Digital Radiography:

a-Si array detectors for Industrial

Applications

N. Gopalika, D. Mishra, V. Manoharan & Greg Mohr*

Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory

John F Welch Technology Center
Bangalore

*GE Inspection Technologies

One Neumann Way MD K207
Cincinnati, OH 45215
Technology Development
NDT World
Film radiography
Productivity Resolution
Image intensifiers

Computed radiography Cost Size

CCD technology

Direct digital radiography

Evolution of Direct Digital X-ray Detectors

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Benefits of Digital Radiography
Productivity
Faster response
Elimination of chemical processing
Automated inspection
Elimination of retakes

Cost
Elimination film and consumables
ROI in two to three years

Quality
Image processing and analysis
Reduces operators fatigue
Consistency

Advanced Application
Volumetric CT for High Throughput

Productivity and cost benefits 3/

Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Quantifying Image Quality
Increasing Contrast

What is a good
Physical Measure of Image Quality?

Decreasing Noise
Contrast-to-Noise Ratio
Perceived Image Quality

Measure of Image Quality 4/

Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Quantifying Image Quality

MTF Same Response to Signal and Noise

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Quantifying Image Quality
MTF Limitations

Contrast

Limiting Spatial Resolution (LSR), MTF measured at high contrast
bar patterns 100% input contrast

MTF indicates fraction of signal that will be seen in image.

Noise

MTF measured under noiseless conditions.

MTF transfers noise in addition to signal.

Image noise can interfere with object detectability.

Higher MTF Does Not Mean Better Imaging System

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Quantifying Image Quality
MTF: High Middle Low

SNR = 1
High
MTF Middle
Higher limiting resolution of smaller
Low pixels may not provide better
detectability in noisy images.

High MTF But Poor Performance

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Quantifying Image Quality

Traditional gauge used for quantifying image

quality cannot be used as a stand alone metric.
Quantum and electronic noise are unavoidable in digital imaging
chain.
SNR can vary widely across systems
High SNR is key to better inspection power
To increase SNR often the only way is to increase radiation dose,
unacceptable trade-off
Achieving high SNR at lower dose: better imaging system

MTF is One Metric But Not Enough

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Quantifying Image Quality

DQE: Detective Quantum Efficiency

SNR2 at detector output

DQE =
SNR2 at detector input

SNR = signal-to-noise ratio

Measure of SNR transmittance

Measure SNR Transmittance

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Quantifying Image Quality
Input SNR2 proportional to radiation dose

Image Quality
DQE a
Input Radiation Dose
Traditional measures such as MTF, LSR are not sufficient to
characterize detector performance
Noise is a limiting factor for detectability, image processing,
and advanced applications

Doubling DQE means:

Same output SNR (image quality) at half the dose

40% improvement in SNR at same dose

Less Dose Better Image 10 /

Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Quantifying Image Quality
Improved Standard
Object DQE = 0.5 DQE = 0.25

Better Image, Same Dose

Same Image, Half Dose

SNR = 5 SNR = 3.5 SNR = 2.5

High DQE at Lower Dose

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Quantifying Image Quality

Film GE Detector

High DQE Better Detectability

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Quantifying Image Quality

Detector Design Keeping DQE in Mind

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Detector Design for High DQE

The Detector Measurements One

Properties and Requirements Image Quality
Measure

Pixel Size
MTF
Sampling, Fill
Factor, Aliasing High Resolution
(for small object
detection)
Scintillator/
Coupling
Signal (S) DQE
CsI, Lanex, Se
lens/Direct Efficient X-Ray Conversion
(for minimum exposure)
1 S 2 MTF 2
DQE =
Photodetector Q NPS
aSi, CCD,
CMOS
Noise (NPS)
Readout Low Noise
(for clear visualization)
Electronic Noise

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Flat Panel Technology

Direct Conversion Indirect Conversion

Photons Photons

Cesium Iodide (CsI)

Selenium

Light

Amorphous Silicon Panel

Electrons
Electrons

Read Out Electronics Read Out Electronics

Digital Data Digital Data

Flat Panel Technology Variation 15 /
Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
CsI vs. Se
Cesium Iodide
Very high DQE potential for
high image quality at low dose
Fluoro capable
Advanced application capable
Mature technology: 25-year
history with Image Intensifiers
Again Keep DQE in Mind!!
Selenium
Direct conversion of X-Ray into
electrical signals
Low X-Ray absorption
High sensitivity to temperature
Currently not capable of fluoro
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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Point Spread Function for Different
Detector Types

Electrons

Image Intensifiers CSI Flat panels Se Flat panels

MTF is One Part of the Story, DQE is the Other BIG Part
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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
CCD Technology
Photons

Scintillator

Light
Fiber Optic Taper

CCD

Electrons
Amorphous Silicon CCD

Potentially high image quality at low CCDs are easily available

dose (high DQE)
Active Research on New Applications
Designed for X-Ray from the start
Compact packaging
Very high development cost
Low development costs
Transition technology to flat panel
High CCD cost
Tiling and design complexity
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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Silicon Imaging Devices, CCD, CMOS &
a-Si Imager Dimensions
CCDs: 10 60-mm on a side
CMOS: 50-mm on a side
a-Si: 200 410-mm on a side

