemist credited with the wool due to its particular structure. neness and maturity. A poor count affects
understanding of synthesis in the context Lofty (or loft): Descriptive of the appearance the value of the cotton.
256 of a chemically developed substance. of woolen ber or fabric, meaning Microns: Unit of measurement, one micron is
voluminous, supple, soft, and springy. one-millionth of a meter.
Long-line bers: One of two categories of ax Mill: The place where yarn and fabric are
ber, the short bers are called tow bers. manufactured.
Useful information
Milled: Fabric that has been treated to age or Needle lace: Handmade lace using a needle Over-dye: To apply the same or different dye
soften its appearance, or to blend colors where all the stitch work is based on color as a second process over the initial
together. buttonhole or blanket stitch. dyeing. Can be used to produce a deeper
Milling: A treatment that ages and softens Needlepoint: A form of canvas-work intensity of color, to correct or darken an
the appearance of fabric by blending the embroidery. unwanted color instead of stripping, or be
colors, obscuring the weave, and making Neoprene: A synthetic rubber. applied over an existing printed fabric.
the fabric more compact. Neps: Entangled bers or knots. Over-print: An additional design or motif
Modal: Generic name for regenerated natural Nettle: A bast ber. printed over an existing all-over print.
polymer cellulose ber. New Zealand cotton: Fiber from the bast of
Module builder: Machine that compresses the New Zealand ribbon tree. It has a strong P
cotton into large modular blocks. ber that resembles ax. Paco vicua: A vicuaalpaca crossbreed.
Mohair: The eece of the angora goat and New Zealand ax: Phormium tenax, or Pantone Professional System: An international
fabric produced from it. harakeke in Maori, native of New Zealand color matching and referencing system.
Moir fabric: Fabric with a watery, wavy, or and not related to linen ax, Linum Para-aramid: One of two aromatic polyamide
rippled appearance. Usually silk or rayon. usitatissimum. bers (the other is meta-aramid). Weight-
Molecule: The smallest identiable unit into Nieuwland, Julius (18781936): Belgian-born for-weight, para-aramid bers are stronger
which a material can be divided and American chemist whose research led to than steel.
still retain the composition and chemical the invention of neoprene. Partitive color: The process of placing colors
properties of that material. A molecule must Nigora: A cross between an angora goat and next to each other in order to produce
contain two or more atoms held together cashmere-producing Nigerian dwarf goat. different reactions.
by a chemical bond. The ber it produces is known as cashgora. Pashmina: A Kashmiri word for shawls made
Mommes: System of weight measurement Nitinol: A nickeltitanium alloy distinguished by of cashmere. The term is derived from the
for silk, quantifying the density of silk as its shape memory: if deformed while below Persian word pasham, meaning goat wool.
opposed to the thread count. a particular temperature, an object made Pattern cutting: The art or science of
Monochromatic: Of one hue or color. One of Nitinol will return to its original shape interpreting a drawing or design into a two-
hue harmony combines colors derived when heated. dimensional pattern, which when translated
from a single hue, graduated shades of the Nm: Metric measuring system used for linen/ into fabric and sewn together becomes
same base color. axthe number of 1,000-meter lengths a three-dimensional representation of the
Monomer: A molecule that can bind per kilogram. original design drawing.
chemically to other molecules to form a Noils: Short bers left over from combing wool Payen, Anselme (17951878): French chemist
polymer. The word comes from the Greek or spinning silk. These bers are weaker than who discovered cellulose in the 1830s.
mono for one and meros for part. normal bers and considered inferior. Peace silk: Refers to silk that has been
Mordant: Chemical compound used as Nylon: The rst synthetic ber from the produced without harming the moth that
a dye xative. DuPont chemical company, used as a has produced the silk cocoon. The moth
Mordant printing: A design pattern is printed replacement for silk for stockings during is allowed to emerge naturally, before the
using a mordant that resists color when the Second World War. It is also a generic cocoons are harvested. Also known as
dyed, thus forming the pattern. term for synthetic polymers also known as vegetarian silk.
Moso bamboo: Phyllostachys, the species of polyamides. Pectin: Light substance derived from the cell
bamboo cultivated for textile production. walls of plants (the nonwoody parts). Pectin
Muga silk: A variety of wild silk gleaned from O helps to bind cells together.
the muga silk moth. Off-grain: The garment pattern pieces are not Percale: Denotes a close weave, high thread
Muga silk moth: Antheraea assamensis, a wild correctly placed on the straight grain of the count, irrespective of yarn type.
and semi-wild species of silk moth living in a fabric (unless bias cut). Perlon: Trade name for a German polyamide
restricted area in Assam, India. Offshore: A term used to describe developed as a competitor to the
Mulberry silkworm: See Silkworm. manufacturing in a foreign country; it American nylon in the build-up to World
Multivoltine: Term applied to silk moths that usually implies production in the developing War II. Because Perlons monomer unit has
produce at least ten batches of eggs world. six carbon atoms, Perlon is also referred to
per year. Oiled wool: Undyed, unscoured wool as nylon 6, as opposed to nylon 6,6 for the
Munsell wheel: A partitive color system based containing natural lanolin. original version.
on ve primary hues and after-image Oiling (cloth): Water-repelling treatment Peruvian alpaca: Alpaca marketed with its
perceptions that are derived from hues applied to fabric. own distinctive branding.
we see in nature. Olen ber: A man-made ber known for Petit point: A form of canvas-work embroidery.
Muted color: A subdued version of a hue. strength and resistance to staining, mildew, Phloem: Living plant tissue that carries nutrients.
abrasion, and sunlight. See also Bast bers.
N One-way fabric: Implies the fabric has a single Photosynthesis: The process by which green
Napa (or nappa): Sheep leather. direction and that all the pattern pieces plants use carbon dioxide, water, and
Narrow fabric: Fabric less than 18 inches (45 must be cut in the same direction to avoid sunlight to produce sugars.
cm)wide (UK) or 12 inches (30 cm) wide noticeable shading. Picker: A machine that beats, loosens, and
(Europe/USA). Organic cotton: Cotton grown without mixes cotton bers.
Naturally colored cotton: Cotton that is pesticides from plants that are not Picks: Weft threads.
naturally plant pigmented. Peruvian Pima genetically modied. Piece: A complete or full length of fabric,
and Tangis cottons are naturally colored. Organzine: Twisted threads used as warps in which may be in the form of a bolt or a roll.
Natural polymer: See Polymer. the silk weaving process. Piece dyeing: See Fabric dyeing.
Natural protein ber: See Protein ber. Orientalism: A generic term applied to trends Pigment: Insoluble color.
Natural resin: A viscous liquid substance, and fashions inspired by oriental art and Pigment print: Printed with pigment and binder
formed by hydrocarbon-based plant culture. rather than dyes.
257
secretions, that hardens over time. Resins Oshima: A Japanese type of ikat weave. Pigment wheel: A 12-step color wheel for
are usually transparent or translucent, and working with subtractive color, showing how
they are typically soluble but not in water. colors react when used in combinations to
create the other hues.
Glossary
Pile fabric: Generic term for a raised surface Production run: The total number of garments Rippling: A process in the production of ax
fabric, such as velvet or corduroy. of a style that is manufactured at one time. bers for making linen, entailing the removal
Pile weaving: Weaving technique that uses The number of pieces given as an order to of the seeds by a mechanical process.
rods to make loops on the surface of the a factory. Rhm, Otto (18761939): German scientist
resulting fabric. The loops can be cut to Protein ber: Animal hair/wool or silk. whose doctorial publication on the polymers
create pile fabric, or left intact to create Pupa: An insect between the usually passive of acrylic esters spurred understanding of
loop-back fabric. stage of larva and adulthood. the practical potential of acrylics.
Pill or pilling: Entangled bers after washing or Pure dye silk: Indicates that weighting was not Rolag: A loose roll of bers produced by
wearing form little balls known as pills. added to silk at the dyeing stage. carding.
Pima cotton: Indigenous American long-staple Pure new wool: See Virgin wool. Roller printing: Commercial printing using
cotton (Gossypium barbadense) named Purl knit: The reverse side of basic jersey, the engraved rollers to transfer color and design
after North American Pima Indians . face side is known as plain. onto fabric.
Pia: Fibers obtained from the leaves of the Pygora: A cross between an angora goat and Roundup Ready: A registered trademark for
pineapple plant. a cashmere-producing pygmy goat. a quality of GM cotton.
Pia cloth: Fabric woven from pia bers. Roves: Continuous lengths of ber ready
Plain knit: The face side of basic jersey, the Q for spinning.
reverse side is known as purl. QC: Quality control of fabric and clothing Roving: A long narrow bundle of bers with a
Plain weave: A basic weave construction of manufacturing. slight twist to hold it together.
warps and wefts crisscrossing each other Qiviut (or qivent): The under-wool of a musk Ruff: Item of clothing worn around the neck,
at right angles. ox, Ovibos moschatus, whose habitat is usually of linen. Prominent in Europe from the
Ply: Two or more single yarns twisted together. the Arctic regions of Canada, Alaska, and mid-sixteenth to mid-seventeenth centuries.
Polyamide: Any synthetic polymer that Greenland. Run (print): A complete, continuous length of
consists of amides (nitrogen-containing Quilting: A method of stitching a layer of fabric printed fabric.
compounds) joined by peptide bonds to a layer of insulative batting, commonly in
(chemical bonds between groups of amino diamond patterns, but often with decorative S
acids, which are the primary linkage of all stitch patterns. This produces a light and Samite: A heavy silk fabric woven with gold and
protein structures). warm material, often used for linings. silver threads, worn by individuals of high
Polyester: Generic name for synthetic status, that originated in early Byzantium and
polymers. R has also been found in medieval Italy and
Polyethylene: One of two polymers used to Rafa palms: Used to make rafa fabric. along the Silk Road in Persia.
make olen bers, polyethylene is the most Raker: A component design line in an Sand-washed silk: Silk fabric washed with sand
common plastic and is usually used to Argyle design. or other abrasive materials to scuff the
make ropes and utility fabrics. Rambouillet or French merino: A cross surface and produce a tactile, suede-like
Polyethylene terephthalate: Synthetic polymer between a Spanish merino and an hand and peach-bloom appearance.
used to make polyester and PET (the stiff, English long-wool sheep, originally bred Sari: Traditional Indian womens costume.
transparent plastic usually used at Rambouillet, near Paris, France. Sassanid Persia: The last pre-Islamic Persian
for containers). Ramie: (Boehmeria nivea) a bast vegetable Empire, which lasted from the third century
Polymer: A substance composed of molecules ber of the nettle family. See also China CE to the seventh century CE.
with a large molecular mass linked by grass and Green ramie. Sateen: Satin-weave fabric with a polished
repeated structural units or monomers. Raw silk: The short bers left over from sheen to the face side.
It can be naturally occurring or have a spinning silk. Sateen weave: A weave construction with the
synthetic substance. DNA and plastics are Rayon: A manufactured, regenerated maximum amount of wefts on the face of
well-known examples. cellulose ber. The name was rst used in the fabric, achieving a soft touch and a
Polymerization: Any chemical process in which the US in 1924, in Europe it was referred to smooth nish.
monomers are fused to create longer as art silk, because it was an inexpensive Satin weave: A weave construction with the
polymer chains. alternative to real silk. It cannot be dissolved maximum amount of warps on the face
Polypropylene: One of two polymers used to naturally and therefore needs to be of the fabric, achieving a at, smooth
make olen bers, polypropylene is often chemically processed, then regenerated and lustrous nish. Satin weave is not to be
used to make clothing and furnishing fabrics. by extrusion into a lament yarn. The rst confused with satin, which, while of a satin
Polyurethane: A polymer used to make viscose yarn was produced from wood pulp weave construction, refers to the fabric itself.
spandex as well as many types of exible in the early twentieth century. Saturation: The purity or intensity of a
and rigid foam. Reactive dyes: Dyes used primarily on specic color.
Prato: An important center for the Italian wool cellulose and protein bers. SCOTDIC (Standard Color of Textile
industry, near Florence in Italy. Reeling: Process of extracting the silk lament Dictionnaire Internationale de la Couleur):
Premire Vision: A biannual fabric trade fair in from the silkworms cocoon. A worldwide color codication system for
Paris, France, and also at other international Repeat: One complete unit of a design, either fabric. The system is applicable to polyester,
venues. printed or woven. cotton, and wool. The coding denes hues,
Pre-shrunk: Fabric that has been shrunk at the Resist dyeing: Generic term for the different value, and chroma for thousands of colors.
weaving mill and should not shrink further. methods of patterning fabric by preventing Head ofce in Kyoto, Japan.
Primary colors: Red, yellow, and blue, the dye reaching certain parts of it. Scouring: Removal of natural fats, oils, and dirt
three colors that cannot be made from Retting: Process used on all bast vegetable from a yarn, giving fullness to the ber and
other colors. bers to separate the ber from the bulking up the fabric.
Primary triad: The three primary colors. plants stalk. Scutchers: See Scutching.
Print run: In textile printing, a term that usually Reversible: Fabric that can be used either Scutching: Process of separating brous stalks
refers to the amount of fabric to be printed side up, or a style of garment that can from the woody stems of bast bers using
258 but may also refer to the time frame. be turned inside out. metal rollers.
Process wheel: A 12-step process for the three Ribs: Usually on the waist and cuffs of a Sea Island cotton: Gossypium barbadense, a
basic primaries that when mixed result in sweater for better elasticity and closer t. luxurious long-staple cotton.
purer hues. May also be used as an all-over knit effect.
Useful information
Seam turnings: Seams, once sewn together Skein: Coiled yarn with tied ends to keep higher the gure the ner the yarn. Ideal for
and turned inward to face the inside of the shape. good tailoring.
the garment. Skirted: Angora bers when clean, with all Supply chain: All the separate disciplines,
Secondary colors: The colors that result from stains removed. services, and people involved in processing
mixing two primary colors. The secondary Slivers: (Pronounced sly-vers) untwisted ropes a product from concept to retail.
colors are green, orange, and violet. of bers. Suri: Pronounced sooree, one of two types of
Secondary triad: The three secondary colors. Smocking: Decorative stitch-work or alpaca. They have silky, pencil-ne, mop-
Seed cotton: Precleaned cotton. i.e., before embroidery technique used to gather and like locks. See also Huacaya.
the harvested cotton has gone through the hold fabric together. See also Hank. Synthetics: Man-made bers derived from
ginning process. Space dyeing: Dyeing technique. Colors petrochemicals (which may be produced
Selvage: The rm side edges of the fabric are applied at random or regular intervals in staple or lament yarns). Not to be
running parallel to the warp. along the yarn, creating a random confused with articial bers (part natural
Sericin: A water-soluble protective gum multicolor effect when woven or knitted. and part synthetic), which are chemically
produced from the glands of the silkworm. Spandex: Generic term for stretch fabrics and treated cellulose derivatives.
Sericulture: The process of breeding and yarns, used in North America. Synthetic resin: Class of synthetic products
cultivating silk moths. Spinneret (1): Openings in the silkworms head developed to mimic some of the physical
Shalwar kameez: Traditional dress worn, that secrete the protective sericin gum. properties of natural resin.
principally, by Muslim women in Spinneret (2): Multi-holed device used to
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and extrude viscous polymer lament bers. T
Afghanistan. Shalwars are loose pyjama-like Spinning (1): The singular specic process of Taffeta: A ne, plain, tightly woven silk cloth,
trousers; a kameez is a long shirt or tunic. applying twist to yarn. with a dry hand and crispy rustle.
Sharara: Traditional Muslim womens garment Spinning (2): Manufacturing process used in Tailoring: The art or craft of cutting and sewing
popularized in India since the time of the producing polymer lament bers, in which together a garment to a high standard and
Mughal invasion. they are extruded through a spinneret. incorporating a high level of labor content.
Sharecropping: In agriculture, a landowner Spinning frame: An eighteenth-century Tamponing: An even lm of oil is applied to silk
gives a share of the prots to a tenant who invention often credited to Richard Arkwright fabric to smooth out irregularities.
works the land. In particular applied to (17331792), however others developed Tangis cotton: Variety of cotton grown
black farmers (ex-slaves) in the US working the invention while under his employment. primarily in Peru, often organically. Some
on white-owned cotton plantations after the It was later developed into the water species are naturally colored.
American Civil War. frame (patented 1769) increasing textile Tapada: One of two heavy wool types of
Shatoosh: A shawl made from the down of production and producing stronger threads llama. See also lanuda.
the chiru or Tibetan antelope, Pantholopas than the earlier spinning jenny. Tapestry weaving: Vertical loom-weaving
hodgsonii. Spinning jenny: A multiple yarn-spinning technique, sometimes called weft-faced
Shearing: The process of removing the eece machine invented by James Hargreaves weaving because all the warps are hidden.
of a sheep or other ber-producing animal (17201778) in Lancashire, England, in Target consumer: Marketing term implying an
in one piece. 1764 (patented 1770). It enabled the ideal prole customer.
Shetland sheep: Of Scandinavian origin, with a spinning of eight and later up to 80 yarns Tassah moths (also tassar): Antheraea mylitta
eece featuring distinctive ne bers. simultaneously. Considered a factor in and Antheraea proylei, wild and semi-wild
Shoddy: Recycled or re-manufactured wool starting the British Industrial Revolution. It was silk moths respectively.
made by tearing apart existing wool fabric named after his daughter. Technical fabric: Manufactured to perform
and re-spinning it. Spinning process: A generic term for several certain functions.
Shot: Fabric that appears to change color separate processes, including carding, Technologist: An expert in all aspects of
when viewed from different directions. combing, drawing, and spinning. either garment or fabric construction,
Shous: Woody stems prior to their separation Spiraling: Knitted fabric distortion. manufacturing, and quality issues.
from the brous part of the stalk in Staple: Quanties textile ber characteristics Tensile strength: Measures the stress required
processing bast bers. of length, quality, and grade. to pull something to its breaking point.
Shuttle: A weaving tool designed to store and Staple ber: Fiber of nite length. Tertiary colors: The colors that result when a
pass weft yarns back and forth through the Stitches: Individual linked loops that form primary and an adjacent secondary color
shed (space between two warps) in order to the fabric. are mixed together.
weave in the wefts. Stock houses: Wholesale companies that hold Terylene: A trade name for a polyester ber.
Silk moth: The cultivated silk moth, Bombyx stock fabrics from a variety of sources, Tex: An international system of measurement
mori, feeds on the leaves of the mulberry with the advantage of dealing in smaller used to measure the linear mass density
tree and is blind and ightless. Silk is quantities than placing an order directly of bers.
harvested from the cocoon of the caterpillar. with a mill. Thorn proofs: Generic term for different types
Silk noil: See Raw silk. Striation: One of a number of parallel grooves of strong, durable fabrics traditionally used
Silk Road: Ancient trade routes connecting or ridges. for outdoor pursuits. Often produced from
China with Asia Minor and the Strike-off: Preliminary small-print sample for Cheviot wools or New Zealand crossbred
Mediterranean. approval of color and print. wools. A hard twisted yarn produces a rm-
Silk-screen printing: Technique using a screen Stripping: Removal of unwanted color from touch fabric that feels almost indestructible.
and ink to print a design, by hand or printed fabric. Thread count: A measure that determines the
mechanized. Synthetics are now used for Subtractive color: A method of creating colors coarseness or neness of fabric, achieved
the screens. based on pigments or dyes from natural by counting the number of threads
Silkworm: The larva or caterpillar of Bombyx or chemical sources. The colors mix by contained in one square inch of fabric,
mori, the cultivated silk moth that feeds absorbing some wavelengths of light and including warps and wefts.
exclusively on mulberry leaves. reecting others. Threader: A machine-feeding device used
Single coat: Implies there are no guard hairs Sunn: A variety of hemp produced in India and in the production of silk lament. 259
in the coat of the animal. also known as Bombay hemp. Throwing: Applying a twist to silk lament.
Single jersey: Plain knit on the face side and Super 100s: An international system that Thrown threads: The different types of thread
purl on the reverse. See also Jersey. identies a range of ne worsted fabrics produced by throwing silk.
from Super 100s through to Super 210s, the
Glossary
Tie-dyeing: Process of tying, knotting, or stitching Leonardo da Vinci, whose understanding of Worsted count: Yarns are bought and sold by
a design on fabric prior to dyeing, then complementary colors greatly inuenced weight rather than length. The relationship
releasing after dyeing to reveal a pattern. Renaissance painting. between the weight of yarn and its length
Tone: Variously describes a colors lightness, is expressed in terms of numbers or count,
value, brilliance, grayness, and luminosity. W which also indicates the diameter or
Top-stitching: Refers to the visible optional Wales: (1) Columns of loops that run along the thickness of the yarn.
stitching on a garment as opposed to length of the fabric. (2) Raised ridges or ribs The count refers to the number of hanks
the functional stitching that holds the that run vertically down corduroy, parallel to each measuring 560 yards (512 m) that
garment together. the selvage. The wider the wales, the lower weigh 1 pound (454 g). To convert worsted
Tow: Mass of man-made laments without the numerical expression, and vice versa. count to a metric count, multiply the length
twist. In the production of linen, tow also The number of wales that t into one inch by 1.129. For example, a 1/15 worsted count
describes one of two categories of ax (2.5 cm) is the wale count. Twenty-one-wale becomes a 1/17 metric (or Nm) count.
ber. Tow bers are short, whereas the long corduroy implies there are 21 wales per inch. Worsted spun yarn: Yarn that has been
bers are called long-line bers. Warp: The yarns that run the length of the carded, drawn and combed.
Trade fairs: Where manufacturers of yarn, fabric, top to bottom.
fabric, or clothing assemble together to Waterproof: Completely resistant to water X
showcase and sell new developments. penetration. Xanthation: One of several processes used to
Trade name: A specic brand. Water-repellent: Partially water-resistant. make rayon bers from cellulose.
Triadic hues: Any three equidistant colors on Water-resistant: Resists but does not entirely
the color spectrum when congured as a prevent the absorption of water. Y
circle of hues. Waxing: Impregnating fabric with wax to make Yak: Bos grunniens, a generally domesticated
Tri-blended: Three different types of ber it shower-proof beast of burden living on the Tibetan
blended together. Weaving: The process of interweaving warp plateaus that is also used for ber.
Trimmings: A generic term used to describe and weft threads to make fabric. Yamami silk moth: Believed to be an
any number of functional components Web: Single or multiple sheets of bers partway indigenous species to Japan.
used on a garment, such as buttons and through the spinning process, also known Yarn: A continuous length of interlocked bers
zippers, as well as decorative accessories as a batt. with or without twist.
such as braids. Weft: The yarns that run across the fabric, Yarn count: Numerical expression for size of
Tussah silk: The most common variety of wild selvage to selvage. yarn, denoting a certain length of yarn for
silk, harvested from tassah moths. Weighting: The application of metallic salts to a xed weight. The higher the count, the
Tuxing: The process of separating the outer silk fabric prior to dyeing and nishing. During ner the yarn.
and inner sheaths of leaves to reach the silk processing the bers are de-gummed of Yarn dyeing: Yarn is dyed before being woven
bers that run through them. their natural sericin gum that gives the fabric or knitted into a fabric.
Twill weave: A weave construction resulting in a a stiff and papery feel. The loss of mass that Yolk: The grease on the eece of an
visual diagonal line effect. occurs during this process is restored by the angora goat.
Twist: A spiral formation applied to bers during application of metallic salts to add back
the spinning proccess to give additional body, luster, and physical weight. Z
strength and which allows for different Wet prints: Fabrics colored by dyes (which are Zari (or Jari or Zardozi): Gold or silver
colors and bers to be twisted together soluble), not pigments (which are not soluble). supplementary threadwork, used mainly
for visual and tactile effect. The term also White collar: Ofce work. in India and Pakistan.
describes the direction in which the yarn is White ramie: See China grass. Zentai: Skintight clothing that covers the entire
spun (S or Z twist). Wick: The process of evaporating away body. The word is a portmanteau of zenshin
Two-way fabric: Fabric that can be cut with moisture and perspiration. taitsu, a Japanese term implying full body
the pattern pieces in either direction without Wild silks: These are characterized by a rough, covering.
compromising the end product slubby appearance that differs in color from
farmed silk. The cocoons are damaged
U by the emerging moth eating its way out.
USP: Unique selling point, a marketing term. Winnowing: A method of separating the
grain from the chaff sometimes used in
V processing ax.
Value (color): A colors luminosity and clarity. Wool blends: A mixture of different wools and/
Vat: A dyeing vessel. or other bers.
Vat dyes: Common cotton dyes. Wool classes: Classications that grade the
Vicua: Vicugna vicugna, the smallest of the quality of wool bers. Diameter of ber,
South American camelid family. Garments nesse, crimp, ber length, cleanliness,
and fabrics made from vicua bers should color, breed of sheep, and end purpose of
be registered by the Peruvian government, the wool are taken into consideration
which is the only international body Woolen or Wool count: Refers to yarns spun
recognized for the task, and assures the on the woolen systemthe number of 256-
conservation of the animal. yard (512-m) strands to 1 pound (454 g).
Virgin Wool or pure new wool: The wool Woolen spun yarn: Yarn that has been carded
product has been produced from bers and drawn but not combed.
that have not been previously processed. Woolmark: A registered mark used for branding
Viscose bamboo: See Bamboo viscose. different types of Australian wool, used as a
Viscous: Describes a thick or sticky liquid with means of guaranteeing a standard of quality.
260 resistance to ow. Wool sheep: The type of sheep used for wool
Visual wheel: A 16-step partitive and production
subtractive color wheel created by
Useful information
261
Glossary
262
Index/Credits/Acknowledgments
wledgments
Useful information
Index
Page numbers in italic refer to illustration bimli/bimlipatum jute 172 Chulalongkorn, king of Thailand 111
captions bio-engineered bers see under articial bers CIE (Commission Internationale de LEclairage) 53
Bioceat 214 cir 164
abac/abak (Manila hemp) 171, 178, 178 biodegradable fabrics 10, 152, 172, 177, 208, cloqu 122, 162
acetate 183, 185, 214, 21516 223, 224, 227, 229, 244 closed-loop-processing 176, 208, 222, 222, 226
Acrilan 10, 199, 199 Biophyl 228 Club Masters of Linen 134
acrylic bers 31, 64, 183, 186, 199201 biotechnology 153, 227 CMG (Colour Marketing Group) 52
adire technique 34 bleget (Shetland wool color) 79 coal 10, 182, 185, 186, 195, 200, 244
agents 237, 245, 246 blended yarns 14 coffee grounds 193, 193
airtex 162, 209 blowing 43 see also steaming Collins, Arnold 208
Alcantara 188, 191 bluesign system 193, 2401 Color Association of the United States (CAUS) 52
algae 167 Bollgard 153 Colour Group of Great Britain 52
alpacas/alpaca ber 13, 19, 87, 88, 889, 89 Bombay hemp 172 Colour Marketing Group see CMG
alternative plant bers 16683 bonding 43, 146 color theory 458
alum 35 boucl 14, 53, 74, 189, 190 color-ways 23, 238
ambary/ambari hemp 172 Boyer, Robert 230 colorfast fabrics 31, 33, 34, 35, 136, 203
angora goats 87, 94, 96, 98 brightening agents 43 color(s) 4559
see also cashmere; mohair brocade 19, 20, 109, 110, 111, 122, 122, 210 achromatic 54
angora rabbits/ber 87, 102, 1023, 103 Brummell, George Bryan (Beau) 131 additive system 46, 48
anti-soiling fabrics 43, 187, 227 brushed fabrics 43, 74, 165 analogous 46
anti-static fabrics 129, 152, 168, 174, 223 Burberry trench coats 16, 17 associations 45, 49, 51
antibacterial fabrics 43, 67, 77, 176, 222, burlap 168 blue color palette 59
223, 225, 233 burn out see devore chroma 54
appliqu 42, 42, 179 chromatic 54
aramid bers (aromatic polyamides) calendering 43, 120 CMYK system 54
183, 1978 calico 165 co-primary triads 54
Ariaprene 208, 208, 209, 209 Calico Printers Association 189 color wheels 46, 47, 478, 48
Arnel 214, 216 Calvert, Frank 230 combining 53
articial bers 10, 16, 183, 21233 camelids 8891 complementary 46, 47, 48
bio-engineered bers 182, 183, 22733 camels/camel hair 87, 92, 923, 93 contrast 54
cellulose bers 14, 152, 182, 183, 21327 canvas 16, 165, 170, 171 cool colors 49
dened 182, 213 carding 13, 13 forecasting 52, 245
ecological considerations 152, 214, 216, cotton 148, 149 green color palette 57
218, 221, 224, 227, 229, 231 wool 63, 68, 69, 71, 85 grey color palette 54
ber properties 215, 216, 218, 222, 223, Carothers, Wallace 186, 189, 194 ground color 38
2245, 225, 228, 231, 232 casein 232 half tone 38
history 214, 21516, 21718, 221, 228, 230 cashgora ber 99 harmony 54
production 21516, 218, 221, 226, 227, cashmere 22, 87, 94, 946, 95, 99, 125 language of 514
229, 231, 232 castor bean ber 183, 233, 233 and light 45, 48, 523
sustainability considerations 152, 214, 216, ccara ber (llama) 90 luminosity 46
220, 221, 222, 224, 227, 229, 231 cebu hemp 171, 178 matching 52, 523
Audemars, Georges 217 Celanese Corporation 214, 215, 216 monochromatic 46, 54
Australian cashmere goats 99 CELC see Confderation of Europenne morphing 120
Azlon bers 227, 230 du Lin et du Chanvre muted 54, 79
cellulose acetate see acetate neutral 54
bactrian camels 87, 92 cellulose bers 14, 149, 152, 167, 168, 176, palettes 54, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59
bamboo ber 174, 1747, 175, 176, 177 177 see also under articial bers partitive system 46, 48
bamboo kun/kuhn 174, 177 chacu (vicua conservation) 91 pastels 54
bamboo linen 176 challis 74 perception of 49
bamboo rayon/viscose 175, 176 chambray 165, 165, 221 pink color palette 58
banana ber 173, 173, 178, 178 Chardonnet silk 217 primary 46, 47, 48
barathea 72 charkhas/churkas 144, 145, 145 primary triads 54
bashofu (banana ber) 173 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 96 red color palette 58
bast bers 136, 140, 167, 16873, 175, charmeuse 125 samples 238
176, 178 cheesecloth 165 saturation 46, 51
batik 33, 33, 36 chemical nishes 43, 118, 146, 151, 162 secondary 46, 47, 48
batiste 163 chenille 14, 162 secondary triads 54
batting 42, 143, 190 Cheviots fabric 72 shades 54
Bayer, Otto 205 chiffon 16, 114, 117, 124, 124 simultaneous contrast 50, 51
Beadle, Clayton 218 China grass 169 subtractive system 46, 47, 48
Bedford cord 18, 162 Chinon 232 tertiary 46, 47
Bemberg 152, 217 chintz 164 tints 54
bergello 41 chitin 222, 222 tones 51, 54
Better Cotton Initiative 239, 2401 chitosan 222, 223 trends 51
Bevan, Edward 218 chromatics 45 triadic 46
bias cutting 21, 75, 179 chromotherapy 54 value 46 263
Index
visible spectrum 45, 456, 47 Courtelle 199 dye lots 31, 238
warm colors 49 Cradle to Cradle 2401 ecological considerations 34, 52, 79, 137,
warm/cool 49 crease-resistant fabrics 43, 97, 118, 154, 155, 203, 222, 224
white color palette 56 195, 200 fabric-dyeing (piece-dyeing) 31, 32, 32,
yellow color palette 57 Creora 205 118, 119
see also hue crpe fugitive colors 35
combing 13 silk 117, 118, 125 garment dyeing 334, 165
cashmere 96 wool 74, 74 hank-dyeing 35
cotton 148, 149 yarn 14, 117 lab dips 31, 32, 32
wool 68, 69, 71, 85 crpe de Chine 117, 125, 125, 217 matches 35
Commision Internationale de LEclairage crpon 162 off-shades 35
see CIE Creslan 199 ombre effect 35
composite materials 168 crimp 14, 66, 67, 76, 187 over-dyeing 34, 115, 162
Confderation of Europenne du Lin et crinkle fabric 156, 162 piece-dyeing see fabric-dyeing
du Chanvre (CELC) 134, 135 crocheting 16, 27, 27 reactive dyes 34, 35
converters 32, 113, 222, 224, 237, 245 Crommelin, Louis 133 resist dyeing 21, 33, 334, 37, 38
CORDURA 194, 196, 196 Cross, Charles 218 shading 35
corduroy 18, 21, 53, 162 cuprammonium process 152, 217, 218 space dyeing 111
corn ber 183, 228, 2289 cupro ber 152, 153, 213, 218 strike-offs 35
cost considerations 38, 65, 158, 189, 238, curaca ber (llama) 90 stripping 34
244, 246 cut pile fabrics 21 tendering 35
cotton 63, 64, 14265 Cyanamid 199 tie-dyeing 21, 34, 34
American cotton 144, 145, 146, 146, 148, vat dyes 35
150, 151 DACRON 10, 188, 189 yarn-dyeing 31, 118, 119
bolls 143, 143, 147, 147, 149, 155, 213 damask 122, 131 see also batik; ikat technique; mordants
Bt cotton 153 daveo hemp 171, 178 Dynel 200
carding 148, 149 Dawson, Joseph 96
classication 148, 149 de-gumming 117, 118, 119, 121, 169 easy-care fabrics 43, 64, 113, 132, 188, 195,
combing 148, 149 de-hairing 91, 93, 96, 100 199, 199
cotton lisle 152 deccan hemp 172 Eco- ber 192
Creole cotton 150 Decitex 191 Ecodear 228
cultivation 147, 147, 148 denier 22, 191, 201 ecological considerations 10, 52, 238,
ecological considerations 152, 1536, 155, denim 16, 43, 132, 143, 143, 153, 160, 162, 2403, 244
159, 160 165, 172 alternative plant bers 168, 169, 171, 172,
Egyptian cotton 145, 150, 151, 176 Denim by Premire Vision fabric trade fair 247 173, 175, 177
ethical considerations 153, 156, 1578, design process 6, 8, 237, 245, 246 articial bers 152, 214, 216, 218, 221, 224,
158, 159, 159, 160, 246 design product management 245, 246 227, 229, 231
fabrics 1625 Despeissis, Louis-Henri 217 cotton 152, 1536, 155, 159, 160
Fairtrade 156, 158, 15860, 160 devor 38, 39, 39 dyeing 34, 52, 79, 137, 155, 203, 222, 224
Filo Di Scozia cotton 152 dhotis 145, 145 linen 137, 140
genetically-modied (GM) 153, 154, 160 Dickson, James Tennant 189 luxury animal bers 89, 90
harvesting 148, 149 Dietrich, Marlene 152 man-made bers 182, 183
history and geography 1436 distributors 246 silk 112, 121
lint cotton 148, 149 dogtooth designs see hounds-tooth designs synthetic bers 188, 192, 192, 197, 201,
linters 148, 149, 152, 213, 213, 214, 216, 218 Donegal tweed 72, 73 203, 209
luxury types 1502 double face fabrics 19, 19 wool 77, 79, 84, 188
Madras cotton 165 DPF (denier per lament) 22 see also sustainability considerations
market 146, 182 Dralon 199, 201 eesit (Shetland wool color) 79
measuring 149 drape of fabric 16, 21, 238 elastomers/elastomeric yarns 164, 204, 204,
mercerized 151, 152 Dreyfus, Camille and Henri 215 205, 209 see also spandex
naturally-colored 149, 155, 1556, 156 drill 165 elephant cord 18
organic 153, 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 160, dromedaries (camels) 92 Elizabeth I, queen of England 108, 170
160, 223 duchesse 118, 122, 123, 123 embroidery 402, 130, 135
Pakucho cotton 149, 156 duck 165 canvas work 41
Pima cotton 150, 151, 155 dupion 123 counted-thread 41
processing 149 DuPont 170, 189, 192, 195, 197, 198, 199, 201, crewel-work 40
production 143, 144 203, 205, 208, 216 cross stitch 41
recycled 153 dyeing 315, 245 drawn-thread work 28, 130, 135
Sea Island cotton 150, 151 acid dyes 35 freehand 40
seed cotton 149, 149 aniline dyes 35 jari embroidery 210
spinning 148, 149 azo/azoic dyes 35, 52 machine 42
sustainability considerations 152, 153, 154, basic dyes 35 smocking 41, 41
158, 158, 160 batch dyeing 35 Zari/Zardozi embroidery 210
Tangis cotton 151, 155 bleeding 35 see also appliqu; quilting
transitional 160 changeant technique 35, 105 emerized fabrics 43
see also cupro ber; denim chrome dyes 35 Empedocles 45
cotton gins 144, 148 continuous dyeing 35 emsket (Shetland wool color) 79
Cotton Incorporated 153 dip dyeing 31, 32, 33 environmental considerations
cotton system (spinning) 14 direct dyes 35 see ecological considerations
264 cottonizing 139, 171 disperse dyes 35, 216
Useful information
enzymes 43, 118, 132, 138, 140, 173, 176, goats/goat ber 87, 949 jersey 15, 22, 22, 24, 32, 125, 150, 175, 190
227, 231 see also cashmere; mohair JIT (just-in-time) production 38
ESPA 205 golden eeces 87, 87 jiulong yaks 100
ethical considerations 238, 244 GORE-TEX 194, 195, 195 jobbers 237
alternative plant bers 171, 175 grain of fabric 21 John Smedley Mill, Derbyshire 144
cotton 153, 156, 1578, 158, 159, 159, green chemistry 239, 244 Johnstons of Elgin 95, 96
160, 246 Greenl 233, 233 jumbo cord 18
silk 52, 121 greige (undyed) 32 jute 168, 169
wool 77, 84 guanacos/guanaco ber 87, 91
see also Fairtrade Guanqi Li 230 kapok 114
ethical trading 159, 160 karakul (Persian lamb) 66, 81
European Confederation of Linen and Hemp habotai 117, 124, 124 katazome 33
see Confderation of Europenne du Lin halo effect (angora) 102, 103, 103 kenaf 172
et du Chanvre handle of fabric 21, 70, 129, 238 Kevlar 189, 197, 198
Expol trade fair 247 Hanford, William 205 khadi cloth 110, 145, 145
hanks 14, 69, 141 King Cotton 145, 170
Fabric at Magic fabric trade fair 247 Harris tweed 72, 72, 73 knitting/knitwear 16, 224, 245
fabric construction techniques 1630, 245, 246 header cards 237, 239 Aran knitwear 23, 23, 66, 66, 103
fabric direction 16, 18, 35, 238 Hearst, William Randolph 170 Argyle (Argyll) knitwear 23, 23
face (of fabrics) 16, 18, 19, 19, 21, 22, 24 hemp 167, 168, 170, 1702, 171, 223 cable knitting 24
Fairtrade standards 156, 158, 15860, 160, henduan yaks 100 circular knitting 24
239, 2401 Henry IV, king of England 108 course 24
fashion industry 23647 Herodotus 144 cut-and-sew knitwear 24
felt/felting 16, 25, 256, 26, 63 herringbone designs 16, 17, 72, 73 double jersey 24
ber designation codes 228, 239 hessian 168 Fair Isle knitwear 23, 23, 84
berll see batting Hikota, Dr Toyohiko 191 fully-fashioned knitwear 20, 22, 23
bers 13 Himalayan mountain goat 94 gauge 22
laments 14, 116, 187, 187, 190 Holmes, Donald 205 inlaid yarn 24
nishing processes 43, 118, 120, 245 hopsack 73, 165 intarsia technique 23, 23
re-retardant fabrics 43, 67, 118, 154 hounds-tooth designs 16, 17, 73, 73 Jacquard technique 24, 24
ame-resistant fabrics see re retardant fabrics Hsi-Ling, Lady 105 jersey 24
annel 16, 70, 74, 75 huacaya ber (alpaca) 88, 89 lace knitting 29
annelette 162 huarizo ber (alpaca) 89 plain stitch 22, 24
ax 136, 136 hue 46, 47, 48, 54 plated knitting 24
cottonizing 139 Huguenots 108, 133 purl stitch 22, 24
cultivation 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, hypoallergenic fabrics 89, 152, 209, 216, 223 single jersey 24
1389, 140 stiitches 22, 24
drafting 138, 140 ICA (International Color Authority) 52 tuck stitch 24
hackling 138, 140 Idea Como fabric trade fair 247 welt 24
harvesting 138, 139 ikat technique 21, 21, 34, 111, 111 Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann 185
retting 138, 140 importers 237 Kwolek, Stephanie 197
rippling 138, 139 indigo 35, 165, 165
scutching 138, 139 Indigo trade fair 247 lace-making 16, 289, 29, 130, 131, 135
threshing 13, 138, 140 industrial hemp 170, 172 bobbin lace 29, 29, 130
tow 138, 139 Industrial Revolution 31, 64, 108, 131, 134, cutwork lace 29
see also linen 144, 155 lace knitting 29
Flemish linen 130, 134 Ingeo yarns 228, 229 machine-made lace 29
Ford, Henry 230 inlaid yarn 24 needle lace 29, 130
fossil fuels 182, 183, 186, 229, 233 insulative fabrics 25, 42, 63, 66, 74, 95, 114, tatting 29
see also coal; oil; petroleum 201, 202, 209 Lactron 228
fulling 25 intarsia technique 23, 23 lam 210
Future Fabrics Expo textile fair 237 Intercot trade fair 247 lamination 146, 195, 196, 209, 211
International Color Authority see ICA Lanatil 232
gabardine 16, 72, 165 International Wool Textile Organization see IWTO lanolin 23, 66, 67
gamme 54 internet 237 lanuda ber (llama) 90
Gandhi, Mahatma 121, 145, 145 Interstoff fabric trade fairs 247 laser cutting and engraving 39, 39, 211
garment technology 245, 246 Intertextile fabric trade fair 247 latex 204, 205, 208, 208, 233
gauze 117, 124, 163 INVISTA 195, 196, 205 lawn 164
gazar 124, 125 Irish linen 133, 1334 LEA (linen measurement) 141
genetically-modied (GM) plant bers 153, Irish Linen Guild 133, 134 LEACRIL 199
154, 160, 229, 240 Italian linen 135 lead times 31, 38, 238
geo textiles 168, 201 Itten color wheel 47, 47 leaf bers 1789
georgette 74, 124, 132 IWTO (International Wool Textile Organization) Lenpur 232, 232
gingham 165 83, 84, 2401 Lenzing AG 176, 221, 222, 224, 224
ginning 144, 148, 149 Leonardo da Vinci 48, 117
Glen Urquhart check 72, 73 Jacquard, Joseph 20, 108 light and color 45, 48, 523
Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) Jacquard technique 18, 20, 20, 24, 24, 40, lignin 168, 218, 227
225, 2401 108, 122, 122, 133 linear polyamides see nylon
Global Recycle Standard 2401 Jaeger, Dr Gustave 77 Linel 205
GM see genetically-modied plant bers Japantex fabric trade fair 247 linen 28, 12841, 167 265
Index
bleaching 129, 133, 136 moir 123, 123, 215 Plastiloid 214
ecological considerations 137, 140 moisture-absorbent fabric 67, 129, 143, 174, ply 14, 15
fabric properties 129 189, 193, 214, 216, 225, 231 polyalkene 201
ber properties 136 moleskin 162 polyamides 170, 183, 1947, 207
nishing 136 mommes (silk measurement) 117 see also nylon
history and geography 12935 moodboards 53, 237 polyamides, aromatic see aramid bers
lace/lace-making 28, 28, 130, 131, 135 mordants 34, 35, 118 polyester 64, 82, 154, 183, 186, 186, 188,
market 135 Moroccan fabric 74 18893, 189, 200
measuring 136 moso bamboo 174, 175 polyethylene 183, 201, 202, 203
production 13841 mousseline 74 polymers/polymerization 183, 185, 186, 1867,
spinning 134, 138, 141 mungo 81 187, 189, 190, 197, 203
staple 136 Munsell color wheel 48, 48 polyolen bers see olen bers
synthetic 129 musk ox see qiviut polypropylene 183, 201, 202, 203
see also ax muslin 163 polyurethane 183, 2047, 205, 209
Linen Board, Ireland 134 poplin 132, 163, 165
linseed see ax nanobers 188, 191, 193 Prato Expo fabric trade fair 247
lisle (cotton) 152 Nanofront 188, 191 pre-shrunk fabrics 43, 112, 147
Litrax-1 bamboo 176 nap of fabric 21 Premire Vision fabric trade fair 52, 237, 247
Living Linen Project, Ireland 134 napa/nappa (sheep leather) 67 pressing 120, 136
llamas/llama ber 14, 87, 90, 90 Natta, Giulio 201, 203 Prince of Wales check 72, 73
Loden fabric 25, 74, 74 NatureWorks 228 printing techniques 369
loop-back fabrics 18, 22 needlepoint 41 devore 38, 39, 39
loop pile fabrics 21 neoprene 208, 208, 209, 209 digital 38, 39, 49
Louis XI, king of France 108 nettle ber 167, 169, 172, 172 discharge 38
LUREX 65, 69, 210, 211 Newton, Sir Isaac 45 dry prints 37
luxury animal bers 86103 Nieuwland, Julius 208 ock 38
LYCRA 65, 164, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209 nigora goats 87, 99 glitter 38
lyocell bers 176, 177, 183, 218, 2207 noils 13, 115 hand-block 36, 36
LZR Racer swimsuit 206, 206 Nomex 196, 197 heat-transfer 37
nylon 10, 112, 183, 185, 186, 189, 194, metallic 38
macram 16, 30, 30 1947, 206 mordant 38
Made-By 2401 nylons (stockings) 112, 112, 185, 186, 194, over-printing 38
make do and mend ethos 85 195, 197 pigment 38
man-made bers 182, 1823 see also articial placement 38, 38
bers; synthetic bers OE standards 239, 2423 print runs 37, 238
Manila hemp 171, 178 Oeko-Tex Standards 175, 183, 2423 rollers 37, 38
manufacturing 245, 246 oil 10, 182, 185, 186, 189, 200, 210, 214, 244 rotary-screen 37
marl yarns 14, 15 oiled nishes 43, 146 silk-screen 36, 36, 37, 37
mashru cloth 110 Okamoto, Dr Miyoshi 191 transfer 37, 38
mauvine dye 31 olen bers 183, 2013 wet prints 37
Maxwell, James Clerk 46 organdie 151 Printsource trade fair 247
Mazzucchelli, Santino 214, 215 Organic Content Standards (OCS) 2423 process color wheel 47
mlange fabrics 13, 14, 15, 69, 190 Organic Exchange see OE standards ProModal 224
melton fabric 74, 75 organic bers 84, 153, 153, 154, 156, 158, PTFE (polytetrauoroethylene) 195
Mercer, John 151 159, 160, 160 puppy-tooth designs 73
mercerizing 43, 151, 152 organza 16, 117, 124, 200, 203 pygora goats 87, 99
meta-aramid bers 197, 198 organzine 117
metallic yarns 14, 70, 70, 89, 122, 122, 183, Orlon 10, 199 qiviut 101, 101
210, 21011, 211 QMilch 232
metallizing 211 paco vicuas 91 quality control (QC) 245, 246
Metlon metallic yarns 211 Panama fabric 73 quilting 42, 42, 114, 190
microbers 10, 188, 191, 204 Pantone Professional System 53
micronaires (cotton measurement) 149 para-aramid bers 197, 198 rabbits see angora rabbits
microns 65, 68, 76, 90, 97, 99, 136 pashmina shawls 94 rafa 178, 178, 179
microsuede 190 pattern cutting 158, 229, 245, 246 Rama V, king of Thailand 111
milk ber 183 Payen, Anselm 214 ramie 169, 169
milk ber (casein) 232, 232, 233 peau de soie 123 rayon 18, 112, 122, 132, 154, 162, 164, 167,
Milkol 232 Perlon 185, 194 170, 173, 175, 185, 206, 214, 217, 217 see
Milkotton 232 Persian lamb 66, 81 also lyocell bers
Milkwood 232 Peru Moda trade fair 247 recycling
mill washing 43 PET (polyethylene terephthalate) 189, 192, 239 natural bers 81, 85, 85, 115, 153
milling (fabric treatment) 43 petit point 41 synthetic bers 191, 192, 192, 193, 195,
mills 43, 237, 238, 245 petroleum 35, 185, 188, 189, 195, 209 197, 203, 208, 208, 209
minimums (fabric orders) 238 piece of fabric 21 see also up-cycling
Moda in Tessuto e Accesori fabric trade fair 247 pigment color wheel 47, 47 repeats 38
Modacrylic bers 183, 200 pigments 31, 45, 47 repp 165
Modal 183, 221, 224 pia cloth 178 retting 138, 140, 168, 173
Modatisimo fabric trade fair 247 piqu/piquette 156 reversible fabric 21, 122
moget (Shetland wool color) 79 Pitti Imagine Filati trade fair 247 rice paste 33, 33
266 mohair 75, 87, 968, 97, 98, 99, 99, 102, 103 plaids see tartans
Useful information
ripstop nylon 194, 196, 196 maceration (cooking) 117, 119 steaming 120, 136, 201
Rhm, Otto 199 market 112, 113 stem bers 174, 175
roketsuzome 33 measuring 117 stock houses 237
Roundup Ready 153 mudmee 111 stockings 98, 112, 112, 152, 185, 186, 194,
roves 138, 140 muga silk 121 195, 197, 215
rovings 14, 68, 148, 149 noils 115 stretch fabrics 204, 205
ruffs 130, 131 peace silk 119, 121 Suncoco metallic yarns 211
runs of fabric 38 pressing 120 Sunn hemp 172
production 10511, 11620, 121 Supima 151, 151, 176
S twist 14, 15 pure dye silk 118 suppliers 32, 237, 245, 246
sales process 245, 246 raw silk 106, 107, 108, 109, 112, 115, supply chains 159, 240, 245
samite 210 115, 117 surface decoration 3642
sample lengths 238 recycled 115 suri ber (alpaca) 88, 89
samples/sampling 31, 237, 238, 245, 246 reeling 105, 117, 119 sustainability considerations 10, 237, 238, 244
saris 110, 110 sand-washing 113, 113 alternative plant bers 167, 168, 169, 169,
sateen 18, 72, 164 spider silk 115 172, 173, 174, 175, 175, 177
satin 16, 18, 20, 53, 123, 125, 164 spinning 117, 119 articial bers 152, 214, 216, 220, 221, 222,
S.Caf yarn 188, 193 sueding 112 224, 227, 229, 231
Schweizer, Eduard 217 synthetic 105, 109, 112 cotton 152, 153, 154, 158, 158, 160
SCOTDIC (Standard Color of Textile Dictionnaire tamponing 120 man-made bers 182
Internationale de la Couleur) 53 throwing 117, 119 synthetic bers 188, 192, 197, 201, 203, 209
Seacell 183, 221, 225, 225 tram 117 swatches 238
seasonal industrial process 245 tussah silk 115, 121, 123, 168 synthetic bers 10, 13, 183, 184211
seaweed 221, 225, 225 weighting 118 dened 182, 185
seersucker 162 wild silk 106, 114, 121, 123 ecological considerations 188, 192, 192,
SEF 200 The Silk Road 1068, 107, 109, 111, 210 197, 201, 203, 209
selvages 18, 21 silkworms/silk moths 1056, 107, 111, 114, ber properties 187, 189, 195, 198, 200,
serge 16, 72 11617, 119, 121 202, 205, 205, 209, 211
sericulture 105, 1067, 109, 111, 11620, 121 Bombyx mori 106, 114, 116, 116, 119 history 1856, 189, 194, 197, 199, 201, 205,
Setilithe 214 eri silk moths 121 208, 210
shaela (Shetland wool color) 79 muga silk moths 121 linen 129
Shanghai Tenbro 174, 177 tassah/tassar silk moths 121 market 186
shantung 111, 123 Thai silk moths 121 production 185, 187, 190, 197, 198, 201,
shatoosh shawls 102 yamami silk moth 109 203, 207, 209, 211
sheep Singtex 193, 193 recycling 191, 192, 192, 193, 195, 197,
ecological/ethical considerations 84 Sirikit, queen of Thailand 111 203, 208, 208, 209
French merino 79 skeget (Shetland wool color) 79 silk 105, 109, 112
hair sheep 67 skeins 14 spinning 185, 187, 187, 190, 198, 201, 207
Icelandic 81 skjuret (Shetland wool color) 79 sustainability considerations 188, 192, 197,
Karakul 81 slivers 140, 140, 148, 149 201, 203, 209
merino 64, 76, 76, 77, 82 smocking 41, 41 wool 64, 65, 67
Rambouillet sheep 79 Soil Association 241, 2423 synthetic rubber 183, 2089
shearing 68 Sorona 188, 192, 228
Shetland 79 sourcing fabrics 2379 TACTEL 194, 195, 197
Wensleydale 63 soybean ber 183, 230, 2301, 231 taffeta 16, 118, 123, 124
wool sheep 67 SOYSILK 230 tailoring 246
see also wool spandex 204 14, 29, 183, 189, 204, 2057, 206, tapada ber (llama) 90
shibori 105 207 target customers 84, 150, 238
Shinawatra, Thaksin 111 spider silk 115 tartans 16, 73, 73
Shivers, Joseph 205 spinnerets Tattersall check 73, 73
shoddy (recycled wool) 85, 85 articial ber production 216, 217, 218, technology 10, 65, 138, 174, 191, 245, 246
shot fabrics 35, 105 227, 228, 232 see also biotechnology
shower-proong 43 plant ber production 152, 176 Technora 197
silk 13, 10425, 152 in silkworms 116, 187 Teijin 191, 191, 192, 192
Ahimsa peace silk 121 synthetic ber production 185, 187, 187, 190, Teijinconex 197
art (articial) silk 112, 152, 185, 217, 218 197, 198, 201, 203, 207 TENCEL 176, 183, 221, 221, 222, 223, 224,
bleaching 117, 118 spinning 14, 245 224, 226
breaking 117, 120 cotton 148, 149 Terylene 10, 64, 88, 189
calendering 120 linen 134, 138, 141 testing 83, 175, 183, 206, 238
care 120 synthetic bers 185, 187, 187, 190, 198, Tex 22
de-gumming 117, 118, 119, 121 201, 207 Texbridge fabric trade fair 247
ecological considerations 112, 121 wool 63, 64, 68, 68, 6970 textile certicates 2403
eri silk 52, 121 spinning frames 14, 144 Texworld fabric trade fairs 247
ethical considerations 52, 121 spinning Jenny 144 thermo-regulating fabric 92, 137, 207, 233
fabrics 1225 Sportswool 67 Thinsulate 201, 202
ber properties 114 Standard Color of Textile Dictionnaire Thompson, Jim 111, 111
brillated silk 112 Internationale de la Couleur see SCOTDIC Tibetan antelopes/antelope ber 102
nishing 118, 120 standards 53, 82, 83, 121, 175, 183, 193, 225, ticking 165
history and geography 10513 239, 2403 see also Fairtrade toile 165
lustering 120, 122 Staudinger, Professor Dr Hermann 185 Toray Industries Japan 191 267
Index
tow 14, 190 wool 13, 6285
trade fairs 72, 237, 237, 245, 246 Botany wool 78
Trevira PES bers 186 carding 63, 68, 69, 71, 85
triacetate 183, 214, 216 classication 65, 68, 76
Tricel 214, 216 combing 68, 69, 71
Triexta bers 192 crimp 66, 67, 76
tsutsugaki 33 drawing/nisher drawing 68, 68, 69
tulle 124, 124, 141, 188 ecological/ethical considerations 77, 79,
Turkish Fashion Fabrics fabric trade fair 247 84, 188
Twaron 197 fabrics 725
tweed 17, 53, 69, 70, 701, 72, 72, 73, 75, 162 ber properties 667, 67
twill 16, 16, 17, 72, 72, 73, 118, 165, 165 grease-wool 68
cavalry twill 16, 72 history 635
left-hand/right hand 21 homespun 64
twist 14, 15, 69, 70 Icelandic wool 81
Tyvek 201, 202, 202, 203 karakul (Persian lamb) 66, 81
lambswool 68, 76
Ultrasuede 188, 191 market/marketing 823, 182
union fabric 21, 134 measuring 65, 68, 76
up-cycling 17, 28, 41, 161, 188, 203, 206 merino 25, 64, 66, 67, 769, 78, 82, 82, 176
USPs (unique selling points) 84, 150 Mongolian wool 79
UV-resistant fabrics 168, 176, 193, 228, 231 organic 84
production 6875
valenki 25 recycled 81, 85, 85
Vaucanson, Jacques de 108 resilience 67
velour 162 scouring 68
velvet 18, 19, 21, 53, 113, 122, 162, 179 Shetland wool 23, 79, 80
velveteen 162 spinning 63, 64, 68, 68, 6970
Venetian fabric 72 staple 76
Verel 200 synthetic 64, 65, 67
vicuas/vicua ber 87, 91 terminology 81
viscose 217, 218 see also bamboo rayon/ underwear 77, 77
viscose; viscose rayon woollen spun yarn 70
viscose rayon 217 see also rayon Woolmark 82, 83
visual color wheel 48, 48 worsted 71, 71
voile 163 worsted spun yarn 71, 74
yarn count 69
wales 16, 18 see also knitting; sheep
warp threads 15, 16, 16, 18 Woolmark 82, 83
Washington, George 170 wrinkle-free fabrics see crease-resistant fabrics
water-repellant/resistant fabrics 16, 43, 66, 67,
146, 195, 195 yaks/yak hair 87, 100, 100
wax yarn count 15, 141
as a nish 43, 146 Yarn Expo trade fair 247
in resist dyeing 33, 33, 38 yarns 13
weaving/weaves 15, 1621, 245 yuzen 33
basket weave 16, 179
double-cloth weaving 19, 19 Z twist 15
jamawar weave 110 Zentai clothing 204, 204
kasuri weaving 21 zero-waste pattern-cutting 158, 229
oshima weaving 21 Ziegler, Karl 201, 203
pile weaving 18
plain weave 16, 16, 20, 165
sateen weaves 18, 72
satin weaves 16, 18, 20, 164
taffeta weaves 16
tapestry weaving 20
weft-faced weaving 20
weft threads 15, 16, 16, 18
welt (knitwear) 24
Whineld, John Rex 189
White, Jim 201
Whitney, Eli 144
wicking properties 67, 97, 174, 191, 200, 201,
206, 207, 214, 216
WINDSTOPPER 195
WIO see IWTO
Wonderland exhibition, 2008 10
wood 167, 168, 213, 213, 214, 218, 220, 221,
268 224, 226
Useful information
Photo credits
Cover Courtesy Yiqing Yin, photo by Laurence courtesy Anne Wilson, Rhona Hoffman Gallery, (bottom right) handwoven silk scarf by Sallie
Laborie; p.8 Amanda Johnston & Myka Chicago and Paul Kotula Projects, Detroit, Temple, photograph by Paul Crossman; all
Baum; p.9 courtesy Somarta, Art Direction & design by Anne Wilson 2008 Topologies, other photos Myka Baum; p.57 fashion shots
CG by SOMA Design, photo by Misuaki detail 2002-08, lace, threads, insect pins, wood clockwise from top left, courtesy Blow PR,
Koshizuka (MOREVISION), hair by Jun support; p.30 courtesy James Long, design by Bora Aksu, photograph by Ian Gillett;
Matsumoto (tsuji management), make-up by photograph by Chris Moore; p.31 courtesy green nude photograph by Fagner Bibiano,
Mariko Tagayashi (M.A.C); p.11 courtesy Helen Ta-ste, fashion by www.ta-ste.com - Tanja www.fagnerbibiano.com; canvas tent detail
Storey, Wonderland: Disappearing Dresses, a Steuer, photo by www.franziskapruetz.com - photograph by Georgina McNamara; all
work in progress by artist/designer Helen Storey, Franziska Prtz, make-up: www.juliaprimus.com other photos Myka Baum; p.58 fashion shots
London College of Fashion, scientist Tony Ryan, - Julia Primus, model: Jenny Feuerstein;p.32 clockwise from top left, courtesy Blow PR,
University of Shefeld and in association with (top) istockphoto/DesignGeek-1, (centre) design by Ashish, photograph by Ian Gillett;
Interface, University of Ulster, 29/01/08, Myka Baum, (bottom left) shutterstock/paul courtesy Blow PR, design by Manish Arora,
photograph Alex Maguire; p.12 Myka prescott, (bottom right) istockphoto/ photograph by Yannis Vlamos; courtesy Pavel
Baum; p.13 photos Myka Baum; p.14 (top) mandygodbehear; p.33 (top) courtesy Kamila Ivancic, www.muset.cz; cochineal color eri silk
istockphoto/tankbmb, (centre) istockphoto/ Gawronska-Kasperska, www.kamilagawronska. scarves courtesy Sabahar Ethiopia, photograph
danishkhan, (bottom left and right) courtesy com, photo by Bartek Sejwa, http://sejwa.com, by Sabahar Addis Ababa; all other photos
Doris & Walter Van Buskirk, Lightfoot Farms LLC, model: Victoria Evseeva(bottom left) courtesy Myka Baum; p.59 fashion shots clockwise
Kennebunk, Maine, Alpaca Breeders; p.15 Isabella Whitworth, (bottom right) shutterstock/ from top left, courtesy Kostas Murkudis,
courtesy Julien David, photo Yannis Vlamos; Imagemaker; p.34 courtesy Isabella Whitworth; photograph by Fergus Padel, styling by Jodie
p.16 all photos Myka Baum; p.17 (top left) p.35 catwalking.com; p.36 (top left and Barnes; courtesy Maurizio Galante, photograph
courtesy Blow PR, design by Ashish, photograph bottom left) Pete Loud, (top) courtesy by Jean-Louis Coulombel; courtesy Noir A/S,
by Ian Gillett, (top right) courtesy Derek Lam, Undercover - Jun Takahashi, (bottom) photograph by Marc Hom; all others Myka
photograph by Dan Lecca, (centre left) courtesy Ioannis Dimitrousis, photograph by Baum; p.62 Myka Baum; p.63 courtesy
courtesy Linton Tweeds Ltd, www.lintondirect. catwalking.com; p.37 (top) courtesy Angelika Werth; p.64 Advertising Archives; p.65
com, (centre right) Myka Baum, (bottom) Screencraft Speciality Printing, (centre and Myka Baum; p.66 (left top and bottom)
courtesy GARYHARVEYCREATIVE, photograph by bottom) courtesy Print House Inc. www. photos Myka Baum, (right) catwalking.com,
Robert Decelis, model: Tabitha Hall at Models1; printhouse.org, photograph by Aleta Reese; design by Natalie Jacobs; p.67 (left top and
p.18 all photos Myka Baum; p.19 (top) p.38 Myka Baum; p.39 (top) AFP/Getty bottom) courtesy Australian Wool Innovation
courtesy Ioannis Dimitrousis, photograph by Images, ( bottom left) courtesy Hayley Cheal, Limited, (right) Myka Baum; p.68 (top)
catwalking.com, (centre) photograph courtesy (bottom centre) catwalking.com, (bottom right) courtesy Doris & Walter Van Buskirk, Lightfoot
of Gloverall, (bottom) courtesy of Gloverall, courtesy Kamila Gawronska-Kasperska, www. Farms LLC, Kennebunk, Maine, Alpaca
photograph by L.A. Litcheld; p.20 courtesy kamilagawronska.com; p.40 (left) courtesy Blow Breeders, (bottom) Myka Baum; p.69 V&A
CELC Masters of Linen, Confdration PR, design by Ashish, photograph by Ian Gillett, images, Victoria and Albert Museum; p.70 (top)
Europnne du Lin et du Chanvre; (right) (right) courtesy Colette Vermeulen, photo by courtesy Michael Angel, photo by Christopher
courtesy Alexander McQueen, S/S 2007, Saty and Pratha, model: Brynja at Next, Styling: Katke, (centre) courtesy Kostas Murkudis ,
photograph by Chris Moore; p.21 courtesy Chad Burton, Hair byTomohiro, Muramtsu, photograph by Fergus Padel, styling by Jodie
Tamerlanes Daughters, photograph by Philip make up by Masato Inoue; p.41(top) courtesy Barnes, (right) Rodin Banica; p.71 (top)
James; p.22 all photos Myka Baum; p.23 (top Josep Font, Couture A/W 08/09, (left) courtesy courtesy Nicholas K., (bottom left) courtesy Kris
left) courtesy SANS, photograph by Uli Holz Rachael Cassar, photograph by Jessica Van Assche, photograph by Gaetan Bernard,
www.ulihoz.com, makeup and hair by Kristin Cassar, (bottom) courtesy Carta e Costura, (bottom right) courtesy Blow PR, design by
Hilton www.kristin-hilton.com, model: Megi photo by Max Botticelli; p.42 (top) courtesy Edward Sexton, photograph by Ian Gillett; p.72
Xhidra at Fusion Models NYC, (bottom left) Vivienne Westwood, S/S 09 Do It Yourself, (top) Getty Images; (bottom left and right)
Myka Baum, (top right) Paul Harness, design (bottom) courtesy Julien David, photo by Yannis Myka Baum; p.73 (top left) courtesy Mary
by Hildigunnur Sigurdardottir, (centre right) Vlamos, (right) courtesy Ichiro Suzuki, photo by Binding, (top right) Catwalking.com, (bottom
courtesy Blow PR, design by Ashish, photograph Kodai; p.44 courtesy Guerra de la Paz, left) Myka Baum (bottom right) courtesy Linton
by Ian Gillett, (bottom right) courtesy James Tribute, 2002-2006, mix media sculpture with Tweeds Ltd, www.lintondirect.com; p.74 (left)
Long, photograph by Chris Moore; p.24 assorted clothing, collection of Richard Harris; Rodin Banica, (right) courtesy Femme
courtesy Alexander McQueen, spring 2005, p.45 courtesy Blow PR, design by Basso & Maison, photo by Sia Kermani; p.75 (left)
photograph by Chris Moore; p.25 (top) Brooke, S/S 2006, photograph by Fernada courtesy Alexander McQueen, A/W 2008,
istockphoto/AlexKhrom, (centre and bottom) Calfat; p.46 all Myka Baum; p.49 courtesy photograph by Chris Moore, (right) courtesy
Myka Baum; p.26 (top and right) courtesy Ichiro Suzuki, photo by Kodai; p.50 Myka Haider Ackermann; p.76 courtesy John
Ravensbourne College of Design and Baum; p.52 courtesy Isabella Whitworth; p.53 Smedley; p.77 courtesy IVANAhelsinki,
Communication, design by Su Pei Ho, (bottom) Myka Baum; p.55 fashion shots clockwise photography by Ivo Corda; p.78 courtesy
courtesy Anne Kyyr Quinn, design: Block, from top left, courtesy Noir A/S, photograph Michael Angel, photo by Christopher Katke;
material 100% felt; p.27 (top) courtesy Olek, by Marc Hom; courtesy Timothy Everest p.79 courtesy Huwaida Ahmed, photograph by
performance by Olek for Two Continents and Bespoke Fitting; courtesy Blow PR, design by Rui Stelianour; p.80 courtesy Colenimo,
Beyond: Waterways, photograph by Olek and Leonardes; Georgina McNamara; all other photograph by Mitsuaki Murata, hair by Asashi
Miranda Lloyd, www.agataolek.com, (bottom) photos Myka Baum; p.56 fashion shots (Caren), make-up by Natsumi Watanabe
courtesy Olek; p.28 (left) courtesy Marina clockwise from top left, courtesy Gudrun (Caren), (bottom) Myka Baum; p.81 courtesy
Shlosberg, photograph by Mike Figgis, hair and Sjdn, photograph by Johan Hellsrm, model: Haider Ackermann; p.82 courtesy The New
make-up by Ashliie Kuck, model: Holly Theresa; courtesy Noir A/S, photograph by Zealand Merino Wool Company; p.83 (bottom
(Independent), Jewellery by Pebble, London, Marc Hom; courtesy Kris Van Assche, right) courtesy International Wool Textile
(top right) courtesy Rachael Cassar, photograph by Etienne Tordoir; courtesy Kris Organisation, (all others) courtesy Australian
photograph by Jessica Cassar, (bottom) Van Assche, photograph by Gaetan Bernard; Wool Innovation Limited, The Woolmark logos
Myka Baum; p.29 (right) photograph by courtesy John Rocha S/S 2007, London Fashion are reproduced with the permission of
Georgina McNamara, (left top and bottom) Week, photograph by catwalking.com; Australian Wool Innovation Limited, owner of 269
Photo credits
The Woolmark Company; p.84 Myka Baum; Fujii; p.128 Myka Baum; p.129 courtesy CELC Rebecca Thorpe Knitwear, Creative Director:
p.85 (left and right) Myka Baum, (centre) Masters of Linen, Confdration Europnne du Rob Phillips, Photo: Hill & Aubrey, assistant: John
shutterstock/Christian McCarty; p.86 Myka Lin et du Chanvre; p.130 Myka Baum; p.131 Seyer, www.hillandaubrey.com, Beauty Director:
Baum; p.88 (left) courtesy Marsha Hobert at Suri (top) courtesy Marc Le Bihan and his team, Pace Chen, assistant: Melissa Wong, www.
Network, (top right) Mark Dodge, (bottom right) photographer: Tarek Chergui Wallace, Editor: pacechen.com; p.165 (top) courtesy Walter
istockphoto/NNehring; p.89 (all) courtesy Julia Charlotte Rabiller, Model: Mrikoo Des, (bottom) Van Beirendonck, photo by Dan Lecca,
Neill (designer and creator), photograph by courtesy Blow PR, design by Rui Leonardes; p. (bottom) courtesy A Dtacher, photo by
Chris Moore; p.90 istockphoto/aventurus; 132 courtesy Nicholas K.; p.133 (left and Elizabeth Lippman; p.166 Myka Baum; p.167
p.92 Myka Baum; p.93 (top) courtesy Timothy middle) courtesy John Rocha S/S 2007, London all Myka Baum; p.168 courtesy Rohit Khosla
Everest, photograph by David Goldman, styling Fashion Week, photograph by catwalking.com, Foundation, New Delhi, photograph by
by James Sleaford, model: Simon Blackford, (right) courtesy Irish Linen Guild; p.135 (left) Prabuddha Das Gupta; p.169 (left) Rodin
(bottom) Myka Baum; p.94 shutterstock/ courtesy CELC European Confederation of Flax Banica, (right) courtesy Saara Lepokorpi, photo
yansherman; p.95 (top) courtesy Johnstons of and Hemp, (right) courtesy Corneliani; p.136 by Ville Varumo; p.170 courtesy Elsien
Elgin, photograph by Chris Blott, styling by Linny courtesy CELC European Confederation of Flax Gringhuis, photo by David Joosten, hair and
Oliphant, (left) courtesy Armand Basi One, and Hemp; p.137 courtesy Icona Vera, Galaxy makeup by Maaike Beijer for M.A.C @
photograph by Ugo Camera, (bottom) Dress, Ultra-Strawberry Pink Linen Satin, Angelique Hoorn management, model Leyla
photograph by Georgina McNamara; p.96 photograph by Christian Lartillot; p.139 courtesy @ Lindamodels; p.171 courtesy Sanyukta
shutterstock/Kitch Bain; p.97 Myka Baum; CELC European Confederation of Flax and Shrestha, photo by Christopher Dadey; p.172
p.98 catwalking.com; p.99 courtesy Timothy Hemp; p.140 (top left) courtesy CELC European (left) courtesy G-Star RAW C.V. , (right) Myka
Everest Bespoke Fitting; p.100 istockphoto/ Confederation of Flax and Hemp, (top right) Baum; p.173 Myka Baum; p.174
Tomo75; p. 101(all) courtesy Large Animal istockphoto/dononeg, (bottom) Myka istockphoto/clu; p.175 courtesy Wear
Research Station, University of Alaska Fairbanks; Baum; p.141 courtesy Yiqing Yin, photo by Shoji Chemistry; p.176 Myka Baum; p.177
p.102 (left) Myka Baum, (right) shutterstock/ Fujii; p.142 Myka Baum; p.143 (left) photograph by Paul Morgan, design by Ada
Teresa Levite; p.103 (top) courtesy Elise Kim, istockphoto/AM29, (right) courtesy Kuyichi, Zanditon; p.178 (left) Myka Baum, (right) Getty
photo by Peter Stigter, (left) catwalking.com, photograph by petrovsky & ramone; p.144 (left) Images; p.179 (left) catwalking.com, design by
(bottom right) Myka Baum; p.104 courtesy istockphoto/KarenMassier, (right) courtesy Rachel Cauleld, (right) Rodin Banica; p.183
Karren K. Brito; p.105 courtesy Blow PR, design John Smedley; p.145 Time & Life Pictures/Getty courtesy Wear Chemistry; p.184
by Manish Arora, photograph by Yannis Images; p.147 istockphoto/tonda; p.148 istockphoto;p.186 (top) Myka Baum,
Vlamos; p.106 (left) courtesy Paul Smith, design courtesy of ars.usda.gov, United States (bottom) courtesy Trevira GmbH; p.187 (left)
Paul Smith for Gainsborough Silks, (right) Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural courtesy Ceram Tec International, (right) R.E.
Vivienne Westwood, S/S Do It Yourself; p.108 Library; p.149 (left) shutterstock, (right) Litcheld/Science Photo Library; p.188 (left)
Jordan Tan / Shutterstock.com; p.109 Getty photograph by and courtesy of Dr. James M. courtesy Walter Van Beirendonck, photo by
Images; p.110 courtesy Lakme India Fashion Vreeland, Jr. of Peru Naturtex Partners; p.150 Dan Lecca, (right) courtesy ehrensache; p.189
Week, design by Anand Kabra; p.111 (left) courtesy Ria Thomas, photograph by Matt courtesy London College of Fashion, Photo by:
courtesy Etro, (right) courtesy Jim Thompson, Easton; p.151 (left) courtesy Supima Design Christopher Agius Burke; MUA: Kayoko Kishi,
Baphoun 90 per metre, photograph by Hans Competition, (right) courtesy Haider Model: Leontine / First Model Management
Fonk; p.112 courtesy german-hosiery-museum. Ackermann; p.152 courtesy Kostas Murkudis, London; p.190 courtesy Corneliani; p.191 (top)
de, photograph by Michael Schoedel M.A.; photograph by Fergus Padel, styling by Jodie courtesy Henri Lloyd Ltd, (bottom) Myka
p.113 (left) courtesy Vivian Westwood, S/S 09 Barnes; p.153 courtesy G-Star RAW C.V. ; Baum; p.192 courtesy Henri Lloyd Ltd; p.193 all
Do It Yourself, (right) courtesy Narciso p.154 (left) courtesy H&M, (right) graphic Myka Baum; p.194 all Myka Baum; p.195
Rodriguez; p.114 (left) courtesy ANTOINE PETERS Myka Baum; p.155 (top) courtesy Stella photo Myka Baum; p.196 (top) Myka Baum,
S/S 2009 To make an elephant out of a James, (bottom) Kate Burrows; p.156 courtesy (centre left) courtesy Invista Textiles (UK) Ltd,
mosquito, photograph by Peter Stigter, (right) Ecoyarns PTY Ltd, www.ecoyarns.com.au; p.157 (centre right) courtesy Invista Textiles (UK) Ltd,
courtesy Etro; p.115 (top) courtesy A Dtacher, courtesy A Dtacher, photo by Randy Brooke; (bottom) Amanda Johnston & Myka Baum;
photo by Elizabeth Lippman; (left and bottom) p.158 courtesy Elsien Gringhuis, photo by David p.198 Myka Baum; p.199 Advertising
Myka Baum; p.116 (top left) Getty Images, Joosten, hair and makeup by Maaike Beijer for Archives; p.200 courtesy 1 Granary, design by
(top right) Myka Baum, (bottom left) M.A.C @ Angelique Hoorn management, Maia Bergman; p.202 courtesy Marian
istockphoto/roset (bottom right) istockphoto/ model Leyla @ Lindamodels; p.159 courtesy Schoettle; p.203 courtesy Hayley
VickieSichau; p.117 (left) courtesy Isabella Noir A/S, photo by Marc Hom; p.160 (top) Grundmann; p.204 (left) Corbis, (right) Eye Of
Whitworth, (right) courtesy The Gainsborough Silk courtesy Kuyichi, photograph by petrovsky & Science/Science Photo Library; p. 205 courtesy
Weaving Co. Ltd; p.120 (top) courtesy ANTOINE ramone, (bottom) courtesy COMO NO www. Terra New York, photo by Lionel Koretzky; p.206
PETERS A/W 2008-2009 Fat people are harder como-no.fr, C&M Les Petits Bonheurs SARL, (left) courtesy Herve Leger, (right) courtesy
to kidnap., photograph by Peter Stigter, (left) Candice Augereau, Boschat Emmanuelle, London College of Fashion; p.207 (left)
istockphoto/Fyletto; p.121 courtesy Noir A/S, Arnaud Lafontaine; p.161 courtesy Blanq, Artist courtesy Sweaty Betty, (others) courtesy Invista
photograph by Marc Hom; p.122 (top left) and creative director: Jeffrey WANG, Textiles (UK) Ltd; p.208 (top left) courtesy
courtesy Armand Basi One, photograph by Ugo Photographer: Liang SU, associate Creative Matmarket, (top right) courtesy HIKO-MIZUNO
Camera, (bottom left) courtesy Haider Director: Caroline YANG @ BLANQ, Art Director: college of jewelry, (bottom) Amanda
Ackermann, (bottom centre) courtesy Kostas Wawa HO & Eddie TENG @ BLANQ, Hair Stylist: Johnston & Myka Baum; p.209 (top left)
Murkudis, photograph by Fergus Padel, styling Ting SHIH @ FLUX, Make-up Artist: Shu-Ling catwalking.com, (top right) courtesy Eileen
by Jodie Barnes, (bottom right) courtesy Chien, Model: Shin @ STORM MODEL, Pang, (bottom left) courtesy Matmarket, p.210
Roksanda Ilincic A/W 2008; p.123 (left) V&A Retoucher: Chinn, Photo Assistant: Naga Advertising Archives; p.211 catwalking.com;
Images, Victoria and Albert Museum, (right) CHANG & Yang LIN, Styling Assistant: XiaoBao; p.212 Myka Baum; p.213 (left) shutterstock;
courtesy Haider Ackermann; p.124 (top) p.162 (left) courtesy Mary Binding, (right) p.214 Eye of Science/ Science Photo Library;
courtesy Alexander McQueen, S/S 2007, courtesy Maria Francesca Pepe Jewellery-Wear p.215 (left) Myka Baum, (right) kojoku /
photograph by Chris Moore, (bottom left) Design, www.mfpepe.com; p.163 (right) Shutterstock; p.217 courtesy A Dtacher, photo
courtesy Yiqing Yin, photo by Laurence Laborie, catwalking.com, design by Nabil El Nayal, (left) by Randy Brooke; p.219 courtesy Dinu Bodiciu,
(bottom right) courtesy Nicholas K.; p.125 (top) courtesy Kris Van Assche, photograph by Photographer: Pearly, Model: Olivia-Fayne
courtesy Armand Basi One, photograph by Ugo Gaetan Bernard, (bottom) courtesy Kris Van Lamb MUA, Hair: Eimear Sweeney; p.221 (left)
Camera, (left) photofriday / Shutterstock.com, Assche, photograph by Etienne Tordoir; p.164 shutterstock, (right) courtesy G-Star RAW C.V.
270 (bottom) courtesy Yiqing Yin, photo by Shoji (top) Nayukko Yamamoto, (bottom) courtesy ; p.222 Myka Baum; p.223 (left) courtesy
Useful information
Celine Faizant, photograph by Matthieu
Granier, (right) Paul Morgan, design by Ada
Zanditon; p. 224 courtesy catwalking.com,
design Ada Zanditon; p.225 (left and centre)
photos Myka Baum, (right) courtesy Seaweed
Fashion Project, photo: MIGA studio Herford,
design and fabric processing: Seaweed
Fashion Project www.seaweedfashion.com;
p.226 (left) courtesy g=9.8, photograph by
Milomir Kovacevic; (right top to bottom)
shutterstock, courtesy Lenzing AG, Myka
Baum, courtesy Lenzing AG, courtesy Lenzing
AG, Myka Baum; p.228 shutterstock; p.229
(left) Myka Baum, (right) courtesy
Copenhagen Fashion Summit; p.230 (top left)
shutterstock, (others) Myka Baum; p.231
courtesy Uranus Apparel; p.232 (left)
shutterstock, (right) Myka Baum; p.233 (left)
courtesy Sanyukta Shrestha, photo by
Christopher Dadey, (top right), shutterstock,
(bottom) courtesy 01M-One Moment; p.236
(top) courtesy CELC Masters of Linen
Confdration Europenne du Lin et du
Chanvre, (others) Myka Baum; p.239 Myka
Baum; p.240 (1) courtesy Better Cotton
Initiative, (2) courtesy bluesign, (3) courtesy
Cradle to Cradle Products Innovation Institute,
(4) courtesy The Fairtrade Foundation, (5)
courtesy Soil Association, (6) courtesy Textile
Exchange, (7) courtesy I.W.T.O. International
Wool Textile Organisation, (8) courtesy MADE-BY;
p.242 (1-3) courtesy OEKO-TEX, (4-7) courtesy
Textile Exchange, (8) courtesy Soil Association;
p.248 Myka Baum; p.266 Myka Baum.
271
Photo credits
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the following people:
Myka Baum
www.seephotography.net
Very special thanks are reserved for Myka
Baum, whose original remit was to source
the broad variety of images needed for this
publication. Mykas tenacity, professionalism,
and organization deserve much credit,
but it is her acute interpretative sense and
proactive creative input that has exceeded
our original expectations of her role. She has
worked tirelessly to generate original imagery
and produced many specially commissioned
photographs, for which we are profoundly
grateful.
272
Useful information