_ Eire Protection Biiydraulicsranel ec Fee ha SpeeCe Cae 7 ae Chara rraice n' Publication: b L3F) slice Te ici Zzit Produced by: 7 FIRE PROTECTION PUBLICATIONS ) — OKLAHOMA'STATE UNIVERSITY STILLWATER, OKLAHOMA 74078 Oklahoma State University in compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 (Higher Education Act) does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin or sex in any of its policies, practices or procedures. This provision includes but is not limited to admis- sions, employment, financial aid and educational services. First Printing, October 1990 Second Printing, April 1993 © 1990 by the Board of Regents, Oklahoma State University All rights reserved ISBN 0-87939-088-3 Library of Congress 90-83716 First Edition Printed in the United States of Americaiit Table Of Contents FOREWORD vit PREFACE ix GLOSSARY xi INTRODUCTION. 1 WATER AS AN EXTINGUISHING AGENT 5 Physical Characteristics ese : 7 Important Terms And Definitions... 2... - 10 Summary Of Important Concepts 4 References ........... id Supplemental Readings aan 14 Exercises . . . 16 HYDROSTATICS 20 ees 19 Basic Principles Of Hydrostatics . . . . . : 19 Head ..........-.-.--000, 27 Buoyancy Tele atad 227 Potential Energy 7 29 Devices For Measuring Hydrostatic Pressures - 30 Barometers ........ . 80 Piezometer Tubes - 30 Manometers . . - 32 Bourdon Gauges ...... - 34 Summary Of Important Concepts 34 References... 35 Supplemental Readings... - 235 Exercises... - 36 HYOROKINETICS Kinetic Energy . 1 Conservation Of Energy And Bernoulli's Equation Conservation Of Matter : Energy Loss Due To Friction . . Summary Of Important Concepts References Supplemental Readings Exercises... . FLOW MEASURING DEVICES Common Flow Measuring Devices Hy 65 ‘The Pitot Tube Venturi Meter Orifice Plate Met Other Flow Metersiv Summary Of Important Concepts References Exercises FRICTION LOSS IN PIPING SYSTEMS, ee ae BT Determining Friction Loss Reynolds Number Darcy-Weisbach Method Hazen-Williams Formula Summary Of Important Concepts References rt Supplemental Exercises. ANALYSIS OF LOOPED AND GRIDDED PIPING SYSTEMS ..... 101 Determining Friction Loss In Loops And Grids . . . Simple Loops... ........ Gridded Piping Systems Summary Of Important Cor.cepts References : Exercises . . TESTING AND ANALYSIS OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS Flow Testing Equipment For Flow Testing General Test Procedure Specific Test Techniques Establishing Hydrant Coefficients Measuring The Diameter Of The Hydrant Outlet Using The Pitot Tube»... . Selection Of Hydrant Outlets Choosing Hydrants . . Determining Number Of Hydrants/Outlets To Open ‘Test Precautions . . « is Graphical Analysis Of Flow Test Results Mathematical Analysis Of Test Results Teh Adjusting Flow Test Results For Friction Loss And Elevation Differences... |. . 136 Summary Of Important Concepts Supplemental Readings . Exercises ; INDUSTRIAL FIRE PUMPS AND PUMP INSTALLATION Common Fire Pump Types Horizontal Split-Case Pump. . Vertically Mounted Split-Case Pump Vertical-Shaft Turbine Pomp Pump Drivers 4 . Electric Motors Diesel Engine Drivers |10 11, 12 Steam Turbines : ep a Pump Controllers... 2. eee Controllers For Blectric Motor Driven Pumps Diesel Engine Controllers... . Pump Installation Components And Accessories Pipe And Fittings Relief Valves ‘Test Equipment : Jockey Pumps .... . Gauges .... : Component. Arrangement + Summary Of Important Concepts References 4. Supplemental Readings ti FIRE PUMP APPLICATIONS, TESTING, AND MAINTENANCE Standard Performance Specifications Water Supply Requirements ......... ‘Testing, Inspection, And Maintenance Of Fire Pump Installations ‘Testing Pump Installations... . . Equipment Needed For Pump Tests Acceptance Test On An Eleciric Horizontal Split-Case Pump Routine Operation And Maintenance : Summary Of Important Concepts... ... References ......... Supplemental Readings . . Exercises . . ELEVATED STORAGE Plotting The Supply From Purely Static Sources .... . . Graphically Combining Elevated Tanks With pees Water Supplies Summary Of Important Concepts wee Supplemental Readings Exercises ESTABLISHING WATER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS Water Supply Requirements For Exterior Manual Fire Fighting Operations Water Supply Requirements For Standpipe And Hose Systems Water Stipply Requirements For Automatic Sprinkler Systems Hydraulically Designed Water-Based Extinguishing Systems Duration Of Water Supplies Summary Of Important Concepts References Lo Exercises . . HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS OF AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEMS Basic Steps For Hydraulic Calculations Caleulations Considering ‘The Impact Of Velocity Press 158 158 . 158 161 162 162 - 163 165 166 . 166 - . 167 - 170 - 170 - 170 . 173 . 175 . 186 . 187 188 188 - 190 195 . 196 196 197 198 203 - 2038 + 206 - 209 209 - 210 215 215 - . 218 = 219 221 - . 222 «222, - 223 224 «229 . 229 - 245vi Gridded Designs And Computer Assistance EEE EGET! 246 Summary Of Important Concepts ....... eee 248 References : im 248 Supplemental Readings |... 2... s sl a ss. 249 Exercises . 250 SELECTED EXERCISE ANSWERS 252 APPENDIX A—Actual Internal Pipe Diameters 285 APPENDIX B—Friction Loss Tables For Schedule 40 Steel Pipe. 17... 257 APPENDIX C—Friction Loss Tables For Schedule 10 Steel Pipe vee 268 APPENDIX D—Friction Loss Tables For Copper Pipe hee IT . 278 APPENDIX E—Priction Logs Tables For CPVC Plastic Pipe Ty 290 APPENDIX F—Friction Loss Tables For Ductile-Iron Underground Pipe 299 APPENDIX G—Friction Loss Tables For Cast-Iron Underground Pipe -. +. 806 APPENDIX H—Friction Loss Tables For Piastic Underground Pipe... .......... 313 APPENDIX |—Common Sprinkler K-Factors . 2... eee eee eee 318 APPENDIX J—Discharge Tables For Various Nozzles And Orifices ...... ... 319 APPENDIX K—Coefficients For Pumper Outlets + 322 INDEX 2. ee eee 323 List of Tables 1.1 Variation Of Water Density And Specific Gravity With Temperature tt 12 Specific Gravity Of Cominon Substances : 8 1.3 Important Conversion Factors 10 5.1 Kinematic Viscosity Of Certain Liquids : : » 83 5.2 Guide For Estimating The Hazen-Williams Coefficient Of Roughness ++ -90 5.8 C-Factors Required For Hydraulic Calculations Of Sprinkler Systems . . - 90 5.4 Values OFC As Recommended By NFPA 24... LEE 91 81 Minimum Pipe Size 2... rr 168, 8.2 Required Number Of Test Valves 165 9.1 Magnitudes Of Velocity Pressures ..... 178 11.1 Guidelines For Water Supply Requivements For Pipe Schedule Systems 220Foreword Fire Protection Publications is proud to publish this textbook, Fire Protection Hydraulics and Water Supply Analysis, for Professor Pat Brock. Many hours of research, writing, editing, and proofing went into the manuscript. This was followed by putting the book into its final format with the numerous formulas and illustrations. The end result is a usable book for the student and practitioner of fire protection engineering. Our gratitude is extended to the following members of the Fire Proteccion Publications staff whose time and talent made final production of this text possible. Cynthia Brakhage, Publications Specialist Carol Smith, Associate Editor Don Davis, Production Coordinator Ann Moffat, Senior Graphie Designer Lori Schoonover, Graphic Designer Desa Porter, Graphic Designer Karen Murphy, Phototypesetting Technician John Hoss, Research Technician Rick Windham, Research Technician Gordon Earhart, Research Technician Kt Corb Gene P. Carlson Assistant Director Fire Protection PublicationsIME ti 58t in: WF gB tt, at NT Eyq { i | | Preface Special recognition must be given to the following individuals. Without their assistance, completion of this book would have been extremely difficult, if not impossible. Carlene Brock and Gail Parsons did most of the original rough draft typing, They made legible what often appeared to be a foreign (or unknown) language. Floyd Luinstra and Scott Bernett of Southwest Loss Control, Inc. and Joe Trapp of Mobil Oil provided much of the technical research and compiled many of the calculations. They are graduates of the OSU Fire Protection and Safety Technology program and true professionals. Those students of tle OSU Fire Protection and Safety Technology program who studied hydraulics during the years 1975-1989 are also worthy of special recognition. They provided inspiration toward the development of the text. They also suffered from being required to use rough drafts in various stages as the text for their hydraulics studies. It cannot be said that they did not complain, but they did persevere and offered constructive editorial comment along the way. At D. Brack Pat Brock, Associate Professor Fire and Safety Technology ion of Engineering Technology Oklahoma State Universitysot eres Sa 5" re oyxt Glossary IMETER—A device for measuring electrical cur- it in a wiring system. ]OMETER—An instrument used for the mea- ment of atmospheric pressure. NOULLI'S EQUATION—A mathematical ex- fsion of the Principle of Conservation of ergy. ‘OSTER PUMP—A fire pump used to boost the sure of the existing water supply. IRDON GAUGE—The most common device to measure system pressures. (TRIFUGAL PUMP—Modern industrial fire :ps are centrifugal pumps. Pressure is added e water by the centrifugal force created by a ting wheel (impeller) or the rotating vanes of rbine. 7 IFIED SHOP TEST CURVES— Before a pump ipped by the manufacturer, it will be tested e shop. The results of this test will be plotted aph paper. ULATION RELIEF VALVE—A small relief e that opens up and provides enough water into and‘out of the pump to prevent ‘the pump overheating when it is operating at churn st a closed system. jrex LOOP—A piping system that is some- es called a “grid” and is characterized by one ore of the following: more than one inflow i, more than one outflow point, and/or more btwopaths between inflow and outflow points. NTROLLER—The electric control panei used iwitch a pump on and off and to control its fation. i DARCY-WEISBACH METHOD—Technique used to establish the pressure lost to friction in a piping system. DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER—A device whose primary application is to reflect the differences in pressures between two points in a system. DRIVERS—The engine or motar used to turn a pump. FLOW HYDRANT—The hydrant from which the water is discharged during a hydrant flow test. FLOW TEST—Tests conducted to establish the capabilities of water supply systems and referred to as flow tests because they involve flowing fire hydrants. The objective of a flow test is to establish quantity (gallons per minute) and pressures avail- able at a specific location on a particular water supply system. FLUID—Any substance that can flow; a substance which has definite mass and volume at constant temperature and pressure, but no definite shape; and with the inability to sustain shear stresses. FLUID MECHANICS — A branch of physics dealing with the behavior of fluids, particularly with re- spect to their reaction to forces applied to them. FORCE—In the general terms of physics, force is that which causes motion. GRIDDED PIPING SYSTEM—See complex loop. HARDY CROSS METHOD—An iterative tech- nique used for solving the complicated problems involving gridded water supply systems.wii HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA—An empirical for- mula for calculating friction loss in water systems that is the fire protection industry standard. To comply with most nationally recognized stan- dards, the Hazen-Williams formula mustbe used. HEAD—Pressure expressed in units of feet of water. HORIZONTAL SPLIT-CASE PUMP—A centrifugal pump with the impeller shaft installed horizon- tally and often referred to as a split-case pump. ‘This is because the case in which the shaft and impeller rotates is split in the middle and can be separated exposing the shaft, bearings, and impel- ler. HYDRAULICS—The branch of fluid mechanics dealing with the mechanical properties of liquids Gn this text water) and the application of these properties in engineering. HYDROKINETIC—A branch of hydraulics having to do with liquids (water) in motion, particularly in relation to forces created by or applied to the liquid in motion. HYDROSTATICS—A branch of hydraulics dealing with the properties of liquids (water) at rest, par- ticularly in relation to pressures resulting from or applied to the static liquid. JOCKEY PUMP—A jockey pump is a small-capac- ity, high-pressure pump used to maintain constant pressures on the fire protection system. A jockey pump is often used to prevent the main pump from starting unnecessarily. KINEMATIC VISCOSITY—The kinematic viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of its absolute viscosity (1b sec/ft®) to its mass density (Ib sec"/ft*). KINETIC ENERGY —The energy which a body pos- sesses because of its motion: LAMINAR FLOW —A fluid is in thestate oflaminar flow if its Reynolds number is 2,100 or less; lami- nar flow is related to very low liquid velocities. LIQUID—A fluid having a definite volume, unl: gases, which will expand to fill the vessel contai ing it. ju 7 su MOODY DIAGRAM—A diagram used with thg, Darcy-Weisbach friction loss computatior technique to relate the Reynolds number, pipe si and roughness to a friction factor. hl x = NET PRESSURE—'The net pressure is the pres sure added to the system by the pump. z ORIFICE PLATE METER—An orifice plate mete is a device used for measuring water flow and int similar in principle to a venturi meter. The Jat of water velocity is accomplished by using a plat with an orifice that is smaller than the diametay of the pipe in which it is placed. Fr PASCAL'S LAW-Principle 1, known as Pascal} Law, points out that pressure acts in all direction and not simply downward. PIEZOMETER TUBE—This device uses th\l heights of liquid columns to illustrate the presi sures existing in hydraulic systems. ra PITOT TUBE—Common device used to measur! velocity pressure and thus fluid velocity. The pito’ tube consists of a small diameter tube, usually about one-sixteenth inch in internal diamete which is connected to a pressure gauge. POTENTIAL ENERGY—Stored energy which ha: the ability to perform work once released. PRESSURE —Force per unit of area. PSI—In fire protection, pressure is most often deal with in units of pounds per square inch (psi). PSIG—Fire protection pressures ‘are also mos often gauge pressures (psig).q i “TIEF VALVE—The relief valve is provided to up and discharge water to a drain should the ware become excessive. This valve is located een the pump and the discharge check valve Mis required with pumps driven by variable drivers. ZOHDUAL PRESSURE—The pressure at the test 7 jant while water is flowing. It represents the remaining in the system while the test is flowing. . OLDS NUMBER—The state of flow (laminar ‘rbulent) of a fluid has traditionally been es- "eS shed mathematically through the calculation factor called the Reynolds number (Rs). LOOP—A loop in which there is exactly xd inflow point and one outflow point, and exactly angtaths between the inflow and-outflow points. athiric GRAVITY—The specific gravity (S,) of rel ce may be defined generally as the ratio weight density of the substance to the weight of another substance, usually water. IC PRESSURE—The normal pressure exist- ‘system before the flow hydrant is opened. a system might be defined as the sum of tential energy and kinetic energy at that xiii TURBULENT STATE—Fluid flow is in the turbu- lent state at higher velocities where there is no definite pattern to the direction of the water par- ticles. Turbulent flow is reflected by a calculated Reynolds number in excess of 2,100. VENTURI METER— When coupled with a differen- tial manometer, a venturi meter may be used to measure water velocity. The device consists essen- tially of a piece of pipe in which the cross-sectional area has been constricted. VERTICAL-SHAFT TURBINE PUMP—This fire pump was originally designed to pump water from wells. Presently, they still have application where the water supply is from a nonpressurized source. Vertical-shaft pumps ordinarily have more than one impeller and are therefore multi-stage pumps. VERTICALLY MOUNTED SPLIT-CASE PUMP—A centrifugal pump similar to the horizontal split- case, except that the shaft is oriented vertically and the driver is mounted on top of the pump. VOLTMETER—A device used for measuring the voltage existing on an electrical system. WATER HAMMER —Stopping any flowing stream too rapidly can cause a phenomenon called water hammer. Water hammer is a violent increase in pressure which can be large enough to rupture the piping.introduction An adequate water supply is one of the most, important characteristics of good fire protection. Therefore, the credibility of a fire protection specialist is tested when it becomes necessary to establish the following: ‘The quantity and pressure of water “needed to provide adequate fire protection ‘The ability of existing water supply systems to provide fire protection needs as well as domestic and industrial requirements : The adequacy ofta water supply in conjunction with a particular piping system to provide effective automatic sprinkler protection Alternatives for improving deficient water supply sys- tems ‘These four areas of concern should be familiar ground to the fire protection specialist, and it is to these areas that this text is primarily directed. There presently exists numerous texts deal- ing with hydraulics as it applies to the municipal fire service. These are typically basic “hoseline and pumper” manuals. Many engineering hydraulics and fluid mechanics texts are also avail- able. These texts are typically mathematically rigorous and lean -More toward the theoretical than the practical. There presently is a void of published literature applying the basics of fluid mechanics to the practical aspects of fire pro- tection hydraulics. ‘The catalyst for the development of this book was the need to provide a meaningful text on the topic of fire protection hyd- raulics and water supply analysis tor students studying in fire protection engineering and technology programs. Therefore, the Introduction 12 FIRE PROTECTION HYDRAULICS book is certainly intended for classroom use and contains numer- ous examples and homework problerns. However, it is intended to be more than a classroom textbook. It is designed to be a useful resource for engineers, design professionals, fire preven- tion bureaus, or others presently working in the areas of water supply or sprinkler system analysis and design. ‘The text is aimed to be more practical than theoretical; that is, it is move applications oriented than engineering oriented. A primary objective was to bring together information available 7 in various resources into a single useful document. Hopefully, this text will find its place on the bookshelves of the practicing fire protection community. 7oe ieee | | er ae =Water as an Extinguishing Agent 5 j Chapter 1 Water as an Extinguishing Agent Water is the most important single component of fire protec- tion. Therefore, for credibility as a fire protection specialist, a person must possess a knowledge of the behavior and physical characteristics of water and water supply systems. Water is so important as an extinguishing agent bécause of its effectiveness, general availability, and low cost. Although water is not effective in every situation, water is an effective extinguishing agent over a broader spectrum of hazards than any other agent, Either through accident or experiment, man has known that putting water on a fire will put it out or at least retard the-fire’s growth. Following is a'simplified equation illustrating the com- bustion process: Heat of Ignition + Oxygen + Fuel 9 A H(heat) + Products ‘of Combustion From examination of this relationship, it may be concluded that fire control will result through elimination of any one of the basic components required in the combustion process. Elimina- tion of the fuel source, the oxygen source, or the ignition source will result in fire control. Also, there is every indication that the- fire can be controlled by chemically inhibiting the combustion chain reaction. Why is water so important as an extinguishing agent? Water is an efficierit agent because it works at least two ways, First, by cooling, water helps to eliminate the ignition source. In chang- ing water from a liquid at 32°F to steam, 1,190 Btu per pound of water is absorbed. Second, in this transition to steam, water undergoes a volume expansion by a factor of about 1,700. There- fore, 1 cubic foot of water can create 1,700 cubic feet of steam. The dilution of the air by the steam results in displacement of6 Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS some of the oxygen molecules by water vapor molecules. This effectively reduces the amount of oxygen available to support the combustion process and thus tends to smother the.fire. ‘The preceding discussion establishes the effectiveness of water as an extinguishing agent. Effectiveness alone, however, would not promote the widespread use of water in fire protection. - ‘On the other hand, if effectiveness is considered along with the availability and cost, no other agent is comparable. Except for the most arid regions of the world, water is available. It is not necessary that water be fresh or pure to work asan extinguishing agent. Even thangh salt.water is highly corrasive ta many metals, salt water supply systems are being used for fire protection pur- poses. Nonpotable water is also used in fire protection systems. However, economics usually dictate that a single water system provide both public consumption and fire protection supplies. Water is by far the least expensive of agents. Historically, property owners have not been required to pay directly for water used in extinguishing fires in their buildings. In more recent times, many water utility companies have established monthly or annual rates to be paid by property owners whose buildings are protected by automatic sprinkler systems. ‘There is a real cost associated with the production of potable water, especially changing salt water to fresh water. ‘These costs, however, are usually defrayed through rates paid by domestic and commercial consumers. Even for industries that drill their own wells or provide their own water supplies by other means, water is still relatively inexpensive compared to other agents such as dry chemicals, carbon dioxide, or the halons. Although it has been stated that water is generally availa- dle, everyone is aware that water shortages are becoming in- creasingly commonplace. This is usually not a result of increas- ing fire protection needs. On the contrary, because of aggressive enforcement of modern building codes and requirements for sprinklers in many buildings, the total water supply requirement for fire protection has been reduced in some communities. The shortages are most often a resultofa’tombination of environmen- tal factors and population increases. An increase in the number of people or industrial and commercial concerns will always re- sult in greater water consumption. Increased consumption coupled with extended dry weather conditions can leave little water left to meet the fire protection needs of a city. ‘The fire-protection specialist must have a good understand- ing of hydraulics: Adequate firo protection is often equated to adequate water supplies, and problems such as water shortages affect the amount of water available for fire protection. In analyz- ing water supply systems, the fire protection specialist must be prepared to answer such questions as the following:Water astan Extinguishing Agent 7 How many gallons per minute are needed for adequate protection? At what pressures must the water be available? Are there methods to transform deficient water supply systems into systems adequate for fire protection pur- poses? How do you test a water system for adequacy? “What is the relationship between pipe arrangements and the materials from which piping is made and the amount of water available? Is the water system reliable? i A study of engineering hydraulics in its purest form would involve a study of the physical laws and principles that might apply to any fluid. For the reasons presented in the previous section, the fluid of primary importance to the fire protection specialist is water. This text is therefore primarily devoted to discussion of the behavior exhibited by water at rest and in motion, Such discussion must include study of therelevant phys- ical properties of water. Water, of coursé, has the chemical formula HO and has a molecular weight of approximately 18 grams per mole. Of more practical importance, the weight density or specific weight (W) of liquid water is 62.4 Ibs/ft*. This density will vary slightly with temperature and presgure (See Table 1.1). TABLE 1.1. : VARIATION OF WATER DENSITY. AND (lb/ft?) 62.416 62.425 62.408 62,366 5 62.3 0.9880 62.217 0.9967 62.118 0,951 61.998 0.9982... 61.203 - 0.9804 60.135 ‘8 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS However, the changes in density are sufficiently small over the temperature and pressure ranges commonly encountered; therefore, deviations from 62.4 can be ignored for practical appli- cation. The concentration of impurities in the water also will affect the density. For example, ocean salt water has a density of 64.1 Ibs/ft®. For purposes of practical application, water can be considered incompressible because of the insignificant change * in density under a broad range of pressures. Another important relative measurement is specific gravity. ‘The specific gravity (S,) of a substance may be defined generally as the ratio of the weight density of the substance to the weight denaity of another substance. Or, Equation 1.1 =a Sg we As most commonly used, specific gravity refers to the ratio of the weight density of a substance to the weight density of water at 89.2°F, Thus, the specific gravity of water is 1.0 at 39.2°F. Care must be taken to include the effect of pressure and temperature when calculating specific gravities. Particularly in the cases of gases, the weight density varies significantly with pressure and temperature. Table 1.2 contains values of the specific gravities of some common substances, TABLE 1.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF COMMON SUBSTANCES ‘Substance Specific Gravity at 68°F Water 0.998) Commercial Solvent O717 Carbon Tetrachloride 1.582 Medium Lubricating Oil 0.891 Medium Fuel Oil 0.854 Heavy Fuel Oil 0.908 Regular Gasoline 0.724 Turpentine 0.862 Ethyl Alcohol 0.789 Benzene 0.879 Glycerin 1.262 Light Machinery Oit 0.907 Air 0.0012 Ammonia 0.0007 Carbon Dioxide 0.0018 Methane 0.0007 Oxygen 0.0013Water as an Extinguishing Agent 9 Example 1.1 If a particular grade of crude oil has a weight density of 52 Ibs/ft? at 39.2°, what is the specific gravity of the oil? Solution: =a So=wus Heo =-52 bbsitt3_ 62.4 Ibs/it Sq = 0.833 Example 1.2 A particular foam plastic hes a specific gravity of 0.008. ‘What is its specific weight? © Solution: w, v then Wa= () 88 aig Wpiastic = (62.4 Ibs/ft?) (0.008) Woplastic = 0.4992 Ibs/ft? ‘The boiling point and freezing point of water are 212° and 32°F respectively. These values apply exactly only at atmos- pheric pressure’ at sea level. As might be expected, the boiling and freezing points are affected by pressure. However, a rather unique feature is that water undergoes a volumetric expansion both upon freezing and changing into the vapor state. The 1700-1 expansion ratio during vaporization was previously pointed out. ‘The expansion of water as it freezes causes undrained automatic sprinkler piping in improperly heated buildings to break and underground piping not buried deep enough to rupture. ‘The maximum density and minimum volume of water occurs at 39.2°F.10 rine PROTECTION HYORAULICS ‘Table 1.3 contains some additional relationships and conver- sion factors which will be useful in following discussions. TABLE 1.3 IMPORTANT CONVERSION FACTORS, Af? = 1728in? 28.315¢ec | if? = 7.48gal 28315L | i 7 tgal = 231in® _ = 3785.40¢ i i gal = 0.13378° 87854L | } 1f/sec = 4499pm 28.315Liseo j ' DensityofMercury = 845.27 Ibsift® 13.546kg | TinofMercury = 13.6InofH,0 = 34.407em | TinofMercury = 1.13 {tof H,0 ! : omofMercury = 13,6cmofH,0 ! 1 gal of water weighs 8.3453 Ibs and 3.7854 kg IMPORTANT TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ‘These terms will be used in future chapters and should be & part of the vocabulary of the fire protection specialist. The following definitions are basically those compiled by Henke in his fluid mechanics text.? Fluid—Any substance that can flow; a substance which has definite mass and volume at constant temperature and pressure, but no definite shape; and with the inability to sustain shear stresses. Fluid Mechanics—A branch of physics dealing with the be- havior of fluids, particularly with respect to their reaction to forces applied to them. Force—In the general terms of physics, force is that which causes motion and is illustrated mathematically by Equation 1.2 F = (m) (a) Where F = thesum ofall forces acting on an object. m = themassof the object. a = theacceleration of the object. Since Equation 1.3Water as an Extinguishing Agent 11 i Where | W =weightin pounds. | g = acceleration due to gravity in ft/sec”. | ' it follows that, Equation 1.4 and where the units of acceleration (a) are also in fl/sec? the units of force are given in pounds. And when the acceleration (2) is duo only to gravity (a — g), J Equation 1.5 Few | ‘Therefore, for many practical applications, force and weight are 8 synonymous. £ at t Example 1.3 a ! Alx1x 2 foot rectangular metal ingot weighs 235 i ounds. If it rests upon the ground; how ‘much force i oe! mj . it exert upon tho ground? ew * The dittiensions f the ingot, in this case, and F = 235 pounds. ‘are irrelevant, , Example 1.4 What force is exerted by the water on the bottom of a fall rectangular storage tank that has a base 30 x 40 feet and is 10 feet high? Solution: F=w | “ASF 2 (62.4 Iosif) (30 ft x 40 ftx 10 ft) = (62.4 Ibs/ft®) (12,000 #3) F 5,748,800 Ibs12) rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Hydraulics—The branch of fluid mechanics dealing with the mechanical properties of liquids (in this text, water) and the application of these properties in engineering. Hydrokinetics (Hydrodynamies)—A branch of hydraulics having to do with liquids (water) in motion, particularly in rela- tion to forces created by or applied to the liquid in motion. Hydrostatics—A branch of hydraulics dealing with the prop- _ erties of liquids (water) at rest, particularly in relation to pres- sures resulting from or applied to the static liquid. Liquid—A fivid having a definite volume, unlike gases, which will expand (o fill the vessels containing them. Pressure—Pressure is force per unit of area. Mathematically, this is represented as Equation 1.6 pee A 3| Where P = pressure in pounds/unit of area. F = forcein pounds. A. = areainsquare inches. Commonly, pressure is talked about in units of pounds. This is technically incorrect and should be in pounds per unit of area. In fire protection, pressure is most often dealt with in units of pounds per square inch (psi). Fire protection pressures are also most often gauge pressures (psig). That is, pressure readings are deviations from atmospheric pressure. Thus, a gauge reading of 100 psi would indicate that the pressure being measured is 100 psi above atmospheric pressure. Pressures that include atmos- pheric pressures are referred to as absolute pressures (psia). Therefore, 100 psig equals 114.7 psia. (At sea level, atmospheric pressure is approximately 14.7 psia.) Example 15 ‘What pressure, in psi, would be acting on the base of the tank described in Example 1.4 Solution: pee A In this case A = (30 ft x 40 fi) (144 inte) A= 172,800 in?Water as ai Extinguishing agent 13 From Example 1.4 F = 748,800 Ibs Work—Work is the product of the magnitude of the force acting on an object and the distance through which the object moves. This is expressed algebraically as Equation 1.7 G=(F)(D) Where G = thework in units of foot-pounds. F = theforcein pounds. D_ = thedistance of displacementin feet. Example 1.6 How much work is involved in transporting 1,000 cubic foot of water 1 mile? : Solution: G=(F)(0) and where Few F = (1,000 f9) (62.4 Ibsitt®) F = 62,400 Ibs then D =(1 mile) (5,280 ft/mile) and G = (62,400 Ibs) (5,280 ft) G = 3.29472 x 108 ft-lbs14 cine PROTECTION HyDRAULICS How much Work is involved in elevating 1 gallon of water to the top of astorage tank thatis80 fect high? nd G = (8.3453 lbs) (80 ft) SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 1. Water is the most important component of good fire protec- tion because of its effectiveness, availability, and low cost. 2. Water extinguishes fire through cooling and through exclud- ing oxygen by volumetric expansion as the liquid changes to the gaseous state. 3. Water has a weight density of 62.4 Ibs/ft’, changes toa vapor at 212°F, and freezes at 32°F. Water undergoes a volumetric expansion during vaporization and during freezing. 4. For most practical purposes, water can be considered incom- pressible, REFERENCES *Rassell W. Henke, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (Read- ing: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1972) pp. 1-9. SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Hickey, Harry E. Hydraulics For Fire Protection. National Fire Protection Association: Quincy, MA, 1980.Water as an Extinguishing Agent 15 EXERCISES i.1 Compare and contrast fiuids, solids, and gases. 1.2. List some significant ways that liquids differ from gases. | 1.3 How many gallons of water could be contained in a 30 x 40 x 12 foot rectangular storage tank? 14 Ifa spherical storage tank holds 40,000 gallons of water, what diameter must it have? 15 Ia cylindrical storage tank has a 40-foot diameter circular base, how high must it be to hold 1 million gallons? 1.6 If water is moving at a rate of 3.2 ft9/sec, how many gpm is this? 1.7 What is the difference between specific gravity and specific weight? 18 If the specific gravity of gold is 19.0, what is the weight of a cubic inch of gold? A cubic foot? 19 If the weight density of air at sea level is 0.08 lb/ft’, how much should the air weigh in a room that measures 20 x 12 x 8 feet? 1.10 A man supporting himself on the heel of his shoe (which has an area of 4 square inches) produces a pressure on the ground of 50 psi. How much does the man weigh? 1.11 If a 180-pound man sits on a 5-pound chair, and each of the 4 chair legs has a circular cross section with a 1-inch diameter, what pressure is exerted on the floor by the chair? a _ 112 A heavy fuel oil has a specific gravity of 0.918. How much } will 100 gallons of this oil weigh? i “1.18 If gasoline has a specific gravity of 0.738, what force will A be exerted on the circular bottom of a cylindrical gasoline tank that has a diameter of 8 feet and is 12 feet high? 1.14 What amount of work will be accomplished in transporting 500 gallons of water 1,760 feet? 1.15 What amount of work will be accomplished in elevating 40,000 gallons of water to the top of an elevated tank which is 80 feet high? “Selected answers are found on page 252.zz ee1 4 1 i ) | Chapter 2 Hydrostatics It was pointed out in the first chapter that hydrostatics is a branch of hydraulics dealing with fluids at rest. Since water is the fluid of primary importance to the fire protection specialist, this first section is devoted to the features of-water in a static condition. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HYDROSTATICS ‘There are five principles that should be initially emphasized. From these principles, practical applications involving water at rest can be promoted. The principles of hydrostatic pressure are as follows: Principle 1: The pressure at a point in a liquid is constant in every direction. Principle 2: Pressure applied from external sources on a con- fined liquid will be transmitted in all directions throughout the liquid without reduction in mag- nitude. Principle 8: The pressure created by a liquid in an open con- tainer is directly proportional to the depth of the liquid. Principle 4: The pressure created by a liquid in an open con- . tainer is directly proportional to the density of the liquid, - Principle 5: The shape or volume of a container has no bearing on the, pressure created by the liquid. People sometimes have the idea that pressure always acts in the downward direction. This fallacy is fostered by the under- standing that pressure is closely related to weight. However, Principle 1, known as Pascal’s Law, points out that pressure acts Hydrostaties 1920 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS in all directions and not simply downward.! Figure 2.1 shows four different pressure gauges taking readings at the same point, in a system, but with different orientations. In accordance with Principle 1 of hydrostatic pressure, all four will show the same pressure reading. Principle 2 has more obvious practical implications than the first, The concept of undiminished pressure transmission throughout a confined liquid ean be more readily accepted if the relatively incompressible nature of liquids is understood alt was previously pointed out that for practical applications liquids are incompressible. Unlike gases which will contract in volume under pressurization, liquids will substantially maintain their original volume when confined and subjected to external pres- sures, Since the external pressure is not absorbed in a volume contraction, the pressure is simply transmitted throughout the liquid in every direction without reduction in magnitude, Note that in Figure 2.2 the pump operating at 0 gpm (churn) against a closed system is developing a pressure of 100 psi at its discharge port. Because no water is flowing and the system is closed, all gauges will show an increase in pressure of 100 psi. If the gauges are located at different elevations, the pressures will not be the same, but ail will show the same pressure increase . as long as the water is in a static condition. This principle ex- Figure 2.1 Four gauges taking pressure readings al the same point wil register the seme pressure in accordance with Principe 1.Hyarostatics 21 With pump developing 100 psi with no water flowing. Figure 2.2 llustration of Principle 2 of hydrostatics, plains why pressure surges (water hammers), due to a pump : turning on or a valve being closed too quickly, can be transmitted i over great distances inside a water system. iH Principle 3 is a basic and critical part of fire protection hyd- : raulics. The pressure created by a column of liquid is directly E proportional to the depth of the liquid. Water, as indicated in Chapter 1, has a specific weight of 62.4 Ibs/ft®. Therefore, 1 cubic | foot of water will weigh 62.4 pounds. Visualize a cubic foot of water (Figure 2.3). From the discussion presented in Chapter 1, Figure 2.9 A cubic (oot of water will weigh 62.4 pounds.22 Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS it is known that force can often be equated to weight, or the following: F=W = 62.4 lbs and then p= £ 62.4 lbs — 9.433 psi 144 in? Now visualize 2 cubic feet of water (Figure 2.4). The weight of the water is now 124.8 pounds, and in the example, the area at the base remains constant at 144 in?. 124.8 tbs = 0.866 psi A 444 in? Pe When the height of the water doubled, the pressure created at the base also doubled. Principle 4 is closely associated with Principle 3 in that the pressure created by a liquid is also directly proportional to the density. For example, since the density of mercury is 13.6 times greater than water, the pressure created by 1 foot of mercury will be.13.6 times greater than the pressure created by 1 foot of water. Both Principle 3 and Principle 4 can be summarized by the following general relationship: Equation 2.1 P = (w) (h) ‘Where P= pressure (usually in psi). w= specific weight of the liquid in Ib/ft?. h = heightofliquid coluran in feet. more specifically, for water: P = (62.4 Ib/tt9) (h) (ft) p = (62.4 to/ft?) Ye (ft) 144 in@t2 Equation 2.2 P = 0.433 (psiftt) h (ft) NOTE: Where h is in feet, the units of P will be psi. “This is one of the basic relationships of fire protection hyd- raulics and should be memorized; Equation 2.2 will be a frequent tool of the fire protection specialist. This formula can be used toHydrostaties 23, Figure 2.4 Two cubic feet of water wil weigh 124.8 pounds. determine the following: the pressure needed to fill elevated tanks, the pressure needed to overcome elevation in fire water systemé including sprinkler éystems, and the back pressure created by standpipe systems in high-rise buildings. 7 Example 2.1 What pressure will be observed on a gauge at the base of an elevated tank in which the water level is 85 feet above the pressure gauge? Solution: P = 0.439 (psifft) h (ft) P = (0.433 psift) (85 ft) = 36.8 psi24 cine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Example 2.2 What pressure must be available to overcome elevation alone in pumping water to the top of a 160-foot high- rise building? Solution: P = 0.433 {psi/t) h (ft) P = (0.433 psifft) (160 ft) = 69.3 psi Example 2.3 Ifan ofl storage tank holding oil with a specific gravity of 0.92 is 45 feet high, what pressure will exist at the base of the tank when the tank is full? Solution: P= (w) (h) P= (Sgou) (Wrigo) (h) P = (0.92) (62.4 to/tt®) (#2) (45 1) 144 in? P = 17.9 psi Example 2.4 What magnitude of force (F) will be required in the situation shown in Figure 2.5 to maintain a state of equilibrium if the cross-sectional area of Piston A is 4 square inches. The weight of Piston A may be consi- dered negligible; however, Piston B weighs 500 pounds and has a cross-sectional area of 420 square inches. ‘The hydraulic fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.82. Solution: The pressure acting on the face of Piston A is due to the combination of pressures created by the weight of the fluid plus the weight of Piston B. thus Pa= (w) (h) a Pa = (0.82) perce (12) (28,)+ Gas 420 aon Pa= 5.454 psi thenHycrostaties 25 Figure 25 Musiration for Example 24. Principle 6 is often the most difficult to understand. Pressure developed is not related to size or shape of the container, onl the depth and density of the liquid. Figure 2.6 shows three situ- ations where the pressure readings on the gauges would be iden- tical. Remember, Principle 5 applies to pressure, not force. The weight of the water in each case is different, butall three pressure readings will be the same.- + i From the previous discussion it was established that the | pressure beneath a cubic foot of water 1 foot high is 0.433 psi. Figure 26 Pressure developed depends only upon the density and height of the liquid, rot ‘upon container shape.26 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS ‘What about a situation where the water is again 1 foot high but only 1 square inch in area (Figure 2.7). What is the weight of such a small-column of water? It is obvious that 144 such columns exist in a cubic foot of water. ‘Therefore, the weight of one such column would be W = 62.4 Ibs ~ 0.433 Ibs 144 and now p=£-0,433 (bs) A in or 7 P = 0.433 psi The conclusion is that the pressure depends only on the depth (and specific weight) and is independent of the shape of the container or the volume of the container. Figure 2.7 A column of water 1 foot high with base of 1 square inch.HEAD It is common to hear fire protection spécialists refer to water pressure in terms of head. Head is pressure expressed in units of feet of water instead of psi and can be expressed in the general sense as follows: Equation 2.3 hak w Where h = headin feet. P= pressure(psi) w = thespecific weight in Ib/ft®. More specifically, for water h- Posi) 62.4 Ibs/tt? = P (psi) (144 in) 62.4 Ibs/t? h +(@4) (8) cs (¢2) h=2.31 P (fupsi) NOTE: Where h is in feet, the units of P will be psi. + BUOYANCY For any object to remain stationary in a liquid without sink- ing, the force in the downward direction must be equalized by a force in the upward direction (Figure 2.8 on next page). The force acting down (F,) will equal the weight density of the mate- rial times the volume of the object. Fy =(w) (Vy In order for the object to remain stationary, (F,) must also equal (w)(V). In'approximately 250 B.C., Archimedes discovered that the upward or buoyant force (F,) is equai to the weight of the liquid displaced.? Therefore, whether a material will float or not and how much of the object will protrude above the surface of the liquid depends in part upon the relationship between the Weight densities of the objects andthe liquid. A solid object will float in a liquid only if its weight density is less than or equal to that of the liquid. The proportion of a floating object that will sink below the surface of a liquid will depend upon how much of the liquid will equal the weight of the object. Hyarostatics 2728 rine PROTECTION HYORAULICS Figure 2.8 When an object floats in a quid, F, must equal Fe Example 2.5 ‘A solid cube of wood 2 feet on each side has a weight density of 48 Ibs/ft®. If it-is placed in a container of water, how far above thesurface will the cube extend? Solution: ‘The buoyant force will be equal to the amount of water displaced by the cube, and the weight of the water = displaced will equal the weight of the cube. Thus, F=(w)(V) F = (48 Ibs/it®) (2 f° F = (48 Ibs/ft?) (8 ff) F = 384 Ibs The volume of water displaced must also weigh 384 pounds. Therefore, the volume of water displaced is Vy =—384 lbs 62.4 Ibsi/ft? Vw = 6.154 2 Then, the volume of the cube protruding above the water surface is the volume of the cube minus the vol- ume of the displaced water. Ve = 8 1° - 6.15412 Ve = 1.846 f°Finally, if it is assumed that the cube will float with its bottom parallel to the water surface, the height above the water that the cube extends is the volume protruding divided by the area of the bottom of the cube, or H = 1.846 f9 . 0,46 ft 4fe- POTENTIAL ENERGY It is important to understand the part that hydrastatie pres- sure plays in the energy composition of a hydraulic system. Hy- drostatic pressure composes the potential energy component of the total energy of a hydratilic system, Potential energy is stored energy. It has the ability to perform work once released. It is easy to visualize the potential of a stretched rubber band or a coiled spring. However, elevated or pressurized water also con- tains potential energy. Indeed, potential energy has two compo- nents in a water systein: (1) potential energy due to elevation; and (2) potential energy due to external pressure. sources such as pumps. - ‘Since energy is the ability to do work, and work is the product of force times distance and has units of foot-pounds; potential energy is the potential or ability to move some unit of weight (force) some distance or: Equation 2.4 PE = (W) (h) Where W. =someunitof weight, h =heightin feet. This-relationship applies to elevated water as well as ele- vated solids. Also, we learned in the proceeding section that the pressure in a system can be expressed in head of water by the relationship - heP w Therefore, the potential energy due to external pressures can be expressed as Pe, =«ml(E) Hydrostatics 2930 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS And then the total potential energy existihg at a point in a system is PE, = PEn + PEp PE; = (Wy) (hy + (w)(F) DEVICES FOR MEASURING HYDROSTATIC PRESSURES. ‘The fire protection specialist should have an understanding of several devices used to measure hydrostatic pressure (and thus potential energy). These devices are the barometer, the piezameter tube, the ferential manometer, and the Bourdon gauge. 7 7 Barometers Barometers are widely used for the measurement of atmos- pheric pressure. The basic construction of a barometer involves the inversion of a tube of liquid in a container open to the atmos- phere (Figure 2.9). Since the tube is closed on one end, the inver- sion results in the absence of atmospheric pressure inside the tube'on top of the column of liquid. Therefore, the only pressure existing at the base of the liquid column in the tube is a result of the height and density of the liquid. Atmospheric pressure acts on the liquid in the open dish. The pressure created by the column must equal atmospheric pressure for a state of equilit- rium to exist. This provides a simple method to measure atmos- pheric pressure.’ When using a barometer, measure the height of the column above the surface of the liquid in the open container and use Equation 2.1. P = (Sq) (WHig0) (h) Fluctuations in atmospheric “pressure are reflected by changes in the column height. A few calculations will reveal why mercury barometers are more popular than water baromet- ers. Piezometer Tubes ‘These devices again use the heights of liquid columns to illustrate the pressures existing in hydraulic systems. These devices typically have application only where small hydrostatic pressures exist, and their range is governed by the density of the liquid within the system. Greater versatility can be obtained by incorporating a U-tube into the piezometer (Figures 2:10 a and b). This allows the use of a high density liquid (e.g. mercury) which permits measurement of greater pressures. The U-tube also allows measurement of vacuum pressures.30 inches 34 feet of mercury of water Figure 2.9 Abarometer is used for the measurement of atmospheric pressure, The pressure represented by 30 Inches of H, wil equate to the pressure rapreserted by 24 feet of H,0. Figure 2.10b Greater versatility can be obtained by incorporating a U-tube into the piezome- Hycrostatios 3132. Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Example 2.6 If the piezometer tube in Figure 2.10a is measuring the pressure in a piping system filled with oil (Sg = 0.86), what height (in inches) in the tube would indicate a system pressure of 0.8 psi? Solution: = (w) (h) P = (Sgga) (Wig0) (h) soe (Spoi) (Wie0) he 0.3 psi (0.86) (62.4 Ibs/ft®) (1 £9/1,728 in?) h = 9.66 inches Example 2.7 If a U-tube piezometer, illustrated in Figure 2.10b, is used with mercury in the U-tube, what system pressure will be indicated by a mercury height difference of 8.5 | eae inches? Solution: P = (w) (n) aug) (Hig0).(h) 2 § be P = (19.6) (62.4 Ibs/t®) (8.5 ini) (119/1,728'in3) P= 1.72 psi Manometers Differential manometers are similar to piezometers; how- ever, their primary application is in reflecting the differences in pressures between two points in a system (Figures 2.11 a and b). Although the pressure differences measured are differences in potential energy between two points, the manometer is used frequently in applications involving liquids in motion. Coupled with devices such as venturi meters or orifice plate meters, they can be an accurate method of establishing liquid velocities.Hydrostatics 33 et Figure 2.11b A cillerenial manometer measuring pressure diferences betwean {wo points on a piping system. Figure 2.11a A diferent manometer is used frequenty in applications involving liquids in motion, Example 2.8 Ifa differential manometer is used to measure the pres- sure difference between two points in a piping system | (Figure 2.11b), what pressure difference (in psi) is indi- cated if h is 8 inches, and mercury is used in the man- ometer? Solution: P= (Sgug) (Hg0) (h) 7 P = (13.6) (62.4) (Ibs/t) (8 in) (1 #/1,728 in) P =3.93 psi”34) cine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Bourdon Gauges Bourdon gauges are the most common devices used for measuring pressures (Figure 2.12). It can be seen that the prin- ciple employed is that of a coiled spring. Increasing pressure within the coiled tube will have the tendency to straighten the coil. This results, through the tiny gearing, in a deflection of the indicating needle. With proper and regular calibration, the Bour- don gauges will give very satisfactory representation of pressures existing in static or nonstatic systems. If the pressures represented by Bourdon gauges are hydro- ‘static pressures, they are a reflection of the potential energy within a system. However, when used with a pitot tube (as dis- cusséd in Chapter 3, Hydrokinetics) they are employed to meas- ure total pressures or velocity pressures. Figura 2.12 Bourdon gauges are the most common devices used for measuring pressures’ ‘is itustrates the inside and outside of a Bourdon gauge. SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 1. Hydrostatics is the study of liquids at rest. There are five basic principles of hydrostatic pressure. 2. The pressure created by a column of water (in psi) is equal to P = 0.483 h (h in feet). 3. The head of water in feet equivalent to a given pressure in psi is H = 2.31 P(P in psi), 4. The general relationship equating pressure, height, and den- sity is P = wh, 5. Hydrostatic pressures caused by elevation and external pres- sure sources (such as pumps) create the potential energy vomponent of the total energy of a hydraulic system. 6. Important instruments for measuring pressures include the differential manometer and the Bourdon gauge.Hydrostaties 35 REFERENCES 7 tRussell W. Henke, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (Read- ing: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1972), p. 8. Henke 32. SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Hickey, Harry E. Hydraulics For Fire Protection. National Fire Protection Association: Quincy, MA, 1980, pp.14-22. | t i36 Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS EXERCISES 2.1 If an elevated tank containing water is 85 feet high, what pressure will exist at the base of the tank ifthe tank is full? 2.2. Ifa tank of identical height as the tank in Exercise 2.1 is constructed with twice the volume, how will this affect the pressure available at the base of the tank? 2.3 Ifa high-rise building is 108 feet tall, how much pressure must be available at ground level to overcome elevation and deliver the 65 psi standpipe water pressure require- ment at the roof? 2.4 If the standpipe in Rxerrise 9.9 is atteched to a.city water main and filled with water, what pressiire will exist at the roof level if the pressure at ground level is 127 psi? 2.5 A 500,000 barrel crude oil storage tank is 46 feet high. If the tank is full and the oil has a specific gravity of 0.89, what pressure wil] exist at the base of the tank? 2.6 In the hydraulic system shown in Figure 2.18, what force (F,) must be applied to attain a state of equilibrium if the circular surface upon which F, acts has a diameter of 6 inches, the cireular surface acted upon by F, hase diameter of 18 inches, and F is 85 pounds? Figure 2.13 Wustration for Exercise 2.6. 2.7 Ina dry-pipe sprinkler valve, the air seat typically has a surface area on which the air pressure acts six times as large as the water seat upon which the water pressure acts. If the water pressure is 105 psi, what air pressure would be required to attain a state of equilibrium? 28 In a multiple-story building, a water column has formed on the top side of a dry-pipe sprinkler valve having a 6:1 air seat to water seat ratio. If the column of water is 42 feet high, and the city water pressure is 60 psi, will the dry valve be able to open when the air pressure is evacuated i from the system?| | ' 2.9 In Figure 2.14, the weight of the upper piston (W,) is 85 pounds and has a surface area of 113 in®. The weight (We) of the lower piston is 14 pounds and has a surface area of 12.6 in®. If the liquid in the hydraulic system is an oil with a specific gravity of 0.90, what force (F,) will be required to attain a state of equilibrium? SSI NSSSSSSSSSSSSESSS SSS N N N N N MI N N N N N N SS x 5 a a DO 8 Zn Y yl yy yy i Y 4 g 4 Yj Yj Kj | 4 Y 4 Figure 2.14 ttustration for Exercise 2.9. 2.10 If the industrial fire pump (Figure 2.15 on next page) is developing 270 feet of head at the discharge port of the pump (Point A), what pressures in psi will be indicated by the gauges at Points B, C, and D? 2.11 If a system contdins an oil with a specific gravity of 0.87, what height in inches on a piezometer tube would indicate a pressure of 1.0 psi? 2.12 In Figure 2.16 on next. page, the liquid contained in the system is water. What would the pressure reading be on Gauge P (in psi) if W, is 1,500 pounds and F; is 1,000 pounds? What force (Fs) would he required th achieve equilibrium? Assume both cylinders have circular cross sections. Hydrostaties 3738 Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS 108 feet SARRSSSNSESS SSS Figure 2.16 thustration for Exercise 2.12. 2.18 A cargo ship has a volume of 480,000 ft. The ship alone weighs 800,000 pounds. What weight of cargo can the ship carry and still remain afloat? Assume the ship is to be used in ocean water (w = 64 Ibs/ft). ~Hydrostatics 39 2.14 A barge with a rectangular cross section of 40 feet wide by 10 feet high is used on the Mississippi River for transporting oil. If the barge is 60 feet long, how much does it weigh when empty if 7 feet of the barge extends above the water surface? How much of the barge would extend above the water surface if half full of oil (Sg = 0.9)? Selected answers are found on page 252. 1 i 1 | |- RemitChapter 3 Hydrokinetics Hydrokinetics involves study of the characteristics and phys- ical properties of water in motion. Water in motion must be understood and dealt with when working with automatic sprink- ler systems, standpipe systems, fire department pumpers, or in- dustrial fire pump installations. ‘The importance of the principles of static water pressure cannot be denied and should not be minimized. The fire protection specialist continually works with water supply situations that mainly involve application of hydrostatic principles, particularly involving the concepts,of elevation. However, seldom is fire pro- tection hydraulics as simple as just applying the hydrostatic principles. KINETIC ENERGY Ina situation where water is motionless, any energy existing was found to be potential energy. In a system where water is moving, some potential energy is still likely to exist. However, another component exists that is related to the velocity of the water — kinetic energy. 7 Work done is force applied over some distance:! G=F)@) and from Newton's Second Law:? F = (mya) thus G = (maya) Hydrokineties 4344 cine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS ‘Where G =work. m =mass. a =acceleration. ad =somedistance. Also, from physics °, we know a=vivo t and vv c= (5%) w elocity at some time (t). nitial velocity att = 0. t stime. da listance traveled at time (t). Substituting now gives om estes} Equation 3.1 gm 2, 2 And finally, where v, = 0, (that is, the mass is initially at rest), the work may be expressed as 2 ol 2 One half the product of the mass of a body and the square of its velocity is called the “kinetic energy” of the body.* These princi- ples of physics apply to any body in motion and, of course, must also apply to water in motion. Therefore, an expression for the kinetic energy (KE) of some thass of water in motion is { 2 KEG =i 2 Where KE =kineticenergy. m = somemassof water. v the velocity of the water.It was previously noted that, where acceleration of a particle is due to gravity, mass can be written as m=W 9 where W is the weight of the particle, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Finally, the kinetic energy of a particle may be expressed as Equation 3.2 xe = WP (2) (a) Equation 3.2 is the expression that will be used in the continuing discussion to represent the kinetic energy of water; that is, water particles. ‘The brief presentation of particle dynamics in this section was not intended to be exhaustive nor comprehensive. Exceilent presentations of these basic principles of physics are available in numerous basic physics texts such as the one referenced in this section. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND BERNOULLI’S EQUATION It has been established that there exists the possibility of two types of energy within any hydraulic system — potential energy, and if the water is moving — kinetic energy. Then,'the total energy (TE) at aily point in a system might be defined as the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy at that point. Or TE = PE + KE ‘The Principle of Conservation of Energy states that the total energy within a system will remain constant. This necessarily implies that any change in the potential energy of a system must be matched by a corresponding change in kinetic energy, or APE, = JKE; For example, if all’of the water in the elevated tank in Figure 3.1 on next page were to fall from its elevation (h), all of its “potential energy (W h) would be converted to kinetic energy by the time all the water reached ground level. Another important interpretation of the Principle of Conser- vation of Energy is the following: since the total energy of a hydraulic system is constant, the total energy at all points within the system is also constant and equal. That is, for any two points within a system TE; = TE2 Hydrokineties 4546 cine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Figure 3.1 Potentiat energy is converted to kinatic energy as water drains from the tank! and where total energy is represented by its various components:, : Ens + PE pt + KE; = PEn2 + PEpo + KE Substituting for the general symbols gives hs (wah w 2) @ ‘This may be simplified further by dividing through by the weight of water (W) to give what is known as Bernoulli's equation, which is one of the concepts fundamental to the fluid mechanics of incompressible fluids: (Wy (ry 4 MED, Ww = CM) fa) 4 Equation 33 hy Pig Po, (oF TW tin ew BG Note that in many textbook presentations, the components, of potential energy attributed to elevation is represented byZ vather than h.* The inlerpretation is-ideatical. Also, when deal ing with water systems, the term. P/w may be replaced by (2.31(P) since for water_P (lbsfin2) 62.4 Ibs/ft? {Pt yess im) . (ey B = (2.31) (P) (th) where P is given in psi with the final units of (2.31\P) being simply feet. it is important to understand that every term in Bernoulli’s equation should have the same units. That is all terms — (2.31)(P), and v7/(2)(g) are in units of feet of head. Figure 3.2 illustrates the basic principles defined by Ber- noulli’s equation—the total energy at Point 1 and Point 2 is the same. This is not to say that the potential energy or the kinetic energy at each point is the samé—just the total energy. oe \ (2.31)(P,) + Yin + hy = (2.31 weg hy COE + ayigs* = ESN) + are * Figure 3.2 The Principle of Conservation of energy as defined by Bernoulli's equation, Before looking at some examples of applications of Ber- noulli’s equation, note that Bourdon Gauge 1 reading pressure from a tap on a pipe is reading only potential energy components of the total energy existing in the system (Figure 3.3 on next Page). However, Gauge 2 attached to an internal pitot tube is, reflecting the total energy because it is also measuring the kine- tic energy due to the water velocity. Gauge 3 again shows only Potential energy because the pitot tube opening is not oriented, Properly to measure the impact of velocity. Finally, Gauge 4 is again reflecting total energy. At the point of measurement in an open stream all of the energy is due to water velocity, and this is all kinetic. Hydrokinetics 4748 riac PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Gauge #4 Gauge #1 Gauge #2 Gauge #3 )Figure 3,5 stration for Example 3.2. Hydrokinetics 4950 rine protection HYDRAULICS CONSERVATION OF MATTER ‘The physical law of conservation of matter states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. In practical application in hydraulics, this means that what goes in must come out. That is, the amount of water entering a system must leave a system: Carrying this concept further, if a fluid stream has a eross-see- tional area (A) (Figure 3.6), and water is passing through A at ° some velocity (v), then the flow rate (Q) through A may be represented by Equi n 3.4 Q= A) (v) where Q is in some units of volume per unit of time, the exact units being determined by the units of A and v. The most common units for Q are cubic feet per second (cfs) and gallons per minute (gpm). Figure3.6 The ow rateis the water velocity times tia cross-sectionalares ofthe seam. Essentially, the law of matter conservation indicates that” within a single system, Q is constant. Water will not be created nor will it disappear. If 1,000 gpm enter a system, 1,000 gpm mustalso leave a system and for any two points within a system: Qi = Qe and so Equation 3.5 Equation 3.5 allows the development of several basic princi- ples of water flow in piping systems. These principles are as follows: Principle 1: If pipe size remains constant, water velocity within | a system will be constant.Principle 2: Within the same system, an increase in pipe diame- ter will result in a reduction in water velocity. Principle 3: Within the same system, a reduction in pipe size will result in an inerease in water velocily. Principle 4: [fpipe size within a system remains constant, water flowing uphill will travel with the same velocity as water flowing downhill. Understanding matter conservation and these four princi- ples allows several useful calculations. The following examples will demonstrate these mathematical applications. Figure 3,7 tlustation for Example 3.3, Hycrokinerics 5152. rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Substituting gives the following &) (nF (vi) @) (oF ven(BF ve« v2 -(2ap (2 ttisec) = 18 ft/sec 1 Tin To solve for the flow rate, simply find Q. and éonvert , the units to gpm as follows: : Q= As) (V1) = (Aa) (v2) 7 = (n) (1? a) Q= (x) (in)? (2 f/sec) A Q= (99) n? el aoa: 2 250¢ gpm ‘To solve for the velocity at Point 1: ‘The importance of proper unit conversions has been illus- trated in the previous examples. If the area is simply multiplied by the velocity, units of square inches feet per second would result. Proper unit conversion is always necessary to get values that make sense. Figure 38 tlustration for Example 8.4. Hydrokineties 53.54 cine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Figure 2.9 lustration or Example 35. ENERGY LOSS DUE TO FRICTION Bernoulli’s equation is for an idealistic situation where fric- tion does not exist. However, in the real world energy is lost to friction as water travels through a piping system. It will be seen in Chapter 5, Friction Loss in’ Piping Systems, that the mag- nitude of the friction loss depends upon a number of factors, such as pipe length, diameter, and roughness. Bernoulli's equation may be rewritten to reflect the existence of friction loss as follows: Equation 3.6 Pry WP on Pea WP ay a ty wBa@ "wA@™ : where hr is the energy lost to friction expressed in units of feet of water. Note the following examples. = 62 psi- 53 psi eg pst Gauge #1Hydrokinetice 55. gure 8.10, how much pressure is lost dui Gauge 1 is reading 38 psi and Gauge 2 ation, a higher reading would be expected at Gatige 2 than at . pai Figure. 3.10 tlusteation for Example 3656 Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Bernoulli's equation must also be adjusted when energy is added to the system from external sources such as pumps. Thus, in the comprehensive form, Bernoulli's equation may be written as follows: Equation 3.7 Pr OE hy ety Pee U2 he ey a (2) (9) ‘The term h, represents the énergy added to the system by a pump and has units of fect of head. SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS, 1. Hydrokinetics involves the study of water in motion. 2. The principles of hydrostatics will always be important even in systems involving water in motion. 3. Kinetic energy can be expressed as: v2 (2) (9) 4, Bernoulli's equation illustrates the Principle of Conserva- tion of Energy and is expressed (without consideration of ion or external energy Sources) as follows for water: es (Pa oe (UP hy = (2.91) (Pa) 4M ah ao" a@” Conservation of matter is expressed mathematically by: = Qe and (As) (va) = (Aa) (ve) 6. Proper unit conversion is essential. 7, In real life application of Bernoulli’s equation, consideration must be given to energy lost due to friction and energy added by pumps. &REFERENCES *Paul A. Tipler, College Physics. (New York: Worth Pub- lishers Ine, 1987), p. 114. *Tipler 114. *Tipler 114. “Tipler 115. "Russell W. Henke, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (Read- ing: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1972), pp. 48-50. SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Hickey, Harry E. Hydraulics For Fire Protection. National Fire Protection Association: Quincy, MA, 1980, pp. 20-27. National Fire Protection Association. The Fire Protection Hand- Book. National Fire Protection Association: Quincy, MA, 16th edition, Sec, 17, Ch. 2. Hydrokineties 5758 rine pROTECTION HYDRAULICS EXERCISES 3.1 What kinetic energy is generated by a cubic foot of water traveling at 16.5 ft/sec? (NOTE: answer should be in units of foot-pounds.) ~ 3.2 What kinetic energy is generated by 1 gallon of gasoline traveling at 3.0 fu/sec? 3.3 What amount of work will be accomplished in transporting | 500 gallons of water 1,760 feet at a rate of 500 gpm? 3.4 If oil with a specific gravity of 0.94 is flowing through’a 12-inch pipe at a velocity of 3.5 fUsec, how many gpm are flowing? 3.5 If oil with a specific gravity of 0.93 is flowing through an inch pipe at a rate of 600 gpm, what is the velocity of the oil in fi/sec? 3.6 Determine the pressure at Point 1 in Figure 3.11. 3.7 Ifthe water velocity at Point 1 in Figure 8.12 is 2 fU/sec: a. What is Q, in gpm? b, What is v, in ft/sec? ‘ce. What is Q in gpm? 3.8 In Figure 3.13, find Pp. Given: P, = 83 psi vy = 3.9 fi/see : 7 Ve = B.1 fi/sec é Re Tépst bie 19 feat biz 25 feet Figure 9.11 Mustration for Exercise 36. ow 49 tyrone 8 , /38. \ 3.9 If 645 gpm are flowing in Figure 3.14, what is the friction loss if Gauge 1 reads 86 psi and Gauge 2 reads 55 psi? 3.10 In Figure 3.15, if 230 feet of pipe join Gauge 1 (reads 46 psi) and Gauge 2 (reads 56 psi), how much pressure is lost to friction if the pipe size is constant? 3.11 In Figure 3.16, if v; is 3 fi/sec and gasoline is flowing through the system, determine: a. Q, (in gpm) b. Q: (in gpm) ©. va (in ft/sec) Gauge #1 Gauge #2 55 86 psi Figure 3.15 lustration for Exercise 3.10, Figure 3.16 Mustration tor Exercise 3.11 Hydrokinetics 5960 ine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS 3.12 In Figure 3.17, if v, = 8 f/sec, what is vz and the flow in gpm? 3.13 In Figure 3.18, the water velocity in the 6-inch pipe is 2 f/sec, and the gauge on the 6-inch pipe reads 40 psi. What will the gauge reading be on the 4-inch pipe? Assume 6 psi is lost to friction. 3.14 In Figure 8.19, if Q is 465 gpm, find v,, "V2, and Qo. Figure 3.17 ustration for Exercise 3.12. Figure 3.19 tustration xorcise 3.14,3.15 In Figure 3.20, find Py, if P, is 36 psi and Q, is $05 gpm: 3.16 InFigure3.21, if, is 90 gpm, d, is1 inch, andd,is3 inches: a, What is Q,? b. What arg v, and v.? 3.17 If 100 gpm hre flowing in the piping system shown in Figure 8.22, and Gauge 1 reads 120 psi and Gauge 2 reads 94 psi, how much bressure (in psi) is lost to friction? 9.18 If Gauge 1 In Figure 3.23 reads 24 psi and Gauge 2 reads 88 psi, how much pressure is lost to friction? 3.19 Two gauges shown in Figure 3.24 are placed 100 feet apart on a 4-inch main. The main travels uphill such that the downstream gauge is 20 feel higher Unan the upstream gauge. If the upstream gauge reads 50 psi and the down- stream gauge reads 30 psi, and 500 gpm is flowing, how much pressure is lost to friction in each foot of pipe between the two gauges? 3.20 If'a 6-inch pipe is connected to an 8-inch pipe and the water velocity in the 6-inch pipe is 10 ft/sec, what is the water velocity in the 8-inch pipe and what quantity (in gpm) is flowing in each pipe. 7 Selected answers are found on page 252. Figure 3.20 auustation for Exercise 3.15. Figure 3.21 Mustraton for Exercise 3.16 Hysrokinetics 6162. Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Figure 3.22 Mustration for Exercise 2.17. Figure 3.24 Mustraion for Exercise 8.19."on esehip ance { i \ Chapter 4 Flow Measuring Devices A basic understanding of the principles of hydrostatics and hydrokinetics' makes it easier to understand how various flow measuring instruments work. In this chapter, attention will be given to some of the more common devices such as pitot tubes, venturi meters, and orifice plate meters. A srfore comprehensive study of the types contained in this chapter is presented by Hic- key in his text.? COMMON FLOW MEASURING DEVICES The Pitot Tube 7 ‘The pitot tube is a common device used to measure velocity pressure and thus fluid velocity. The pitot tube consists of a small diameter tube, usually about one-sixteenth inch in internal diameter. The tube is inserted into a fluid stream, parallel to the direction of flow and aimed upstream against the flow. The tube may be connected to a piezomeéter tube (Figure 4.1). The tube may also be connected to a Bourdon gauge which is more Flow Measuring Oevices 6566 Fre PROTECTION HYDRAULICS j common in fire protection applications (Figure 4.2). In both Fi- gure 4.1 and 4.2 the pitot tube is being used to measure “total 4 ° energy.” Therefore, when installed inside a closed conduit, the pitot tube alone cannot reveal the water velocity. Figure 4.2 Pitot tube with Bourdon gauge. Suppose a Bourdon gauge is installed on the system in con- junction with a pitot tube and gauge (Figure 4.3). If the two’ gauges are close enough together, friction loss will be negligible. ‘The pressure registered on the first gauge, P, reflects only com ponents of potential energy, or Preteen w Figure 4.3 Method for detormining velocity pressure. On the other hand, the pressure reflected on the second gauge, P., represents the total energy, or PoP ahs v2 w (2) (9) then Po-PrefE on +e )-(E +n) Po- Py =v ete go (2)(9) eeFlow Measuring Oevices 67 qherefore, the difference in readings on the two gauges repre- sents the kinetic energy component which is commonly referred to as the velocity pressure. If this velocity pressure (in psi) is jmown, the velocity can be established as follows: pa (2) (g) v = (2) (9) (P) = ¥(2) (g) (P) Since P has units of psi, some unit conversion will be required so the velocity will have the appropriate units of f/sec. This is accomplished as follows: = (_ft_\ veq/@) (9) Gig) mes) = tt) 2.31 ft vn a/(2) (0) (1 ( 45) os) 231 ven] (2) (82.17) (2.31) (P) fe sec? . . Equation 4.1 v= (12.1912) YP (fvsec) Once the velocity is determined, the rate of flow in ft°%sec or gpm. can be calculated from Q= (A) (y) * Ifthe pressure difference in. Figure 4.3 is expressed in units of feet of water, the expression for velocity becomes Equation 4.2 v-V@ Oh) ‘This is the identical equation used in physics to calculate the velocity ofa falling body that has fallen from some height (h).” Perhaps the most common use of the pitot tube is to measure the velocity of water being discharged from an orifice. As pointed ‘out previously, there are no potential energy components in an open stream. Therefore, the pitot tube inserted into an open stream of water, such as a stream being discherged from a hyd- tant, measures only velocity pressure. After determining the water velocity, the flow rate should again be equal lu (A)(v), where A is now the crose-seetional arca of the stream. However, a problem now arises. Observations and68 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS experiments reveal that the actual cross-sectional area of the stream being discharged from an orifice is not the same as the area of the orifice. The stream actually contracts after it is dis- charged from an orifice or nozzle. The magnitude of contraction 4 depends on how the orifice or nozzle is constructed, but the point i of maximum contraction will occur at a distance of one-half the orifice diameter away from the orifice. This point of maximum . stream contraction is called the “vena contracta.”* 4 A coefficient of contraction can be established to reflect the ratio between the orifice or nozzle cross-sectional area and the cross-sectional area of the stream. Thus ; Goa x Ao . Where C, = coefficient of contraction. A, = cross-sectional area of the stream atthe vena contracta, A, = cross-sectional area ofthe orifice ornozzle. : So, now the equation for the flow rate (Q) becomes = (Ad) (Co) and, substituting for v Q = (Ao) (Ce) (¥(2) (9) (h)) x However, it has also been proven that the actual velocity of the} stream is not equal to the theoretical \/2gh, but is slightly less. ‘Therefore, a velocity coefficient has also been defined as the ratio] between the actual velocity and the theoretical velocity, such| that v | Cy ava vt 4 Where 3 : C, = the velocity coefficient. 7 Va the actual stream velocity. : ‘% the theoretical stream velocity. ‘The equation for the flow rate now becomes Q = (Ce) (Cy) (Ao) (OVS) HY) oeFlow Measuring Oevices 69 Now, if a single coefficient of discharge (C,) is defined as the product of C, and C,, the equation for Q becomes Equation 4.3 Q = (Cy) (Ao) (¥12) (G) (h)} ‘The values of Cy for different orifices and nozzles vary. Henke points out that for a standard sharp-edged orifice, the approxi- mate value of C, is 0.60 (Figure 4.4). Some other common nozzles “and their corresponding coefficients of discharge are shown in (Figure 4.5 on next page). For a more practical application, “quation 4.3 may be trans- formed through appropriate unit conversion into a form in which pressure readings in psi from the pitot tube can be used with the solution being directly in gpm. This is accomplished as fol- lows: pos Q= (Cy) (Add (YR) (G) ()) | 2° where Ao = (09 (FF (in)? Ao (0 (2) cn? gees ane white tes p03 PA EO vena Contracta Figure 4.4 A standard sharp-edged orice,70 Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Figure 4.5 Discharge coefficients of nozzles and common appliances, with D = internal orifice or nozzle diameter in inches. recalling also that h = (2.31) (P) (ft) and if P is the velocity pressure measured with a pitot tube, then Q=(8) (Ca) Ft (2) (2.31) (32.47) (P) (ft) 5) (in)? 4 lsec2 2, (4) (fh? Q = (0.785) (12.2323) (Cg) (D)2(¥F)) 7 Ge SO in ee) | Q = (0.06645) (Cg) (D)2¥F" (Flow Measuring Devices 71 and finally, converting {t/sec to gpm gives 2 80sec) (7.48 (7.48 gal | Q = (0.06645) (Cg) (0) Psi min !\ 93 Stata eaten Equation 4.4 Equation 4.4 is one of the more important formulas to the fire protection specialist. This is the formula used in converting pitot gauge readings into gpm during tests on hydrants, fire pumps, and fire department pumpers. Figure 4.6 shows several typos of pitot tubes and gauges. ‘Pa pitat tube gauge reads'26'psi when is held in a stream from a 2¥sinch hydrai a72) rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Venturi Meter ‘The venturi meter, when coupled with & differential man- / ometer, may be used to measure water velocity (Figure 4.7). The device consists essentially of a piece of pipe in which the cross-sec- tional area has been constricted. The pipe is tapped at the points of both maximum and minimum diameter, and the manometer is attached at these points. The difference in the heights of the - two mercury columns in the manometer represents the pressure difference existing inside the pipe at the two points. Since the manometer measures only potential energy components, the dif- ference in mereury column heights, 4h, as shown in Figure 4.7 will be 7 ane(Pteny) (22m) and, ifthe yenturi meter is installed horizontally, h, = hzand bh=P1-Pe wow ‘Therefore, if the difference between the heights of the mercury columns is measured, and this measurement is converted to feet of water, P,/w - P,/w will be known. Since it is also known that Q, = Q, and thus (At) (¥1) = (Aa) (Wa) then ; Ar) (va) vent Looking at Bernoulli's equation and substituting according to the relationship above gives Py WP vy ene Pea WEE hy wag weg th + Figure 47 & Verto metor wih siferental manometer. iiy ayaa Where any effects of pumps are acting equally at both points, and where the friction loss is considered negligible due to the small distance between the taps, and A h is used for Py/w - Pa/w, the equation becomes ah+ Oa afee @@ “taal (ao solving for v, gives Equation 4.5 9) (4h) fas) Aa! In the above equation, h is the difference in height between the mercury columns in the manometer after being converted to fect of water. Ay and Ay represent the cross-sectional areas of the meter at the two tap points, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Once v, has been calculated, the flow rate can be calculated from, — Q= As) (14) vi Labes noted that the actual velocity’ of water through the venturi meter is less than what would be theoretically predicted.® ‘To produce more accurate results, a coefficient can be used simi- lar to the coefficient of discharge (discussed in the section on pitot tubes). However, Equation 4.5 may often be used without adjustment for an approximation of fiow rate in a system. Example 4.2 Ifa venturi meter placed in a 6-inch water line has a constriction with a4-inch diameter, and the manometer shoivs a reading of 2 inches of mereury, how many gpm are flowing? — (9) (Ah) lay “Naa where An = (Zin of Hg)(1:13 fof H20) | 2 26 tt of Hou of Hg Flow Measuring Devices 73,74 Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS and Ay _ (03 (n)® _ (GP Ae mle (Pine then vi = 5.986 fusec After calculating v,, then Q, 1s 7 1 =(An) (i) Or = (8 HF 0) 01 = (9 8 in)*[ (6.986 ft/sec) Qy = 527.7 gpm Orifice Plate Meter : An orifice plate meter is similar in principle to a venturi? meter. However, the change of water velocity-is accomplished ¢ by using a plate with an orifice that is smaller than the diameter of the pipe in which it is placed (Figure 4.8). The theoretical] expression for the velocity of water through the orifice in plate, as derived from Bernoulli's equation; is the following: Figure 4.8 Anotilice plato motor with ait. {erential manometerFidw Measuring Devices 75 where Ah = pressure difference as read from the manometer. Ag = the cross-sectional area of the orifice. A; = thecross-sectional area of the pipe. Again, the theoretical value of vz does not equal the actual value. Also, the area of the stream is less than the area ofthe orifice. ‘Therefore, a coefficient of discharge (Ca) can be identified and Equation 4.6 adjusted as follows to yield velocities closer to those experimentally determined. Equation 4,7 (2) (g) <4 h) ‘Then, the flow rate can be calculated from v2 = (Ci) Qe = (Az) (va) Other Flow Meters ‘There are several other types of in-line flow meters available for fire protection applications. One type employs a small water- wheel which reflects the water velocity as it turns. The rotational velocity of the wheel is translated into gpm and an electronic digital readout is provided. Another type employs a pitot tube plus an additional pres- sure probe aimed downstream (Figure 4.9). The probe aimed downstream measures only the potential energy while the pitot tube measures total energy. The difference between the two is the velocity pressure. This velocity pressure is translated directly into gpm and is indicated on a readout dial (Figure 4.10 on next page). Figure 4.9 Flow meter showing proper orientation of probes.76 Fine PROTECTION: HYDRAULICS Figure 4.10 Flow meter with dicect gpm readout. SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 1. Hydrostatic and hydrokinetie principles have been used for the development of various flow measuring devices. 2. One of the more important hydraulics formulas for the fire protection specialist is = (29.83) (Ca) (0)? WP) 8. Bernoulli's equation is important in application of venturi a meters and orifice plate meters as flow measuring devices. ,25 4, Digital and other types of direct reading flow measuring ‘ instruments are becoming commonplace. -REFERENCES tarry E, Hickey, Hydraulics for Fire Protection (Quincy: National Fire Protection Association, 1980), pp. 191-202. Paul A. Tipler, College Physiés. (New York: Worth Pub- lishers Ine., 1987), p. 27. ®Russell W. Henke, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics (Read- ing: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1972), p. 83. ‘Henke 83. ‘Willis G. Labes, Hydraulic Systems for the Fire Protection Engineer (Chicago: Chicago Chapter of the Society of Fire Protec- tion Engineers, 1959)Fiow Measuring Devices 77 EXERCISES 41 Ifa hydrant has a Cy’of 0.8 and 22-inch diameter outlets, what flow would be reflected by the following pitot read- ings? a. 15 psi b, 40 psi ©. 65 psi 42, Ifahydranthas aC, of 0.9 and 27/16-inch diameter outlets, what flow would be reflected by the following pitot read- ings? a. 18 psi b. 87 psi ©. 62 psi 43 What is the coefficient of discharge of a 2¥s-inch hydrant outlet that is delivering 816 gpm when the gauge on a pitot tube reads 40 psi? u 4.4 Ifwater is flowing from a 1%-inch nozzle with a coefficient of discharge of 0.97 giving a pitot tube reading of 33 psi: a. What is the kinetic energy of the open stream in units | of feet of head? b, How many gpm are flowing? ate a 1%inch nozzle with a C, of 0.97. What pitot pressure would indicate a flow!of 500 gpm? | : °4,5 “Intesting a fire pump, it is desired to flow 500 gpm from 46 If a 575 gpm flow yields a pitot gauge reading of 78 psi from a nozzle with a coefficient of discharge of 0.97, what is the diameter of the nozzle? Liceusie 4.7. A venturi meter with a 6-inch diameter restriction is lo- cated in a 6-inch pipe and gives a reading of 3.4 inches of | mercury. How many gpm are flowing? ! 4.8 Ifa venturi meter installed in a 1%-inch pipe has a restric- : tion of 0.65-inch diameter, what flow rate in gpmisrefiected | by a 20-inch reading on the mercury manometer? 49 Ifa venturi meter installed in a 4-inch pipe has a 3-inch restriction and reads 2 inches of mercury, how many. gpm are flowing? ' 4.10 What is the velocity of water in f/sec through the restric- i : tion in a venturi meter yielding a manometer reading of | 2.6 inches of mercury? The restriction is 1%-inches in ! diameter, and the pipe in which the venturi meters instal- i led is 2V4 inches in diameter. \ 4.11 What reading in inches of mercury would represent a flow 0f320 gpmon the venturi meter described in Exercise 4.9? 4.12 What reading in inches of mercury would represent a flow of 16 gpm on the venturi meter described in Exercise 4.8?78 rine PROTECTION HYORAULICS 4.13 414 4.15 Selected answers are found on page 252. A fire pump discharges water into an 8-inch pipe in which ; a venturi meter is installed. If thé venturi restriction has adiameter of 6.5 inches, how many gpm would be reflected by a reading of 4 inches of mercury on the differential manometer? What flow would be represented by an orifice plate meter with a coefficient of 0.72 if the manometer reads 3 inches of mercury, the orifice is 2.5 inches in diameter, and it is |] installed in a 4-inch pipe? q What flow would be represented by an orifice plate meter’ with a coefficient of 0.68 if the manometer reads 4.5 inches ‘of merciiry, the orifice is 4.0 inches iu diameter, and it is installed in a 6-inch pipe?a ot —Friction Loss in Piping Systems 81 BE 4 Chapter 5 _ | Friction Loss in Piping ae i Systems ‘The concept of energy loss due to friction was introduced in Chapter 3;Hydrokinetics. A term was included in the Bernoulli's energy bdlance equation to compensate for these losses, resulting in Equation 3.6. Measuring the magnitude of this energy loss c between two points in a piping system is a relatively simple task, Piezometer tubes, differential manometers, or Bourdon gauges may be used to measure the head or pressure differences between points in a system. Any pressure difference between two points is a result of friction alone if pipe size is constant, the elevation does not change, and there are no pumps located between the points congidered. DETERMINING FRICTION LOSS While measuring pressure losses due to friction is rather simple, predicting the magnitude of friction loss using formulas and calculations is not a trivial matter. The magnitude of friction loss is affected by such variables as specific weight and viscosity of the fluid, pipe diameter, pipe length, pipe roughness, and fluid velocity. Because fluids react differently to ffiction at different velocities, no single formula has been established that can accu- rately predict friction loss over all velocity ranges. In fact, all friction loss formulas are empirical in nature; the formulas were developed by trying to match calculations to test results. For this reason, friction loss formulas should:be considered to yield approximate results at best. : Reynolds Number Water tzavels through a piping system in either a laminar state, a turbulent state, or come transition state in between (Fi- gure 5.1 on next page). At low velocities in which the fluid flows in parallel layers, the flow is called laminar. The fiow is turbulent82 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS 1 LAMINAR FLOW Figure §.1 Laminar and turbulent flow. at higher velocities where there is no definite pattern to the direction of the water particles. ‘The state of fiw of a fiuid-has traditionally been established mathematically through the calculation of a factor called the Reynoids number (Rx). The Reynolds number is calculated as follows: Equation 5.1 Re = V0) u Where oe. 7 Rg = theReynolds number. a v= mean fluid velocity in fusec. D = pipediameterin feet. » = kinematic viscosity of the fluid in A%/see. The kinematic viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of its absolute viscosity (Ib sec/ft?) to its mass density (Ib sec"). Table 5.1 contains values of the kinematic viscosities for certain liquids. Note that the kinematic viscosity varies with temperature. Different texts use different values of the Reynolds number to define laminar and turbulent flow. Jeppson considers a fluid to be in the state of laminar flow if its Reynolds number is 2,100 or less.’ For Reynolds numbers in excess of 2,100, the fluid is in the turbulent state. It has been established that fluids exhibit different friction loss characteristics in different flow states. ‘Thus, for the most accurate friction loss calculations, different formulas for the different flow states must be used. Ihe Darcy-Weisbach Method ‘The Darcy-Weisbach formula is widely used and yields good results. However, it has received little acceptance in fire protee-Fdetion Loss in Piping Systems 83 TABLE 5.1 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF CERTAIN LIQUIDS (Kinematic Viscosity’ = Tabular Value x 10°). ——— Medium — Medium Temp. Water Lubricating Fuel Gasoline oil Olt Kin. Vise. Kin.Visc. Kin.Vise. Kin, Vise. °F f/sec ft/sec tisec fPisec ee 40 1.664 477 6.55 0.810 50 1.410 280 5.55 0.765 60 1.217 188 475 0.730 70 4.059 125 442 0.690 80 0.93) 94 3.65 0.660 90 0.826 69 3.19 0.690 100 0.739 49.2 2.78 0.600 410 0.867 375 2.27 0.570 ee tion circles with respect to evaluating or designing water sys- ‘a tems. ‘The Darcy-Weisbach equation for evaluating the loss ofhead in a piping system is as follow: Equation 5.2 yeOWRO + (2) (g) (D) Where hy ead loss due to friction in feet. f =adimensionless friction factor. L ipelength in feet. v= fluid velocity in ft/sec. D ipe diameter in feet. = acceleration due te gravity (32.2 fUsec”). For laminar flow (Rg « 2100), the friction factor is Equation 5.3 {= 64 Re For turbulent flow, Nikuradse in 1933 established that f depends both on the magnitude of the Reynolds number and on the rela- tive roughness of the interior surface of the pipe.* Several differ- ent formulas have been proposed for application in situations84 cine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS involving different Reynolds numbers and pipe surface condi. tions. However, the Colebrook equation is considered a practi. cally reliable formula for calculating the friction factor for tur- bulent flow conditions and all pipe surface conditions.? The Cole. brook equation is as follows: : Equation 5.4, —1_ = (2) {lea eto + ata) (es (8-7) (0) (Re) GPS, . Where £ = thedimensionless friction factor. D actual inside pipe diameter in feet. e = diameter of pipe surface imperfections in feet. Solving for f using Equation 5.4 is difficult and can best be accomplished through computer assistance. Jeppson provides a simple Fortran algorithm in his text.* However, charts are also available which will yield values of f when Ry, e, and D are known. The charts are known as Moody diagrams (Figure 5.2). asian FLow (= oo 0.08) LETE TURBULENCE, ROUGH PIPES» oy bos oe \ oe 00 i |S |e ons) loz 7 ee Po vio - * loo g | i 5 y coos = | | 2 ons C, Tv gil i @ con & 5 0.025} \ $ g 7 g oa] \ ooo TSH «$67 PTA 486 cos ft émm 0.0004 a RIVETED STEEL 0.003003 099. oor} ie ! CONCRETE 0.001001 033. p.c002 “| j tooo srove Soeweoom 21830 casrinow Seosse eae coor | | Saivanrco ion Onou Bas ASPHALTED CAST IRON 0.0004 012, paca COMMERCIAL STEEL OR ony movant ine" coos ote oe oRAMmTUBNG Geese _bibis 20008 TerPanosa « 878i aU 4 56 REYNOLDS NUMBER R. S , CONSISTENT UNITS no? 2ugHs «$67 O08 j j Figure 5.2 Moody diagram. Reprinted wich permission from the Hydraulic InstituteFriction Less in Piping Systems 85 Example 6.1 IF epi of water (60°F) is flowing i’ ail’ B-nch Pipe, what is the Reynolds number? Is the flow laminar or turbulent? Solution: fie=v©) 7 B Qealy) v=. Q mr 5 -{S.gem |(ggease) sme) (1 Wire +445 oP: (x) (4 in)2)1449 gpm tee beep v= 0.032 ft/sec °F bo Cutie = 1219. Pieces 8107 Cee Table st Page 83 Mn Rg = (0.082 fUseo) (8/12 A) 7 x 10°) fR/sec “Example 5.2 If water (70°F) is flowing at a rate of 10 ft/sec in a 6-inch pipe, what is the Reynolds number? Is this lami- nar or turbulent flow? Solution: pe = 0) - BB 2 (10 fi/sec) (6/12 ft) (1.059 x 10°) f/see Re = 472,144 Fe Since Rg exceeds 2,100, the flow is turbulent.86 inc eRorection HyoRautics Example 6.3 If water (60°F) is flowing at a rate of 5 gpm through 2,500 feet of 8-inch pipe, how much energy (expressed in psi) will be lost due to friction? Solution: From Example 5.1 it is known that this is laminar flow and that Re = 1,753. ‘Thus aR) @@o) and where, for laminar flow f= 84 Re fa 64_ 1,753, f= 0.0365 then y= (0.0865) (0.082 tvs) (2500 i) (2) (32.2 fysec?) (8/12 ft) hy = (0-0385) (0.001024) (2500) (ft) 7 ~~~ 2) 2.2) (0.6867) ee hy= 0.0022 ft and, in psi Pr = (0.0022 ft) (0.433 psistt) P= 0.00095 psi ele Pe ant (eis) hh Che) Pe Pregeuce (Pai) he herque of Cguid (+) Sez Paap r-Friction Loss in Piping Systems 87 Example 5.4 What is the pressure lost, due to friction in psi, when water (70°F) flows through 300 feet of 6-inch cast-iron i pipe at a rate of 10 ft/sec? Solution: From Example 5.2 it is known that this is turbulent flow and Rg = 472,143. From the chart in the lower left-hand corner of the Moody diagram, the design value for e is found to be 0.00085 feet (Figure 5.2). Next, e/D is calculated to be the following: s 0.00085 ft 4 D™ @f2)t fe 0.0017 4 Do. i The nearly horizontal curves on the Moody diagram represent e/D. The curve most closely representing the alcalculated value of 0.0017 must be located. Interpo- lation between curves is appropriate. When the proper curve is located, it is followed to its point of intersection with a vertical line drawn above the value of the Reynolds number, in this case about 470,000, Note that, this will be between the 4 and 5 to the right of 10°. Once this point of intersection is established, the value of f is read from the right-hand margin of the diagram directly to the right of the intersection point. In this gj example, f is about 0.023, Then, WF (2) (9) (0) 8] jy = 10.028) (10 tse)? (300 1) (2) (32.2 fusec?) (6/12 ft) fy = (0.0135) (100) (800) (It 2) (82.2) (0.5) Shp 24.5 ft | and, in psi 21.5 ft) (0.433 psifit) 1.3 psi88 Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS ‘The Hazen-Williams Formula The Hazen-Williams formula is considered less accurate than the Darey-Weisbach formula, but is simpler to use and is the fire protection industry standard. Therefore, to comply with most nationally recognized standards, the Hazen-Williams for- mula must be used. In the first years of the 20th century, Gardner Williams and Allen Hazen began to examine recorded friction loss measure- ments produced by several dozen experimenters.® Their studies resulted in the development of a completely empirical formula that we now know as the Hazen-Williams friction loss formula, ‘This formula, along with friction loss tables computed from the formula, was published in 1903. The original form of the equation is as-follows: Equation 5.5 v= (1.318) (C) (RIP? (S)054 Where v = water velocity in ft/sec. R= thehydraulicradius in inches. S = theslopeof the hydraulic gradientin feet of head loss per foot ofpipe. . © = Hazen-Williams coefficient of roughness. Direct application of this formula will allow calculation of the water velocity giving a specified head loss. In the early 1900s (and even in the early 1970s) using such an exponential equation was tedious because it required the use of logarithms and slide rules. In fact, in 1905 Hazen and Williams began to market a slide rule designed to simplify the calculation. Countless other slide rules have been developed since that time. Electronic calculators available today make application of the formula routine. However, the formula in its original form is seldom of practical value to the fire protection specialist. It is more useful to have an equation which will yield the friction loss if the pipe size, pipe roughness, and flow in gallons per minute are known. Proper manipulation of the original formula, including changing water velocity in feet per second to gallons. per minute, and feet of head to psi yields the form of the equation commonly used in fire protection cireles.® ‘That is Equation 5.6 p, - (4-52) (Q)15 * (eytss (D487Friction Loss in Piping Systems 89 Where P, = thepressure lost to friction in psi/ft ofpipe. Q = theflowratein gpm. C - = theHazen-Williams coefficient of roughness. D__ = theinternal pipe diameter in inches. Before the widespread availability of electronic calculators, this form of the equation was no easier to use than the original form. Therefore, tables, graphs, and slide rules were developed. Tables of friction loss factors generated from the equation are contained in the appendices to this text. However, the direct use of the formula with calculators or computers is encouraged for greater versatility and to avoid interpolation. From examining this formula, much can be learned about friction loss. For example, Q is raised to the 1.85 power in the equation. That is almost Q”. When the flow rate is doubled, if all other things remain constant, the friction loss will increase by about four times. If the flow triples, friction loss will be almost nine times greater. Note that the pipe diameter is in the de- nominator of the right hand side of the equation. Any increase in pipe size will reduce friction loss if all other factors remain the same. If the diameter is doubled, the friction loss will be reduced by, a factor near 1/32, since D is raised almost to the fifth power. If the diameter is tripled, the friction loss will be reduced to about 1/243 of its original value. Pipe diameter is the single variable with the greatest impact on friction loss. ‘The American piping industry designates pipe size in units of inches. The size indicated will be the nominal inside diameter of the pipe. Pipe classes and schedules are also used to identify types of piping. For example, 4-inch Schedule 40 steel pipe will have an actual internal diameter of 4.026 inches; however, Schedule 10 pipe will have a diameter of 4.26 inches, while they both will have the same external diameter. Use of the actua. interior diameter with. the Hazen-Williams formula will yield different results than if the nominal diameter is used. Appendix A contains nominal and actual internal diameters for various pipe sizes and materials. ‘The Hazen-Williams coefficient of roughness (C) is a reflec- “tion of the interior condition of the pipe. Being in the de- nominator, large values of C indicate smooth pipe (reduced fric- tion loss), and smaller values of C reflect rough or deteriorating pipe (greater friction loss). Old, unlined cast-iron pipe may have a Cas low as 40, while new plastic pipe will have a C as high as 150. See Tables 5.2, 5.3, and 5.4 on next page for sample values of C for various ages and types of pipe.90 rnc PROTECTION HYDRAULICS TABLE 5.2 GUIDE FOR ESTIMATING THE HAZEN-WILLIAMS COEFFICIENT OF ROUGHNESS, C, FOR SITUATIONS INVOLVING MODERATELY CORROSIVE WATER Kind of pipe Value of Cast Iron, Unlined: 10yearsold 90 15yearsold 75 20 yearsold i 65 ‘30 yearsoid . 5 7 50 yearsold ~ 50 Cast Iron, Unlined, New 120 Cast iron, Cement lined 140 Cast Iron, Bitumastic Enamel lined 140 Average Steel, New 110 Asbestos—Cement 140 Reinforced Conerete 140 Plastic 150 t Reprinted with permission from the Fire Protection Handbook, 16th edition, Copyright© 1986, National Fire Protection Association, Quiney, MA 02269, TABLE 5.3 C-FACTORS REQUIRED FOR HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS OF SPRINKLER SYSTEMS PERNFPA13 Kind ofPipe C-Factor Unlined Castor Ductile Iron 100 Black Steel (Dry systemsincluding preaction) 100s, Black Steel (Wet and deluge systems) 1200 Galvanized (All systems) 420 Listed Plastic 150 ‘Cement Lined Castor Ductile Iron 140 ” Copper Tube or Stainless Steel 150 Reprinted with permission from NFPA 13-1989, installation of Sprinkler Systems, Copyright© 1989, National Fire Protection Association, Quiney, MA 02269, This reprinted material is not the official position of the National Fire Protection Association, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. ‘The Hazen-Williams formula, which is empirical, yields ay proximate results. The fire protection industry Lelieves that the formula gives results close enough to reality for practical appli: cations. Indeed, NFPA 13, the Standard for the Installation ofFriction ‘Loss in Piping Systems 91 TABLE 5.4 : VALUES OF C AS RECOMMENDED BY NFPA 24 (8) Kind of Pipe C-Factor Unlined Cast or Ductile Iron 100 Asbestos Cement, Cement Lined Castor | Duotile, Iron, and Steel 140 Fiberglass Filament Wound Epoxy, Polyethylene and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 150 [Reprinted with permission from NFPA 24-1987, Installation of Private Fire Service ‘Mins, Copyright© 1981, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02269, ‘This reprinted material is not the official position of the National Fire Protection Association, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. Sprinkler Systems requires use of the Hazen-Williams formula in calculating friction loss in hydraulic calculations,” and NFPA 24, the Standard for Outside Protection recommends its use.* P, = (4:52) (850 85 | (100)'-8"(6,065)487 7 Pj = 0.036 psift And, for the total loss over the 400 feeti (0.036 psistt) (400 ft) sae a = 44:4 psi92 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Example 5.6 ‘What size of Schedule 10 steel pipe should be specified to limit friction loss to a maximum of 0.02 psi/ft in delivering 1,000 gpm. Assume C = 140. Algebraically manipulating the Hazen-Williams for- mula permits the calculation of the required diameter as follows: 5, = (4.52) (Q) 185 (C)"85 (D487 7 os (a2 (Qy =n (oy 5 (PA) “as (sa (1000)*#5) ye (140)*-85 (0.02) D=6.42in P; ‘The 6.42 inches exceeds the internal diameter of 6-inch Schedule 10 piping. Therefore, 8-inch pipe must be specified since there is no standard pipe size between 6 and 8 inches. APPLICATION AND MANIPULATION OF THE HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA ‘The Hazen-Williams formula can be manipulated to develop ; relationships and equations which are useful in analysis of water systems. The Hazen-Williams formula in the form shown in Equ- ation 5.6 gives friction loss in psi/ft. By adding the term (L) to the numerator to represent pipe length, the loss in any length of pipe can be represented, and the equation becomes Equation 5.7 py a (4-52) (18 (C)*85 (0487 ~ Assuming that two different situations are to be represented, the friction loss for each would be as follows: Equation 5.8 Pry 2 (452) Qs)! 85 (Ly) “ent (oy887 |Friction Loss in Piping Systems 93 Equation 5.9 = (4:52) (Qa2}*5 (Le) (Ca)*85 (Dg)*87 If, for example, Ly = Ly, Cy 5.8is divided by Equation 5: Pn ey" Pre 12) Cy, and D; = Dp, and if Equation the following relationship results: or Equation 5.10 1.65 Pr =(Pra (St) The significance of Equation 6.10 is the following: In a given piping situation, if the friction loss for one fiow is known, the friction loss for any other flow can be quickly computed. Example 5.7 . ‘As.2,100' gpm flows through’a section of pipe; 58.8 psi are lost to friction. What would the friction loss be for same pipe at a flow of 1,500 gpm! The same kind of manipulation, holding three of the five variables constant, yields the following additional relationships: Equation 5.11 a =(0a (22) ps Equation 5.12 tonteas(Oa)”94 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Equation 5.11 is valuable in evaluating the results of hydrant flow tests, which will be discussed in Chapter 7, Testing and Analysis of Water Supply Systems. Example 58 If a hydrant flow test revealed that pressure dropped 38 psi from the beginning or statie pressure while 960 gpm was flowing, how many gpm would be flowing if the pressure dropped 52 psi? =(Q2)(211P* Q (oa\(B 7 (52 psi \°-5+ =(960 [32 psi a1 =( opm) 2 P Q) = 1,137 gpm Equation 5.12 is useful in developing equivalent. pipe lengths. For example, it might be desired to know what length of 8-inch pipe would give the same friction loss as some existing length of 6-inch pipe. Or in different terms, what is the 8-inch equivalent length of some length of 6-inca pipe? Example’5.9 illustrates this concept. sg ‘Ezample 5.9 What length of 6inch Schedule 40 pipe would ive the © same friction loss as 1,100 feet of 6-inch Schedule 40 pipe if both have a C of 100? ae Solution: Using Equation 5.12 me ae) then be=(1,100 f) (S.9zLin)**7 Le= 4,423 tt ‘Therefore, 4,423 feet of 8-inch pipe with C = give the same friction loss as 1,100 fect of 6-inch pipe with C = 100, and for any flow rate.Friction Loss in. Piping Systems 95 ‘The concept of equivalent pipe lengths is commonly used in hydraulic calculations. One of its most common applications is in establishing losses through pipe fittings such as elbows, tees, and valves. Tables and charts give the equivalent lengths for the various valves and fittings that might be found on a hydraulic system. SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 1. Accurate calculation of friction loss through piping systems is difficult. Empirical formulas are generally used which yield acceptable approximations. 2. The Darey-Weisbach formula is one of the most widely used methods of calculating friction loss in piping systems. 3. The Hazen-Williams formula is the fire protection industry's standard for calculating friction loss. 4, The Hazen-Williams formula can be manipulated to yield relationships useful in analyzing hydraulic systems. REFERENCES ‘Roland W. Jeppson, Analysis of Flow in Pipe Networks (Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science, 1977), p. 26. *Jeppson 25-26. *Ranald V. Giles, Schaum’s Outline of Theory in Problems of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962), p. 99. “Jeppson 39. 7 = SHunter Rouse, Hydraulics in the United States (Ames: Insti- tute of Hydraulics Research, University of lowa, 1976), pp. 74-76. "Fire Protection Handbook (Quincy: National Fire Protection Association, 16th edition, 1986), p. 27. ‘NFPA 13, The Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems (Quincy: National Fire Protection Association, 16th edi- tion, 1989), p. 58. SNEFPA 24, The Standard for Outside Protection (Quincy: National Fire Protection Association, 1987), p. 20. SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Hickey, Harry E. Hydraulics For Fire Protection. National Fire Protection Association: Quincy, MA, 1980, pp. 81- 102. Jeppson, Roland W. Analysis of Flow in Pipe Networks. Ann Arbor Science: Ann Arbor, MI, 1977, pp. 25-46. National Fire Protection Association. The Fire Protection Hand- book. National Fire Protection Association: Quincy, MA, 1éth edition, Sec. 17, Ch.2.96 eine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS EXERCISES : 5.1 Water is moving at a rate of 1 ft'/sec through a 24-inch’! main. What is the Reynolds number? Is the flow laminar or turbulent? (Liquid temperature is 70°F.) 5.2 What is the Reynolds number of gasoline flowing through a 1-inch rubber hose at a rate of 6 gpm? Is the flow laminar or turbulent. (Liquid temperature is 70°F.) . 5.8 What is the Reynolds number of a medium fuel oil being transported through an 8-inch pipe at a rate-of 650 gpm? Is the flow laminar or turbulent? (Liquid temperature is 10°F.) 5.4 For most fire protection applications will the flow be lami- nar or turbulent? Explain how you reached your conclusion, 5.5 Use nominal pipe diameters and the Darcy-Weisbach equ- ation to establish the friction loss in the following situa- tions: a. Water (60°F) flowing at 400 gpm through 1,000 feet of 6-inch unlined cast-iron pipe b. Water (70°F) flowing at 1,500 gpm through 600 feet of HI 8-inch unlined cast-iron pipe c. Water (70°F) flowing at 1,725 gpm throug one-half mile of 12-inch asphaitic lined cast-iron pipe : 4. Water (70°F) flowing at 300 gpm through 160 feet off . 4-inch steel pipe & ~_ & Water (70°F) flowing at 100 gpin through 15 feet of; | 2-inch copper tubing (use the e value for drawn tubing)" If gasoline (80°F) is flowing through 800 feet of 8-inch galt j 4 vanized iron pipe, how much pressure is lost to friction at 1,000 gpm? ae ef a 5.7 What maximum length of 4-inch unlined cast-iron pipe’ could be used to transport a medium lubricating oil (110°F) ata rate of 500 gpm with a resultant friction loss not exceed- ing 20 psi? 5.8 What minimum size of cement lined cast-iron pipe could be specified to transport a medium fuel oil (110°F) at a rate of 1,000 gpm a distance of 1,000 feet and not lose more than 20 psi to friction? 5.9 Use nominal pipe diameters and the Hazen-Williams for- mula with the following C-factors and recalculate the frie- tion loss for the situations described in Exercise 5.5: a. C = 100 b.C = 140 . C = 140 a J C = 150 2 YaFriction Loss in Piping Systems 97 ado From Exercises 5.5 and 5.9, what general conclusions can be drawn relative to friction loss as calculated by the two methods promoted in this chapter? .11 If0.8 psiis lost to friction as 65 gpm flows through a 1%4-inch / elbow, what would the equivalent 1%inch length of pipe be for this elbow? (Assume C = 120 and nominal pipe diameter) 5.12 If a beginning pressure of 80 psi is available at Point A when 1,000 gpm are flowing, what minimum size ofenamel lined cast-iron pipe‘must be used to deliver 1,000 gpm to Point B which is 1,000 feet away from Point A and has a pressure of 55 psi remaining at Point B? 5.18 If 6 psi is lost to friction in a section of pipe 800 feet long while 700 gpm are flowing, what is the C-factor of the pipe if the pipe diameter is 8 inches? 5.14 What is the pipe size if 700 gpm are flowing through 2,000 feet of CL 51 ductile iron pipe with a C of 140, and 22.0 psi are lost to friction? 5.15 Itis desired to have 65 psi available at the top of a building 140 feet high while 500 gpm are flowing. if the pressure available at ground level is 140 psi with 500 gpm flowing, what minimum size of Schedule 40 steel pipe with a C of 120 will be needed? Selected answers are found on page 253. :ae eee a i a Sysee |Analysis of Looped and Gridded Piping Systems 101 Chapter 6 Analysis of Looped and Gridded Piping Systems This chapter is a continuation of Chapter 5, Friction Loss In Piping Systems, and deals with the more complicated issues of determining how much pressure is lost as water travels through looped or gridded piping systems. In either piping ar- rangement, determining pressure loss becomes an energy balanc- ing exercise. Bernoulli's equation and.tlie concept of conservation of energy is valuable in many applications, such as solving fric- tion iosses in loops and grids. DETERMINING FRICTION LOSS IN LOOPS AND GRIDS The traditional appfoach to solving for pressures lost to fric- tion in loops and grids is to first determine how the water divides into each leg or pipe of the loop or grid. How the water gets from one point to another is not important, only thet it gets there. However, we must know how the water divides to compute the friction loss. The techniques for determining how water divides through simple loops will be discussed first. Simple Loops A simple loop will be defined by the following: v © There is exactly one inflow point and one outflow point. * Exactly two paths exist between the inflow and outflow | —3 points. . Figure 6.1 illustrates several simple loops. Note that there is never more than one inflow or more than one outflow point. Notice that there are only two possible ways to get from the inflow point to the outflow point. : Any deviation from the definition will give erroneous results when using the techniques presented in this chapter. For exam- Figure 6.1 Examples ol simale lope102 cine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS ple, if there are three paths or two outflow points, the methods for calculating friction loss presented in this first section will not work. There are additional concepts that must be understood to successfully deal with simple loops. These are as follows: ‘© The total flow coming into the loop must equal the flow , leaving the loop. This is the Principle of Conservation of Matter. Water must not be created nor disappear some- ~ where within the loop. ‘© The total flow must be equal to the sum of the fiow in Path 1 plus the flow in Path 2, or Qr= Qi + Q 7 ‘© The friction loss must be equal in both paths. This is the concept of conservation of energy. For any beginning pres- sure at the inflow point, ifdifferent magnitudes of friction loss existed in each path, two different pressures would exist at the outflow point. It i simply not possible to have two different pressures existing at the same point at the same time. Thus, the friction loss in each leg or path must be the same. © The total friction loss across a simple loop is the friction’ loss in either path, not the sum of the friction losses in’ the two paths. Or, eis i Pa = Pa = Pp Bs With the definition of a simple loop and an understanding: of these four principles, techniques can be promoted to solve for= the friction loss across a simple loop. For example, consider the’ situation illustrated in Figure 6.2 In this case, it is desired to know how much pressure is lost to friction as 100 gpm flows” from Point A to Point B. Several methods are available to solve the problem. Two methods will be introduced in this text.“ METHOD I ‘The first is a trial and error method that is very simple. A guess is made as to how the water flow might divide into the two loops. New guesses are made until the two flows yield equal friction loss. Using the Hazen-Williams formula, what would be the frie- tion loss calculations if the first guess is 35 gpm through Path 1, and 65 gpm through Path 2? Path 1: 1.85 7 = 452) (95. gpm)*9 (40) 14.5 5g) (120)'-89 (1.049)487Analysis of Looped and Gridded Piping Systems 103 ea) per C= 120 EO Schedule 40 Steel Figure 6.2 A simple loop with two different pipe diameters, Path 2: p, = (4:52) (65 apm)" (40) «4 7 ogi (120)"88 (2.067)4-87 It is obvious that 1.7 psi is not equal to 14.8 psi, so a solution has not been reached. Another guess must be made;and another | until the friction loss in each leg is equal. From a practical standpoint, it is usually considered acceptable if balance is achieved to within + 0.5 psi. There is little real value in pursuing answers more accurate than that. The final solution to the exam- ple problem reveals that approximately 14 gpm will flow through Path 1 and 86 gpm through Path 2 yielding friction loss of 2.7 psi and 2.9 psi, respectively. Although 2.7 does not equal 2.9, sthe two are considered close enough and the higher of the two “would-be used. Therefore, the total pressure lost to friction as 100 gpm flows from Point A to Point B would be 2.9 psi (not 2.9 + 2.7). a Using Method 1 is slow and tedious at best. It was presented ! here to reinforce the principle that the flow will split in such Proportions that the resulting pressure loss will be equal in each path,. Method I would rarely be used since there are faster and more direct methods. Let’s turn our attention to one of these. METHOD I 7 ‘The solution to the previous problem can be reached directly through application of the following equation: Equation 6.1104 rine pRoTecTION HYDRAULICS Where Qa Qr = the total flow across the loop. L, =thelengthofPathi. =< L, = thelength of Path 2. An important problem exists with this formula. Note that no consideration is given to pipe diameters or pipe roughness, * Therefore, Equation 6.1 is only good for loops where all pipe is of the same diameter and has the same C-factor. If the two ‘paths or legs have different diameters or C-factors, one of the pipes must be converted mathematically into some equivalent length of pipe with an identical diameter and C-factur. This anay be accomplished by using the following equation, which is simply an expanded version of Equation 5.12. Equation 6.2 De\#87 (69\1.95 =L(=2) Ze] teotiloel Lee) Where L, = thenew equivalentlength. Ly = theoriginal length. D, = theoriginal diameter. D, = the diameter of the new equivalent length. C, = theoriginal C-factor. C. = theC-factor of the new equivalentlength. In the example illustrated in Figure 6.2, one of the pipes must be changed into some equivalent length having the same’ diameter and C-factor as the other. For example, we can change the 2-inch pipe into some equivalent length of 1-inch pipe. Since both have thesame C-factor, the calculation would beas follows: Le = (40 ft) (1.049 in *®7 (120 11-85 _ 4 47 o= (40H) erin) (180 se This calculation tells us that 1.47 feet of 1-inch pipe gives the same friction loss as 40 feet of 2-inch pipe. With this informa- tion, Equation 6.1 can now be used to calculate the flow split across the loop. If the original 1-inch leg is considered to be Path 1, then the flow through Path 1 is Qa -— een 14.4. gpm 7 1+(40_)° ’ ‘The flow Uhrough Path 2 is most easily calculated from the‘follow- ing: Qe = Qr - Qj = 100 - 14.4 = 85.6 gpm| | I | | Analysis of Looped and Gridded Piping Systems 105 ‘The pressure lost to friction can then be calculated using either flow, since the friction loss in either path must be the same. Also, by calculating the friction loss in both legs and com- paring the results, a check can be made for calculation errors. Example 6.1 Compute the pressure lost to friction between Points A and B (Figure 6.3). Since all pipe is 4-inch and C = 100, a oP = 502 gpm +89) Q2 = 780 -.802 = 278 gpm Friction loss through Path 1 is then: p, = l452) (502)'-85 (100) _ Jol pal (100)'-85 (4.026)487 oa To check the results for, correctness, friction loss through the other path may also be computedas follows: Pre. (4.52) (278)'-®5 (300) 2102 psi (100)"-85 (4.026)4-87 Since the difference in friction loss in the two paths is lessthan 0.5 psi, the answers are considered acceptable. © = 100, Schedule 40 Figure 6.3 Wustration for Example 6.1.106 cine PRorectiON HYDRAULICS Determine’the friction loss between Points A’ and B_ igure 6.4), Since the two pipes have different diamet- ers and C-factors, one must be changed into an equiva- lent length’having the saine diameter and C-factor as the other! Changing the $-inch into 2-inch pipe gives +87 (420 1185 _ sea tgs a) Cag «on ‘Therefore, 16.4 feet of 2-inch pipe with a C of 120 gives the same friction loss as 80 feet of 2-inch pipe with a C of 100. Now, solving for the flow in Path 1 gives BG psi un Reales) All Schedule 40 bias Figure 6.4 lustration for Example 6.2, 7 Attention will now be turned to the more complicated issue of complex loops. Piping arrangements involving multiple loops are often referred to as grids. Complex loops typically have a more practical application since city water supply systems are all of gridded design. Also, many industrial underground fire systems or building sprinkler systems are also of gridded design.Analysis of Looped and Gridded Piping Systems 107 A complex loop (which will also be referred to as a grid in 4 this text) is a piping system characterized by one or more of the ‘ following: *. More than one inflow point exists. * More than one outflow point exists. * More than two paths exist between inflow and outflow : points. i Notice that the existence of any one of the above is sufficient to characterize the system as complex. All three of the situations do not have to exist. Therefore, all of the systems illustrated in Figure 6.8 qualify us complex. Figure 65 Examples of complex loops, ‘The Hardy Cross Method is a technique used for solution of i these gridded systems. Professor Hardy Cross developed this method in the era between the World Wars when computers were nonexistent. A manual ard practical technique was needed .% solve the complicated problems involving gridded under- ground water supply systems. Professor Hardy Cross developed an iterative energy balance approach. Essentially this means that you keep on trying, getting closer and closer, until finally you reach an acceptable stopping point. This method has been the most commonly used approach until the development of more efficient mathematical techniques assisted by computers. Today many modern computer programs still employ the Hardy Cross approach.108 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS ae ‘The following discussion is not intended to provide an exhaustive coverage of the method. Many fluid mechanics texts provide excellent coverage of the methodology. However, the | fundamentals will be presented here because some automatié sprinkler design computer programs-use the method, and a knowledge of the technique is currently required for:completion of portions of the professional engineering examination for the , fire’ protection discipline. 7 The following summarizes the calculation steps that ap- ‘7 peared in the paper entitled, “A Rapid Method of Analyzing Flow in Water Distribution Systems Based on the Theory Developed * by Professor Hardy Cross.” This paper was written by T. Francis O'Conner who was a sanitary engineer for thé U.S. War Depart. ment. This method turns out to be a tedious and time-consuming process full of opportunities to make mistakes. Any mistake, of course, makes the process more tedious and time-consuming. The use of the Hardy Cross Method requires the following 10 steps to complete the process. Two example problems will be solved in Examples 6.3 and 6.4 Step : Always start by making a simple line diagram showing all inflow points and outflow points, all pipe diameters, pipe lengths, and pipe C-factors. Step 2: Number each line or pipe with an Arabic numeral... Each pipe of different flow, diameter, or C-factor must be numbered. A pipe common to two loops will have only a single number. ; Step 3: For systems with multiple loops, number each loop with a Roman numeral or with an alphabetic designa- tion. For any complex system, except those defined by* the simple existence of multiple inflows or outflows (for example, type A from Figure 6.3), one or more imaginary loops must be created. The number of imagi- nary loops should equal the number of inflow points. ‘The purpose of the imaginary loops is to make sure that every pipe appears in two loops. Step 4: Next, estimates of flows in every pipe must be made. One of the most critical requirements is that conserva- tion of matter must exist for the system and at each junction or intersection point. That is, the flow coming into any point must equal the flow going out. Further, the flow coming into the system must equal the flow going out. Step 5: All pipes or lines must be converted to an equivalent length of 8-inch pipe with a C value of 100, so that the : traditional nomograph may be used (Figure 6.6). Note 7 kL that friction loss on the nomograph is given in units| Analysis of Looped and Gridded Pipi of feet of head. All data must be copied onto the Hardy Cross worksheet, Where multiple loops exist, the data for the individual loops are grouped together with at least two spaces maintained between the loops for sep- The Hardy Cross Nomograph Figure 6.6 The Hardy Cross nomograp>.116 eine PROTECTION HYORAULICS aration. It is not necessary to input data for each pipe twice, but every pipe must be shown to exist in two loops. Step 6: An essential aspect of the process is that flows must be designated as positive or negative. Flows in a clockwise direction around a loop are considered posi- tive and in a counterclockwise direction negative. Re. ” member that in multiple loop systems, each pipe ap- Pears in two loops. In one loop, the flow will be positive and in the adjacent loop, it will be negative. The flow in an individual pipe will never have the same sign in different loops. a Step 7: With.all data copied onto the worksheet, the friction loss for each pipe is either calculated from the Hazen. Williams formula or read from the Hardy Cross nomog. raph (Figure 6.6). If the nomograph is used, a straight edge is positioned at the flow on the left and at the pipe length on the right. The friction loss is then read from the friction loss line. A value for 1.85 W/Q can also be read from the nomograph or calculated. The value of h is the friction loss for the pipe, and Q is the. flow through the pipe. If using the nomograph, h will have units of feet of head. : ‘The Hazen-Williams formula, of course, yields friction loss in psi. It is important to give a positive or negative sign to the friction loss to correspond with the sign of the flow. However, the value of 1.85 /Q is always Positive. 7 Step 8: The values for the friction in the pipesare added algeb- taically to get a separate total for each loop. The values for 1.85 h/Qare also summed for each individual loop. Step 9: This step applies only for a system without multiple : loops (for example, type A from Figure 6.3). The sum of the friction loss in the loop is divided by the sum of the values for 1.85 h/Q. The result of this division is the correction factor. The - correction factor should be rounded off to the nearest 10 gpm, the sign must be changed, and then this corree- tion is added algebraically to the previous flow esti- mates for each pipe. Each pipe now has anew corrected flow and Steps 7, 8, and 9 are repeated. This repetitive Process is continued until the absolute value of the sum of the friction loss is less than or equal to 0.5 psi (for example, 0.2 or -0.3 psi) or 1 foot of head. When this is accomplished, a good estimate of the flow split and friction loss has been established, rr| Analysis of Looped and Gridded Piping Systems 111 Step 10: The process for the multiple loop systems is more com- plicated because a double correction is actually re- quired for each pipe. A correction for each loop is created in an identical manner described in Step 9. However, for each pipe, a second correction is taken hy finding the second loop in which the pipe appears and bringing the correction for that loop, without changing the sign, up into the first loop in which the pipe appears. Thus, each pipe will have a double correc- tion. Note that the total correction for different pipes in the same loop need not be the same. After corrections are made, it is important to check again to see that the flows cuning int each point equal the flows going out. This process is repeated and continued for all loops until again the sum of the absolute value of the friction loss in all loops is less than or equal to 1 foot of head or 0.5 psi. It is important to note that corrections must continue to be made in ail loops as long as corrections are needed in any loop. Examples are usually necessary to understand most mathematical procedures. Two examp] les will be presented. First, let’s look at the less complicated case of a complex system involv- ing only a single loop, but more than one outflow point. Baas Determine the pressure lost ‘o friction bebyeen Points F A and Bas: * C igure __ Aftar drawing te line diagram « AIC = 100 suv gpm , Figure 6.7 tustraton lor Example 6.3 and labeling the pipes uu gpm112 Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS established (Step 4). As long as conservation of matter exists, the values of these first estimates are not impor- tant, although intelligent guesses will allow arriving at a solution in fewer iterations. In this example, 400 gpm is estimated to flow from the : inflow point into Pipe 1 toward Point B and being Clockwise it is given a positive sign. This leaves 600 gpm to flow from A to C (1,000-400) in Pipe 2 and will bear a negative sign. If 500 gpm goes out at Point C, this leaves 100 gpm to flow to Point B through Pipe 3. This 100 gpm will also be negative and will combine with the 400 gpm in Pipe 1 to give the total outflow of ~ 800 gpm at Point B. Notice the conservation of matter at all junction points. All values are then copied onto the worksheet (Figure 6.8); pipes are changed into 8-inch, friction loss and 1.85 h/Q are established for each pipe, and the correc- tions made. The solution is achieved in this case within, two corrections, The friction loss between A and B may bbe computed over either path and is found to be approx- imately 7 feet of head or 3.0 psi. ome] es) =] ome] oo em Sess] Sa " [-e feee] atu] * [ees] oca -130| 270|+8 |.05 |-20 |250] +7 |.05 130} 7301-55] 05 |-20 L506 of ors) | ol-230/-13 ou F-20 basal. | or All {2 Lover to “5S A0TK 6 Figure 68 Waahen or Exange 6 Example 6.4 Determine the pressure lost to friction between Points A and B in the piping system shown in Figure 6.9). There are two sources of supply, A and C, delivering 8,000 gpm to Point B. First steps again involve making a. line drawing similar to Figure 6.9. Note that all pipes have been labeled as well as the loops. However, in this multiple-looped sys- tem, two imaginary loops have been created because of the two inflow points. Imaginary Loop I is composed of Pipes 1, 2, 8, and 4. Imaginary Loop Il is composed: Analysis of Looped and Gridded Pining systems 113 Vv Paths eye S00 leetof Sinch | S00 oot of Cinch ood GPM hee Figure 6.9 Iustration for Example 6.4. of Pipes 1, 8, 7, 6, 5, and 4. Notice that with these two . imaginary loops, every pipe will now appear in two ® loops. All. pipe is changed to 8-inch, C =100, and flow £. estimates aré'made keeping in mind conservation of * matter and proper s sign notation. , Sign notation in imaginary loops is often difficult to visualize. If this is the case, simply go to thé real loops to define the sign. The sign notation for any pipe will ‘then be the opposite when it appears in its second loop. ‘With the flow estimates in hand, the friction and 1.85 W/Q are established for each lég in every loop befere any correction is made. The worksheet and computa- tions for this problem are shown in Figure 6.10 on next page. Notice that a double correction is made for each pipe. Notice that the solution has not been arrived at until all loops have achieved an absolute value of the sum of the friction loss of 1.0 foot or less (0.5 psi or less). After the solution has been reached, thé friction loss between A and B may be computed by adding the fric- tion loss across any path joining the two points. Mis- i! takes can be made in this step if simple algebraic addi- + tion is used rather than considering how the water is actually flowing. Remember, each flow has both a posi- live aud siegative sign, depending upon which loop is being considered.114 cine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS LooPt- Loop Loop iv dA 124) 19103) Lo: Lz9[051 291031 TS k= steal feos fio Figure 6.10 Worksheet for Example 6.4 Loop Vv By adding the losses in Legs 1, 8, and 7 (without consider- ation of sign) from the final friction losscol: lumn on the worksheet, the friction lossis found to be approximately 73 feet or 31.6 psi. After a few exercises using the Hardy Cross Method, stu dents are typically at the point of changing majors or lynching Professors. However, computer programs are now available to simplify the process. Understanding of the manual method will assist in understanding the input required for many programs and will contribute toward a greater appreciation for the com putor and computer programmers. Other iterative techniques, such as the Newton-Rhapson Method, are also utilized with the computer. In most cases, these ——_—_—_Analysis of Looped and Gridded Piping systems 115 techniques provide more efficient use of the computer so that the number of iterations required to converge toward a solution are minimized. Jeppson provides a good summary as well as several programming approaches in his text.” SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 1. The flow through one leg of a simple loop can be directly computed if-all pipe diameters and C-factors are the same from: 2. A simple equation for changing a pipe of one diameter and C-factor into some equivalent length of another diameter and C-factor is: De\487 (C5185 =L,(Be}'”" (Ce) 7 (pe) e| 3. Gridded systems have traditionally been solved by a manual iterative approach known as the Hardy Cross Method. 4. Computer programs have replaced the tedious and time-con- suming manual method of solving for friction loss in gridded systems. - REFERENCES ‘Roland W. Jeppsoh, Analysis of Flow in Pipe Networks (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Ann Arbor Science, 1977), p. 37-41.116 cine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS EXERCISES 6.1. Solve for the flow split and pressure lost to friction in the simple loops shown in Figure 6.11 a through {: Corry vend past Figure 6.11 lustraton for Exercise 6.1. 6.2. Solve for the flow split and pressure lost to friction in the simple loops shown in Figure 6.12 a through f. rae cocnd 200 fect . Taser . OOD aT ST Figure 6.12 tlustration for Exercise 6.2. 4.850 gpmAnalysis of Looped and Gridded Piping Systems 117 6.3. What length of 8-inch cement-lined cast-iron pipe with C = 140 will give the same friction loss as 420 feet of 6-inch unlined cast-iron pipe with C = 100? For what flows will this equivalent length give the same friction loss? 6.4, What length of 4-inch unlined cast-iron pipe with © = 100 will give the same friction loss as 2,500 feet of 12-inch un- lined cast-iron pipe with C = 100? Verify your answer at flows of 500 gpm, 1,000 gpm, and 1,500 gpm. 6.5. Use the Hardy Cross method to determine the pressure lost, to friction between Points A and B in the systems shown in Figure 6.13 a through c. 8.6. Use the Hardy Cross Method ta determine the pressure lost to friction between Points A and B in the systems shown in Figure 6.14 a through c. Selected answers are found on page 253. 7 edcastiron ° Be oT "7 575 feet of 10-inch aa 300 feotof 10-inch © esotetof s:nch 1,000fet0t Reo gop irae ‘inch ie ceo | EERE Figure 6.13 tlusvation for Exercise 65. Figure 6.14 lustration for Exercise 6.6.; Testing and a ee aaaned | ae : © Stpply SetomeTesting and Analysis of Water Suns Systeme 121 f u i ‘ ; Chapter 7 - Testing and Analysis of Water Supply. Systems Tests conducted to establish the capabilities of water supply systems are often referred to as flow tests because they involve flowing fire hydrants. The objective of a flow test is to establish quantity (gallons per minute) and pressures available from a particular water supply system... ~ FLOW TESTING ‘To accomplish this objective mathematically is tedious and will yield only approximations, even when using the most sophis- ticated computer programs. This is because the actual internal condition of thee pipes, effective diameters of the pipes, and exis- tence of partially or completely closed valves or other obstruc- tions can only be estimated. Therefore, actual flow testing is the best method to establish the quantities and pressures available at a particular location. A single test will yield results only good for the immediate vicinity of the test hydrant. This is because the water supply available from péint to point on a system will vary due to eleva- tion and friction loss. Higher parts of a community will typically have lower pressures available than low lying areas. Also, those areas near pumping stations or those areas supplied by large : diameter circulating mains will have better water supplies than remote areas supplied by small diameter dead-end piping. ‘The magnitude of water consumption nearby can also have an impact. If a factory“is using large volumes of water in a manufacturing process, the pressures and flows remaining for fire protection purposes may be affected. Not only will the water supply be different from location to location, but it also may change over time at the same location. This can result from Population increases where greater domestic and industrial cou- sumption leaves reduced amounts and pressures of water avail- able.122 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Piping corrosion and deterioration can also result in greater Pressure losses to friction and reduced carrying capacity of the pipe. In addition, changes can occur in the system. Many of these changes can be for the better, such as replacement of old maing or looping and gridding of dead-ends. However, any changes may have an impact upon the water supplies available. Because of these factors, the most practical method of establishing the actual’ water supply available at a particular location and time is to conduct hydrant flow tests. Equipment For Flow Testing ‘The following is a list of the basic équipment. neaded to conduct flow tests. z Pitot tube and gauge Tapped hydrant cap and gauge © Ruler © Hydrant and spanner wrenches © Elbow Smoothbore nozzle or playpipe Most of the equipment is available from dealers who sell fire protection equipment or it can be constructed, One of the ~ most essential items on the list is the pitot tube and gauge which ~ come in several different styles. However, in all styles they will have a thin blade with a small diameter opening in the blade! The blade is inserted in a flowing stream and the water velocity Pressure is refiected on the gauge. Some pitot tubes will have an air chamber extending past the gauge to form a handle. This. air chamber serves as a shock absorber and will reduce needle vibration on the gauge. Use of a liquid-filled gauge can ac- complish the same thing. Examples of pitot tubes are shown in Figure 7.1. Most pitot tubes are hand held; however, some can be at- tached to the hydrant itself. This type comes with various orifice Sizes to allow increasing system velocities for better Pitot read- ings. : A hydrant cap that has been tapped so that a standard test gauge can be scréwed into it is also essential (Figure 7.2). This cap will often have a small valve installed. This permits evacuat- ing the air when the hydrant is being turned on and equalizing the suction pressure when a dry barrel hydrant is draining back after being turned off. A small ruler is needed to measure the actual diameter of hydrant outlets. Practically any ruler will work. Pocket cards with hydraulic tables are even available with one edge printed asa ruler.Testing and Analysis of Water Supply Systems 123 Figure 7.2 Hycrant cap and gauge. On a public water system it will be the responsibility of the water utility or the fire department to open the hydrants. Fire hydrants belonging to the.city or water utility company should only be opened by their personnel. In these situations, you will probably not need the hydrant wrenches or spanner wrenches. However, these tools must be available for a private system with private hydrants if the hydrants are to be tested and for fire fighting operations. Having a 2¥einch elbow fitting will allow directing the stream away from the hydrant, During the test there is the possibility that thousands of gpm will be flowing onto the ground. Redirecting the stream is important where drainage, erosion, or traffic conditions pose a problem (Figure 7.3). Figure 7.3 Elbow fiting124 rine protection HYDRAULICS One point of difficulty involving the elbow is flow calculation, ‘The basic equation used to transform pitot pressures into gpm (as presented in Chapter 4, Flow Measuring Devices) requires the use of a specific mathematical coéfficient depending on whether the flow is from a hydrant.outlet or a hose nozzle. There is no factor for an elbow. Therefore, in conjunction with an elbow, a straight stream nozzle or an Underwriter’s Playpipe must be * used (Figure 7.4), 7 Also, when the flow from a hydrant isso poor that no pressure registers on the pitot tube gauge, reduction of the diameter of the outlet with a nozzle can increase the stream velocity enough to provide a pressure reading. Installing a smaller nozzle ac- complishes this (Figure 7.5). With the required test equipment available, we can look at the general test procedure. General Test Procedure : 7 Choose a hydrant as close as possible to the location in ques- tion and place the tapped cap with gauge on the hydrant and open it. This hydrant will be called the ¢est hydrant, All of the test data taken will be relevant at this location. To make the test results relevant at other nearby locations may require addi- tional friction loss and elevation calculations. Once the gauge is in place and the hydrant turned on, read and record the pressure. This pressure is called the static pres- sure, since no test water is flowing at this time,p-Speghiomipnbage eens: Next, at one or more nearby hydrants, remove a cap and open the hydrant. These are called flow hydrants. Use the pitot tube to measure the velocity'pressure of the flowing stream. The pitot pressure recorded will be converted to gpm by the formula described in Chapter 4, While the pitot reading is being taken at the flow hydrant, the pressure at the test hydrant must also be recorded. The pressure at the test hydrant while water is flowing is called the residual pressure, because it represents the pressure remaining in the system while the test water is flowing. With the recording of the residual pressure and the pitot pressures, three pieces of data have been obtained: the static pressure, the residual pressure, and the pitot pressures. To have any real meaning, a flow test must result in these three pieces of information. Once obtained, this data can. be used for mathematical or graphical analysis of the water supply at the test hydrant location. Before looking at more specific testing techniques or the analysis method, let’s look at converting pitot pressures into the number of gpm flowing. The equation used for this conversion is the one presented in Chapter 4. Equation 7.1 Q = (29.83) (Cg) (0)? WP) ‘This formula allows computation of gpm flowing from a noz- ule, hydrant outlet, or orifice. As indicated in Chapter 4, applica- tion of the formula requires that you know D and C and have measured P. Using a caktulator that can perform square roots, the flow can be easily computed. Should you choose not to make ‘the calculations yourself, numerous tables and charts are avail- able which convert pitot readings directly to gpm. Tables of this type are included in Appendix J. Once this conversion is made, the data is complete for analysis of the water-supplies. Before weget to that, however, let’s look ata few specific test techniques. SPECIFIC TEST TECHNIQUES | Establishing Hydrant Coefficients 7 First, you should always check the fiow hydrants to deter- mine what coefficient of discharge to use in the formula. This is ‘ot important on the test hydrant since no water flow is measured there. Fire hydrants are traditionally described as coming in three basic designs (Figure 7.6 on next page). In most modern designs, the shoulders where the hydrant nozzle or outlet connects to the tarrel are rounded. This is the most favorable design, and the | efficiont of discharge for this hydrant is 0.9. If the shoulders ‘te squared off, the coefficient is 0.8. In some rare cases, the Nozzle may actually protrude into the barrel. This design would Testing and Analysis of Water Supply Systems 125,126 inc PROTECTION HYDRAULICS outter ROUNDED] Cds0.9 Figure 7.6 Siyies of hydrant outlets Teceive a coefficient of 0.7. You can ece that ignoring the coefficient of discharge in the equation could introduce error as. ~ high as 30 percent, Coefficients for straight stream hose nozzles | | are about 0.99 with the Underwriter’s Playpipe being about 0.97. | + Determining the coefficient of discharge of a hydrant does not involve a very sophisticated technique. In fact, you simply stick your fingers into the opening and feel it. People with large hands or short fingers may find it helpful to remove the cap from the pumper outlet, or steamer connection, to gain access to the inside of the 2¥4-inch opening. In a few cases the coefficiont of discharge may be stamped onto the hydrant, pew Measuring The Diameter Of The Hydrant Outlet Another important technique is to measure the diameter of, the hydrant opening or nozzle tip to the nearest sixteenth of an - inch. This is important because even an error of one-sixteenth of an inch can result in more than a 5 percent error in calculated results. Also, the 2¥%-inch outlet may actually be as small as 24 inches or as large as 2 9/16. It sounds strange, but you cannot assume a 2¥4-inch outlet will be 2¥ inches in diameter. PERSIE 9 ss Using The Pitot Tube Another important technique is to hold the opening in the blade of the pitot tube one-half the diameter of the nozzle opening away from the nozzle (Figure 7.7). This point is where the stream size is smallest and the stréam-velocity is greatest. The formula for Q assumes that the pitot pressure will be measured at this Point. Holding the pitot tube at other locations in the stream will result in less accurate calculations. It is also important to hold the tube so that the air chamber is slightly elevated and to make sure the water has been drained out of the tube prior to each use. This will help reduce gauge needle vibration. Selection Of Hydrant Outlets The formula for gpm also assumes that the stream being’ le used will be a full stream at the point where the pitot reading { ™"*74 Testing and Analysis of Water Supply Systems 127 ! Figure 7.7 Taking a ptot reacing. is taken. However, when water flows from the 4¥-inch pumper outlets there are actually void spaces in the stream. For this reason the 2¥2-inch outlets should always be used when possible. Ifthe large pumper outlets must be used, conversion factors must be used to improve the accuracy of the results, A table of these conversion factors is contained in Appendix K. Cheosing Hydrants Another basic principle is to flow hydrants downstream of the test hydrant where possible. This will ensure that the test results are truly valid at the test hydrant. In Figure 7.8, whére the water main is dead-end, the test hydrant should be the one closest to the building in question. The obvious choice for the flow hydrant would be the one to the right, since it isdownstream. i] 3 | The only way that the water in this situation could get to the sire Heeepatonet smtmerneiti BUILDING TEST FLOW HYDRANT HYDRANT. € Faure 7.8 Correct locations of test and flow hydrants on a dead-end main.128 pine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS flow hydrant is to pass by the test hydrant. Thus, we know that any flow available at the flow hydrant is also available at the ~ test hydrant and at the pressures indicated on.the test hydrant - gauge. However, if the left or upstieam hydrant were used as the flow hydrant, no conclusion could be made regarding the flow and pressure available at the test hydrant without additional friction loss calculations In the dead-end situation shown in Figure 7.8, identifying the downstream hydrant is quite simple. However, how would you identify the downstream hydvant in Figure 7.9, where the main io supplied from both ends? Here the trick is to consider the flow as coming from the side supplied by the larger mains, Indeed, most of the water usually will flow from the larger supply mains. If both mains are the same size, either or both hydrants may be used without significantly affecting the results, BUILDING B « TEST big HYDRANT Ww Figure 7.9 Correct location ofthe test hydrant on a gridded system, i ~ yikes Determining The Number Of Hydrants And Outiets To Open | way More accurate results will be obtained if. significant pres you Sure drop from the static pressure reading ean be achieved when | It + ~ one or more hydrants are opened. A 25 percent drop from static | sho: to residual pressure is sometimes-recommended. Others may look for at least a 15 psi difference between thestaticand residual fh Pressures. There is no standard value, but larger pressure drops oa generally give better test resulis, ‘lo ‘Thus, if the static pressure is 80 psi, a residual pressure no higher than 60 or 65 psi would be desirable. Ifthe static pressure reading is 60 psi, it would be good to obtain a residual pressure no higher than 46 psi. Waviug a pressure drop of this magnitude fT will minimize the impect of gauge inaccuracy and human errot? It would be difficult to defend the significance of a S-pound preg’REE fenegeec Testing and Analysis of Water Supply Systems 129 sure drop where gauge error might be as high as 2 psi, and sight, accuracy is only good to plyis or minus 1 psi. So, the bigger the pressure drop, the better. To achieve a significant pressure drop may require opening more than one outlet on the flow hydrant or even three or four hydrants. If multiple outlets are used or multiple hydrants, they must all be opened simultaneously and the flows from each outlet measured at the same time and added together for the total flow. The residual pressure must also be recorded while all the outlets are flowing. Test Precautions Anticipate where the water will drain In one instance, the water from a flow test drained over a portion of newly poured concrete pavement, In another case, test water drained into an open manhole where a person was working. These are just two examples of what can happen. Plan ahead to avoid problems. It was mentioned previously that operation of fire hydrants should be left to the fire department or water department, with the exception of privately owned industrial hydrants. The reason for this is that hydrants will break and can be damaged. Should one be damaged during a test, it is-better from a liability standpoint if properly authorized personnel were responsible. If you are operating the hydrant yourself, count the turns ittakes to fully open the hydrant. Then when closing, ifoperating properly, it should take the same number of turns. Also, be careful to close the hydrant very slowly. Stopping any flowing stream too rapidly can cause a phenomenon called water hammer. Water hammer is a violent increase in pressure which can be large enough to rupture the piping. After a dry barrel hydrant has been turned off, it should always be checked to see if it is draining. One of the simplest tests is to place your hand firmly over the outlet for a few seconds. A properly draining hydrant will create enough suction as the water drains that you can easily feel and hear it as you remove your hand. If the hydrant is not draining, repairs are called for If repairs are impossible before freezing westher, the water should be pumped out of the barrel. There are relatively few dangers involved with conducting - flow tests, but there are a few safety precautions that should be followed. Horror stories are told about hydrant stems rocketing up out of the top of the hydrant. Although the possibility of this is remote, it is wise not to position your head and torso above the hydrant when operating it. Also, make sure that the caps on outlets which are not being used are secure and will not blow off. Take care in handling the pitot tubes. The blades on the tubes are often razor sharp and will cause injury if handled carelessly. Remember that a 2¥2-inch stream has considerable130 cine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS impact and can knock people off their feet and even cause au- tomobile accidents. Testing in freezing weather should be av. oided to prevent ice from forming on streets and sidewalks. Sometimes the water mains supplying the test and flow hyd- rants will not have been flushed for years. As a result, corrosion and particulate matter will have accumulated in the mains. You should not be surprised to find red or even black water flow . initially from a hydrant. Because of this, even the test hydrant should be flushed before attaching the cap and gauge. Never insert the pitot tube into a dirty stream. To do so can result in damage to your equipment. The homeowners and businesses in the area should be warned, if possible, that some water discoloration is likely to occur. This may prevent people from doing laundry during the flow tests and ending up with rust colored sheets: Occasionally, the news media can even be used to publicize the test a few days in advance. With these test techniques and precautions in mind, it is time to recall that a flow test must result in obtaining three pieces of data—the static pressure, thé residual pressure, and the flow (gpm) during the test. With this information, analysis of the water supply available can be made. Analysis can be made mathematically using formulas. However, the easiest and most versatile analysis involves drawing a simple graph. GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF FLOW. TEST RESULTS : Graphical analysis involves using special hydraulic graph{t” paper. This is a special semilogarithmic paper which allows the! test results to be plotted as a straight line. The test results are? plotted as follows: i © First, the static pressure is plotted above 0 gpm, since no test water was flowing when the static pressure was mes- sured. * Next, plot the residual pressure directly above the flow that was measured during the test. When these two points are connected by a straight line, that line represents the J water supply available at the test hydrant. a Any questions regarding pressure and flow at the test hyd- PC rant can then be answered. Cal sa Po a alc all teTesting and Analysis of Water Suoply Systems 131 Example 7.1 Suppose a flow test yielded the following results: © static pressure of 86 psi © residual pressure of 42 psi © pitot pressure of 28 psi If the pitot reading wes taken on a single stream from a 24-inch outlet with a coefficient of discharge of 0.8, the formula gives the following: Solution: Q = (29.83) (Ca) (0)? WP) Q = (29.83) (0.8) (2.5)? 128 Q= 789 gpm ‘To draw the graph, the staticpressure of 86psiis plotted above 0 gpm as shown in Figure 7.10 on next page. ‘The residual pressure is plotted next directly above the 789 gpm calculated flow. These two points are con- nected with a straight line, which is generally extended through the second point and down to at least 20 psi. Now, any. question about the water supply can be answered. SEE For example, the flow available at 20 psi can be read immediately below the intersection of the curve and. the 20 psi line, Tt turns out to be about 980 gpm. Also, the pressure available at 500 gpm is read immediately above 500 to be about 67 psi. Suppose a sprinkler de- mand of 750 gpm at 36 psi is needed. At 750 gpm, this water supply can provide about 46 psi, and therefore would be more than adequate to meet the demand. gee A quick way to establish the adequacy of a water supply with respect to various demands isto note the location of the demand point relative to the water supply line. If the point falls " on or below the line, the water supply is adequate. If the demand Point falls ‘above the line, the water supply is not capable of Meeting that demand, The comparison of a demand point to the supply curve is illustrated in Figure 7.10, where the demand Point falls below the curve indicating an adequate supply. One thing to note about the graph paper is that most hyd- taulic graph paper comes with at least three. different scales along the bottom. They are simply multiples of each other to allow plotting a broader range of fows. The seale used should be clearly marked. Which scale to use depends upon the flow. Typically, the scale with the smallest range possible that will132 Fine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS allow the curve to pass below 20 psi should be used. Twenty * pounds per square inch is a historical minimum pressure for supplying fire department pumpers and industrial fire pumps, Universal Water Flow Test Summary Sheet ‘conducted ty _____tscition ___ ate Hydrent coeticieni ——Eevalion Stale eidosl —_.@ Flow — aUReESeReEsasE RS Res udu td) HRSRETEEES PRESSURE. (Gare = KPa + 100) E “HEEB 2 Cogs 19 ontnoma Se Umneey Figure 7.10 Fiow test graph for Example 7.1, ap ingq y i i | Example 7.2 4 Suppose a static pressure of 72 psi and a residual pres- sure of 37 psi were recorded during a flow test. However, in this case, the residual pressure was measured while two outlets on each of two hydrants were flowing (a total of four outlets), Ifeach of the hydrant outlets were 2% inches in diameter with a coefficient of discharge of 0.9, and pitot pressures were two at 24 psi and two at 36:psi, the total flow is calculated as follows: Solution: Qy.= (29.83) (0.9) (2.5)? 124 = 822 gpm Qg2 (29.83) (0.9) (2.5)? 24 = 822 gpm Qg = (29.83) (0.9) (2.5)2 136 = 1,007 gpm Q4 = (29.83) (0.9) (2.5)2 136 = 1,007 gpm Total Q = Qh + Q + C+ Q = 3,858 gpm Note that the flow from each outlet must be calculated separately, then all four added. It is not proper to add or average pitot readings. Thé results of this test are plotted in Figure 7.11 on next page. Such a large flow during the test dictates that scale C be used in plotting the results. Once again the static pressure is plotted above 0 gpm. The residual pressure of 87, psi.is plotted above the total flow of 3,658 gpm. Connecting the two points illustrates the water supply available. At 20 psi, the fire department would have a little over 4,500 gpm available from the water supply for fire fighting purposes. This water supply can also provide over 45 psi at 3,000 gpm. ‘The technique for plotting other test results will be the same. After the test line is drawn, comparing the water supply needed with the supply available permits evaluation of the adequacy of the water supply. MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS With the aid of an exponential calculator or for computer applications, mathematical analysis is also possible. The follow- ing equation is used: Equation 7.2 pales On = (Orff Testing and Analysis of Water Supply Systems 133134 rine protection HYDRAULICS til cloacae Universal Weter Flow Test Summary Sheet noma Sate unversty Condes by Shiner Oe 7078 oto cette STATIC 72 PSI Pa + 100) a i RESIDUAL 3,658 GPM ‘AT 37 PSI Georgi: neato te Qa = the flow available at some residual pressure P,. Qr = the actual flow measured during the test. t Ps = themeasured staticpressure. the measured residual pressure. Pq = thepressure of interest. ‘This formula can be used to determine what flow would be available at any residual pressure as indicated by the actual test results. Also, algebraic manipulation of the formula will permit solving for any one of the other variables.Testing and Analysis of Water Supply Systems 135 Example 7.3 Suppose it is desired’to know the flow available at 20 psi residual pressure at the test location described in Example 7.1. Recalling that the static pressure was 86 psi, the residual was 42 psi, and the measured flow was 789 gpm, the solution becomes the following: Solution: 10.54 Saat (anf =) a= (789) (0820) — yee gpm You can see that the results are practically identical to those obtained through graphical analysis. Now, suppose it is also desired to know what residual pressure would be available at a sprinkler demand of 750 gpm. Manipulation of Equation 7.2 gives the following: Equation 7.3 Pa=Ps-(Ps- Prl[2A 85 MT Substituting the test wesults provides the solution: Pq = 86 - (86 - 4ay(z50y 9% = 48 psi Note once again the almost identical results to those ob- tained through graphical analysis.136 pire pRotEcTION HYDRAULICS Example 7.4 Using the same test results from Example 7.2, deter- mine mathematically the flow available at a 20 psi residual pressure. Also, determine the residual pres- sure that would be available at a flow of 1,500 gpm. Solution: At 20 psi: = Ps - Palo-54 ons ona , = (Z2-20\054 . On (9,658) (22= BO) = 4,830 opr 1,500 gpm: PaxPs-(Ps-Pe (Qa) 4,500 1-85 ; =72-(72- onl =65 Pa=72-( 3n (eee psi It is important to understand that the test results are only, valid at or near the test hydrant. This is particularly true if the # water mains upon which the test was conducted are 6-inch OF smaller. For larger mains, the test results would typically be: valid for several hundred feet in each direction. Also, for large’ diameter mains where the piping is well looped and gridded, thé * test results may have valid application over an area of several j blocks. The reason that the results might not be valid at all* locations nearby is friction loss. Elevation differences will also have an impact. In the next section, the impact of elevation and friction loss on water supplies will be addressed. ADJUSTING FLOW TEST RESULTS FOR FRICTION LOSS AND ELEVATION DIFFERENCES Perhaps the most significant factor affecting available pres- sures in a water system is friction loss. It is friction loss that makes 4- and 6-inch pipe of limited value in fire protection appli- cations. It is because of friction loss that the residual pressure f in a flow test is less than the static pressure. The pressure lost | 1° between the supply source and the test hydrant is dependent on | the amount of pressure depleted by friction as water flows be- ur tween these points. : wi As indicated in Chapter 5, Friction-Loss Iu Piping Systems a the amount of pressure that will be lost to friction depends upoD poi the quantity flowing (gpm), pipe roughness, pipe diameter, and froTesting and Analysis of Water Supply Systems 137 pipe length. There is no friction loss if there is no water flow. ‘hat is why, at the same elevation, the static pressure on the fire protection system will be found the same throughout a facil- ity. However, when water begins to flow, the resulting pressure may be different at different locations. The greater quantity of water that flows, the greater the friction loss will be. Also, the longer the pipe, the greater the friction loss. As you might expect, friction loss is also greater when the pipe is rough than when smooth. Also, the smaller the pipé, the greater the friction loss. ‘This should explain why larger pipes are always more desirable. Let’s look at how friction loss can affect flow test results where the location of interest is not close to the test hydrants, 7 in Figure 7.12, a sprinklered building is located 800 feet away from the test hydrant and supplied by a 6-inch main. If the flow test results show a static pressure of 69 psi and a residual pres- sure of 36 psi available with 750 gpm flowing, what will the water supply be at the building in question? Answering this question will require adjusting the test curve. STATIC 69 psi RESIDUAL 36 PS! inch ductile iron_C= 140 ‘800 feet 750 gpm flowing i a Figure 7.12 Flow test fesults are for a location remote trom the building of interest. : bl ‘The technique of adjusting water supply curves for friction {|S | essis quite simple. Note again that with no water fowing, there "| Sh: [is no friction loss. Therefore, the static pressure will remain we: | unchanged. However, as water begins to flow, the friction loss will begin to have an impact. The adjustment to the original curve is accomplished through choosing any flow end computing 35 | the friction loss for that. flow between the test hydrant and the a Point of interest. The pressure lost to friction is then subtracted from the original curve at the flow from which the friction loss138 inc PRoTEcTION HYORAULICS 7 was calculated. The new line is then drawn through the original" static pressure and this new pressure point. This is the adjusted 7 curve, : In this example, if 840 gpm is chosen for the calculation of friction loss through the 800 feet of enamel-lined, 6-inch cast-iron pipe with C = 140, the resulting friction loss is approximately, 17 psi. The original pressure existing at 840 gpm is 28 psi. Sub. tracting the friction loss of 17 psi from the 28 psi yields a new pressure of 11 psi: Thus, the adjusted curve would again have a static pressure of 69 psi, but the pressure available at 840 gpm is now only 11 psi. Figure 7.13 illustrates the water supply adjusted for friction P loss. It can be seen that the original water supply was adequate to deliver a sprinkler demand of 51 psi and 500 gpm. However, the water supply at the building 800 feet away from the original test location is not adequate to meet the sprinkler demand. Pedant Universal Water Flow Test Summary Sheet Onishome State University conavctes oy Location ba Siiwoter, OK 74078 Hyerant coetcient——— Evation ~~ State kPa + 100) SPRINKLER DEMAND Z (ears ‘Seale Used AL 17 PSI FRICTION LOSS AT 840 GPM emg ea Oanion ee sey Figure 7.13 Flow test curve adjusted for ticlon loss,Testing and Analysis of Water Supply Systems 139 Another adjustment that may have to be made in transform- ing water supply tests from one location to another is un adjust- ment due to elevation. In Figure 7.14, it might be assumed, due to large piping and the gridded design, that friction loss would have a minor impact in comparing the water supply available at Points A and B. This would be true, but what if Point B were 40 feet higher than Point A? 42.inch 400 feet Faure 7.4 A giddes walr suply system Suppose the water supply at Point A is illustrated by the solid line in Figure 7.15, with a static pressure of 59 psi and a residual pressure of 40 psi at 1,100 gpm. To adjust for the eleva- tion difference between Points A and B involves first calculating the elevation correction. As should be second nature by now, the elevation correction is as follows: Pe = (0.433) (h) Where P, = pressurein psi. h = the height difference in feet. then Pe = (0.433 psifft) (40 ft) = 17.3 psi140 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS Since elevation corrections have nothing todo with pipesize, ‘the amount of water flowing or any of the other factors affecting friction loss, the correction of 17.3 psi must be applied to every Pressure point. Therefore, a curve corrected for elevation will always be parallel to the unadjusted curve. In this case, since Point Bis at a higher elevation than Point A, the adjusted curve wiil fall below the unadjusted curve. This is illustrated by the . dotted line in Figure 7.15, which is 17.3 psi below the unadjusted curve at every point. Of course, it is possible thax both an adjustment for friction loss and an adjustment for elevation may be necessary. Hither may be done first. as long as the corrections are made ae previ- ously described. 7 Universal Water Flow Test Summary Sheet Protection Publiations Hyer conten ate (O Fiow Rosia sPa-+100) PRESSURE. ESIDUAL TT earn Fe beta Si en Flow Figure 7.18 Water supply test curve covrected for elevation dillrences.Testing and Analysis of Water Supply Systems 141 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 1, Flow testing of hydrants is the best way to determine the available water supply at any location. 2. Flow tests must result in three pieces of information: —static pressure —residual pressure —measured flow 3. The test hydrant, rather than the flow hydrant, is the loca~ tion of test relevancy. 4, Flow test results may be analyzed graphically or mathemat- ically to determine the adequacy of existing water supplies. 5. Flow test results may be transferred to different locations with proper corrections for friction loss and changes in ele- vation. i i SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS Alliance of American Insurers. Simplified Water Supply Testing. Alliance of American Insurers: Chicago, IL, 1982. National Fire Protection Association. The Fire Protection Hand- book. National Fire Protection Association: Quincy, MA, 1986. - a is soiree “A142 rine PROTECTION HYDRAULICS EXERCISES, qa 12 13 14 Plot the following flow test results: a. static pressure: 108 psi residual pressure: 48 psi pitot pressure: 36 psi C=08 d = 2%-inch b. static pressure: 61 psi residual pressure: 42 psi pitot pressures: 31, 32, 24, & 24 psi c= 09 : d= 26-inch ; ¢. static pressure: 83-psi residual pressure: 39 psi measured flow: 1,185 gpm 4. static pressure: 76 psi residual pressure: 52 psi measured flow: 1,930 gpm Plot the following flow test results: a. static pressure: 74 psi residual pressitre: 34 psi pitot pressure: 28 psi C= 0.37 d= 1.75-inch b. static pressure: 90 psi residual pressure: 47 psi pitot pressures: 26, 26, 22 & 22 psi . static pressure: 48 psi residual pressure: 36 psi measured flow: 2,300 gpm 4. static pressure: 66 psi residual pressure: 39 psi measured flow: 1,060 gom Using the flow test results from Exercise 7.1, mathemati- cally determine the following and compare with the results from the graphs. a. The flow available at a residual pressure of 20 psi b. The residual pressure available at a flow of 1,000 gpm Using the fiow test results from Exercise 7.2, mathemati- cally determine the following and compare with the results from the graphs: 7 a. The flow available at a residual pressure of 20 psi b. The residual pressure available at a flow of 1,000 gpm7.8 Will a sprinkler system demand of 850 gpm at 48 psi be available at a location Where the flow tost results are as follows: static pressure: 75 psi residual pressure: 35 psi meesured flow: 1,130 gpm 7.6 Willa fire pump demand of 2,250 gpm at 20 psi be available at a location where'the flow test results are as follows: static pressure: 93 psi residual pressure: 47 psi. measured flow: 1,460 gpm 1.7 At Point A, the following flow test results were obtained. static pressure: 68 psi residual pressure: 47 psi measured flow: 1,320 gpm Graphically illustrate the water supply available at Point B which is 1,450 feet away from, but connected to, Point Aby a dead-end, cerhent-lined, 8-inch cast-iron main. Both A and B are at the same elevation. What fiow is available at Point B with a residual pressure of 20 psi? 78 AtHydrant A, the following flow test results were obtained: static pressure: 82 psi residual pressure: 53 psi measured flow: 980 gpm Graphically iJlustrate the water supply available at Hyd- rant B which is 406 feet away from, but connected to, Hyd- rant A by a 4-inch unlined, cast-iron, dead-end main with C = 100. Both A and B are at the same elevation. What flow is available at Hydrant B with a residual pressure of 20 psi? 19 If Point B from Exercise 7.7 is 26 feet higher in elevation than Point A, graphically depict the water supply available at Pomt B. Will the water supply at Point B provide a fire pump demand of 1,125 gpm at 20 psi? 7.10 If Hydrant B from Exercise 7.8 is 38 feet lower in elevation than Hydrant A, graphically depict the water supply avail- able at Hydrant B, Will the water supply at Hydrant B provide a sprinkler system demand of 750 gpm at 68 psi? Selected answers are found on page 253. | Testing and Analysis of Water Supply Systems 143‘Biindustriallri FITCIRUInfoSt | auidl adne ro f a i 5 Le re ol eh On i yee re : : a mes Do Aa my een, y aa ’ aahIndustrial Fire Pumps and Pump installation 147 Chapter 8 Industrial Fire Pumps : and Pump Installation ‘This chapter will address the types of fire pumps commonly installed in business and industrial facilities to support existing water supplies. A discussion of tne valves, piping, components, : and accessories that make up a standard pump installation is - also included. The requirements for an installation to qualify as standard are thos¢ listed in NFPA 20." COMMON FIRE PUMP TYPES ‘The earliest fire pumps were positive-displacement types and used either rotary gears or pistons. However, modern indus- trial fire pumps are centrifugal pumps. Pressure is added to the water by the centrifugal force of a rotating wheel or the rotating vanes ofa turbine. That is why they are called centrifugal pumps. i Tormey weno -mesetn-y tsnemv rane emerge There are several basic types of centrifugal fire pumps: end- suction pumps, in-line pumps, horizontal split-case pumps, ver- tically mounted split-case pumps, and vertical-shaft turbine pumps. This chapter will be limited to the discussion of the most common: horizontal split-case pumps, vertically mounted split- case pumps, and vertical-shaft turbine pumps. i i i Horizontal Split-Case Pumps ‘These pumps are referred to as split-case pumps. This is because the case in which the shaft and impeller rotates is split in the middle and can be separated exposing the shaft, bearings, ‘and impeller. This provides easy access for repair or replacement of internal components (Figure 8.1). The horizontal split-case centrifugal fire pump-is the most common of the two types and is acceptable for use where water can be supplied to the pump under some pressure. This is because the pump is not self-priming. The pump must be supplied by a i public water supply system or a tank located above the level of Figure 8.1. A split-case pump.