Size governed by silicon process

CCDs and CMOS 6 wafers

Multiple chips/wafer yield

a-Si Large area deposition/glass

Pixel Dimensions
CCDs: 9 25 microns
CMOS: 40 50 microns
a-Si: 100 400 microns

Pixel size governed by architecture

All will convert visible energies into an electronic charge
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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Silicon Imaging Devices, CCD, CMOS &
a-Si
Coupling device Phosphor or
Silicon Device Photoconductor
or Method

Fiber optic coupler

Requires 10X more Exposure

CCD or CMOS

Requires 100X more Exposure

Lens
Fiber optic scintillator and/or Shielding Cooled CCD
phosphor Glass Camera
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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Outstanding Image Quality and Dose
Efficiency

A-Si with Cesium Iodide scintillator

Very low noise electronics and panel design
No tiling
Real time (fluoro)
Advanced image processing for image
optimization
System design optimized for digital imaging
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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
GE Digital X-Ray Detectors
3 Types of GE Digital X-Ray Panels
All feature high efficiency & fast 14-bit
readout
Highest resolution (DXR-500)
7 x 9 (19 cm x 23 cm) @ 100
micron
Over 20% MTF at 5 lp/mm
Highest efficiency (DXR-250)
16 x 16 (41 cm x 41 cm) @ 200
micron
Fastest Imaging (DXR-250RT)
Up to 30 Hz
8 x 8 (20 cm x 20 cm) @ 200
micron
Panels Optimized for Different Applications
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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Performance Study: Radiation Exposure
DXR-500 DR system

14000
12000
Signal(ADC)

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Relative exposure

Comparative study Useful exposure range

Industrial X-ray film
Characteristics DXR-500 Digital Detector
( Medium speed) Min and Max exp ratio 2
In the order of few mR to get 1.3 R to get Optical Productivity:
Speed
signal level of 12000 density of 2
Useful minimum to High Speed (mR vs R)
Useful minimum to Minimized Rework
Dynamic range maximum exposure
maximum exposure ratio 12
ratio 2 High Latitude Coverage
Typical Exposure ratio requirements Advantages
X-ray tube Subject
Less radiation field
Material Lattitude potential contrast Micro focus (Faster response
Ti 3 to 20 mm 160 kV 12.7 enables high definition
Steel 1 to 10 mm 160 kV 7.28 radiography)

Detector Characteristics Suitable for Industrial Applications 23 /

Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Dynamic range

Ti step wedge image 2 20 mm

High latitude coverage
1
~ 10 times > image-
intensifier
2 No blooming or saturation
Window leveling
3
No Lead masking
2& 3 window level
adjusted

Wide dynamic range enables- high latitude imaging

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Artifacts
Source:GE Health care Source:GE Health care

Image Intensifier- distortion

Flat panel- no distortion

> No distortion
Flat panel
> No blooming XII
> Uniform sensitivity over Source:GE Health care

entire area
Brightness uniformity
> Brightness uniformity
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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Performance study-Spatial resolution

Observation:
System can be designed to match with film MTF.
Digital detector with mini/micro focal tube outperforms
film radiography with large focal spots.
DQE of DXR-500 is comparatively good.

System Design for Meeting Requirements

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Detective quantum efficiency
Source: GE healthcare

DQE comparison- XII vs. DR

Better defect detectability in useful spatial resolution range

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Performance study-Noise response
Poisson distributed noise
Noise Quantum limited
Averaging of frames reduces noise

5 frames
Effect of no. of frames

Effect of no. of X-ray photons

1 mAs 10 frames

20 frames

5 mAs

Quantum Limited Noise Performance 28 /

Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Performance study-IQI sensitivity

Mat. Ti Mat. SS Mat. Al

Mat. Ti
Thick. 25mm Thick. 10mm Thick. 40 mm
Thick. 10mm
Kv 120 Kv 140 Kv 120
Kv 120
mAs 1.0 mAs 1.0 mAs 1.0
mAs 1.0
FS 0.4 mm FS 0.4 mm FS 0.4 mm
FS 0.4 mm

2-1T sensitivity over range of thickness

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Performance study-Imaging
2-2T
Porosity
Sensitivity

Lack of
penetration

Kvp 125
mAs 1.0
FS 0.4
mm
Mat. CSI

Kvp 125 Mat. CS

mAs 1.0
FS 0.4 mm
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Range of applications with 2-1T sensitivity
Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Performance study-Imaging
Object IC
Kv 70
mAs .5
FS 10 microns
Mag. 50X

Object IC
Object ceramics
Kv 70
Kvp 70
mAs .5
mAs .5
FS 10 microns
FS 10 microns
Mag. 50X
Mag. 50X

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Enable high definition radiography Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Welding defects-Lack of penetration
and spatter

Material: CS
Plate, 12 mm thk
SW SI Offset
FS-0.4 mm
SDD-700 mm
Kv: 130, 2 mas
Filter: Cu 0.4 mm

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory
Summary

Faster response and wide dynamic

range
Quantum limited noise performance
System can be designed to meet
image quality requirements
2-1T sensitivity over range of
thickness
Range of applications with 2-1T
sensitivity
Enables high definition radiography

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Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory